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A  CONCISE 


Cyclopedia  of  Religious 

Knowledge. 


BIBLICAL,  BIOGRAPHICAL,  GEOGRAPHICAL,  HIS¬ 
TORICAL,  PRACTICAL  AND  THEOLOGICAL. 


EDITED  BY 

Elias  Benjamin  Sanford,  M.  A. 


Printed  in  the  United  States 


NEW  YORK: 

FUNK  &  WAGNALLS  COMPANY, 
LONDON  AND  TORONTO. 

i895- 


Copyrighted,  1890, 

By  CHARLES  L.  WEBSTER  &  CO 
{All  rights  reserved.') 


HH 


a  03 

Sa.S'e 


SPECIAL  CONTRIBUTORS. 


•s. 

Rev.  Thomas  Armitage,  D.  D.,  New  York,  author  of  A  History  of  the  Baptists. 

Rev.  Isaac  Morgan  Atwood,  D.  D.,  President  of  the  Canton  Theological  School,  Can¬ 
ton,  N.  Y. 

Rev.  Amos  S.  Chesebrough,  D.  D.,  Saybrook,  Conn. 

Rev.  Francis  E.  Clark,  D.  D.,  Editor  of  the  Golden  Rule ,  Boston,  Mass. 

Rev.  Wilbur  Fisk  Crafts,  M.  A.,  New  York. 

Rev.  David  D.  Demarest,  D.  D.,  Professor  of  Pastoral  Theology  and  Sacred  Rhetoric 
in  the  Theological  Seminary  of  New  Brunswick,  N.  J. 

Rev.  M.  B.  De  Witt.  Nashville,  Tenn. 

Rev.  Edward  Everett  Hale,  D.  D.,  Boston,  Mass. 

Rev.  Eugene  Russell  Hendrix,  D.  D.,  LL.  D.,  Bishop  of  the  Methodist  EpiscopaL 
Church  South,  Kansas  City,  Mo. 

Rev.  Abram  Herbert  Lewis,  D.  D.,  Plainfield,  N.  J. 

Rev.  H.  McDiarmid,  M.  A.,  Editor  of  the  Christian  Standard ,  Cincinnati,  O. 

Rev.  Selah  Merrill,  D.  D.,  LL.  D.,  Andover,  Mass.,  author  of  East  of  the  Jordan. 

Rev.  William  Stevens  Perry,  D.  D.,  LL.  D.,  Bishop  of  Iowa,  American  Episcopal 
Church,  Davenport,  Iowa. 

Rev.  Bernard  Pick,  Ph.  D.,  Allegheny,  Pa. 

Rev.  William  North  Rice,  LL.  D.,  Professor  of  Geology  in  the  Wesleyan  University, 
Middletown,  Conn. 

Rev.  Charles  S.  Robinson,  D.  D.,  LL.  D.,  New  York. 

Rev.  David  Steele,  D.  D.,  Professor  of  Doctrinal  Theology  in  the  Reformed  Presby¬ 
terian  Theological  Seminary,  Philadelphia,  Pa. 

Rev.  George  Barker  Stevens,  D.  D.,  Professor  of  Sacred  Literature,  Yale  Divinity 
School,  New  Haven,  Conn. 

Rev.  E.  E.  Strong,  D.  D.,  Editor  of  the  Missionary  Herald ,  Boston,  Mass. 

Rev.  Josiah  Strong,  D.  D.,  Secretary  of  the  Evangelical  Alliance,  New  York,  author  of 
Our  Country. 

Rev.  Charles  L.  Thompson,  D.  D.,  Pastor  of  the  Memorial  Presbyterian  Church,  New 
York  City. 

Rev.  John  H.  Vincent,  D.  D.,  LL.  D.,  Bishop  of  the  Methodist  EpiscopaL  Church, 
Buffalo,  N.  Y. 

Rev.  Alexander  G.  Wallace,  D.  D.,  Sewickley,  Pa. 

Rev.  Jonathan  Weaver,  D.  D.,  Bishop  of  the  United  Brethren  in  Christ,  Dayton,  Ohio. 
Rev.  Moseley  H.  Williams,  M.  A.,  Associate  Editor,  the  American  Sunday-School  Union, 
Philadelphia,  Pa. 

Rev.  Edmund  J.  Wolf,  D.  D.,  Professor  of  Church  History  and  New  Testament  Exegesis 
in  the  Theological  Seminary,  Gettysburg,  Pa.,  author  of  Lutherans  in  America. 

Rev.  John  L.  Ewell,  M.  A.,  Millbury,  Mass. 


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PREFACE. 


IN  the  preparation  of  this  work  I  have  sought  to  give  the  condensed  results 
of  the  most  recent  investigations  in  the  field  of  religious  knowledge.  The 
process  of  severe  abridgment  has  been  applied  to  subjects  of  minor  inter¬ 
est,  while  those  of  importance  have  been  allowed  the  space  needed  for  full 
and  accurate  presentation.  Great  care  has  been  taken  with  the  articles  deal¬ 
ing  with  those  questions  and  subjects  which  are  now  under  Special  discussion, 
and  the  historical  sketches  of  the  various  Christian  denominations  have,  as  a 
rule,  been  prepared  by  eminent  leaders  in  their  ranks. 

In  gratefully  recognizing  the  many  kindnesses  that  have  been  shown  to  me 
in  the  progress  of  my  labors  there  is  one  that  deserves  special  mention.  Find¬ 
ing  that  along  certain  lines  Benham’s  Dictionary  of  Religion  (Cassell  Publish¬ 
ing  Company,  London  and  New  York,  1887),  in  its  treatment  of  subjects  was 
in  accord  with  the  plan  of  my  work,  the  privilege  was  sought  and  granted  of 
using  many  important  articles.  Mention  need  not  be  made  here  of  other 
sources  of  information  from  which  I  have  drawn,  by  permission,  as  in  all  cases 
of  direct  quotation  due  acknowledgment  has  been  made. 

This  work  has  been  prepared  from  the  standpoint  of  reverent  criticism  and 
evangelical  faith.  Seeking  to  avoid  the  expression  of  personal  dogmatic  opin¬ 
ions  it  has  been  the  purpose  to  present  every  subject  impartially  and  accu¬ 
rately.  That  it  may  prove  a  convenient  and  trustworthy  manual  of  reference, 
and  make  available  for  use  information  which  many  could  not  otherwise  easily 
secure,  is  my  earnest  hope. 

E.  B.  Sanford. 

,  Nov.  7,  1890. 


ABBREVIATIONS. 


A.  D.  (Anno  Domini )  In  the  year  of  our  Lord. 
Anon.  Anonymous. 

B.  C.  Before  Christ. 

Cf.  or  cf.  ( Confer )  Compare. 

Ch.  or  ch.  Chapter. 

e.  g.  (Exempli  gratia)  For  example. 

i.  e.  (Id  e si)  That  is. 

1.  c.  (Loco  citato)  In  the  place  cited. 

N.  S.  New  Style. 

N.  T.  New  Testament. 

O.  S.  Old  Style. 

R.  V.  Revised  Version. 

q.  v.  (Quod  vide)  Which  see. 

sc.  (Scilicet)  Namely;  that  is  to  say. 

seq.,  sq.  or  sqq.  (Seqzcens,  sequentia)  The  following 

s.  v.  (Sub  voce)  Under  the  word  (or  heading). 


A  CONCISE  CYCLOPEDIA 


— OF — 

Religious  Knowledge. 


a 

A  is  used  as  the  first  letter  in  almost  all 
alphabets.  Both  the  Hebrews  and  the 
Greeks  employed  their  letters  as  numerals. 
Hence  Alpha  came  to  signify  the  first.  In 
combination  with  Omega,  the  last  letter  of 
the  Greek  alphabet,  it  was  used  three  times 
by  our  Lord,  in  the  Apocalypse,  to  set  forth 
his  eternity.  (Rev.  i.  8;  xxi.  6;  xxii.  13.) 
The  early  Christians  often  inscribed  these 
letters  upon  their  tombs  as  the  symbol  of 
their  hope;  sometimes  alone,  but  more  fre¬ 
quently  combined  with  the  monogram  of 
Christ  in  various  forms.  These  letters  are 
found  stamped  on  rings,  pictures,  mosaics, 
etc.  Sometimes  this  symbol  is  used  by 
Protestants;  e.g. ,  on  the  front  of  the  mort¬ 
uary  chapel  at  Charlottenburg,  near  Berlin, 
and  in  the  Madison  Square  Presbyterian 
Church,  New  York,  and  other  American 
churches. 

Aachen.  See  Aix-la-Chapelle. 

Aa'ron  ( enlightened ),  the  eldest  son  of 
Amram  and  Jochebed,  of  the  tribe  of  Levi, 
and  brother  of  Moses  and  Miriam.  (Ex.  vi. 
18,  23.)  He  and  his  sons,  by  divine  com¬ 
mand,  were  set  apart  for  the  priesthood 
and  consecrated  by  Moses.  (Lev.  viii.)  This 
choice  was  miraculously  confirmed  by  the 
budding  rod.  (Num.  xvii.)  After  holding 
his  office  for  nearly  forty  years  it  passed 
to  Eleazar,  the  older  sons  having  been 
slain  for  their  sins.  (Lev.  x.  1,  2.)  He 
was  faithful  and  self-sacrificing  in  the  per¬ 
formance  of  his  duties,  but  was  easily  in¬ 
fluenced  by  others.  He  made  the  golden 
calf  at  the  solicitation  of  the  people  at  Sinai 
(Ex.  xxxii.  4);  joined  Miriam  in  murmur¬ 
ing  against  Moses,  and  with  Moses  was  im¬ 
patient  of  the  divine  command  at  Meribah. 

( 


Abb 

(Num.  xx.  10.)  For  this  sin  he  was  not 
permitted  to  enter  the  promised  land.  He 
died  at  Mount  Hor  at  the  age  of  one  hun¬ 
dred  and  twenty-three  years,  mourned  by 
all  the  people.  (Num.  xx.  24,  sqq.) 

Ab'ana  (stony)  and  Phar/par  (swift), 
rivers  of  Damascus.  (2  Kings  v.  12.)  The 
Abana,  the  present  Barada,  is  a  clear,  cold, 
and  swift  mountain  stream  rising  in  Anti- 
Lebanon,  and  flowing  southeast  into  the 
plain,  where  it  finally  rushes  through  a 
gorge  two  miles  northwest  of  Damascus, 
and  turning  eastward  skirts  the  northern 
wall  of  the  city,  and  twenty  miles  away 
empties  into  two  large  lakes.  Its  perennial 
waters  are  drawn  off  in  canals  at  several 
points,  and  make  the  plains  very  fertile  and 
beautiful. 

Abba,  the  Aramaic  word  for  father. 
It  is  applied  to  God  by  Christ  (Mark  xiv. 
36),  and  by  St.  Paul.  (Rom.  viii.  15;  Gal.  iv. 
6.)  Among  the  Christians  of  the  East  it  is 
used  to  designate  a  bishop  or  the  head  of  a 
monastery. 

Abbadie,  James,  a  distinguished  French 
Protestant  minister;  b.  at  Nay,  near  Pau, 
1654;  d.  in  Marylebone,  London,  Sept.  25, 
1727.  He  received  his  education  at  the  uni¬ 
versities  of  Saumur,  Paris,  and  Sedan,  and 
became  pastor  of  the  French  Protestant 
Church,  in  Berlin,  in  1680.  An  earnest  sup¬ 
porter  of  the  Revolution,  he  was  appointed 
pastor  of  the  French  Church  in  the  Savoy, 
London,  1689,  and  non-resident  dean  of  Kil- 
laloe,  1699.  He  was  a  prolific  writer,  but 
his  fame  rests  upon  his  The  Truth  of  the 
Christian  Religion  (1684-89).  This  work  has 
passed  through  many  editions,  and  gained 

) 


Abb 


(2) 


Abb 


acceptance,  both  among  Roman  Catholics 
and  Protestants,  as  a  standard  in  French 
apologetical  literature. 

Abbat.  See  Abbot. 

Abbe,  the  French  name  for  abbot.  Pre¬ 
vious  to  the  French  Revolution  it  was  the 
designation  of  a  class  who  drew  large  in¬ 
comes  from  the  monasteries,  but  were  often 
not  even  priests.  It  is  now  applied  (i)  to 
secular  priests,  so  called  because  they  are 
not  connected  with  any  monastic  order; 
and  (2)  as  a  title  of  courtesy  to  those  de¬ 
voting  themselves  to  the  study  of  theology 
and  literature. 

Abbess,  the  mother-superior  of  a  relig¬ 
ious  community  of  women,  corresponding 
in  rank  and  authority  to  an  abbot,  except 
in  not  being  allowed  to  exercise  the  spir¬ 
itual  functions  of  the  priesthood — such  as 
preaching,  confession,  etc.  Abbesses  are 
usually  elected  by  the  nuns  over  whom  they 
rule.  If  elected  from  her  own  cloister  she 
must  be  at  least  40  years  old,  and  if  from 
another  she  must  be  30  years  old. 

Abbey.  Before  the  dissolution  of  mon¬ 
asteries  an  abbey  was  (1)  the  corporate 
body  of  monks  or  nuns  presided  over  by  an 
abbot  or  abbess;  (2)  the  church  in  which 
they  held  their  religious  services  and  the 
buildings  in  which  they  lived  and  carried 
on  their  various  pursuits.  Since  the  mon¬ 
asteries  were  suppressed  and  their  great 
wealth  confiscated,  in  the  sixteenth  century, 
the  term  abbey  has  been  used  in  an  ecclesi¬ 
astical  sense,  to  designate  the  churches  that 
have  not  been  constituted  cathedrals,  that 
were  once  connected  with  monasteries. 
The  most  remarkable  of  these  churches  is 
Westminster  Abbey.  Royal  abbeys  were 
under  the  patronage  of  kings,  and  episcopal 
abbeys  under  the  care  of  the  bishops.  See 
Monastery,  Westminster  Abbey. 

Abbo  of  Fleury,  a  learned  Benedictine 
monk;  b.  near  Orleans  about  945.  He  aid¬ 
ed  in  the  founding  of  Ramsey  Abbey,  Eng., 
and  revived  an  interest  in  classical  study 
among  the  monks.  After  his  return  to 
France  he  was  made  Abbot  of  Fleury, 
where  he  introduced  severe  reforms,  and 
gained  a  position  of  wide  influence.  While 
on  a  visit  to  the  monastery  at  Reole,  where 
he  purposed  to  make  changes  in  the  interest 
of  reform,  a  riot  was  stirred  up  among  the 
people,  in  which  he  was  murdered,  Nov.  13, 
1004.  Many  of  his  works  still  exist  in  man¬ 
uscript. 

Abbot,  the  head  of  a  community  of 
monks.  The  name  Is  derived  from  the 


Hebrew  Ab,  or  father.  It  was  first  used 
as  a  term  of  respect  for  any  monk,  but  was 
soon  restricted  to  the  superior.  The  name 
now,  in  Roman  Catholic  usage,  is  retained 
only  by  the  Benedictine  and  Cistercian 
orders.  “  Regular  abbots  are  those  who 
wear  the  religious  habit,  and  actually  pre¬ 
side  over  an  abbey,  both  in  spiritual  and 
temporal  matters.  Secular  abbots  are  priests 
who  enjoy  the  benefices,  but  employ  a  vicar 
to  discharge  its  duties.  Lay  abbots  are 
laymen  to  whom  the  revenues  of  abbeys 
are  given  by  princes  or  patrons.  The  priv¬ 
ileges  and  duties  of  abbots  are  determined 
by  the  rules  of  the  order  to  which  they  be¬ 
long,  as  well  as  by  canonical  regulations. 
The  cotnmendatory  abbots  in  France  and 
England  were  secular  ecclesiastics  who  en¬ 
joyed  a  portion  of  the  revenues,  but  without 
jurisdiction.”  —  McClintock  and  Strong: 
Ency.  The  title  of  abbot  is  sometimes  be¬ 
stowed  upon  divines  in  Germany  who  re¬ 
ceive  the  revenues  of  former  abbeys. 

Abbot,  Ezra,  S.T.  D. ,  LL.  D. ;  b.  at  Jack- 
son,  Me.,  April  28,  1819;  d.  at  Cambridge, 
Mass. ,  March  21 , 1884.  He  was  graduated  at 
Bowdoin  College  1840,  and  in  1856  was  ap¬ 
pointed  assistant  librarian  of  Harvard  Uni¬ 
versity.  From  1872  till  his  death  he  was 
Bussey  professor  of  New  Testament  crit¬ 
icism  and  interpretation  in  the  Divinity 
School  of  Harvard  University.  Dr.  Abbot 
in  this  department  of  scholarship  was  pre¬ 
eminent.  “  He  was,”  says  Dr.  Schaff,  “  the 
first  textual  critic  of  the  Greek  Testament 
in  America,  and  for  microscopic  accuracy 
of  biblical  scholarship  he  had  no  superior 
in  the  world.”  He  was  one  of  the  most 
efficient  and  faithful  members  of  the  Amer¬ 
ican  Bible-Revision  Committee.  (1S71-81.) 
Among  his  writings  one  of  the  most  im¬ 
portant  is  his  defense  of  the  Johannean 
Authorship  of  the  Fourth  Gospel.  He  was  a 
Unitarian  in  belief,  and  never  sought  min¬ 
isterial  ordination.  A  rare  scholar,  modest 
and  unselfish  in  spirit,  he  was  beloved  by 
all  who  knew  him.  The  Authorship  of  the 
Fourth  Gospel ,  External  Evidences,  with 
other  “  Critical  Essays,”  were  republished 
under  the  editorship  of  Prof.  J.  H.  Thayer, 
Boston,  1889.  See  Ezra  Abbot,  a  memoir 
edited  by  Rev.  S.  J.  Barrows,  Cambridge, 
1884. 

Abbot,  George,  Archbishop  of  Canter¬ 
bury;  b.  at  Guildford,  Oct.  29,  1562;  d. 
at  Croyden,  Aug.  4,  1633.  Educated  at 
Oxford;  Master  of  University  College  1597; 
Bishop  of  Lichfield  1609,  and  the  same 
year  elected  Bishop  of  London  and  Arch¬ 
bishop  of  Canterbury.  He  was  one  of  the 
Oxford  divines  appointed  in  1604  to  trans¬ 
late  the  New  Testament,  excepting  the 


Abb 


(3) 


Abe 


Epistles.  Abbot  sympathized  with  the 
Puritan  party,  and  was  suspended  for  a  time 
for  refusing  to  license  a  sermon  of  Dr.  Sib- 
thorp’s,  which  exalted  the  king’s  preroga¬ 
tives  too  highly.  Among  his  writings  are 
a  Geography ,  and  an  Exposition  on  the  Proph¬ 
et  Jonah  (j 600),  which  was  reprinted  in  1845. 

Abbot,  Robert,  b.  about  1588;  d.  about 
1657.  He  was  vicar  of  Cranbrook,  Kent, 
and  minister  of  Southwick,  Hampshire, 
from  whence  he  was  called  to  London  as 
rector  of  St.  Austin,  Watling  Street,  where 
he  remained  until  his  death.  A  Puritan  of 
earnest  convictions,  he  vigorously  opposed 
the  Brownists  in  the  controversies  of  the 
time.  He  was  a  popular  writer. 

Abbott,  Benjamin,  one  of  the  most  suc¬ 
cessful  of  the  pioneer  Methodist  preachers 
in  America;  b.  in  Pennsylvania  in  1732;  d. 
1796.  He  was  an  unlearned  man,  but  pos¬ 
sessed  great  natural  ability,  which,  com¬ 
bined  with  a  spirit  of  entire  devotion,  made 
him  the  instrument  in  the  conversion  of 
many  thousands  of  people. 

Abbott,  Jacob,  a  popular  writer  for  the 
young;  b.  at  Hallowell,  Me.,  Nov.  14,  1803; 
d.  at  Farmington,  Me.,  Oct.,  31,  1879.  Aft¬ 
er  he  was  graduated  at  Bowdoin  College  in 
1820,  he  taught  for  many  years,  but  during 
this  time  his  pen  was  busy,  and  he  finally 
devoted  himself  to  literary  work.  He  ac¬ 
quired  great  popularity  as  an  author  of 
books  adapted  to  interest  and  inform  the 
minds  of  young  people.  Nearly  all  of  his 
works  were  republished  in  England,  and 
attracted  the  favorable  commendation  of 
instructors  like  Arnold  of  Rugby  and  oth¬ 
ers.  His  most  popular  book  was  The  Yoting 
Christian.  He  also  wrote  The  Franconia 
Stories ,  Lives  of  Celebrated  Persons  (30 
vols.),  Polio  Books ,  etc. 

Abbott,  John  Stephens  Cabot,  b.  in 
Maine,  1805;  d.at  New  Haven,  Conn. ,  1877. 
After  he  was  graduated  at  Bowdoin  Col¬ 
lege  and  Andover  Seminary  in  1825,  he  trav¬ 
eled,  both  in  this  country  and  Europe,  to 
study  methods  of  education.  He  was  or¬ 
dained  as  a  Congregational  minister  in  1830, 
and  was  settled  successively  at  Worcester, 
Roxbury,  and  Nantucket.  For  several 
years  he  was  pastor  of  churches  in  New 
Haven,  where  he  died.  Dr.  Abbott  pub¬ 
lished  his  first  book,  The  Mother  at  Home , 
in  1833.  His  pen  was  busy  from  this  time 
until  the  close  of  his  useful  life.  His  Life 
of  Napoleon  Bonaparte  is  the  best  known  of 
his  books,  most  of  which  had  a  large  cir¬ 
culation. 

Abbott,  Lyman,  D.  D.  (New  York  Uni¬ 


versity,  1877),  Congregationalist  ;  b.  at 
Roxbury,  Mass.,  Dec.  18,  1835.  He  was 
graduated  at  the  University  of  New  York 
City  in  1853,  and  studied  law.  After  a 
brief  practice  in  the  legal  profession  he 
decided  to  enter  the  ministry,  and  was  pas¬ 
tor  of  the  Congregational  Church  at  Terre 
Haute,  Ind.,  1860-65;  in  New  York  City 
(New  England  Church),  1866-69;  and  in 
Brooklyn  (Plymouth  Church),  1888  to 
date.  From  1871  to  1876  he  was  editor  of 
the  Lllustrated  Christian  Weekly  (New 
York);  and  since  1876  of  The  Christian 
Union  (New  York).  His  best-known  books 
are  Jesus  of  Nazareth  (N.  Y.,  1869);  Old 
Testament  Shadows  of  New  Testa7nent 
Truths  (1870);  A  Dictionary  of  Religious 
Knowledge  (1873);  Henry  Ward  Beecher:  A 
Sketch  of  his  Career  ( 1883);  and  Commentary 
upon  Matthew  and  Mark  (1875), Acts  (1876), 
Luke  (1877),  John  (1879),  Romans  (1888). 

Abbreviators,  officers  of  the  papal  chan¬ 
cery  whose  duty  it  is  to  prepare  outlines 
of  briefs,  bulls,  and  other  official  docu¬ 
ments  that  are  sent  out  from  the  court  of 
Rome,  and  also  to  revise  them. 

Abecedarian  Psalms  and  Hymns  de¬ 
note  those  which  are  so  composed  that 
the  initial  letters  of  the  successive  verses 
are  formed  from  the  successive  letters  of 
the  alphabet.  See  Acrostic. 

\ 

A  Becket.  See  Becket,  Thomas. 

Abeel,  David,  D.  D.,  an  eminent  mis¬ 
sionary;  b.  at  New  Brunswick,  N.  J.,  June 
12,  1804;  d.  at  Albany,  N.  Y. ,  Sept.  4, 
1846.  After  being  graduated  at  the  theolog¬ 
ical  seminary  in  his  native  town  he  was  set¬ 
tled  over  the  Reformed  Dutch  Church  at 
Athens,  N.  Y.,  in  1825.  In  the  autumn  of 
1829  he  sailed  for  Canton  as  a  chaplain  of 
the  Seamen’s  Friend  Society,  and  a  year 
afterward  accepted  an  appointment  as  mis¬ 
sionary  of  the  American  Board.  He  be¬ 
came  proficient  in  the  Chinese  language, 
and  labored  with  much  success  until  his 
health  failed.  On  his  return  home  in  1833, 
he  visited  several  countries  on  the  Conti¬ 
nent,  and  England,  and  urged  the  claims  of 
missions.  He  returned  to  China  in  1839, 
and  in  1843  he  founded  the  Amoy  mission. 
Ill  health  compelled  his  return  to  this 
country  in  1845,  and  he  died  the  following 
year.  See  Me7noirs  of  the  Rev.  D.  Abeel , 
by  G.  R.  Williamson  (N.  Y.  1849). 

Abelard,  Peter,  b.  at  Palais,  not  far  from 
Nantes,  in  1079;  d.  in  the  priory  of  St. 
Marcellus,  near  Chalons,  April  21,  1142. 
When  but  a  lad  he  developed  precocious 
ability  as  a  scholar.  He  studied  philoso- 


Abe 


(4) 


Abi 


phy  under  William  of  Champeaux  at  Paris, 
(1095),  and  at  the  age  of  twenty  engaged 
in  discussions  that  compelled  his  famous 
teacher  to  alter  his  system.  He  first  open¬ 
ed  a  school  at  Melun  and  then  at  Corbeil. 
Returning  to  Paris,  the  opposition  of  Will¬ 
iam  compelled  him  to  leave  the  city,  and 
he  studied  theology  at  Laon.  After  the  re¬ 
tirement  of  William,  he  again  opened  his 
school  in  Paris.  Thousands  of  pupils 
gathered  to  receive  his  instruction,  and  he 
was  recognized  as  the  most  famous  teacher 
of  the  age.  His  relations  with  Heloise 
brought  to  a  close  this  brilliant  career. 
This  beautiful  and  intellectually  gifted  girl 
was  the  niece  of  Fulbert,  canon  of  the 
Cathedral  of  Paris.  Her  education  was  in¬ 
trusted  to  the  care  of  Abelard.  A  passion¬ 
ate  and  guilty  love  resulted  in  the  birth  of 
a  son.  In  order  to  appease  Fulbert  they 
were  married.  Angered  by  the  attempt  to 
keep  this  secret,  and  the  placing  of  Heloise 
in  a  nunnery,  Fulbert  one  night  broke  into 
the  sleeping-room  of  Abelard,  and,  with  the 
aid  of  assistants,  mutilated  him.  Abelard 
first  sought  to  bury  himself  with  his  sor¬ 
rows  in  the  Abbey  of  St.  Denis,  but  soon 
came  forth  and  opened  his  school.  Scholars 
flocked  to  receive  his  instructions,  but  the 
publication  of  his  lectures  led  his  enemies 
to  charge  him  with  the  heresy  of  Sabellius. 
Having  been  condemned  by  irregular  pro¬ 
ceedings,  he  threw  his  book  on  the  Divine 
Unity  and  Trinity  into  the  flames,  and  then 
was  shut  up  in  the  convent  of  St.  Medard. 
After  a  time  he  left  the  monastery,  and  in  a 
desert  place  he  built  himself  a  cabin  of 
stubble  and  reeds  and  turned  hermit.  His 
retreat  became  known,  and  thousands  of 
students  from  Paris  covered  the  wilder¬ 
ness  around  him  with  their  tents  and  huts. 
There  they  built  for  him  an  oratory  called 
the  Paraclete,  but  threatening  dangers  com¬ 
pelled  him  to  seek  a  new  refuge  on  the 
shores  of  Lower  Brittany.  After  ten  years 
of  sorrowful  struggle  with  adverse  condi¬ 
tions  he  left  the  abbey.  It  was  at  this 
time  that  Heloise,  who  had  been  placed  by 
his  influence  at  the  head  of  a  new  religious 
house  at  the  deserted  Paraclete,  wrote  her 
first  letter ,  which  remains  as  a  wonderful 
expression  of  human  passion  and  womanly 
devotion.  Abelard  removed  to  Paris,  and 
for  a  little  time  renewed  the  triumphs  of  his 
youth.  The  famous  Bernard  of  Clairvaux 
arraigned  him  for  heresy  as  a  rationalist. 
Abelard  appealed  to  Rome.  The  council, 
however,  condemned  him,  and  its  action 
was  ratified  by  the  Pope  in  the  following 
year.  While  on  his  way  to  Rome  to  plead 
his  cause  in  person,  Abelard,  broken  by  sor¬ 
rows  and  trials,  was  taken  ill,  and  died  at 
the  Priory  of  St.  Marcellus,  April  21,  1142. 
His  body  was  secretly  removed  to  the 


Paraclete,  and  when  Heloise  died,  in  1164, 
she  was  buried  in  the  same  grave.  From 
here  the  remains  were  taken  and  placed  in 
a  sarcophagus  in  the  cemetery  of  Pere 
Lachaise  in  Paris. 

In  theology  Abelard  was  a  rationalist, 
and  the  doctrine  of  the  Trinity  becomes 
under  his  treatment,  the  expression  of  a 
divine  attribute.  His  Historia  Calamitatum 
is  an  autobiography  written  near  the  close 
of  his  life.  This,  with  the  letters  of  Hel¬ 
oise,  gives  the  story  of  their  love,  faithful 
unto  death.  See  Wight,  Romance  of  Abe¬ 
lard  and  Heloise,  (N.  Y.,  1853). 

Abelites,  or  Abelonians,  a  small  sect 
of  the  fifth  century,  which,  in  order  to  pre¬ 
vent  the  spread  of  original  sin,  held  that, 
while  marriage  was  necessary,  children 
should  not  be  procreated.  In  this  they 
pretended  to  follow  the  example  of  Abel. 
Each  couple  adopted  a  boy  and  girl,  whom 
they  brought  up  under  the  promise  that 
they  would  follow  their  example. 

Aben-Ezra,  one  of  the  most  eminent 
Jewish  scholars  of  the  Middle  Ages;  b.  at 
Toledo,  about  1090;  d.  probably  in  1168. 
He  gained  reputation  for  learning  as  a  phi¬ 
losopher,  astronomer,  and  physician,  but 
his  fame  rests  upon  his  Com?nentaries  on 
the  Old  Testament.  This  work  has  receiv¬ 
ed  the  highest  praise  as  being  the  first  to 
“  raise  biblical  exegesis  to  the  rank  of  a 
science.”  He  wrote  treatises  on  astronomy 
and  grammar. 

Ab'gar,  the  name  or  title  of  a  line  of 
kings  of  Edessa  in  Mesopotamia.  One  of 
them  (the  fifteenth)  is  said  to  have  sent  a 
letter  to  Jesus  entreating  him  to  come  and 
heal  him  of  leprosy.  The  answer  of  Jesus, 
in  which  he  promises  to  send  a  disciple  to 
cure  Abgar  after  his  ascension,  is  given  by 
Eusebius,  who  appears  to  have  believed 
the  letter  to  be  genuine.  Thaddeus,  accord¬ 
ing  to  the  tradition,  was  the  one  sent,  and 
Abgar  and  his  subjects  were  converted  to 
Christianity.  A  later  legend  states  that 
Jesus  sent  Abgar  his  portrait.  For  full  de¬ 
tails  of  Abgar  Legends  see  Tixeron,  Paris, 
1888. 

Ability.  See  Inability. 

Abim'elech  {father  of  the  King),  (1)  the 
name  of  two  Kings  of  Gerar  whose  re¬ 
lations  to  Abraham  and  Isaac  are  given  in 
Gen.  xx.,  xxvi.  (2)  A  son  of  Gideon  by  a 
concubine  wife.  He  made  himself  King, 
and  slew  his  seventy  brothers.  Three 
years  after,  he  was  killed  by  a  piece  of  a 
mill-stone,  thrown  on  his  head  by  a  woman, 
while  attacking  Thebez.  (Judg.  ix.) 


Abj 


Abr 


(  5 


Abjuration.  In  the  Roman  Church,  a 
formal  act  by  which  heretics  and  those 
suspected  of  heresy  renounced  their  errors 
before  receiving  absolution  and  restoration 
to  communion. 

Ablution,  a  ceremonial  washing,  sym¬ 
bolizing  purification  from  uncleanness.  In 
the  Roman  Church  ablution  is  a  liturgical 
term,  which  denotes  the  use  made  by  the 
priests  of  wine  and  water  after  the  com¬ 
munion  in  cleansing  the  chalice  and  fingers. 
In  the  Greek  Church  ablution  is  a  cere¬ 
mony  which  takes  place  seven  days  after 
baptism,  when  the  unction  of  the  chrism  is 
washed  off  from  those  who  have  been 
baptized. 

Ab'ner  {father  of  light),  first  cousin  of 
Saul,  and  commander-in-chief  of  his  army. 
The  chief  references  to  him  during  the  life¬ 
time  of  Saul  are  found  in  i  Sam.  xvii.  55; 
xxvi.  5.  It  was  only  after  the  death  of 
that  monarch,  however,  that  Abner  was 
brought  into  a  position  of  the  first  political 
importance.  At  first  he  adhered  to  Ish- 
bosheth  (2  Sam.  i.  8),  but  revolted  to 
David  (2  Sam.  iii.  8),  and  was  treacherous¬ 
ly  slain  by  Joab.  (2  Sam.  iii.  27).  His  death 
was  lamented  by  David.  (2  Sam.  iii.  31). 

A'braham  {father  of  a  multitude ),  orig¬ 
inally  Abram  {father  of  elevation),  the  great 
progenitor  of  the  Israelite  race,  was  the  first¬ 
born  sonofTerah.  After  spending  seven¬ 
ty  years  in  his  native  city  of  Ur,  in  Chal¬ 
dea,  “  at  the  call  of  God  he  left  his  idola¬ 
trous  kindred  (Gen.  xi.  31)  and  removed  to 
Haran  in  Mesopotamia,  accompanied  by  his 
father,  his  wife  Sarai,  his  brother  Nahor, 
and  his  nephew  Lot.  A  few  years  after, 
having  buried  his  father,  he  again  removed, 
at  the  call  of  God,  with  his  wife  and  neph¬ 
ew,  and  entered  the  land  of  promise  as  a 
wandering  shepherd.  Sojourning  for  a  time 
at  Shechem,  he  built  here,  as  was  his  cus¬ 
tom,  an  altar  to  the  Lord,  who  appeared  to 
him  and  promised  that  land  to  his  seed. 
(Gen.  xii.  7.)  Removing  from  place  to  place 
for  convenience  of  water  and  pasturage,  he 
was  at  length  driven  by  a  famine  into  Egypt, 
where  he  dissembled  in  calling  his  wife  his 
sister.  (Gen.  xii.)  Returning  to  Canaan 
rich  in  flocks  and  herds,  he  generously  left 
Lot  to  dwell  in  the  fertile  plain  of  the  low¬ 
er  Jordan  and  pitched  his  own  tents  in 
Mamre.  (Gen.  xiii.)  A  few  years  after,  he 
rescued  Lot  and  his  friends  from  captivity, 
and  received  the  blessing  of  Melchizedek. 
(Gen.  xiv.)  Again  God  appeared  to  him, 
promised  that  his  seed  should  be  like  the 
stars  for  number,  and  foretold  their  oppres¬ 
sion  in  Egypt  400  years,  and  their  return  to 
possess  the  promised  land.  (Gen.  xv.)  But 


) 


the  promise  of  a  son  being  yet  unfulfilled, 
Sarai  gave  him  Hagar,  her  maid,  for  a  sec¬ 
ondary  wife,  of  whom  Ishmael  was  born. 
(Gen.  xvi.)  After  thirteen  years  God  again 
appeared  to  him,  and  assured  him  that  the 
heir  of  the  promise  should  yet  be  born  of 
his  wife,  whose  name  was  then  changed  to 
Sarah.  He  established  also  the  covenant 
of  circumcision.  (Gen.  xvii.)  Here,  too, 
occurred  the  visit  of  the  three  angels,  and 
the  memorable  intercession  with  the  Angel- 
Jehovah  for  the  inhabitants  of  Sodom. 
(Gen.  xviii.)  After  this  Abraham  jour¬ 
neyed  south  to  Gerar,  where  he  again  call¬ 
ed  Sarah  his  sister.  In  this  region  Isaac 
was  born,  when  Abraham  was  one  hundred 
years  old  (Gen.  xxi.  5),  and  soon  after  Ha¬ 
gar  and  Ishmael  were  driven  out  to  seek  a 
new  home.  (Gen.  xxi.)  About  twenty-five 
years  after,  God  put  to  trial  the  faith  of 
Abraham,  by  commanding  him  to  sacrifice 
Isaac,  his  son  and  the  heir  of  the  promise, 
upon  Mount  Moriah.  (Gen.  xii.)  After 
twelve  years,  Sarah  died,  and  the  cave  of 
Machpelah  was  bought  for  a  burial-place. 
(Gen.  xxiii.)  Abraham  sent  his  steward, 
and  obtained  a  wife  for  Isaac  from  his  pious 
kindred  in  Mesopotamia.  (Gen.  xxiv.)  He 
himself  also  married  Keturah,  and  had  six 
sons,  each  one  the  founder  of  a  distinct 
people  in  Arabia.  At  the  age  of  one  hun¬ 
dred  and  seventy-five,  full  of  years  and 
honors,  he  died,  and  was  buried  by  his  sons 
Isaac  and  Ishmael  in  the  same  tomb  with 
Sarah.  (Gen.  xxv.)” — Rand:  Bible  Diction¬ 
ary.  “From  the  intimate  communion  which 
Abraham  held  with  the  Almighty,  he  is  dis¬ 
tinguished  by  the  high  title  of  the  ‘  friend  ’ 
of  God.  (2  Chron.  xx.  7;  Isa.  xii.  8;  James 
ii.  23);  and  El-Khalil ,  ‘  the  friend,'  is  the 
appellation  by  which  he  is  familiarly  known 
in  the  traditions  of  the  Arabs,  who  have 
given  the  same  name  to  Hebron,  the  place 
of  his  residence.  The  legends  which  have 
been  recorded  of  him  are  numerous.  Ac¬ 
cording  to  Josephus,  he  taught  the  worship 
of  one  God  to  the  Chaldseans,  and  instruct¬ 
ed  the  Egyptians  and  Phoenicians  in  astron¬ 
omy  and  philosophy.  The  Greek  tradition 
related  by  Nicolaus  of  Damascus  assigns 
to  him  the  conquest  of  that  city,  and  names 
him  as  its  fourth  king.  With  the  help  of 
Ishmael  he  is  said  to  have  rebuilt,  for  the 
fourth  time,  the  Kaaba  over  the  sacred 
black  stone  of  Mecca.  The  Rabbinical  leg¬ 
ends  tell  how  Abraham  destroyed  the  idols 
which  his  father  made  and  worshipped,  and 
how  he  was  delivered  from  the  fiery  fur¬ 
nace  into  which  he  was  cast  by  Nimrod.” — 
Smith:  Diet,  of  the  Bible.  See  H.  J.  Tom¬ 
kins:  Stzuiies  on  the  Times  of  Abraham  (Lon¬ 
don,  1878);  Geikie:  Hours  With  the  Bible; 
Stanley’s  Jewish  Church,  vol.  1  (New  York, 
1863). 


Abr 


(6) 


Aby 


Abraham’s  Bosom.  “  To  lie  in  Abra¬ 
ham’s  bosom  ”  was  a  favorite  phrase  with 
the  Jews  when  they  wished  to  express  the 
felicity  of  paradise.  (Luke  xvi.  19-31.) 

Abrahamites,  (1)  a  short-lived  sect  of 
the  Paulicians,  organized  at  Antioch  about 
805,  by  a  native  named  Abraham.  (2)  A 
modern  sect  which  existed  at  Pardubitz, 
Bohemia,  in  the  last  century.  They  pro¬ 
fessed  to  adopt  the  religion  which  Abraham 
professed  before  his  circumcision.  The 
Ten  Commandments  and  the  Lord’s  Prayer 
were  the  only  portions  of  the  Bible  they 
received. 

Abraxas  ( stones) ,  a  word  with  mystic 
meaning,  engraved  on  stones  which  were 
used  as  amulets  or  charms.  It  was  prob¬ 
ably  first  employed  by  the  Basilidians,  a 
Gnostic  sect.  The  Greek  letters  that  form 
the  word,  in  their  notation,  combine  in  the 
number  365.  The  name,  Abraxas,  was 
therefore  given  by  the  Basilidians  to  the 
365  orders  of  spirits  which  they  claimed 
emanated  from  the  Supreme  Being.  The 
mystic  word  is  found  engraved  on  precious 
stones  in  combination  with  symbolic  figures 
representing  Gnostic  ideas.  They  are  also 
known  as  “  Gnostic  gems  ”  or  “  Abraxas 
gems.” 

Ab'salom  ( father  of  peace),  the  third  son 
of  David.  (2  Sam.  iii.  3.)  He  was  remark¬ 
able  for  beauty,  and  special  mention  is  made 
of  his  hair.  (2  Sam.  xiv.  25,  26.)  Enraged  by 
the  violation  of  his  sister  Tamar  by  his  half- 
brother  Amnon,  he  caused  his  servants  to 
murder  Amnon,  and  then  fled  to  the  kingdom 
of  his  maternal  grandfather.  After  three 


Absalom’s  tomb. 


years  he  was  recalled  (2  Sam.  xiii.  38:  xiv. 
28),  and,  under  the  suspicion  that  he  would 
not  be  the  heir  of  his  father’s  throne,  he  in¬ 
cited  a  rebellion  that  for  a  time  bid  fair  to 
succeed,  but  he  was  finally  defeated  and 
killed  by  Joab.  (2  Sam.  xv.  1:  xviii.  33.) 

“  Absalom’s  Tomb.”  at  the  foot  of  Mount 
Olivet,  according  to  Jewish  tradition,  was 
erected  by  Absalom  during  his  lifetime,  and 
is  pelted  by  them  with  stones  as  they  pass 
by,  in  execration  of  his  treason.  The  archi¬ 
tecture  of  the  monument  and  the  fact  that 
it  is  not  mentioned  before  A.  D.  333,  makes 
the  tradition  doubtful. 

Absolute,  a  philosophical  expression  for 
God  “  because  he  is  not  dependent  for  his 
existence,  nature,  attributes,  or  acts  on 
any  other  being.” — Hodge:  Systetnatic  The¬ 
ology,  vol.  1,  p.  357. 

Absolution,(i)  the  act  by  which  the  priest 
declares  the  forgiveness  of  sins.  (See  Con¬ 
fession.)  (2)  The  term  is  also  used  in  the 
Roman  Church  to  designate  the  prayer  at 
a  burial,  for  the  delivery  of  the  soul  from 
purgatory,  and  also  as  a  title  to  some  pray¬ 
ers  before  the  lessons  in  matins. 

Abstinence  is  that  form  of  fasting  in 
which  the  eating  of  certain  kinds  of  foods, 
especially  meat,  is  abstained  from.  Eggs, 
cheese,  and  butter  are  not  included  under 
the  designation  of  animal  food.  See  Fasting. 

Abyssinia,  Church  of.  Christianity 
was  originally  introduced  into  Ethiopia,  a 
country  now  represented  by  Nubia  and 
Abyssinia,  in  the  Apostolic  age,  Irenaeus 
(a.  d.  130-200)  and  Eusebius  both  record¬ 
ing  that  it  was  first  made  known  through 
the  preaching  of  Queen  Candace’s  Treas¬ 
urer  (Acts  viii.  26-40),  known  traditionally 
by  the  name  of  Indich:  But  it  appears  at 
that  time  to  have  taken  no  permanent  hold 
upon  the  country,  and  the  existing  Church 
of  Abyssinia  owes  its  foundation  to  mis¬ 
sionaries  who  were  sent  there  from  Alexan¬ 
dria  in  the  first  half  of  the  fourth  century. 
The  story  of  this  second  conversion  of 
Ethiopia  is  a  romantic  one.  A  Christian 
philosopher  of  Tyre,  named  Meropius, 
undertook  a  voyage  for  scientific  purposes, 
carrying  with  him  his  two  nephews,  Fru- 
mentius  and  ^Edesius.  Returning  to 
Egypt  by  the  Red  Sea,  the  crew  landed  on 
the  coast  of  Abyssinia  to  obtain  a  supply 
of  fresh  water,  when  the  whole  of  the  voy¬ 
agers  were  murdered  except  the  two  boys, 
who  were  retained  as  slaves  in  the  service 
of  the  king.  Both  of  them  attained  to  high 
offices  at  court,  yEdesius  becoming  cup¬ 
bearer  to  the  king,  and  Frumentius  secre¬ 
tary.  On  the  death  of  the  king,  Frumen- 


Aby 


Acc 


tius  became  guardian  to  his  two  young- 
sons  and  successors;  and  his  influence  be¬ 
ing  very  great,  he  provided  a  church  for 
the  Christian  merchants  who  traded  with 
Abyssinia,  and  otherwise  prepared  the  way 
for  introducing  Christianity  into  the  coun¬ 
try.  The  younger  brother,  ASdesius,  had 
now  returned  to  Tyre,  where  he  had  been 
ordained  priest,  and  this  suggested  to  Fru- 
mentius  that  he  himself  might  assist  the 
cause  he  had  at  heart  more  effectively  as  a 
Christian  minister  than  as  a  layman.  He 
accordingly  visited  Alexandria  in  the  year 
326,  and  by  the  persuasion  of  the  great  St. 
Athanasius,  then  Patriarch  of  Alexandria, 
Frumentius  was  consecrated  to  the  Episco¬ 
pate,  his  see  being  fixed  at  Axum,  now 
known  as  Auxuma. 

On  his  return  to  Abyssinia,  Frumentius 
found  his  former  pupils,  Abreha  and 
Atzbeha,  reigning  as  joint  sovereigns,  and 
they  showed  so  great  zeal  in  assisting  him 
to  propagate  Christianity  that  they  are 
commemorated  as  saints  on  Oct.  1  in  the 
Abyssinian  calendar.  Frumentius  con¬ 
tinued  his  good  work  for  many  years, 
converting  great  numbers,  organizing 
churches,  and  translating  the  Holy  Script¬ 
ures  into  the  Ethiopic  language.  He  died 
about  A.  d.  360,  and  is  commemorated  in 
the  Abyssinian  calendar  on  Dec.  14,  July  20, 
and  Sept.  20.  His  Abyssinian  name,  Fre- 
monatos,  though  he  is  also  called  Salama, 
is  perpetuated  in  that  of  the  city  of  Fre- 
mona.  The  Ethiopic,  or  Abyssinian,  Bible 
is  a  translation  of  the  Alexandrine  Septua- 
gint.  The  Liturgy  is  also  derived  from 
that  of  Alexandria,  being  of  the  same 
family  with  the  Coptic  Liturgy  of  St.  Cyril 
and  the  Greek  Liturgy  of  St.  Mark. 

Since  the  time  of  St.  Frumentius,  Chris¬ 
tianity  has  never  again  become  extinct  in 
Abyssinia.  The  Church  is  so  far  depend¬ 
ent  on  that  of  Egypt  that  its  Abuna,  or 
Metropolitan  Bishop,  is  always  appointed 
and  consecrated  by  the  Patriarch  of  Alexan¬ 
dria,  and  is  always  an  Egyptian,  not  an 
Abyssinian.  It  is,  however,  singularly 
Jewish  in  its  character,  the  Sabbath  being 
observed,  Christians  being  circumcised, 
and  Mosaic  distinctions  of  clean  and  un¬ 
clean  food  being  kept  up.  Its  creed  was 
also  corrupted  in  the  sixth  century  by  the 
Monophysite  heresy  respecting  the  two 
natures  of  our  Lord  (Monophysites).  In 
other  respects  Abyssinian  Christianity  is 
of  the  same  type  as  that  which  is  found  in 
the  principal  Churches  of  the  East.  At¬ 
tempts  were  made  in  1177  and  in  1441  to 
bring  the  Abyssinian  Church  under  the 
control  of  the  Pope,  and  for  a  time  a  de¬ 
cree  of  Eugenius  IV.,  passed  in  1441,  unit¬ 
ing  the  two  Churches,  was  accepted  in 
Abyssinia;  but  the  union  did  not  long  con¬ 


7  ) 


tinue,  and  in  later  times  the  Abyssinians 
have  received  their  Abuna,  as  in  more 
ancient  days,  from  the  Egyptian,  or  Coptic, 
Church. — Benham:  Dictionary  of  Religion. 

Roman  Catholic  missionaries  from  the 
twelfth  century  until  the  present  time  have 
endeavored  to  Romanize  the  Abyssinians, 
but  with  little  success.  Protestant  mis¬ 
sions  have  proved  almost  an  entire  failure. 
The  British  and  Foreign  Bible  Society 
bought  and  printed  a  translation  of  the 
Bible  into  Amharic,  which  had  been  made 
by  an  Abyssinian  monk,  and  in  1830  the 
missionaries  Gobat  and  Kugler  were  sent 
to  Abyssinia,  and  in  1837  they  were  suc¬ 
ceeded  by  Isenberg  and  Krapf.  They 
labored  earnestly,  but  left  the  field  in  1843 
with  small  results.  In  1858  the  St.  Chris- 
chona  Society  of  Basel  sent  a  number  of 
missionaries  into  the  country,  but  the  dis¬ 
turbances  of  the  reign  of  King  Theodore 
ruined  their  work,  and  the  field  was  aban¬ 
doned.  In  1888  the  Greek  Church  sent 
missionaries  into  the  country. 

Acacians.  See  Acacius. 

Aca'cius,  one  of  the  leaders  of  the  Arian 
party;  d.  363.  He  succeeded  Eusebius  as 
bishop  of  Caesarea,  340,  and  was  deposed 
in  359.  He  opposed  the  more  radical  wing 
of  the  Arian  party.  “  Though  denying 
the  sameness,  he  accepted  the  likeness  of 
substance  between  the  Father  and  the 
Son,  and  subscribed  finally  to  the  Nicene 
symbol.”  —  Herzog.  His  followers  were 
called  Acacians. 

Acceptants,  is  the  name  given  to  the 
French  prelates  and  clergy  who  in  the 
Jansenist  controversy  accepted  the  bull 
Unigenitus.  See  Jansenism. 

Accident,  in  philosophical  language  a 
property  or  quality  of  a  thing  which  is  not 
essential  to  it,  as  taste  or  color.  The 
Roman  Church  in  its  statement  of  the  dog¬ 
ma  of  transubstantiation,  holds  that,  while 
the  accidents  of  the  bread  and  wine  remain, 
the  substance  has  been  changed  into  the 
body  and  blood  of  Christ. 

Accommodation,  a  term  used  in  Biblical 
interpretation  to  signify  the  manner  and 
method  by  which  Divine  truths  are  brought 
within  reach  of  the  human  understanding 
by  illustration  and  parabolic  language. 
The  word  is  used,  however,  in  another 
sense,  in  which  it  has  reference  to  the  mat¬ 
ter  taught.  Writers  of  the  rationalistic 
school  have  gone  so  far  as  to  assert  that 
the  writers  of  Scripture,  and  even  Christ 
himself,  modified  or  perverted  the  truth, 
in  order  that  it  might  find  a  more  general  ac- 


Acc 


(8) 


Act 


ceptance,  by  stating  it  in  accord  with  views 
then  prevalent.  Those  who  hold  this 
view  say.  for  instance,  that  the  New  Testa¬ 
ment  statement  of  the  doctrine  of  the 
atonement  was  given  simply  to  satisfy  the 
Jews  for  the  loss  of  their  sacrificial 
worship. 

Accursed.  See  Anathema. 

Acephali  (headless),  a  name  given  to  cer¬ 
tain  ecclesiastical  parties  who  in  various 
ways  took  a  position  independent  of  the 
Church  to  which  they  belonged.  It  was 
applied  also  to  priests  who  repudiated  the 
authority  of  their  bishops,  or  bishops  who 
claimed  exemption  from  the  jurisdiction  of 
their  metropolitans. 

Accemetse  (Gr.  akoimetai,  the  sleepless), 
a  name  given  to  the  communities  of  monks 
who  divided  their  numbers  in  such  a  way 
that  services  of  prayer  and  praise  were 
continued  in  the  monastery  without  ceasing 
day  and  night.  The  practice  is  said  to 
have  originated  with  a  Syrian  monk  named 
Alexander,  who  founded  a  monastery  on 
the  Euphrates.  Their  principal  seat  was  at 
Constantinople.  They  are  sometimes  call¬ 
ed  Studites,  from  the  fact  that  they  oc¬ 
cupied  the  monastery  of  St.  John  the 
Baptist,  which  was  built  by  a  nobleman 
named  John  Studius. 

Acolytes  (Gr.  akolouthos ,  follower),  the 
name  given  the  first  of  the  four  minor 
orders  of  the  ancient  Church.  It  was  the 
duty  of  the  acolyte  to  wait  upon  the  deacon 
or  sub-deacon  at  the  celebration  of  the 
Eucharist,  and  light  the  candles  of  the 
church.  In  time,  the  duties  of  the  minor 
w'ere  performed  generally  by  laymen,  as  at 
presentinthe  Romanchurches.  See  Orders. 

Acropolis.  See  Athens. 

Acrostic.  The  forming  of  a  name  or 
word  by  the  combination  of  the  initial  let¬ 
ters  of  successive  lines  or  words,  was  a 
favorite  method  of  composition  in  the  early 
Church.  The  following  acrostic  will  illus¬ 
trate: 

Jesus,  who  for  me  hast  borne 
Every  sorrow,  pain,  and  scorn, 
Standing  at  man’s  judgment  seat, 
Unjust  judgment  there  to  meet; 
Save  me  by  Thy  mercy  sweet. 

Christ,  who  on  the  cruel  tree, 
Hanging  all  the  day  for  me, 

Reigned  at  eve  in  victory: 

In  Thy  victory  let  me  share, 

See  Thee,  now  Thou  reignest,  where 
Thou  our  mansions  dost  prepare. 


One  of  the  most  familiar  of  the  ancient 
acrostics  is  the  symbol  of  faith  formed 
from  the  Greek  word  Ichthus.  See 
Ichthys,  Alphabet  Psalms  and  Hymns. 

Action  Sermon,  a  Scotch  name  for  the 
sermon  preached  immediately  before  the 
Lord’s  Supper. 

Act  of  Faith.  See  Auto  da  Fe. 

Acta  Sanctorum.  This  title,  “  The  Acts 
of  the  Saints,”  is  the  name  given  to  a  col¬ 
lection  of  the  histories  and  legends  of  those 
who  are  recognized  as  saints  in  the  ancient 
martyrologies  and  the  Roman  Church. 
The  work  was  begun  early  in  the  seven¬ 
teenth  century,  and  already  fills  sixty  large 
volumes.  It  was  planned  by  a  learned 
Jesuit  of  North  Brabant,  Heribert  Ros- 
weyd.  After  his  death  it  was  continued 
by  John  van  Bolland  (1596-1665).  He 
organized  a  body  of  scholars  who,  from 
generation  to  generation,  under  the  name 
of  Bollandists,  have  carried  forward  this 
remarkable  literary  undertaking  until  the 
present  time.  It  was  hindered  for  some 
years  by  the  bull  of  Clement  XIV.,  sup¬ 
pressing  the  Jesuits  (1773),  and  by  the 
French  Revolution.  The  work  was  revived 
in  1837. 

Acts  of  the  Apostles.  “  This  book,  ac¬ 
cording  to  internal  and  external  evidence, 
was  written  by  Luke,  and  forms  the  sequel 
to  his  Gospel.  It  is  the  history  of  the 
foundation  and  spread  of  the  Christian 
Church — the  former  under  Peter  (i-xii), 
the  later  under  Paul  (xiii-xxviii).  It  was 
founded  on  the  Day  of  Pentecost;  its  first 
sons  tvere  Jews;  hence  it  appeared  only  a 
Jewish  sect  in  Judaea,  and  the  former  part 
of  the  book  is  occupied  with  its  establish¬ 
ment  there,  with  arguments  in  its  favor, 
and  with  challenges  to  disprove  the  funda¬ 
mental  fact  of  Christ’s  Resurrection.  Its 
first  development  into  an  organized  com¬ 
munity,  with  official  staff,  provoked  the 
first  persecution  and  martyrdom,  which 
precipitated  its  extension  to  Samaria  and 
Syria,  and  caused  a  new  and  more  inde¬ 
pendent  centre  of  operations  to  be  planted 
at  Antioch,  whence,  under  Paul  (the  first 
converted  persecutor),  it  spread  to  Asia 
Minor,  Greece,  Rome,  and  various  parts 
of  the  Gentile  world.  The  motive  influence 
was  the  direct  impulse  of  the  Holy  Spirit, 
not  any  preconceived  plan  of  the  Apostolic 
body  (ii.  4;  xi.  17;  xv.  6,  7,  9).” — Oxford 
Bible.  See  the  Introductions  of  Davidson 
and  others,  and  the  commentaries  especially 
of  Alexander,  Hacket,  and  Meyer,  and  that 
of  Dean  Howson  and  Canon  Spence,  with 
notes,  by  Rev.  D.  S.  Schaff  (N.  Y. ,  1S82). 


Ada 


(9) 


Add 


Adalbert  of  Prague.  See  Prussia,  Con¬ 
version  of. 

Ad'am,  the  first  man.  whose  creation,  fall, 
and  history  are  given  in  the  opening  chap¬ 
ters  of  Genesis.  In  simple  language  the 
Bible  here  records  the  “most  momentous 
event  in  history  previous  to  the  birth  of 
Christ.  For  then  happened  the  Fall;  sin 
was  let  loose  to  ravage  the  world;  a  blight 
had  fallen  upon  the  race.  The  first  proof 
of  sin  was  shame.  The  wretched  folly  of 
all  attempts  to  cover  sin  is  symbolized  by 
the  fig-leaf  aprons  of  our  first  parents;  they 
were  no  coverings  at  all.  The  second  proof 
of  sin  was  their  fear  before  God.  They 
stood  condemned,  and  owned  his  dreadful 
sentence  just.  They  were  banished  from 
paradise.  The  ground  was  cursed  for  their 
sake.  In  the  hardship  of  toil  and  labor,  in 
the  care  and  suffering  of  childbirth  and  par¬ 
entage,  they  began  to  feel  at  once  the  woes 
their  transgression  involved.  All  the  bur¬ 
dens  of  life,  the  heavy  cross,  sickness,  dis¬ 
aster,  trouble,  death,  come  from  the  action 
of  that  fatal  day.  They  are  the  dread  re¬ 
minders  of  our  fallen  state.  Our  first 
parents  involved  all  their  posterity  in  that 
ruin  they  first  experienced.  But  in  the  nar¬ 
rative  of  the  Fall  there  stands  also  the 
promise  of  a  deliverer,  the  woman’s  seed 
(the  son  of  Mary),  who  should  crush  the 
serpent’s  head — that  is,  destroy  the  power 
of  sin  and  Satan.  (Gen.  iii.  15.)  This  prom¬ 
ise,  which  is  called  the  4  first  gospel,’  was 
fulfilled  in  the  Crucifixion.  Christ  is  the 
second  Adam,  as  Paul  shows  in  Rom.  v.  12, 
ff. ,  and  1  Cor.  xv.  45.  He  undid  the  work 
of  the  first.  He  abolished  the  power  of  sin 
and  death  for  believers,  and  brought  life 
and  immortality  to  light  through  the  gospel. 
(2  Tim.  1-10.)  The  redemption  by  Christ 
is  the  glorious  solution  of  the  fall  of  Adam. 
Christ  has  given  us  much  more  than  we 
lost  by  Adam.  Paradise  regained  is  better 
than  Paradise  lost,  and  can  never  be  lost 
again.  God,  in  his  infinite  wisdom  and 
mercy,  overruled  the  fall  of  man  for  the 
revelation  of  his  redeeming  love,  which  in 
turn  calls  out  the  deepest  gratitude  and 
bliss  of  the  redeemed.” — Schaff :  Bible  Dic¬ 
tionary. 

Adam  of  St.  Victor.  He  entered  the  ab- 
jbey  of  St.  Victor,  Paris,  about  1130,  and  d. 
thereabout  1192.  His  poetical  works,  which 
rank  him  the  greatest  Latin  poet  of  the 
Middle  Ages,  were  translated  by  Wrang- 
ham,  3  vols.,  (London,  1881). 

Adamites,  a  fanatical  sect  which  flour¬ 
ished  in  the  second  and  third  centuries  in 
North  Africa.  They  worshipped  in  a  state 
of  nudity,  claiming  that  in  so  doing  they 


were  re-established  in  Adam’s  condition  of 
original  innocency.  This  custom  was  re¬ 
vived  in  the  fifteenth  century  among  the 
Beghards,  and  Brethren  of  the  Free  Spirit. 
In  1421  they  were  almost  exterminated  by 
the  Hussite  leader,  Zisk,  who  did  not  hes¬ 
itate  to  put  them  to  death  at  the  stake.  In 
1849  the  sect  appeared  in  a  district  of  Aus¬ 
tria,  but  was  suppressed  by  the  Govern¬ 
ment. 

Adams,  Mrs.  Sarah  Flower;  b.  at  Har¬ 
low,  Essex,  Eng.,  Feb.  22,  1805;  d.  Aug.  13, 
1849.  She  wrote  many  poems,  but  her 
name  will  live  as  the  author  of  the  hymn, 

4 *'  Nearer,  my  God,  to  Thee.”  This  hymn 
was  contributed  to  a  collection  of  Hymns  and 
Anthems  (1840-41),  made  by  her  pastor,  the 
Rev.  William  J.  Fox  (1787-1 864),  of  London. 

Adams,  Thomas,  a  pious  and  learned 
Puritan  divine.  The  time  of  his  birth  and 
death  are  uncertain.  He  died  before  the 
Restoration.  Southey  called  him  44  the 
prose  Shakespeare  of  the  Puritan  theolo¬ 
gians.”  An  edition  of  his  Works ,  edited  by 
Rev.  Drs.  Joseph  Angus  and  Thomas  Smith, 
was  (published  in  London,  1862,  3  vols. 

Adams,  William,  D.  D. ,  b.  in  Colchester, 
Conn.,  Jan.  25,  1807;  d.  at  Orange  Mount¬ 
ain,  N.  J. ,  Aug.  31, 1880.  After  being  grad¬ 
uated  at  Yale  (1827),  and  studying  theology 
at  Andover,  he  entered  the  Congregational 
ministry.  In  1834  he  was  called  to  the 
Central  (now  Madison  Square)  Presbyte¬ 
rian  Church  in  New  York,  where  he  re¬ 
mained  more  than  forty  years.  After  resign¬ 
ing  his  pastorate  he  was  elected  professor 
and  president  of  the  Union  Theological  Sem¬ 
inary  (1873).  His  life  was  eminently  useful 
and  influential.  He  wrote  several  volumes, 
among  them  The  Three  Gardens ,  Eden , 
Gethsemane,  and  Paradise:  or,  Man's  Ruin, 
Redemption,  and  Restoratioft  (N.  Y. ,  1856); 
Thanksgiving:  Memories  of  the  Day  and 
Helps  to  the  Habit  (1865). 

Addison,  Joseph,  an  eminent  British 
writer  and  essayist;  b.  at  Milston  May  1, 
1672;  d.  at  Kensington,  June  17,  1719.  He 
was  educated  at  the  Charter  House  and 
Queens  and  Magdalen  colleges  at  Oxford. 
In  connection  with  other  essays  in  the  Tat¬ 
tler,  Spectator ,  and  Guardian,  he  wrote  a 
series  which  were  republished  under  the 
title  of  Addison’s  Evidences  of  the  Christian 
Religion.  He  is  the  author  of  several  pop¬ 
ular  hymns.  In  his  last  illness  he  sent  for 
a  young  nobleman  of  irregular  life  to  visit 
him.  At  the  close  of  the  interview  the 
young  man  was  deeply  affected,  and  at  part¬ 
ing  Addison  said,  44  I  sent  for  you  that  you 
might  see  how  a  Christian  can  die.” 


Ade 


(  io  ) 


Ado 


Adelbert  (properly  Woytech;  “the  comfort 
of  the  host”),areligious  leader,  and  so-called 
“Apostle  of  the  Prussians;”  b.  at  Prague 
about  956;  studied  in  Magdeburg,  and  elect¬ 
ed  bishop  of  Prague  in  983.  A  man  of  en¬ 
ergetic  character,  he  planned  a  missionary 
tour  in  Prussia,  but  was  killed  by  a  pagan 
priest  soon  after  entering  the  country. 

Adiaphorists  (Gr.  adiaphora,  indiffer¬ 
ent).  During  the  period  of  the  Reformation 
a  party  of  Lutherans,  having  Melancthon  as 
their  leader,  dissatisfied  with  the  Augsburg 
Interim,  prepared  the  Leipzig  Interim 
(1548),  in  which  several  doctrinal  and  li¬ 
turgical  points  were  yielded  as  adiaphora 
(things  indifferent).  The  position  was  op¬ 
posed  by  the  extreme  Lutherans.  The  con¬ 
flict  raged  until  the  questions  in  dispute 
lost  their  importance,  by  the  peace  of  1555 
and  the  adoption  of  the  Formula  Concordice. 
Adiaphoristic  controversy  is  still  continued 
among  Christians  touching  the  question  of 
amusements;  some  contending  that  such 
amusements  as  dancing,  card  -  playing, 
theatre-going,  etc.,  ought  not  to  be  classed 
among  things  “  indifferent,”  but  should  be 
repudiated  as  sinful. 

Ad'-onai  {Lord),  the  Hebrew  plural  of 
excellence. 

Adoni'jah  {my  Lord  is  Jehovah),  David’s 
fourth  son  (2  Sam.  iii.  4).  After  the  death 
of  Absalom,  being  the  oldest  living  son  of 
David,  he  plotted  to  seize  the  throne.  When 
his  intrigues  came  to  the  knowledge  of  the 
king,  then,  near  his  death,  he  caused  Solo¬ 
mon  to  be  anointed  king.  (1  Kings  i.  39.) 
The  noise  of  the  public  rejoicing  over  this 
event  was  heard  by  Adonijah  while  feast¬ 
ing  with  friends,  and  Jonathan  came  and 
informed  him  of  what  had  taken  place.  He 
fled  for  safety  to  the  temple,  and  laid  hold 
of  the  horns  of  the  altar.  But  he  was  call¬ 
ed  into  the  presence  of  Solomon  and  re¬ 
ceived  pardon.  (1  Kings  i.  52.)  After  the 
death  of  David  he  sought,  through  Bath- 
sheba,  to  gain  Abishag,  the  virgin  widow 
of  his  father,  in  marriage.  According  to 
Oriental  court  law  this  was  treason  against 
the  throne,  and  he  was  put  to  death.  (1  Kings 
ii.  25.) 

Adoption,  as  a  Biblical  term,  occurs  only 
in  the  New  Testament.  It  is  used  meta¬ 
phorically  by  St.  Paul  in  reference  to  the 
present  and  prospective  privileges  of  Chris¬ 
tians.  (Rom.  viii.  15,  23;  Gal.  iv.  5;  Eph. 
i.  5.)  He  probably  alludes  to  the  Roman 
custom  of  adoption,  by  which  a  person,  not 
having  children  of  his  own,  might  adopt  as 
his  son  one  born  of  other  parents.  Theo¬ 
logically,  the  Westminster  Shorter  Catechism 


defines  adoption  as  the  act  of  God’s  grace, 
whereby  we  are  received  into  the  number, 
and  have  a  right  to  all  the  privileges  of  the 
sons  of  God.  The  Armenian  view  is  given 
by  Richard  Watson  in  his  Theological  Lnsti- 
tutes:  “  Adoption  is  the  second  concomi¬ 
tant  of  justification,  and  is  that  act  by  which 
we,  who  were  alienated,  enemies,  disinher¬ 
ited,  are  made  the  sons  of  God  and  heirs  of 
his  eternal  glory;  ....  from  it  flows  a 
comfortable  persuasion  or  conviction  of  our 
present  acceptance  with  God,  and  the  hope 
of  our  future  and  eternal  glory.”  (Part  11. , 
chap.  24,  p.  269.) 

Adoptionists,  those  who  maintained  the 
theory  that  our  Lord,  as  Man,  was  the  Son 
of  God  the  Father  by  adoption,  although  as 
God  he  was  the  Son  of  God.  This  opinion 
was  held  by  some  as  early  as  the  fourth 
century,  and  is  opposed  in  the  writings  of 
St.  Cyril  of  Jerusalem,  St.  Ambrose,  St. 
Augustine,  and  St.  Hilary  of  Arles.  It  pre¬ 
vailed  much  in  Spain,  being  mentioned  in  a 
canon  of  the  eleventh  Council  of  Toledo 
(a.  d.  675),  and  it  was  in  Spain  that  it  be¬ 
came  distinctly  formalized  as  an  heretical 
opinion.  There  is  some  probability  that  it 
was  taught  as  a  means  of  conciliating  the 
Mahometans,  and  making  Christianity  ac¬ 
ceptable  to  them;  but  the  idea  that  Christ 
as  Man  was  not  that  which  the  angel  said 
he  should  be  called,  the  Son  of  God  (Luke 
i.  36),  is  so  contrary  to  the  fundamental 
principle  of  Christianity,  the  Mediatorship 
of  our  Lord,  that  it  was  vigorously  opposed 
by  theologians.  The  leaders  of  the  Adop- 
tionist  party  were  Elipandus,  Archbishop 
of  Toledo;  and  Felix,  Bishop  of  Urgel,  in 
Catalonia.  Their  principal  opponent  was 
the  great  English  scholar  and  theologian, 
Alcuin,  the  friend  of  Charlemagne,  at 
whose  desire  he  wrote  a  treatise  on  the 
subject  in  a.  D.  794,  and  the  error  was  con¬ 
demned  at  the  Council  of  Frankfort  in  that 
year.  Felix  argued  with  Alcuin  for  six 
days  before  the  Council  of  Aix-la-Chapelle 
in  the  year  799,  was  convinced  of  his  error, 
and  renounced  it  before  the  Council,  but 
Elipandus  was  never  called  to  account,  as 
Toledo  was  at  that  time  in  the  hands  of  the 
Saracens.  The  error  itself  has  occasion¬ 
ally  been  revived  in  later  ages,  but  it  has 
not  definitely  appeared  in  the  literature  of 
theology  since  the  seventeenth  century, 
when  it  was  advocated  in  a  work  of  Calix- 
tus. — Benham:  Dictionary  of  Religion. 

Adoration,  an  act  of  homage  or  worship. 
Among  the  Hebrews  it  was  manifested  by 
putting  off  the  shoes,  standing,  bowing, 
kneeling,  and  kissing.  Those  who  approach¬ 
ed  the  Greek  and  Roman  emperors  bowed 
low  or  knelt,  and,  after  reverently  touching 


Adr 


(ii) 


Adv 


the  imperial  robe,  the  hand  was  withdrawn 
and  pressed  to  the  lips.  Eastern  subjects 
prostrated  themselves  at  the  feet  of  the 
prince,  and  kissed  the  ground.  This  Ori¬ 
ental  custom  was  adopted,  after  the  ninth 
century,  by  the  popes  in  the  ceremony  of 
kissing  the  feet.  A  distinction  is  made  in 
the  Roman  Church  between  Latvia ,  a  wor¬ 
ship  due  only  to  God,  and  Dulia ,  the  ven¬ 
eration  accorded  to  the  saints,  martyrs, 
crucifixes,  the  host,  etc.  Hyperdulia  desig¬ 
nated  the  adoration  given  to  the  Blessed 
Virgin  as  the  most  exalted  of  creatures. 
The  Adoration  of  the  Host  is  the  kneeling 
of  the  congregation  when  the  priest  uplifts 
the  wafer  which  is  said  to  have  been  trans¬ 
formed  into  the  body  of  Christ.  This  cere¬ 
mony  was  introduced  by  Pope  Honorius 

III.  (a.  D.  1227).  Perpetual  Adoration  de¬ 
notes  that  some  one  is  praying  in  the  church 
at  all  hours. 

Adram'melech  ( honor  of  the  king),  (1) 
an  idol  of  the  Sepharvites  whom  Shalma¬ 
neser  brought  to  Samaria  after  carrying 
their  inhabitants  captive  to  Assyria.  (2 
Kings  xvii.  31.)  (2)  A  son  of  Sennacherib, 

king  of  Assyria,  who,  with  his  brother 
Sharezer,  slew  their  father  in  the  temple 
of  Nisroch,  B.C.  721.  (2  Kings  xix.  37.) 

Adrian,  the  name  of  six  popes.  Adrian 

IV.  was  the  only  Englishman  ever  elected 
pope.  His  original  name  was  Nicholas 
Breakspeare,  the  son  of  a  laborer  near  St. 
Albans,  of  which  monastery  he  was  a  lay 
brother.  Nicholas  was  refused  admission 
to  the  monastery  because  of  his  lack  of 
education,  and  he  went  to  the  continent, 
where  he  became  a  lay  brother  of  St. 
Rufus,  in  Provence.  In  1146  he  became 
Cardinal  Bishop  of  Albano,  and  in  1154  was 
elected  Pope  and  reigned  until  his  death  in 
1159.  He  was  a  strenuous  advocate  of 
the  pretensions  of  the  papal  power  to 
world-wide  sovereignty.  His  bestowal  of 
Ireland  upon  Henry  II.  was  an  assertion 
of  this  power.  When  Frederick  Barba- 
rossa  entered  Italy  to  claim  the  crown  of 
Germany  from  the  hand  of  the  pope  he  re¬ 
fused  to  hold  the  pontiff’s  stirrup  as  a 
mark  of  respect.  The  action  of  the  pope 
in  withholding  his  blessing  made  the  em¬ 
peror  yield  the  desired  homage,  and  his 
coronation  took  place  in  the  Church  of  St. 
Peter.  The  quarrel  was  soon  opened,  and 
Adrian  was  just  about  to  pronounce  a  sen¬ 
tence  of  excommunication  against  the  Ger¬ 
man  emperor,  when  he  died.  See  Popes. 

Adul'lam  ( hiding-place ),  an  ancient  city 
southwest  of  Jerusalem.  (Gen.  xxxviii.  1; 
Josh.  xv.  35;  2  Chron.  xi.  7;  Neh.  xi.  30; 
Micah.  i.  15.)  Some  have  supposed  that 


th^  cave  of  Adulla/n,  in  which  David  so¬ 
journed  for  a  time,  was  in  the  vicinity  of 
this  city,  but  the  best  authorities  locate  it 
near  Bethlehem. 

Adultery.  See  Marriage.  Divorce. 

Advent  (from  the  Lat.  adventus;  “  a 
coming  ”).  The  period  of  the  year  im¬ 
mediately  preceding  Christmas,  in  which 
many  churches  celebrate  the  approach  of 
the  nativity  of  Christ.  In  the  American 
and  English  Episcopal  Church  the  first 
Sunday  in  Advent,  or  Advent  Sunday,  is 
the  Sunday,  whether  before  or  after, which 
falls  nearest  to  St.  Andrew’s  Day  (Nov. 
30).  In  the  Greek  Church  the  season  of 
Advent  dates  from  St.  Martin’s  Day  (Nov. 
1 1 ).  At  one  time  Advent  was  observed 
almost  as  strictly  as  Lent,  but  the  rule  is 
now  relaxed. 

Adventists,  is  the  general  name  of  a 
body  who  look  for  the  early  personal  com¬ 
ing  of  Christ.  Their  founder  was  William 
Miller  (q.v.),  who  believed  that  the  advent 
was  near  at  hand.  He  fixed  the  date  in 
1843;  other  times  were  subsequently  de¬ 
cided  upon,  but  repeated  disappointments 
divided  his  followers,  and  many  of  them 
fell  away.  The  doctrine  of  the  immortality 
of  the  soul  has  also  been  a  cause  of  divis¬ 
ion.  Of  the  distinct  branches  of  Advent¬ 
ists  in  the  United  States  all  believe  in  the 
personal  premillenial  coming  of  Christ  and 
that  it  will  soon  take  place.  The  Evangel¬ 
ical  Adventists  believe  in  the  natural  im¬ 
mortality  of  the  soul  and  in  eternal  future 
punishment.  The  Advent  Christians,  on 
the  contrary,  hold  that  man  is  material, 
and  that  the  wicked  will  finally  be  annihi¬ 
lated,  and  the  earth  become  the  abode  of  the 
saints.  The  Seventh-Day  Adventists,  hav¬ 
ing  their  headquarters  at  Battle  Creek, 
Mich.,  sustain  a  college  and  other  denom¬ 
inational  institutions.  They  hold  that  it  is 
still  obligatory  to  observe  the  seventh  day 
as  the  Sabbath,  and  they  accept  the  testi¬ 
monies  and  visions  as  given  by  Mrs.  White. 
The  Life  and  Advent  Union  believe  that 
only  the  righteous  dead  will  take  part  in 
the  resurrection.  The  Age-to-Come  Ad¬ 
ventists  believe  that  the  Jews  will  finally  be 
re-established  at  Jerusalem.  All  of  these 
bodies  are  Congregational  in  polity.  The 
Seventh-Day  has  general  and  annual  con¬ 
ferences.  The  most  trustworthy  sources 
of  information  give  the  following  statistics 
of  the  different  branches  of  Adventists  in 
1888: 

(1)  Evangelical  Adventists.  About  100 

churches,  50  preachers  and  500  mem¬ 
bers. 

(2)  Advent  Christians.  They  have  in 


Adv 


(  12  ) 


/El 


their  thirty  conferences  400  preachers, 
600  churches  and  15,000  members,  and 
about  as  many  more  not  enrolled. 

(3)  Seventh-Day  Adventists.  They 
have  thirty-two  conferences,  400  preach¬ 
ers,  goi  churches,  and  an  enrolled  mem¬ 
bership  of  26,112,  and  some  4,000  scat¬ 
tered. 

(4)  Church  of  God.  A  seceding  branch 
of  the  Seventh-Day  Adventists,  having 
their  headquarters  at  Stanbury,  Mis¬ 
souri,  number  4  conferences,  27  preach¬ 
ers,  30  churches  and  2,000  members. 

(5)  Life  and  Advent  Union,  number 
about  5,000  members  with  50  preachers. 

(6)  Age-to-Come  Adventists.  50  preach¬ 
ers  and  5,000  members. 

Advent  Christians.  See  Adventists. 

Advocate  of  the  Church.  This  term  was 
applied  in  the  primitive  Church  to  those 
who  defended  the  Christians  against  their 
persecutors.  As  the  Church  became  more 
powerful  and  wealthy  the  position  of  ad¬ 
vocate,  as  legal  adviser,  was  sought  after 
as  one  of  dignity  and  emolument.  The 
office  went  into  the  hands  of  the  laity  as 
the  law  controlled  that  only  those  who 
could  bear  arms  could  appear  in  their  own 
name  before  the  courts.  As  early  as  the 
twelfth  century,  complaint  was  made  of  the 
extortion  of  those  who  held  this  position, 
usually  some  feudal  lord  of  power  and  in¬ 
fluence.  In  time,  the  office  became  fixed 
in  its  duties  and  emoluments,  and  it  was 
customary  for  the  founders  of  churches 
and  religious  endowments  to  keep  the 
nomination  of  this  office  to  themselves  and 
their  representatives. 

Advocatus  Dei,  Diaboli.  These  officers 
of  the  Roman  Church  make  investigations 
in  regard  to  the  claims  of  any  name  pre¬ 
sented  as  a  candidate  for  canonization. 
The  latter  gives  the  reasons  why  the  per¬ 
son  should  not  be  canonized,  and  the  former 
defends  him. 

Advowson,  the  right  of  presentation 
to  a  vacant  ecclesiastical  benefice  in  the 
Church  of  England.  Advowsons  are  dis¬ 
tinguished  as  presentative ,  collative  and 
donative.  In  a  presentative  advowson  the 
patron  presents  a  clergyman  to  the  bishop, 
who  is  bound  to  induct  the  candidate  to  the 
vacant  living,  if  he  be  canonically  qualified. 
In  a  collative  advowson  the  bishop  is  the 
patron  in  his  own  right,  or  because  the 
proper  patron  has  failed  to  exercise  his 
right  within  the  six  months  required  by 
law,  after  a  vacancy  occurs.  In  a  donative 
advowson  the  sovereign,  or  a  subject  hav¬ 
ing  a  special  license  from  him,  confers  a 


benefice  by  letter  without  consultation 
with  the  bishop.  Such  an  incumbent  is  to 
a  great  extent  independent  of  the  bishop, 
who  can  only  reach  him  through  the  action 
of  an  ecclesiastical  court.  An  advowson, 
being  property,  may  be  sold  or  mortgaged 
under  certain  restrictions  of  time  and 
place.  There  are  some  13,000  benefices  in 
the  Church  of  England. 

JEon  (age),  the  life  or  duration  of  any 
person  or  thing.  The  Gnostics  used  the 
term  to  denote  the  “emanations”  from 
the  supreme  being.  See  Gnostics. 

Affections.  “  The  affections,  as  they 
respect  religion,  may  be  defined  to  be  the 
‘  vigorous  and  sensible  exercises  of  the  in¬ 
clination  and  will  of  the  soul  toward  relig¬ 
ious  objects.’  Whatever  extremes  Stoics 
or  enthusiasts  have  run  into,  it  is  evident 
that  the  exercise  of  the  affections  is  essen¬ 
tial  to  the  existence  of  true  religion.  It  is 
true,  indeed,  ‘that  all  affectionate  devotion 
is  not  wise  and  rational;  but  it  is  no  less 
true  that  all  wise  and  rational  devotion 
must  be  affectionate.’  The  affections  are 
the  springs  of  action.  They  belong  to 
our  nature,  so  that,  with  the  highest  per¬ 
ceptions  of  truth  and  religion,  we  should 
be  inactive  without  them.  They  have  con¬ 
siderable  influence  on  men  in  the  common 
concerns  of  life;  how  much  more,  then, 
should  they  operate  in  those  important  ob¬ 
jects  that  relate  to  the  Divine  Being,  the 
immortality  of  the  soul,  and  the  happiness 
or  misery  of  a  future  state?  The  religion 
of  the  most  eminent  saints  has  always  con¬ 
sisted  in  the  exercise  of  holy  affections. 
Jesus  Christ  himself  affords  us  an  example 
of  the  most  lively  and  vigorous  affections; 
and  we  have  every  reason  to  believe  that 
the  employment  of  heaven  consists  in  the 
exercise  of  them.  In  addition  to  all  which, 
the  Scriptures  of  truth  teach  us  that  relig¬ 
ion  is  nothing  if  it  occupy  not  the  affec¬ 
tions.  (Deut.  vi.  5;  xxx.  6;  Rom.  xii.  11;  1 
Cor.  xiii.  13;  Psa.  xxvii.  14.)  In  order  to 
ascertain  whether  our  affections  are  excited 
in  a  spiritual  manner,  we  must  inquire 
whether  that  which  moves  our  affections 
be  truly  spiritual;  whether  our  consciences 
be  alarmed  and  our  hearts  impressed; 
whether  the  judgment  be  enlightened,  and 
we  have  a  perception  of  the  moral  excel¬ 
lency  of  divine  things;  and  lastly,  whether 
our  affections  have  a  holy  tendency,  and 
produce  the  happy  effects  of  obedience  to 
God,  humility  in  ourselves  and  justice  to 
our  fellow-creatures.” — McClintock  and 
Strong:  Encyclopcedia. 

i^Elfric,  (1)  archbishop  of  Canterbury 
(994-1005);  b.  about  940.  While  a  canon 


Aff 


(  13  ) 


Aga 


monk  of  Winchester  he  undertook  the 
translation  of  the  Bible  into  English.  The 
Pentateuch,  the  books  of  Joshua  and 
Judges,  and  the  four  Gospels,  with  other 
fragmentary  portions  of  the  Old  Testa¬ 
ment,  have  come  down  to  us.  Many  of  his 
religious  works  and  homilies  have  been 
preserved.  (2)  Archbishop  of  York  (1023 
-1050).  He  assisted  at  the  coronation  of 
Canute,  Edward  the  Confessor,  and  other 
kings.  He  has  sometimes  received  undue 
credit  as  the  author  of  works  that  were 
written  by  the  Archbishop  of  Canterbury. 

Affusion  denotes  the  pouring  of  water 
upon  the  person  in  the  administration  of 
baptism,  in  distinction  from  sprinkling ,  or 
immersion. 

Afghanistan.  Of  the  4,000,000  inhab¬ 
itants  most  are  Mohammedans.  Hindoos, 
Christians  and  Jews  are  tolerated.  The 
clergy  are  also  teachers,  and  schools  in 
which  reading  and  the  Mohammedan  faith 
are  taught  are  found  in  almost  every  vil¬ 
lage.  American  missionaries  have  gained 
a  slight  foothold  in  the  country.  The  first 
native  convert  was  baptized  in  1859. 

Africa.  Christianity  is  professed  in 
Abyssinia,  and  in  Egypt  by  the  Copts,  but 
its  doctrines  and  precepts  are  little  under¬ 
stood  and  obeyed.  Mohammedanism  pre¬ 
vails  in  all  Northern  Africa,  excepting 
Abyssinia,  as  far  as  a  line  passing  through 
the  Soudan,  from  the  Gambia  on  the  west 
to  the  confluence  of  the  Quonaand  Benue, 
and  thence  eastward,  generally  following 
the  tenth  parallel  of  n.  lat.,  to  the  Nile  be¬ 
low  the  junction  of  the  Ghazal;  thence 
southeast,  leaving  the  coast-land  in  the 
Mohammedan  region,  to  Cape  Delgado.  In 
Morocco,  Algeria  and  Egypt  there  is  an 
admixture  of  Jews.  Heathen  Negroes  and 
Caffre  tribes  extend  southward  over  the 
continent,  from  the  line  described  above  to 
the  colonies  in  the  southern  extremity  of 
the  continent,  and  on  this  vast  area  the 
native  mind  is  surrendered  to  superstitions 
of  infinite  number  and  character.  In  the 
Cape  Colony  Protestantism  again  prevails, 
with  a  strong  intermixture  of  heathenism. 
The  labors  of  Christian  missionaries  have, 
however,  done  much,  especially  in  South 
Africa,  toward  turning  the  benighted  Afri¬ 
cans  from  idols  to  the  living  God.  See  Mis¬ 
sions. 

Africa,  Church  of,  founded  early  in  the 
second  century.  The  church  enjoyed  for 
a  time  remarkable  prosperity,  and  in  258 
there  were  assembled  in  its  synod  87 
bishops.  The  centre  of  its  activities  was 
the  city  of  Carthage.  The  conquest  of  the 


Vandals  closed  its  history.  Augustine, 
whose  name  is  the  greatest  in  its  annals, 
died  in  430.  Among  other  great  leaders 
in  the  Church  of  Africa  were  Cyprian  and 
Arnobius;  and  several  great  doctrinal  con¬ 
flicts  were  here  waged,  especially  that 
with  the  Pelagians.  See  Juiian  Lloyd, 
The  North  African  Church  (London,  1880). 

African  Methodist  Episcopal  Church. 

The  early  Methodists  were  very  success¬ 
ful  in  their  labors  among  the  colored 
people,  both  slave  and  free.  In  1816  some 
of  them  thought  it  would  be  best  for  them 
to  unite  in  a  separate  organization,  and  at 
a  convention  held  at  Philadelphia,  in  April 
of  that  year,  they  adopted  their  present 
name.  The  growth  of  the  church  has  been 
constant  and  quite  rapid  since  the  Civil 
War.  They  hold  the  doctrines  of  the 
Methodist  Episcopal  Church,  and  their 
government  is  nearly  the  same.  The 
highest  literary  institution  of  the  denom¬ 
ination  is  the  Wilberforce  University  at 
Xenia,  Ohio. 

African  Methodist  Episcopal  Zion 
Church.  This  denomination  originated  in 
1820,  by  the  secession  of  the  Zion  congre¬ 
gation  of  New  York  from  the  Methodist 
Episcopal  Church.  The  separation  grew 
out  of  a  controversy  in  regard  to  church 
government.  The  highest  officers  in  the 
church  are  superintendents,  who  are  elect¬ 
ed  every  four  years  by  the  General  Con¬ 
ference,  which  is  composed  of  all  the 
travelling  ministers  of  the  connection. 
They  hold  the  doctrines  of  the  M.  E. 
Church. 

Agape,  the  love-feast  which,  among  the 
primitive  Christians,  usually  accompa¬ 
nied  the  Eucharist.  According  to  Chrys¬ 
ostom,  the  Agape  was  a  common  feast, 
symbolizing  the  community  of  goods  when 
it  no  longer  really  existed,  to  which  the 
rich  brought  provisions,  and  the  poor,  who 
brought  nothing,  were  invited.  At  first  it 
was  observed  probably  every  evening  in 
connection  with  the  celebration  of  the 
Lord’s  Supper.  It  closed  with  the  holy 
kiss.  The  church  at  Corinth  was  the  first 
to  pervert  this  feast  by  destroying  the 
community  between  rich  and  poor.  It 
was  probably  on  this  account,  and  also  to 
escape  persecutors,  that  by  the  middle  of 
the  second  century  the  Lord’s  Supper  was 
separated  from  the  Agape  by  celebrating 
the  former  at  the  close  of  morning  service 
on  Sunday,  and  the  latter  by  itself  earlier 
in  the  day.  Abuses  crept  in,  and  these 
love-feasts  were  put  under  greater  restric¬ 
tions.  The  rich  finally  absented  them¬ 
selves  to  such  an  extent  that  it  was  regard- 


Aga 


Ago 


ed  as  a  provision  for  the  poor  alone.  An 
effort  was  made  to  correct  abuses,  but  at 
length  various  synods  and  councils  con¬ 
demned  the  holding  of  these  feasts  in 
churches,  as  well  as  the  participation  of  the 
clergy  in  them,  and  their  observance  alto¬ 
gether  died  out.  In  modern  times  it  has 
been  revived  in  one  form  and  another  by 
the  Moravian  Brethren,  by  various 
branches  of  the  Wesleyan  and  Methodist 
Episcopal  churches,  and,  in  Scotland,  by 
the  followers  of  Robert  Sandeman. 

Agapeti  and  Agapetae  {beloved).  The 
first  refers  to  men  who  dwelt  in  the  same 
house  with  deaconesses,  and  the  latter  to 
virgins  who  lived  in  the  same  house  with 
monks.  They  professed  to  exercise  only 
spiritual  love  toward  each  other,  but  their 
intercourse  soon  became  an  occasion  of 
great  scandal,  and  their  action  was  de¬ 
nounced  by  prominent  church  fathers,  and 
condemned  by  councils. 

Agapetus,  (i)  pope,  535~536*  He  was 
sent  by  the  king  of  the  Goths  in  Italy  to 
Constantinople,  in  536,  to  sue  for  peace 
from  the  Emperor  Justinian.  He  did  not 
accomplish  this  purpose,  but  was  success¬ 
ful  in  persuading  the  emperor  that  the 
patriarch  Anthimus  was  guilty  of  heresy 
in  holding  the  theory  of  Monophysitism 
and  secured  his  deposal,  while  Mennas  was 
put  in  his  place  and  consecrated  by  the 
pope,  whodiedsoonafter.  (2)  Pope, 946-955. 

Agatha,  St.,  a  virgin  said  to  have  suf¬ 
fered  martyrdom  during  the  Decian  perse¬ 
cution  at  Catania,  in  Sicily,  of  which  city 
she  is  regarded  as  the  patron  saint.  The 
story  of  her  life  is  probably  a  mixture  of 
legend  and  fable,  with  a  slight  historical 
basis.  She  is  commemorated  on  Feb.  5. 

Agatho,  pope,  678-682.  He  took  a 
prominent  part  in  the  settlement  of  the 
Monothelitic  controversy. 

Agbar.  See  Abgar. 

Age.  See  Canonical  Age. 

Agenda  (Lat.  things  to  be  done),  a  litur¬ 
gical  term  which  describes  the  duties  of 
divine  worship.  “  Things  to  be  done  ” 
as  distinguished  from  “  things  to  be  be¬ 
lieved  ”  {credenda).  It  was  early  used  to 
designate  the  Eucharist,  and  then  given  to 
the  hook  prescribing  the  order  of  worship. 
It  is  still  used  to  designate  the  liturgy  of 
the  Lutheran  Church. 

Age-to-come  Adventists.  See  Advent¬ 
ists. 


Agnes,  St.,  is  commemorated  in  the 
Roman  Church,  Jan.  21  and  28.  She  was 
a  Christian  virgin,  martyred  by  order  of 
Diocletian.  Her  chastity,  according  to  tra¬ 
dition,  was  preserved  under  the  severest 
trials.  She  is  represented  in  mediaeval  art 
as  followed  by  a  lamb.  The  women  of  Rome 
pray  at  her  shrine  for  the  gifts  of  meek¬ 
ness  and  chastity. 

Agnoetae.  Two  sects  bear  this  name. 
(1)  The  first  were  extreme  Arians,  and 
were  founded  in  the  latter  part  of  the 
fourth  century  by  Eunomius  and  Theo- 
phronius.  They  held  that  God  only  knew 
things  past  by  memory  and  the  future  by 
uncertain  prescience,  so  that  his  omnis¬ 
cience  was  limited  to  the  present.  (2)  In 
the  sixth  century  Themistius,  a  deacon  of 
the  Monophysites  in  Alexandria,  founded  a 
sect  which  maintained  that  Christ,  as  to 
his  human  soul,  was  limited  as  to  his 
knowledge  in  every  respect,  like  others. 
They  quoted,  in  favor  of  their  position, 
Mark  xiii.  32;  John  xi.  34. 

Agnosticism  (Gr.  agnostos,  unknowing), 
a  term  brought  into  use  by  Professor  Hux¬ 
ley  in  1869.  It  has  been  defined  as  “  a  the¬ 
ory  of  the  Unknowable,  which  assumes  its 
most  definite  form  in  the  denial  of  the  pos¬ 
sibility  of  any  knowledge  of  God.” — Cal- 
derrvood.  In  recent  years  the  name  Agnos¬ 
tic  has  been  given  to  Positivists  and  others, 
as  indicating  their  attitude  toward  Christi¬ 
anity  and  revealed  religion.  See  Kant. 
Positivism. 

Agnus  Dei  {La?nb  of  God),  a  title  of 
our  Lord  (John  i.  29;  comp.  Isa.  liii.  7; 
Rev.  v.  6,  12),  early  introduced  into  the 
liturgies  of  the  Eastern  and  Western 
churches.  In  the  Litany  it  is  given  in  the 
sentence,  “  O  Lamb  of  God,  that  takest 
away  the  sins  of  the  world,”  etc.  The 
name  is  also  given  to  the  figure  of  a  lamb 
bearing  a  cross,  symbolical  of  the  Saviour 
as  the  “  Lamb  of  God.”  This  symbol  was 
stamped  upon  wax  medallions  that  were 
often  made  of  the  remains  of  the  great 
Paschal  taper,  consecrated  by  the  pope,  and 
given  by  him  to  distinguished  persons. 
This  symbol  is  often  found  in  the  cata¬ 
combs  and  ancient  churches. 

Agonistici.  See  Circumcelliones. 

Agostino  da  Montefeltro,  the  “  modern 
Savonarola;  ”  b.  in  Italy  about  1S40.  Ac¬ 
cording  to  a  generally  received  story  he 
entered  a  Franciscan  monastery  about 
1865,  in  consequence  of  the  murder,  in  self- 
defence,  of  the  brother  of  his  betrothed. 
After  remaining  in  the  silence  of  his  clois- 


Agr 


(  15  ) 


Agr 


ter  for  twenty  years  he  became  a  preach¬ 
ing  friar,  and  in  recent  years  has  preached 
both  at  Rome  and  Florence  to  great  con¬ 
gregations.  Many  of  his  sermons  have 
been  translated  into  English.  (London  and 
New  York,  1888-89,  2  series.) 

Agriculture  Among  the  Hebrews.  The 
cereal  crops  of  constant  mention  in  the 
Bible  “  are  wheat  and  barley,  and  more 
rarely  rye  and  millet  (?).  Of  the  two  for¬ 
mer,  together  with  the  vine,  olive  and  fig, 
the  use  of  irrigation,  the  plough  and  the 
harrow,  mention  is  made  in  the  book  of 
Job  (xxxi.  40;  xv.  33  ;  xxiv.  6  ;  xxix.  19  ; 
xxxix.  10).  Two  kinds  of  cumin  (the  black 
variety  called  ‘  fitches,’  Isa.  xxviii.  27), 
and  such  podded  plants  as  beans  and  lentils, 
may  be  named  among  the  staple  produce. 
To  these,  later  writers  add  a  great  variety 
of  garden  plants:  e.g. ,  kidney-beans,  peas, 
lettuce,  endive,  leek,  garlic,  onions,  mel¬ 
ons,  cucumbers,  cabbage, 
etc.  The  produce  which 
formed  Jacob’s  present 
was  of  such  kinds  as  would 
keep,  and  had  been  pre¬ 
served  during  the  famine. 

(Gen.  xliii.  II.) 

‘  ‘  Ploughing  and  Sowing. 

— The  plough  probably 
was  like  the  Egyptian,  and 
the  process  of  ploughing 
mostly  very  light,  one 
yoke  of  oxen  usually  suf¬ 
ficing  to  draw  it.  New 
ground  and  fallows,  the 
use  of  which  latter  was 
familiar  to  the  Jews  (Jer. 
iv.  3;  Hos.  x.  12),  were 
cleared  of  stones  and  of 
thorns  (Isa.  v.  2)  early  in  the  year,  sow¬ 
ing  or  gathering  from  “among  thorns” 
being  a  proverb  for  slovenly  husbandry. 
(Job  v.  5;  Prov.  xxiv.  30,  31.)  Virgin  land 
was  ploughed  a  second  time.  Sowing  also 
took  place  without  previous  ploughing,  the 
seed,  as  in  the  parable  of  the  sower,  being 
scattered  broadcast,  and  ploughed  in  after¬ 
wards,  the  roots  of  the  late  crop  being  so 
far  decayed  as  to  serve  for  manure. — (Fel¬ 
lows,  Asia  Minor,  p.  72.)  The  soil  was 
then  brushed  over  with  a  light  harrow, 
often  of  thorn  bushes.  In  highly  irrigated 
spots  the  seed  was  trampled  in  by  cattle 
(Isa.  xxxii.  20),  as  in  Egypt  by  goats. 
Sometimes,  however,  the  sowing  was  by 
patches  only  in  well-manured  spots. 
Where  the  soil  was  heavier,  the  ploughing 
was  best  done  dry;  but  the  more  formal 
routine  of  heavy  western  soils  must  not  be 
made  the  standard  of  such  a  naturally  fine 
tilth  as  that  of  Palestine  generally.  During 
the  rains,  if  not  too  heavy,  or  between  their 


two  periods,  would  be  the  best  time  for 
these  operations;  thus,  seventy  days  be¬ 
fore  the  Passover  was  the  time  prescribed 
for  sowing  for  the  ‘  wave-sheaf,’  and 
probably,  therefore,  for  that  of  barley 
generally.  The  oxen  were  urged  on  by  a 
goad  like  a  spear.  (Judg.  iii.  31.)  The  cus¬ 
tom  of  watching  ripening  crops  and  thresh¬ 
ing-floors  against  theft  or  damage,  is  prob¬ 
ably  ancient.  Thus  Boaz  slept  on  the 
floor.  (Ruth  iii.  4,  7.)  Barley  ripened  a 
week  or  two  before  wheat,  and  as  fine  har¬ 
vest  weather  was  certain  (Prov.  xxvi.  1;  1 
Sam.  xii.  17;  Amos.  iv.  7),  the  crop  chiefly 
varied  with  the  quantity  of  timely  rain. 
The  period  of  harvest  must  always  have 
differed  according  to  elevation,  aspect,  etc. 
The  proportion  of  harvest  gathered  to 
seed  sown  was  often  vast,  a  hundred-fold 
is  mentioned,  but  in  such  a  way  as  to  sig¬ 
nify  that  it  was  a  limit  rarely  attained. 
(Gen.  xxvi.  12;  Matt.  xiii.  8.)  The  rota¬ 


The  Ndreg,  a  threshing-machine  used  by  the  modern  Egyptians. 


tion  of  crops,  familiar  to  the  Egyptians, 
can  hardly  have  been  unknown  to  the 
Hebrews.  Sowing  a  field  with  divers  seeds 
was  forbidden  (Deut.  xxii.  9),  and  minute 
directions  are  given  by  the  Rabbins  for 
arranging  a  seeded  surface  with  great  vari¬ 
ety,  yet  avoiding  juxtaposition  of  hetero- 
genea. 

“  Reaping  and  Threshing. — The  wheat, 
etc.,  was  reaped  by  the  sickle,  or  was 
pulled  up  by  the  roots.  It  was  bound  in 
sheaves — a  process  prominent  in  Script¬ 
ure.  The  sheaves  or  heaps  were  carted 
(Amos.  ii.  13)  to  the  floor,  a  circular  spot  of 
hard  ground,  probably,  as  now,  from  50  to 
80  or  100  feet  in  diameter.  Such  floors 
were  probably  permanent,  and  became 
well-known  spots.  (Gen.  1.  10,  11;  2  Sam. 
xxiv.  16,  18.)  On  these  the  oxen,  etc., 
forbidden  to  be  muzzled  (Deut.  xxv.  4), 
trampled  out  the  grain,  as  we  find  repre¬ 
sented  in  the  Egyptian  monuments.  At  a 
later  time  the  Jews  used  a  threshing  sledge 


Agr 


(  16  ) 


Aha 


called  Morag  ( Isa.  xli.  15;  2  Sam.  xxiv.  22; 
1  Chron.  xxi.  23),  probably  resembling  the 
ndreg,  still  employed  in  Egypt — a  stage 
with  three  rollers  ridged  with  iron,  which, 
aided  by  the  driver’s  weight,  crushed  out, 
often  injuring,  the  grain,  as  well  as  cut  or 
tore  the  straw,  which  thus  became  fit  for 
fodder.  Lighter  grains  were  beaten  out 
with  a  stick.  (Isa.  xxviii.  27.)  Barley  was 
sometimes  soaked  and  then  parched  before 
treading  out,  which  got  rid  of  the  pellicle 
of  the  grain. — The  use  of  animal  manure 
is  proved  frequent  by  such  recurring  ex¬ 
pressions  as  ‘  dung  on  the  face  of  the 
earth,  field,’  etc.  (Psa.  lxxxiii.  10;  2  Kings 
ix.  37;  Jer.  viii.  2,  etc.) 

“  Winnowing. — The  ‘  shovel  ’  and  *  fan’ 
(Isa.  xxx.  24),  the  precise  difference  of 
which  is  doubtful,  indicate  the  process  of 
winnowing — a  conspicuous  part  of  ancient 
husbandry  (Psa.  xxxv.  5;  Job  xxi.  18;  Isa. 
xvii.  13),  and  important,  owing  to  the 


slovenly  threshing.  Evening  was  the 
favorite  time  (Ruth  iii.  2),  when  there  was 
mostly  a  breeze.  The  ‘  fan  ’  (Matt.  iii. 
12)  was  perhaps  a  broad  shovel  which 
threw  the  grain  up  against  the  wind.  The 
last  process  was  the  shaking  in  a  sieve,  to 
separate  dirt  and  refuse.  (Amos.  ix.  9.) — 
Fields  and  floors  were  not  commonly  en¬ 
closed  ;  vineyards  mostly  wTere,  with  a 
tower  and  other  buildings.  (Num.  xxii.  24; 
Ps.  lxxx.  12;  Isa.  v.  5;  Matt.  xxi.  33;  comp. 
Judg.  vi.  11.)  Banks  of  mud  from  ditches 
were  also  used. — With  regard  to  occu¬ 
pancy,  a  tenant  might  pay  a  fixed  money 
rent  (Cant.  viii.  11),  or  a  stipulated  share 
of  the  fruits  (2  Sam.  ix.  10;  Matt.  xxi.  34), 
often  a  half  or  a  third;  but  local  custom 
was  the  only  rule.  A  passer-by  might  eat 
any  quantity  of  corn  or  grapes,  but  not 
reap  or  carry  off  fruit.  (Deut.  xxiii.  24,  25; 
Matt.  xii.  1.) — The  rights  of  the  corner  to 
be  left,  and  of  gleaning,  formed  the  poor 
man’s  claim  on  the  soil  for  support.  For 


his  benefit,  too,  a  sheaf  forgotten  in  carry¬ 
ing  to  the  floor  was  to  be  left;  so  also  with 
regard  to  the  vineyard  and  the  olive  grove. 
(Lev.  xix.  9,  10;  Deut.  xxiv.  19.)  Besides, 
there  seems  a  probability  that  every  third 
year  a  second  tithe,  besides  the  priests’, 
was  paid  for  the  poor.  (Deut.  xiv.  28;  xxvi. 
12;  Amos.  iv.  4;  Tob.  i.  7.)  ” — Smith  : 
Dictionary  of  the  Bible . 

Agrip'pa,  (1)  Herod  Agrippa  I.,  the 
grandson  of  Herod  the  Great.  He  was 
educated  at  Rome,  and  there  imprisoned 
by  Tiberius.  Having  gained  the  good-will 
of  Caligula  he  was  made  king.  Identify¬ 
ing  himself  with  the  Pharisees,  in  order  to 
please  the  Jews,  he  persecuted  the  apos¬ 
tles.  By  his  orders  James  wras  beheaded, 
and  Peter  cast  into  prison.  (Acts  xii.  1-19.) 
(2)  Herod  Agrippa  II.,  son  of  the  preced¬ 
ing;  brother  of  Bernice  and  Drusilla.  In 
52  he  obtained  the  tetrarchies  of  Philip  and 
Lysanias,  with  the  title  of  king. 
It  was  in  his  presence  that  Paul 
told  the  story  of  his  conversion. 
(Acts  xxvi.)  In  the  rebellion 
under  Vespasian,  he  took  part 
with  the  Romans,  and  died 
about  100. 

A'hab  (father  s  brother ),  (1) 
son  and  successor  of  Omri. 
Through  the  influence  of  his 
wife  Jezebel,  daughter  of  Eth- 
baal,  king  of  Tyre,  he  adopted 
the  Baal  worship.  The  proph¬ 
ets  of  Jehovah  were  perse¬ 
cuted,  and  Ahab  maintained 
four  hundred  and  fifty  priests 
of  Baal,  and  his  wrife  four  hun¬ 
dred  prophets  of  Astarte.  In 
punishment  for  this  idolatry  God  sent  a 
drought,  which  terminated  only  with  the 
victory  of  Elijah  over  the  priests  of  Baal 
on  Carmel.  (1  Kings- viii.)  Ahab  during 
his  reign  built  cities,  and  -waged  successful 
war  against  Syria.  (1  Kings  xx.)  Although 
shrewd  and  energetic,  indecision  and  weak¬ 
ness  marked  his  character.  “  He  trembled 
before  Elijah,  whom  at  first  he  denounced. 
His  action  about  the  vineyard  of  Naboth 
was  childish.  (1  Kings  xxi.)  His  repent¬ 
ance  was  shallow;  he  was  moved  by  im¬ 
pulses.  And  yet  there  was  a  gleam  of 
virtue  in  him;  he  spared  Benhadad,  his 
enemy  (1  Kings  xx.  33);  and  he  had  physi¬ 
cal  courage  enough  to  stay  upon  the  battle¬ 
field  after  his  fatal  wound.  (1  Kings  xxii. 
35.)  But  upon  him  and  all  connected  with 
him  the  curse  of  God  rested.  He  dragged 
Israel  and  Judah  into  ruin.” — Schultz.  (2) 
A  false  prophet  who  deceived  the  captive 
Jews  in  Babylon,  and  was  burned  by  order 
of  Nebuchadnezzar.  (Jer.  xxix.  21 ,  22.) 


EASTERN  WINNOWING-FANS. 


Aha 


Aha 


(  i 


Ahasue'rus,  the  title  of  one  Median  and 
two  Persian  kings  mentioned  in  the  Script¬ 
ures.  (i)  The  father  of  Darius  the  Median, 
identical  with  Astyages.  (Dan.  ix.  i.)  (2) 

The  son  and  successor  of  Cyrus,  probably 
Cambyses.  (Ezra  iv.  6.)  (3)  The  husband 

of  Esther,  Xerxes,  son  of  Darius  Hystas- 
pes.  The  character  of  Xerxes  as  given  in 
profane  history  coincides  with  the  Script¬ 
ure  representation, and  the  testimony  of  the 
cuneiform  inscriptions  leaves  little  room 
to  doubt  this  identification. 

A'haz,  (1)  “eleventh  king  of  Judah,  son 
of  Jotham;  reigned  b.  c.  741-726.  At  the 
time  of  his  ascension  Rezin,  king  of  Da¬ 
mascus,  and  Pekah,  king  of  Israel,  had 
recently  formed  a  league  against  Judah, 
and  they  proceeded  to  lay  siege  to  Jerusa¬ 
lem.  Upon  this  the  great  prophet  hast¬ 
ened  to  give  advice  and  encouragement  to 
Ahaz,  and  it  was  probably  owing  to  the 
spirit*  of  energy  and  religious  devotion 
which  he  poured  into  his  counsels  that  the 
allies  failed  in  their  attack  on  Jerusalem. 
(Isa.  vii.,  viii.,ix.)  But  the  allies  took  a 
vast  number  of  captives,  who,  however, 
were  restored  in  virtue  of  the  remon¬ 
strances  of  the  prophet  Oded;  and  they 
also  inflicted  a  most  severe  injury  on 
Judah  by  the  capture  of  Elath,  a  flourish¬ 
ing  port  on  the  Red  Sea,  while  the  Philis¬ 
tines  invaded  the  W.and  S.  (2  Kings  xvi. ;  2 
Chron.xxviii. )  The  weak-minded  and  help¬ 
less  Ahaz  sought  deliverance  from  these 
numerous  troubles  by  appealing  to  Tig- 
lath-pileser,  king  of  Assyria,  who  freed 
him  from  his  most  formidable  enemies  by 
invading  Syria,  taking  Damascus,  killing 
Rezin,  and  depriving  Israel  of  its  northern 
and  trans-Jordanic  districts.  But  Ahaz 
had  to  purchase  this  help  at  a  costly  price: 
he  became  tributary  to  Tiglath-pileser, 
sent  him  all  the  treasures  of  the  Temple 
and  his  own  palace,  and  even  appeared  be¬ 
fore  him  in  Damascus  as  a  vassal.  He  also 
ventured  to  seek  for  safety  in  heathen 
ceremonies;  making  his  son  pass  through 
the  fire  to  Moloch,  consulting  wizards  and 
necromancers  (Isa.  viii.  19),  sacrificing  to 
the  Syrian  gods,  introducing  a  foreign  altar 
from  Damascus,  and  probably  the  worship 
of  the  heavenly  bodies  from  Assyria  and 
Babylon,  as  he  would  seem  to  have  set  up 
the  horses  of  the  sun  mentioned  in  2  Kings 
xxiii.  1 1 ;  and  ‘  the  altars  on  the  top  (or  roof) 
of  the  upper  chamber  of  Ahaz  ’  (2  Kings 
xxiii.  12)  were  connected  with  the  adora¬ 
tion  of  the  stars.  We  see  another  and 
blameless  result  of  this  intercourse  with 
an  astronomical  people  in  the  ‘  sun-dial  of 
Ahaz.’  (Isa.  xxxviii.  8.)  (2)  A  son  of 

Micah,  the  grandson  of  Jonathan,  through 
Merib-baal  or  Mephibosheth.  (1  Chron. 


7) 


viii.  35,  36;  ix.  42.)” — Smith:  Diet,  of  the 
Bible. 

Ahazi'ah,  (1)  “a  son  of  Ahab  and  Jeze¬ 
bel,  and  eighth  king  of  Israel;  reigned 
B.  c.  896-895.  After  the  battle  of  Ramoth 
in  Gilead  the  Syrians  had  the  command  of 
the  country  along  the  east  of  Jordan,  and 
they  cut  off  all  communication  between  the 
Israelites  and  Moabites,  so  that  the  vassal 
king  of  Moab  refused  his  yearly  tribute  of 
100,000  lambs  and  100,000  rams  with  their 
wool  (comp.  Isa.  xvi.  1).  Before  Ahaziah 
could  take  measures  for  enforcing  his 
claim,  he  was  seriously  injured  by  a  fall 
through  a  lattice  in  his  palace  at  Samaria. 
In  his  health  he  had  worshipped  his  moth¬ 
er’s  gods,  and  now  he  sent  to  inquire  of 
the  oracle  of  Baal-zebub  in  the  Philistine 
city  of  Ekron  whether  he  should  recover 
his  health.  But  Elijah,  who  now  for  the 
last  time  exercised  the  prophetic  office,  re¬ 
buked  him  for  this  impiety,  and  announced 
to  him  his  approaching  death.  The  only 
other  recorded  transaction  of  his  reign,  his 
endeavor  to  join  the  king  of  Judah  in  trad¬ 
ing  to  Ophir,  is  more  fitly  related  under 
Jehoshaphat.  (i  Kings xxii.  49-53;  2  Kings 
1;  2  Chron.  xx.  35-37.)  (2)  Fifth  king  of 

Judah,  son  of  Jehoram  and  Athaliah,  a 
daughter  of  Ahab,  and  therefore  nephew 
of  the  preceding  Ahaziah.  He  is  called 
Azariah  (2  Chron.  xxii.  6),  probably  by  a 
copyist’s  error,  and  Jehoahaz.  (2  Chron. 

xxi.  17.)  So,  too,  while  in  2  Kings  viii. 
26  we  read  that  he  was  22  years  old 
at  his  accession,  we  find  in  2  Chron. 

xxii.  2  that  his  age  at  that  time  was  42. 
The  former  number  is  certainly  right,  as 
in  2  Chron.  xxi.  5,  20,  we  see  that  his  father 
Jehoram  was  40  when  he  died,  which 
would  make  him  younger  than  his  own 
son,  so  that  a  transcriber  must  have  made 
a  mistake  in  the  numbers.  Ahaziah  was 
an  idolater,  and  he  allied  himself  with  his 
uncle  Jehoram,  king  of  Israel,  brother  and 
successor  of  the  preceding  Ahaziah,  against 
Hazael,  the  new  king  of  Syria.  The  two 
kings  were,  however,  defeated  at  Ramoth, 
where  Jehoram  was  so  severely  wounded 
that  he  retired  to  his  mother’s  palace  at 
Jezreel  to  be  healed.  The  revolution  car¬ 
ried  out  in  Israel  by  Jehu  under  the  guid¬ 
ance  of  Elisha  broke  out  while  Ahaziah 
was  visiting  his  uncle  at  Jezreel.  As  Jehu 
approached  the  town,  Jehoram  and  Ahaziah 
went  out  to  meet  him;  the  former  was  shot 
through  the  heart  by  Jehu,  and  Ahaziah 
was  pursued  as  far  as  the  pass  of  Gur, 
near  the  city  of  Ibleam,  and  there  mortally 
wounded.  He  died  when  he  reached 
Megiddo.  In  2  Chron.  xxii.  9  an  apparently 
different  account  is  given  of  his  death. 
Ahaziah  reigned  one  year,  b.  c.  884.  (2 


Ahi 


(  18) 


Ail 


Kings  viii.  26;  2  Kings  ix.  29.)” — Smith: 
Diet,  of  the  Bible. 

Ahim'elech  (brother  or  friend  of  the  king), 
(1)  the  son  of  Ahitub,  and  his  successor  as 
high-priest  at  Nob,  in  the  days  of  Saul. 
(1  Sam.  xxi.  1.)  He  gave  David  the  shew- 
breat  to  eat,  and  the  sword  of  Goliath,  when 
he  fled  from  Saul.  For  this  act,  at  the  in¬ 
stigation  of  Doeg,  the  Edomite,  he  was  put 
to  death,  and  with  him  eighty-five  priests; 
Abiathar  alone  escaped.  (1  Sam.  xx.  11.)  (2) 
A  Hittite  who  was  a  companion  of  David 
during  his  flight  from  Saul. 

Ahith'ophel  (brother  of  foolishness),  a  na¬ 
tive  of  Giloh  in  the  hill-country  of  Judah, 
and  the  intimate  friend  and  counsellor  of 
David.  (Psa.  iv.  12-14  !  2  Sam.  xv.  12  ;  1 
Chron.  xxvii.  33.)  A  man  of  remarkable 
wisdom  in  state  affairs,  he  was  persuaded 
to  join  in  the  conspiracy  of  Absalom  against 
his  father.  His  shrewd  advice,  however, 
was  defeated  by  Hushai,  and,  seeing  the 
probable  ruin  that  would  overtake  Absalom, 
and  dreading  David’s  revenge,  he  hanged 
himself.  (2  Sam.  xvii.  23.)  Ahithophel  was 
the  grandfather  of  Bath-sheba. 

Ahlfeld,  Johann  Friedrich,  D.  D. , 
an  eminent  and  eloquent  Lutheran 
clergyman;  b.  at  Mehringen,  An¬ 
halt,  Nov.  1,  1810;  d.  at  Leipzig, 

March  4,  1884.  Educated  at  Halle 
(1S30-33),  he  was  pastor  at  Alsleben, 

1838,  and  at  Halle,  1847.  From  1851 
until  his  death  he  was  pastor  of  St. 
Nicholas’  Church  at  Leipzig.  His 
preaching  attracted  great  throngs, 
and  was  thoroughly  evangelical. 

He  taught  in  the  Leipzig  Theolog¬ 
ical  Seminary  and  was  a  member  of 
the  commission  to  revise  the  Luther 
version  of  the  Old  Testament.  Sev¬ 
eral  volumes  of  his  sermons  were 
published. 

Aidan  (635-651).  This  great 
North-of-England  missionary  was 
educated  as  a  monk  in  Iona.  Con¬ 
secrated  bishop,  he  went  to  North¬ 
umbria  in  635.  He  founded  a  mon¬ 
astery  on  the  island  of  Lindisfarne. 

“  So  unwearying  was  the  work  of 
St.  Aidan,  so  self-denying  his  life, 
and  so  holy  his  example,  that  the 
country  was  won  over  to  the  faith, 
even  in  his  own  lifetime.”  He  died 
at  Bamborough,  near  Lindisfarne, 

Aug.  31,  651. 

Ailli  (al'-ye),  Pierre  d’,  b.  at 
Aillihautclocher  in  North  France 
in  1350;  d.  in  Avignon,  August  9, 


1420.  He  was  a  student  of  theology  in 
the  University  of  Paris  in  1372,  and  be¬ 
came  a  doctor  of  theology  in  1380,  hav¬ 
ing  already  attained  prominence  as  a 
teacher  and  writer.  His  views  antag¬ 
onized  the  Papists  of  his  time  in  denying 
the  infalliblity  of  the  pope,  and  asserting 
that  the  oecumenical  council  was  the  true 
representative  of  the  Church.  In  1389,  he 
was  made  Chancellor  of  the  University  of 
Paris,  and  took  an  influential  part  in  eccle¬ 
siastical  affairs,  especially  in  those  pertain¬ 
ing  to  the  papal  schism.  After  the  death 
of  Clement  VII.  (1394),  Benedict  XIII.  was 
elected  his  successor,  and  through  the 
efforts  of  Ailli  was  recognized  by  France. 
In  1395  Benedict  made  Ailli  bishop  of  Puy, 
and  in  1397  of  Cambray.  A’illi  advocated 
the  calling  of  a  general  council  to  devise  a 
settlement  of  the  schism.  This  pleased 
John  XXIII.,  who  made  him  a  cardinal  in 
1411.  The  Council  of  Constance  was  held, 
and  the  schism  healed  by  the  deposition  of 
Gregory  XII.,  John  XXIII.,  and  Benedict 
XIII.  and  the  election  of  Martin  V.,  whose 
legate  Ailli  became  at  Avignon.  Ailli  was 
a  prolific  writer,  not  only  upon  doctrinal  and 
ecclesiastical  subjects,  but  also  wrote  on 
geography  and  astronomy.  It  is  said  that 


SOUTH  AISLE,  WESTMINSTER  ABBEY, 


Ain 


(  19  ) 


Alb 


Columbus  found  [in  his  writings  the  source 
of  the  suggestion  that  there  might  possibly 
be  a  western  passage  from  Spain  to  India. 
See  his  Life  by  Paul  Tschackert,  Gotha, 
1877. 

Ainsworth,  Henry,  D.  D.,  a  celebrated 
Non-conformist  divine  and  one  of  the  earli¬ 
est  leaders  of  the  Independents;  b.  at 
Pleasington,  Lancashire,  about  1560.  He 
gained  a  profound  knowledge  of  the  Hebrew 
language,  and  his  Annotations  on  Several 
Books  of  the  Bible  has  passed  through  many 
editions.  He  removed  to  Amsterdam  about 
1593,  and  had  a  church  there  to  which  he 
ministered  until  his  death  in  1622.  See 

Neal:  History  of  the  Puritans. 

% 

Aisle,  the  “wing”  (Lat.  ala),  or  side 
passage  or  part  of  a  church,  attached  alike 
in  large  churches  to  the  nave,  transepts, 
and  chancel.  In  English  churches  there 
are  commonly  two  aisles  to  the  nave — one 
on  the  north,  and  the  other  on  the  south. 
In  small  churches  there  is  often  only  one 
aisle,  which  is  generally  on  the  south  side 
of  the  nave,  while  in  larger  ones  there  are 
sometimes  two  or  even  more  on  either  side 
of  the  nave. — Benham.  In  American  church¬ 
es  the  passage-ways  by  which  the  seats  are 
reached  are  called  aisles. 

Aitken,  William  Hay  Macdowall 
Hunter,  Church  of  England;  b.  at  Liver¬ 
pool,  Sept.  21,  1841.  A  graduate  of  Ox¬ 
ford,  since  1875  he  has  been  prominent  as 
an  evangelistic  leader  in  revival  work.  In 
1884  he  was  appointed  general  superintend¬ 
ent  of  the  Church  of  England  Parochial 
Mission  Society.  He  is  the  author  of  a 
number  of  popular  religious  works. 

Aix-la-Chapelle  (Aks-la-sha-pel');  Ger¬ 
man,  Aaehen(ar-ken);  Latin,  A quis  Granum. 
The  capital  of  a  district  of  the  same  name 
in  Rhenish  Prussia,  and  about  40  miles 
west  of  Cologne.  It  was  the  place  where 
the  German  emperors  were  crowned,  803- 
1558.  Its  cathedral  contains  the  tomb  of 
the  Emperor  Charlemagne.  Several  impor¬ 
tant  synods  were  held  here:  (1)  789,  when 
the  Apocrypha  were  separated  from  the 
church  canon;  (4)  809.  Inserted  the  Filio- 
que  {q.  v.)  in  the  Nicene  Creed. 

Aikba,  a  learned  Jewish  rabbi  of  the 
second  century.  As  a  teacher  he  exerted 
a  great  influence,  and  did  much  to  develop 
and  diffuse  the  Talmudic  learning  and  the 
Cabala. 

Akoimetoi.  See  Accemet^:. 

A'lasco.  See  Lasco. 


Alb  {alba,  white),  a  long  white  tunic 
worn  during  service  by  all  Roman  eccle¬ 
siastics.  It  is  like  the  surplice  used  in  the 
Church  of  England,  excepting  that  it  has 
narrower  sleeves  and  fits  the  body  more 
closely.  In  the  early  church  it  was  the 
custom  to  clothe  the  recently  baptized  in 
white  garments  as  a  symbol  of  purity.  The 
albis  was  worn  from  Easter  Eve  until  the 
Sunday  after  Easter,  which  was  called 
Dominica  in  albis  ;  that  is,  “the  Sunday 
in  white,”  whence  the  name  Whitsunday. 

Alban,  St.  See  Alban’s,  St. 

Alban’s,  St.,  ( Hertfordshire ),  near  the 
Roman  Verulam,  derived  its  present  name 
from  Alban,  the  British  protomartyr,  said 
to  have  been  beheaded  during  the  persecu¬ 
tion  by  Diocletian,  304.  A  stately  monas¬ 
tery  to  his  memory  was  erected  by  Offa, 
King  of  Mercia,  about  793,  who  granted  it 
many  privileges. — Hayden. 

Albanenses,  a  small  sect  which  revived 
Gnostic  and  Manichaean  doctrines  about 
796.  They  were  named  from  Albano  which 
was  the  seat  of  their  principal  bishop. 

Albert  the  Great  {Albertus  Magnus ),  b.  at 
Lauingen,  Bavaria,  1193;  d.  in  Cologne, 
Nov.  15,  1280.  He  studied  at  Padua 
and  entered  the  order  of  St.  Dominic  in 
1221.  As  a  theologian,  philosopher,  and 
mathematician,  he  was  deemed  the  most 
learned  man  of  his  age.  He  was  a  strong 
Aristotelian  and  wrote  many  commentaries 
on  the  works  of  his  master.  His  princi¬ 
pal  theological  works  are  a  commentary  in 
three  volumes  on  the  Books  of  the  Sentences 
of  Peter  Lombard  and  the  Summa  Theo¬ 
logies,  in  two  volumes.  “  Albert’s  activity, 
however,  is  rather  philosophical  than  theo¬ 
logical,  for,  while  pressing  philosophy  in 
general  and  Aristotle  in  particular  into  the 
service  of  theology,  he  excludes  from  what 
belongs  to  the  natural  reason  all  that  is 
specially  biblical;  as  (e.  g.)  miracles,  the 
atonement,  and  the  Trinity  ;  though  he 
does  not  refuse  with  Augustine  exemplifica¬ 
tions,  shadowings  of  the  latter  doctrine 
even  in  nature.” — Ency.  Britannica ,  vol.  1, 
p.  454.  In  1260,  Alexander  IV.  made  Albert 
bishop  of  Regensburg,  but  in  a  short  time 
he  sought  release  from  these  duties  and 
retired  to  his  monastery  at  Cologne  where 
he  spent  his  life  in  scholarly  activities.  See 
his  collected  works  by  Jammy  (Lyons,  1651), 
21  vols.  fol.  See  life  by  Sighart,  English 
translation  by  Dixon  (London,  1876). 

Albertus  Magnus.  See  above. 

Albigenses,“  a  sect  opposed  to  the  Church 


Alb 


(  20  ) 


Ale 


of  Rome,  which  derives  its  name  from  AI- 
biga  (the  modern  Albi )  either  because  its 
doctrines  were  expressly  condemned  at  a 
council  held  then,  or,  more  probably,  be¬ 
cause  its  adherents  were  to  be  found  in 
great  numbers  in  that  town  and  its  neigh¬ 
borhood.  The  Albigenses  were  kindred 
in  origin,  and  more  or  less  similar  in  doc¬ 
trine  to  the  sects  in  Italy  known  as  Caterins, 
in  Germany  as  Catharists,  and  in  France  as 
Bulgarians,  but  they  are  not  to  be  entirely 
identified  with  any  of  these.  Still  less 
ought  they  to  be  confounded,  as  has 
frequently  been  the  case,  with  the  Wal- 
denses,  who  first  appear  at  a  later  period 
in  history,  and  are  materially  different  in 
their  doctrinal  views.  The  descent  of  the 
Albigenses  may  be  traced  with  tolerable 
distinctness  from  the  Paulicians,  a  sect 
that  sprang  into  existence  in  the  Eastern 
Church  during  the  sixth  century.  (See 
Paulicians.)  The  Paulicians  were  Gnostics, 
and  were  accused  by  their  enemies  and 
persecutors  of  holding  Manichaean  doc¬ 
trines,  which,  it  is  said,  they  vehemently 
disowned.  Their  creed,  whatever  it  was 
precisely,  spread  gradually  westward 
through  Europe.  In  the  ninth  century  it 
found  many  adherents  in  Bulgaria,  and 
300  years  later  it  was  maintained  and  de¬ 
fended,  though  not  without  important 
modifications,  by  the  Albigenses  in  the 
south  of  France.  The  attempt  to  discover 
the  precise  doctrinal  opinions  held  by  the 
Albigenses  is  attended  with  a  double  dif¬ 
ficulty.  No  formal  creed  or  definite  doc¬ 
trinal  statement  framed  by  themselves 
exists;  and  in  default  of  this  it  is  impossi¬ 
ble  to  depend  on  the  representations  of 
their  views  given  by  their  opponents  in 
the  Church  of  Rome,  who  did  not  scruple 
to  exaggerate  and  distort  the  opinions  held 
by  those  whom  they  had  branded  as 
heretics.  It  is  probably  impossible  now 
to  determine  accurately  what  is  true  and 
what  is  false  in  these  representations.  It 
seems  almost  certain,  however,  that  the 
bond  which  united  the  Albigenses  was  not 
so  much  a  positive,  fully  developed  re¬ 
ligious  faith  as  a  determined  opposition  to 
the  Church  of  Rome.  They  inherited  in¬ 
deed,  as  has  been  already  said,  certain 
doctrines  of  Eastern  origin,  such  as  the 
Manichaean  dualism,  docetism  in  relation 
to  the  person  of  Christ,  and  a  theory  of 
metempsychosis.  They  seem,  like  the 
Manichees,  to  have  disowned  the  authority 
of  the  Old  Testament;  and  the  division  of 
their  adherents  into  perfecti  and  credentis  is 
similar  to  the  Manichaean  distinction  be¬ 
tween  electi  and  auditores.  The  statement 
that  they  rejected  marriage,  often  made  by 
Roman  Catholics,  has  probably  no  other 
foundation  in  fact  than  that  they  denied 


that  marriage  was  a  sacrament;  and  many 
other  statements  as  to  their  doctrine  and 
practice  must  be  received,  at  least  with 
suspicion,  as  coming  from  prejudiced  and 
implacable  opponents.  The  history  of  the 
Albigenses  may  be  said  to  be  written  in 
blood.  At  first  the  Church  was  content  to 
condemn  their  errors  at  various  councils 
(1165,  1176,  1178,  1179),  but  as  their  practi¬ 
cal  opposition  to  Rome  became  stronger, 
more  decided  measures  were  taken.  In¬ 
nocent  III.  had  scarcely  ascended  the  papal 
throne  when  he  sent  legates  to  Toulouse 
(1198)  to  endeavor  to  suppress  the  sect. 
Two  Cistercians,  Guy  and  Regnier,  were 
first  commissioned,  and  in  1199  they  were 
joined  by  Peter  of  Castelnau  and  others, 
who  were  known  throughout  the  district 
as  inquisitors.  Raymond  VI.,  Count  of 
Toulouse,  took  the  part  of  his  Albigensian 
subjects,  though  not  himself  belonging  to 
the  sect,  and  for  this  he  was  excommuni¬ 
cated  in  1207.  A  year  later  the  pope 
found  a  pretext  for  resorting  to  the  most 
extreme  measures  in  the  assassination  of 
his  legate,  Peter  of  Castelnau,  Jan.  15, 
1208.  A  crusade  against  the  Albigenses 
was  at  once  ordered,  and  Raymond,  who 
had  meanwhile  submitted  and  done  pen¬ 
ance,  was  forced  to  take  the  field  against  his 
own  subjects.  The  bloody  war  of  exter¬ 
mination  which  followed  has  scarcely  a 
parallel  in  history,  As  town  after  town 
was  taken,  the  inhabitants  were  put  to  the 
sword  without  distinction  of  age  or  sex, 
and  the  numerous  ecclesiastics  who  were 
in  the  army  especially  distinguished  them¬ 
selves  by  a  bloodthirsty  ferocity.  At  the 
taking  of  Beziers  (July  22,  1209),  the  Ab¬ 
bot  Arnold,  being  asked  how  the  heretics 
were  to  be  distinguished  from  the  faithful, 
made  the  infamous  reply,  “  Slay  all;  God 
will  know  his  own.”  The  war  was  carried 
on  under  the  command  of  Simon  de  Mont- 
fort  with  undiminished  cruelty  for  a  num¬ 
ber  of  years.  Raymond’s  nephew,  Vis¬ 
count  Raymond  Roger,  who  had  espoused 
the  cause  of  the  Albigenses,  was  taken 
prisoner  at  Carcassonne,  and  the  sect  be¬ 
came  fewer  in  numbers  year  by  year. 
The  establishment  of  an  Inquisition  at 
Languedoc  in  1229  accelerated  the  exter¬ 
minating  process,  and  a  few  years  later 
the  sect  was  all  but  extinct.” — Ency.  Britan- 
nica ,  s.  v.  See  Maitland:  History  of  the  Al¬ 
bigenses,  tic.  (London,  1832).  See  Cathari. 

Albright,  Jacob.  See  Evangelical  As¬ 
sociation. 

Albright  Brethren.  See  Evangelical 
Association. 

Alcantara,  Order  of.  See  Military 
Orders. 


Ale 


(  21  ) 


Ale 


Alcuin,  an  eminent  ecclesiastic,  b.  in 
Yorkshire  about  735;  d.  at  Tours,  804.  He 
had  won  distinction  as  a  scholar  and  teacher 
when  he  first  met  Charlemagne  at  Pavia  in 
782.  He  became  the  intimate  friend  of  the 
emperor  and  was  chosen  as  the  instructor 
of  the  royal  family.  As  the  ecclesiastical 
counselor  of  Charlemagne,  he  exerted  a  re¬ 
markable  influence  in  organizing  universi¬ 
ties  at  Paris,  Tours,  and  other  places,  and 
securing  a  prominent  place  for  the  study 
of  theology.  He  was  a  prolific  writer,  and 
did  much  to  revive  learning  and  aid  Char¬ 
lemagne  in  his  plans  for  building  up  a 
Christian  state.  Retiring  to  the  abbey  of 
St.  Martin  at  Tours,  of  which  he  had  been 
appointed  head  in  796,  he  devoted  himself 
to  the  work  of  teaching  until  his  death. 
His  works  were  published  at  Paris,  1617; 
Ratisbon,  1777. 

Aldhelm,  d.  May  25,  709.  He  belonged 
to  the  royal  family  of  Wessex  and  was  ab¬ 
bot  of  Malesbury,  and,  in  705,  Bishop  of 
Sherborn.  He  was  the  first  Englishman 
who  gained  reputation  as  a  Latin  scholar. 
He  made  a  translation  of  the  first  fifty 
Psalms,  some  in  prose  and  others  in  verse. 
His  collected  works  were  edited  by  Dr. 
Giles  (Oxford,  1844). 

Alesius,  Alexander,  b.  in  Edinburgh, 
April  23,  1500;  d.  at  Leipzig,  Nov.  29, 
1560.  Educated  at  the  university  of  St. 
Andrew’s,  he  was  appointed  canon  there, 
and  in  the  discharge  of  his  duties  was  re¬ 
quired  to  seek  the  recantation  of  Patrick 
Hamilton  {q.  v.),  but  his  intercourse  with 
Hamilton  resulted  in  a  conversion  to  his 
views.  To  avoid  persecution,  he  fled  to 
Germany  and  joined  the  Lutherans  at  Wit¬ 
tenberg.  In  1535  he  returned  to  England 
and  lectured  on  divinity  at  Cambridge.  For 
a  time  he  practised  medicine  in  London, 
but  in  1540  returned  to  Germany  where  he 
became  professor  of  theology,  first  at 
Frankfort  on  the  Oder,  and  then  at  Leipzig 
(1543).  He  was  an  able  scholar  and  showed 
both  courage  and  moderation  in  his  advo¬ 
cacy  of  the  reformed  doctrines.  His  orig¬ 
inal  name  was  Alane,  but  he  assumed  the 
one  by  which  he  is  known  while  in  exile. 

Alexander  is  the  name  of  eight  popes. 
See  Popes. 

Alexander,  Archibald,  D.  D.,  b.  in  Rock- 
bridgevCounty,  Va. ,  April  17,  1772;  d.  in 
Princeton,  N.  J.,  Oct.  22,  1S51.  This 
distinguished  Presbyterian  divine  was  of 
Scotch  descent  and  self-educated.  Licensed 
to  preach  in  1791,  he  was  engaged  for  seven 
years  as  an  itinerant  missionary  in  his  na¬ 
tive  state,  and  acquired  during  this  period 


the  facility  of  extemporaneous  speaking 
for  which  he  was  remarkable.  For  a  time 
president  of  Hampden  Sidney  College,  he 
then  accepted,  in  1807,  the  pastorate  of  the 
Pine  Street  Church,  Philadelphia.  Ini8n 
he  was  appointed  first  professor  in  the 
newly  established  Presbyterian  theological 
seminary  at  Princeton.  He  filled  this  chair 
until  his  death  in  1851.  Among  other 
books,  he  wrote  Outlines  of  the  Evidences  of 
Christianity ,  which  had  a  large  circulation, 
and  a  Treatise  on  the  Canon  of  the  Old  and 
New  Testament.  See  his  Memoir  by  his 
son,  Rev.  Dr.  J.  W.  Alexander  (N.  Y., 

1854)* 

Alexander,  James  Waddell,  D.  D.,  b.  in 
Louisa  County,  Va. ,  March  13,  1804;  d.  at 
the  Red  Sweet  Springs,  Va. ,  July  31,  1859. 
Son  of  Dr.  Archibald.  After  being  graduat¬ 
ed  at  Princeton  he  was  pastor  of  a  Presby¬ 
terian  Church  at  Charlotte,  Va. ,  and  then 
at  Trenton,  N.  J. ;  professor  of  belles-lettres 
and  Latin  in  Princeton  College,  1833-44; 
pastor  of  Duane  Street  Church,  New  York, 
1844-49;  professor  of  ecclesiastical  history 
and  sacred  rhetoric  in  Princeton  Seminary, 
1849-51.  When  the  Duane  Street  Church 
was  removed  to  Fifth  Avenue  he  was  again 
called  to  the  pastorate,  and  remained  in  this 
position  until  his  death.  Dr.  Alexander 
was  a  preacher  of  great  ability  and  elo¬ 
quence,  and  a  prolific  writer  for  the  press. 
See  Forty  Years'  Familiar  Letters  of  Rev.  J. 
W.  Alexander,  edited  by  Rev.  Dr.  J.  Hall 
of  Trenton,  N.  J.  (i860),  2  vols. 

Alexander,  Joseph  Addison,  D.  D.,  son 
of  Dr.  Archibald,  b.  in  Philadelphia,  April 
24,  1809;  d.  at  Princeton,  N.  J.,  Jan.  28, 
i860.  He  was  one  of  the  most  eminent 
of  American  biblical  scholars.  P'rom  1830 
to  1833  he  was  adjunct  professor  of  ancient 
languages  and  literature  at  Princeton,  and 
in  1838  he  was  transferred  to  the  chair  of 
biblical  criticism  and  ecclesiastical  history 
in  the  seminary.  Dr.  Alexander  wrote 
several  important  volumes;  among  them, 
a  Translation  of  and  Cofnmentary  on  the 
Psalms,  and  a  Critical  Cotnmentary  on  the 
Prophecies  of  Isaiah.  See  his  Biography 
by  H.  C.  Alexander  (N,  Y. ,  1870),  2  vols. 

Alexander  Nevski,  a  Russian  prince  and 
general,  whose  rule  was  so  beneficent  that 
he  is  venerated  as  a  saint  of  the  Greek 
Church;  b.  at  Vladimir,  1219;  d.  at  Goro- 
detz,  Nov.  14,  1263.  He  gained  a  great 
victory  over  the  Swedes  on  the  Neva 
in  1240.  Here  Peter  the  Great  built  one 
of  the  richest  monasteries  in  Russia. 
Pope  Alexander  made  unsuccessful  efforts 
to  bring  the  great  general  into  the  Roman 
Church. 


Ale 


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All 


Alexander  of  Hales,  b.  in  England;  d.  in 
Paris,  Aug.  27,  1245.  He  studied  theol¬ 
ogy  and  the  canon  law  both  in  England 
and  Paris,  and  gained  such  fame  as  a  teach¬ 
er  that  he  was  called  “  The  Irrefragable 
Doctor.”  In  his  Summa  Universes  Theo- 
logice,  he  applies  the  Aristotelian  methods 
of  philosophy  to  theology. 

Alexander  the  Great,  b.  B.  C.  356;  d.  at 
Babylon,  B.  C.  323;  and  was  buried  at  Alex¬ 
andria,  which  he  founded,  b.  c.  332.  His 
name  is  mentioned  in  the  Apocrypha,  1 
Macc.  i.  1-9;  vi.  2,  and  figuratively  in  Dan. 
ii.  39;  vii.  6;  viii.  5-7;  xi.  3,  4.  Josephus 
says  that  Alexander  visited  Jerusalem 
after  the  siege  of  Tyre,  and  was  so  im¬ 
pressed  with  the  prophecies  of  Daniel  and 
their  fulfillment,  that  he  granted  the  Jews 
peculiar  privileges. 

Alexandria,  was  founded  by  Alexander 
the  Great,  332  b.  c.  Next  to  Rome  and 
Antioch,  it  was  the  most  magnificent  city 
of  antiquity,  as  well  as  the  chief  seat  of 
the  Grecian  learning  and  literature.  Large 
numbers  of  Jews  made  it  their  home.  At 
the  opening  of  the  present  century  it  had 
fallen  into  decay,  and  was  but  a  small  vil¬ 
lage;  but  it  has  regained  its  former 
prosperity  and  now  has  a  population  of 
over  two  hundred  thousand.  Alexandria 
was  the  seat  of  the  famous  catechetical 
school,  which  tradition  says  was  establish¬ 
ed  by  St.  Mark  the  Evangelist.  Pantsenus 
was  the  first  teacher  of  the  school,  of  whom 
we  know  with  certainty.  He  was  succeed¬ 
ed  by  Clement,  whose  successor  was 
Origen.  It  is  not  strange  that  the  fame  of 
these  great  men  drew  great  numbers  of 
pupils.  Although  Origen,  after  he  was  ex¬ 
pelled  from  the  city,  established  a  school 
in  Caesarea  in  Palestine,  the  school  at 
Alexandria  still  flourished  under  his  pupils 
Heraclas  and  Dionysius.  After  the  time 
of  Dionysius  it  gradually  lost  its  preemi¬ 
nent  influence  and  finally  became  a  school 
simply  for  children.  See  Clement; 
Origen. 

Alexandrian  School.  See  Alexandria. 

Alexians,  so  called  from  their  patron 
saint,  Alexius.  The  association  was  first 
formed  at  Antwerp  in  1300,  for  the  purpose 
of  caring  for  the  sick  poor  and  burying 
their  dead.  They  were  also  called  Cellites , 
from  cella ,  a  tomb,  and  Lullards ,  from  the  fu¬ 
neral  dirges  which  they  sang  when  follow¬ 
ing  the  remains  of  any  of  their  number  to 
the  grave. 

Alford,  Henry,  D.  D.,  Dean  of  Canter¬ 
bury  and  an  eminent  biblical  critic,  b.  in 


London,  Eng.,  Oct.  7,  1810;  d.  there  Jan. 
12,  1871.  This  eminent  divine  won  dis¬ 
tinguished  honor  as  poet,  preacher,  paint¬ 
er,  musician,  and  scholar  in  the  field  of  sa¬ 
cred  literature.  His  greatest  work,  and 
the  one  by  which  he  is  best  known,  was 
his  edition  of  the  Greek  Testament  (1849- 
1861).  See  his  Life  and  Letters ,  edited  by 
his  widow  (London,  1872),  2  vols. 

Alfred  the  Great,  king  of  England,  871- 
901,  in  addition  to  his  remarkable  gifts  and 
triumphs  as  a  statesman  and  military  lead¬ 
er,  was  deeply  interested  in  the  religious 
life  and  ecclesiastical  organization  of  the 
nation.  He  rebuilt  the  churches  and  mon¬ 
asteries  that  had  been  burned  by  the  Danes, 
and  founded  the  University  of  Oxford. 
He  gathered  about  him  a  circle  of  learned 
men  and  engaged  himself  in  scholarly  la¬ 
bors.  He  translated  several  religious 
works  that  had  a  marked  influence;  among 
them  was  the  Liber  Pastoralis  Curce  by  Greg¬ 
ory  I.  It  is  said  that  Alfred  began  a  trans¬ 
lation  of  the  Psalms. 

Alienation,  “  ecclesiastically  speaking,  is 
the  improper  disposal  of  such  lands  and 
goods  as  have  become  the  property  of  the 
church;  alienation  in  mortmain,  the  con¬ 
veying  or  making  over  lands  or  tenements 
to  any  religious  house  or  other  corporate 
body.” — Hook. 

Allah,  the  Mohammedan  name  for  God, 
contracted  from  the  Arabic  al  ilah ,  “the 
God.”  It  is  commonly  used  with  one  or 
more  of  the  99  epithets  or  attributes  of 
God. 

Allegorical  Interpretation  of  the  Script¬ 
ures,  assumes  that  besides  the  literal  sense 
the  sacred  writers  convey  a  spiritual  or 
mystic  sense.  The  allegorical  interpreta¬ 
tion  of  the  Bible  was  introduced  by  the 
Alexandrian  Jews,  who  attempted  to  recon¬ 
cile  the  Mosaic  revelation  with  the  Greek 
philosophy.  This  method  was  taken  up 
and  fostered  by  Origen,  Clement  of  Alex¬ 
andria,  and  others  of  the  Christian  Fathers, 
and  has  had  many  advocates  in  every  pe¬ 
riod.  In  recent  times  it  has  justly  fallen 
into  disrepute  as  a  false  and  misleading 
system. 

Allegory,  “  a  figurative  representation 
conveying  a  meaning  other  than,  and  in  ad¬ 
dition  to,  the  literal.  An  allegory  is  distin¬ 
guished  from  a  metaphor  by  being  longer 
sustained  and  more  fully  carried  out  in  its 
details;  and  from  an  analogy  by  the  fact 
that  the  one  appeals  to  the  imagination  and 
the  other  to  the  reason.  The  fable  or  par¬ 
able  is  a  short  allegory  with  one  definite 


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All 


(  23  ) 


moral.  The  allegory  has  been  a  favorite 
form  in  the  literature  of  nearly  every  na¬ 
tion.” — Ency . Britannica.  There  is  frequent 
use  of  the  allegory  in  the  Bible,  as  in  the 
eightieth  Psalm,  where  the  history  of  Israel 
is  compared  to  the  growth  of  a  vine.  In 
the  fourth  chapter  of  Galatians  (22-31  vs.) 
Paul  explains  certain  differences  between 
the  Jewish  and  the  Christian  Dispensations 
by  allegorizing  the  history  of  Ishmael  and 
Isaac.  Among  modern  allegories  Bunyan's 
Pilgrim's  Progress  is  the  most  perfect. 

Alleine,  Joseph, [an  English  Non-conform¬ 
ist  divine;  author  of  The  Alarm  to  the  Un¬ 
converted;  b.  at  Devizes,  England.,  in  1634; 
d.  at  Taunton,  Nov.  17,  1668.  He  was  a 
graduate  of  Oxford  where  he  became  tutor 
and  chaplain  of  Corpus  Christi  College. 
Declining  offers  of  high  preferment  in  the 
state,  he  accepted  the  position  of  assistant 
in  the  great  church  of  St.  Mary  Magdalene, 
Taunton  (1654).  His  life  was  a  model  of 
pastoral  devotion,  but  he  found  time  to 
prosecute  both  theological  and  scientific 
studies.  When  the  persecution  of  the  Non¬ 
conformist  ministers  commenced,  he  was 
one  of  those  who  were  ejected  from  their 
parishes.  He  became  an  itinerant  preach¬ 
er,  and  for  this  he  was  cast  into  prison. 
After  his  release  he  still  continued  his  work 
in  great  physical  weakness  until  his  death. 

Allen,  Henry,  b.  at  Newport,  R.  I.,  June 
14,  1748;  d.  at  Northampton,  N.  H.,  Feb. 
2,  1784.  He  began  to  propagate  his  pecul¬ 
iar  views  in  Nova  Scotia,  in  1784,  where  he 
labored  for  many  years.  “He  held  that 
all  the  souls  of  the  human  race  were  ema¬ 
nations  from  one  great  spirit;  that  they 
were  all  present  in  the  Garden  of  Eden  and 
took  actual  part  in  the  fall;  that  the  human 
body  and  the  whole  material  world  did  not 
exist  before  the  fall,  but  were  created  to  pre¬ 
vent  the  absolute  destruction  of  the  human 
race  by  the  fall.” — Schaff-Herzog:  Ency. 
He  contended  that  Christ  never  was  raised, 
and  that  there  will  be  no  resurrection  of 
the  body.  He  gained  quite  a  body  of  fol¬ 
lowers,  but  since  his  death  they  have  dwin¬ 
dled  away. 

» 

Allen,  William,  D.  D.,  Congregational¬ 
ism  b.  at  Pittsfield,  Mass.,  Jan.  2,  1784;  d. 
at  Northampton,  Mass.,  July  16,  1868.  He 
was  graduated  at  Harvard  in  1802,  and  for 
some  time  was  assistant  librarian  of  that 
institution.  In  1809  he  published  an 
American  Biographical  and  Historical  Dic¬ 
tionary ,  which  in  successive  editions  in¬ 
creased  the  number  of  its  titles  from  seven 
hundred  in  the  first  to  seven  thousand  in 
the  edition  of  1857.  It  was  the  pioneer 
work  of  its  kind  in  America.  Dr.  Allen 


succeeded  his  father  as  pastor  of  the  Con¬ 
gregational  church  in  Pittsfield,  Mass.,  in 
1810,  and  in  1820  became  president  of  Bow- 
doin  College,  where  he  remained  until  1839. 
The  closing  years  of  his  life  were  spent  in 
Northampton,  Mass. 

All-hallow’s-day,  a  former  name  for  All- 
saints’-day,  “  hallowe  ”  being  a  mediaeval 
English  word  for  “  saint.”  All-hallow- 
e’en  is  still  used  to  designate  the  evening 
before  All-saints’-day. 

Alliaco,  Peter.  See  Ailly,  Pierre  d\ 

Alliance,  Evangelical.  The  Evangeli¬ 
cal  Alliance,  which  is  a  world-wide  organ¬ 
ization,  was  formed  in  London  in  August, 
1846.  At  its  organization  fifty  denomina¬ 
tions  of  evangelical  Christians  were  repre¬ 
sented  by  upwards  of  800  clergymen  and 
laymen  from  all  parts  of  the  world.  The 
object  of  the  Alliance  is  to  strengthen  and 
manifest  Christian  fellowship,  to  promote 
religious  liberty,  and  to  encourage  cooper¬ 
ation  in  extending  the  kingdom  of  Christ. 
General  Conferences  have  been  held  in 
London,  in  1851;  Paris,  in  1855;  Berlin  in 
1857;  Geneva, in  1861;  Amsterdam,  in  1867; 
New  York,  in  1873;  Basle,  in  1879,  and  in 
Copenhagen,  in  1884.  The  doctrinal  basis 
is  as  follows: 

“  1.  The  Divine  inspiration,  authority, 
and  sufficiency  of  the  Holy  Scriptures. 

“  2.  The  right  and  duty  of  private  judg¬ 
ment  in  the  interpretation  of  the  Holy 
Scriptures. 

“  3.  The  Unity  of  the  God-head,  and  the 
Trinity  of  the  persons  therein. 

“  4.  The  utter  depravity  of  human  na¬ 
ture  in  consequence  of  the  Fall. 

“  5.  The  incarnation  of  the  Son  of  God, 
his  work  of  atonement  for  the  sins  of  man¬ 
kind,  and  his  mediatorial  intercession  and 
reign. 

“  6.  The  justification  of  the  sinner  by 
faith  alone. 

“  7.  The  work  of  the  Holy  Spirit  in  the 
conversion  and  sanctification  of  the  sinner. 

“  8.  The  immortality  of  the  soul,  the 
resurrection  of  the  body,  the  judgment  of 
the  world  by  our  Lord  Jesus  Christ,  with 
the  eternal  blessedness  of  the  righteous, 
and  the  eternal  punishment  of  the  wicked. 

“  9.  The  Divine  institution  of  the  Chris¬ 
tian  ministry,  and  the  obligation  and  per-, 
petuity  of  the  ordinances  of  Baptism  and 
the  Lord’s  Supper. 

“  It  being,  however,  distinctly  declared 
that  this  brief  summary  is  not  to  be  regard¬ 
ed  in  any  formal  or  ecclesiastical  sense  as 
a  creed  or  confession,  nor  the  adoption  of 
it  as  involving  an  assumption  of  the  right 
authoritatively  to  define  the  limits  of  Chris- 


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All 


tian  Brotherhood,  but  simply  as  as  an  indi¬ 
cation  of  the  class  of  persons  whom  it  is  de¬ 
sirable  to  embrace  within  the  Alliance.” 

The  Evangelical  Alliance  for  the  United 
States  was  not  formed  until  January,  1867. 
At  its  organization  the  following  resolu¬ 
tions  were  adopted: 

Resolved ,  That  in  forming  an  Evangelical 
Alliance  for  the  United  States,  in  coopera¬ 
tive  union  with  other  branches  of  the  Al¬ 
liance,  we  have  no  intention  or  desire  to 
give  rise  to  a  new  denomination  or  sect; 
nor  to  effect  an  amalgamation  of  Churches, 
except  in  the  way  of  facilitating  personal 
Christian  intercourse  and  a  mutual  good 
understanding;  nor  to  interfere  in  any  way 
whatever  with  the  internal  affairs  of  the 
various  denominations;  but  simply  to  bring 
individual  Christians  into  closer  fellowship 
and  cooperation,  on  the  basis  of  the  spir¬ 
itual  union  which  already  exists  in  the  vi¬ 
tal  relation  of  Christ  to  the  members  of  his 
body  in  all  ages  and  countries. 

Resolved ,  That  in  the  same  spirit,  we  pro¬ 
pose  no  new  creed;  but,  taking  broad,  his¬ 
torical,  and  evangelical  catholic  ground,  we 
solemnly  reaffirm  and  profess  our  faith  in 
all  the  doctrines  of  the  inspired  Word  of 
God,  and  the  consensus  of  doctrines  as  held 
by  all  true  Christians  from  the  beginning. 
And  we  do  more  especially  affirm  our  be¬ 
lief  in  the  Divine-human  per  son  and  atoning 
work  of  our  Lord  and  Saviour ,  Jesus  Christ , 
as  the  only  and  sufficient  source  of  salva¬ 
tion,  as  the  heart  and  soul  of  Christianity, 
and  as  the  centre  of  all  true  Christian  union 
and  fellowship. 

Resolved ,  That,  with  this  explanation,  and 
in  the  spirit  of  a  just  Christian  liberality 
in  regard  to  the  minor  differences  of  theo¬ 
logical  schools  and  religious  denomina¬ 
tions,  we  also  adopt,  as  a  summary  of  the 
consensus  of  the  various  Evangelical  Con¬ 
fessions  of  Faith,  the  Articles  and  Explan¬ 
atory  Statement  set  forth  and  agreed  on  by 
the  Evangelical  Alliance  at  its  formation 
in  London,  1846,  and  approved  by  the  sep¬ 
arate  European  organizations. 

In  1887  there  was  a  national  Christian 
Conference  held  at  Washington,  under  the 
auspices  and  direction  of  the  Evangelical 
Alliance  for  the  United  States,  at  which  a 
new  movement  of  that  organization  was 
introduced  to  the  public.  This  movement 
sprung  from  a  recognition  of  the  perils 
which  threaten  our  Christian  and  American 
civilization,  and  the  great  social  problems 
which  press  for  solution.  It  is  believed 
that  the  Gospel  of  Christ  affords  the  only 
safeguard  from  these  perils,  and  the  only 
solution  of  these  problems.  But  how  is  it 
to  be  applied  ?  A  very  large  proportion  of 
the  people,  “  the  masses,”  do  not  enter 
the  churches.  The  leaven  which  alone  can 


leaven  the  lump  is  not  mingled  with  Lhe 
meal.  If  the  people  will  not  come  to  the 
churches,  the  churches  must  go  to  the 
people. 

This  movement  aims  to  help  the  church¬ 
es  reach  every  house  with  Christian  influ¬ 
ence  by  family-to-family  visitation  through 
sustained  personal  endeavor.  When  per¬ 
sonal  influence  has  been  gained  through 
personal  acquaintance,  it  is  used  to  win  the 
non-church-goer  to  Christ  and  the  church. 

Personal  effort,  in  order  to  the  best  econ¬ 
omy  and  the  largest  results,  must  be  organ¬ 
ized;  and  in  order  to  prevent  overlapping 
in  some  cases  and  oversight  in  others,  there 
must  be  cooperation  between  the  churches. 

The  method,  therefore,  by  which  this 
movement  aims  to  bring  the  churches  and 
the  non-churcli-goers  into  contact  is  that  of 
cooperation  in  sustained  house-to-house 
visitation. 

This  acquaintance  with  the  homes  of  the 
people  brings  to  light  the  needs  of  the  com¬ 
munity,  and  shows  whatever  interferes 
with  its  spiritual,  moral,  intellectual,  so¬ 
cial,  sanitary,  or  general  welfare.  That  is, 
systematic  visitation  shows  what  needs  to 
be  done,  and  the  churches  of  the  commu¬ 
nity  stand  ready  to  cooperate  in  doing  it. 
Thus  there  is  made  a  practical  applica¬ 
tion  of  the  Gospel  to  the  life  of  the  com¬ 
munity. 

The  movement  contemplates  the  organi¬ 
zation  of  a  local  alliance  wherever  there  is 
more  than  one  evangelical  church.  The 
work  has  been  inaugurated  in  a  dozen 
States  and  one  Territory.  In  New  York  it 
has  been  in  successful  operation  for  a  year 
or  more  in  nearly  a  score  of  cities,  and  a 
State  organization  has  been  formed. 

Josiah  Strong. 

Alliance  of  the  Reformed  Churches.  See 

Presbyterian  Alliance. 

Alliance,  The  Holy,  was  formed  in  1815 
between  Alexander  of  Russia,  Francis  I.  of 
Austria,  and  Frederick  William  of  Prussia. 
The  purpose  of  this  league  was  to  pro¬ 
mote  the  interests  of  peace,  founded  upon 
the  law  of  Christian  love  and  righteous¬ 
ness.  In  its  practical  working  the  alliance 
<Jjd  not  attain  a  high  ideal. 

Allocution  denotes  an  address  from  the 
pope  to  the  College  of  Cardinals  while  in 
session.  It  has  reference,  generally,  to  the 
relations  of  the  Roman  see  to  some  foreign 
government,  and  the  policy  it  explains  can¬ 
not  be  used  as  a  precedent. 

All-Saints’-day,  a  festival,  first  instituted 
about  610  in  memory  of  the  martyrs,  and 
kept  on  May  1.  Since  S34  it  has  been  cele- 


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(  25  ) 


Alt 


brated  on  November  1,  as  a  general  com¬ 
memoration  of  all  the  saints. 

All-Souls’-day.  The  day  following  All- 
Saints’-day,  November  2,  is  consecrated 
by  the  Roman  Catholic  Church  to  the 
memory  of  the  dead,  and  to  prayer  for 
souls  suffering  in  purgatory. 

Almericians.  See  Amalric. 

Almoner  was  the  name  given  the  officer 
in  religious  houses,  who  had  in  charge  the 
management  and  distribution  of  the  alms 
of  the  house-  By  the  ancient  canons,  all 
monasteries  had  to  spend  a  tenth  part  of 
their  income  in  alms  to  the  poor,  and  the 
bishops  were  required  to  keep  almoners. 

Alms,  the  giving  of  money  or  goods  to 
the  poor  as  a  religious  duty.  Both  in  the 
Old  and  New  Testament  this  duty  is  incul¬ 
cated  alike  by  command  and  example.  In 
the  early  Church,  collections  for  the  poor 
are  mentioned  as  a  bond  of  unity,  and  the 
expression  of  spiritual  life.  The  message 
given  to  Cornelius  shows  the  Divine 
recognition  of  this  service  of  love.  “  Thy 
prayers  and  thine  alms  are  come  up  for  a 
memorial  before  God.”  (Acts  x.  4.) 

Alogi,  a  name  anciently  applied  to  those 
who  denied  the  doctrine  of  the  “  Logos,” 
as  taught  by  St.  John.  They  respected 
both  his  gospel,  and  the  book  of  Revela¬ 
tion. 

Alombrados  {Illuminati),  a  mystic  sect 
originating  in  Spain  in  the  early  part  of  the 
sixteenth  century.  They  rejected  the  minis¬ 
terial  office,  and  considered  neither  the 
sacraments  nor  good  works  necessary. 
The  sect  was  exterminated  with  great 
'  severity  by  the  Inquisition.  Some  fled  to 
France,  and  an  outgrowth  of  the  sect  flour¬ 
ished  in  Southern  France  as  late  as  the 
eighteenth  century. 

Alpha  and  Omega.  See  A. 

Alphonsus  Maria  de  Liguori.  See  Li- 

GUORI. 

Altar.  “The  first  altar  of  which  we  have 
any  account  is  that  built  by  Noah  when  he 
left  the  ark.  (Gen.  viii.  20.)  In  the  early 
times  altars  were  usually  built  in  certain 
spots  hallowed  by  religious  associations; 
e.  g.,  where  God  appeared.  (Gen.  xii.  7; 
xiii.  18;  xxvi.  25;  xxxv.  1.)  Generally,  of 
course,  they  were  erected  for  the  offering 
of  sacrifice;  but  in  some  instances  they  ap¬ 
pear  to  have  been  only  memorials.  The 
Law  of  Moses  directed  that  two  altars 


should  be  made,  the  one  the  Altar  of 
Burnt-offering  (called,  also,  simply  the 
Altar),  and  the  other  the  Altar  of  Incense. 
(1)  The  Altar  of  Burnt-offering,  called  in 
Mai.  i.  7,  12,  ‘the  table  of  the  Lord,’  per¬ 
haps,  also,  in  Ezek.  xliv.  16.  It  differed  in 
construction  at  different  times.  In  Solo¬ 
mon’s  Temple  the  altar  was  considerably 
larger  in  its  dimensions,  as  might  have 
been  expected  from  the  much  greater  size 
of  the  building  in  which  it  was  placed. 
Like  the  former  it  was  square;  but  the 
length  and  breadth  were  now  twenty  cubits, 
and  the  height  ten.  (2  Chron.  iv.  1.)  It  dif¬ 
fered,  too,  in  the  material  of  which  it  was 
made,  being  entirely  of  brass.  (1  Kings  viii. 
64;  2Chron.vii.7.)  (2)  The  Altar  of  Incense, 
called  also  the  golden  altar,  to  distinguish 
it  from  the  Altar  of  Burnt-offering,  which 
was  called  the  brazen  altar.  The  name 
‘altar’  was  not  strictly  appropriate,  as  no 
sacrifices  were  offered  upon  it;  but  once  in 


ANCIENT  ALTARS. 

1. — Jewish  Altar  of  Burnt-offering. 

2. — Jewish  Altar  of  Incense. 
3,  4. — Greek  Altars.  5. — Babylonian.  6. — Roman. 

the  year,  on  the  great  day  of  atonement, 
the  liigh-priest  sprinkled  upon  the  horns  of 
it  the  blood  of  the  sin-offering.  The  Altar 
of  Incense  is  mentioned  as  having  been  re¬ 
moved  from  the  Temple  of  Zerubbabel  by 
Antiochus  Epiphanes.  (1  Macc.i.  21.)  Judas 
Maccabaeus  restored  it,  together  with  the 
holy  vessels,  etc.  (1  Macc.  iv.  49.)  On  the 
Arch  of  Titus  no  Altar  of  Incense  appears. 
But  that  it  existed  in  the  last  temple,  and 
was  richly  overlaid,  we  learn  from  the 
Mishna.  From  the  circumstance  that  the 
sweet  incense  was  burnt  upon  it  every  day, 
morning  and  evening  (Ex.  xxx.  7,  8),  as 
well  as  that  the  blood  of  atonement  was 
sprinkled  upon  it  (v.  10),  this  altar  had  a 
special  importance  attached  to  it.  It  is  the 
only  altar  which  appears  in  the  Heavenly 
Temple.  (Isa.  vi.  6;  Rev.  viii.  3,  4.)” — 
Smith:  Diet .  of  the  Bible. 

“  The  word  ‘  Altar’  has  been  transferred 
into  the  Christian  system.  For  upward  of 


e 


Alt 


Ama 


(  26  ) 


five  centuries  altars  in  the  Christian 
churches  were,  for  the  most  part,  made  of 
wood;  but  in  509  A.  D.,  it  was  decreed  by 
a  council  held  at  Epone,  in  France,  that 
none  should  be  consecrated  with  chrism  ex¬ 
cept  those  built  of  stone.  In  the  first  ages 
of  Christianity  there  was  only  one  altar  in 
a  church,  but,  from  a  very  early  time,  the 
Latins  have  used  more  than  one.  In  the 
twelfth  century  the  adorning  of  churches 
with  images  and  numerous  altars  was 
carried  to  a  great  extent,  and  they  were 
embellished  with  gold,  silver,  and  precious 
stones.  The  Greek  churches  use  but  one 
altar.  Altars  were  frequently  placed  at 
the  west  end  of  the  ancient  churches,  in¬ 
stead  of  the  east,  but  in  England  almost 
uniformly  in  the  east.  The  old  English 
divines,  and,  indeed,  all  Protestant  ecclesi¬ 
astical  writers  of  any  importance,  are 
unanimous  in  their  opinion  that  among 
Christians  the  word  cannot  mean  what  the 
Jews  and  heathens  expressed  by  it.  The 
later  fathers  used  various  phrases  to  de¬ 
note  the  solemnity  which  should  attach  to 
the  communion-table,  such  as  the  ‘  mys¬ 
tical  and  tremendous  table,’  the  ‘  mystical 
table,’  and  the  1  holy  table,’  etc.  And  they 
termed  it  an  altar  because,  first,  the  holy 
Eucharist  was  regarded  as  a  kind  of  com¬ 
memoration  sacrifice,  or,  more  properly,  a 
consecrated  memorial  before  God  of  the 
great  sacrifice  on  Calvary;  and,  second,  the 
prayers  of  the  communicants  were  held  to 
be  in  themselves  sacrifices,  or  oblations — 
sacrifices  of  thanksgiving,  as  it  were.  This 
is  the  view  of  those  who  hold  high-church 
opinions,  but  does  not  exclude  the  other 
view.  Again,  they  termed  it  a  table  when 
the  Eucharist  was  considered  exclusively 
in  the  light  of  a  sacrament,  to  be  partaken 
of  by  believers  as  spiritual  food.  In  the 
former  case,  the  sacrifice  was  commemo¬ 
rated;  in  the  latter,  it  was  applied;  in  the 
former,  it  expressed  more  directly  the  grati¬ 
tude,  in  the  latter,  more  directly  the  faith, 
of  the  Christian.” — Chambers'  Cyclopaedia. 

Altar-piece,  a  painting  placed  over  the 
altar  of  a  church. 

Altar-screen.  See  Reredos. 

Altar-Tomb,  a  monument  built  in  the 
form  of  a  stone  altar,  and  sometimes  sur¬ 
mounted  by  a  canopy.  A  tomb  of  this 
character  commemorates  the  poet  Chaucer 
in  Westminster  Abbey. 

Altruism,  a  fanciful  term  originating 
with  Comte  (see  Positivism),  and  adopted 
by  Herbert  Spencer,  to  indicate  a  moral 
principle  opposed  to  egoism;  that  it  is  a 
duty  to  live  for  others  ( altrui ),  denying 


ourselves,  and  bestowing  all  our  love  upon 
others. — Benham:  Diet,  of  Religion.  See 
Benevolence;  Beneficence. 

Am'alek  (, dweller  in  a  valley ),  the  grand¬ 
son  of  Esau.  (Gen.  xxxvi.  16.)  He  was  not 
the  founder  of  the  Amalekites,  as  the  rec¬ 
ord  (Gen.  xiv.  7)  shows  that  they  existed 
before  his  birth. 

Am'alekites.  The  origin  of  this  nation 
is  unknown.  They  are  first  mentioned  in 
connection  with  the  invasion  of  Chedor- 
laomer  (Gen.  xiv.  7),  and  they  are  called 
(Num.  xxiv.  20)  “  the  first  of  the  nations.” 
They  were  routed  in  a  contest  with  the 
children  of  Israel  at  Rephidim,  and  were 
threatened  with  God’s  judgments.  (Exod. 
xvii.  14.)  Defeated  by  Gideon  (Judg.  vii. 
22),  and  by  Saul  (1  Sam.  xv.),  and  David 
(1  Sam.  xxk. ),  they  were  completely  de¬ 
stroyed.  They  lived  in  the  region  between 
Canaan  and  Egypt. 

Amal'ric  of  Bena,  a  teacher  of  philosophy 
and  theology  in  the  University  of  Paris 
about  the  end  of  the  twelfth  century.  He  was 
accused  of  heresy  in  1204,  and  condemned 
by  Innocent  III.,  and  d.  soon  after.  His 
followers  were  condemned  by  a  synod  held 
at  Paris,  1209,  and  the  bones  of  Amalric 
were  exhumed  and  scattered  abroad.  The 
doctrines  of  the  Almericians  may  be  stated 
in  brief  as  follows:  (1)  God  is  all;  (2)  Every 
Christian  must  believe  that  he  is  a  member 
of  the  body  of  Christ  in  order  to  salva¬ 
tion;  (3)  He  who  remains  in  love  can  com¬ 
mit  no  sin. 

Amazi’ah,  “son  of  Joash  and  eighth  king 
of  Judah;  reigned  b.  c.  837-809.  He  suc¬ 
ceeded  to  the  throne  at  the  age  of  25,  on 
the  murder  of  his  father,  and  punished  the 
murderers;  sparing,  however,  their  chil¬ 
dren,  in  accordance  with  Deut.  xxiv.  t6,  as 
the  second  book  of  Kings  (xiv.  6)  expressly 
informs  us,  thereby  implying  that  the  pre¬ 
cept  had  not  been  generally  observed.  In 
order  to  restore  his  kingdom  to  the  great¬ 
ness  of  Jehoshaphat’s  days,  he  made  war 
on  the  Edomites,  defeated  them  in  the  val¬ 
ley  of  Salt,  south  of  the  Dead  Sea,  and 
took  their  capital,  Selah  or  Petra,  to  which 
he  gave  the  name  of  Jokteel,  i.  e.,  God- 
subdued.  We  read  in  2  Chron.  xxv.  12-14 
that  the  victorious  •  Jews  threw  10,000 
Edomites  from  the  cliffs,  and  that  Amaziah 
performed  religious  ceremonies  in  honor 
of  the  gods  of  the  country — an  exception  to 
the  general  character  of  his  reign.  (Cf.  2 
Kings  xiv.  3,  with  2  Chron.  xxv.  2.)  In 
consequence  of  this  he  was  overtaken  by 
misfortune.  Having  already  offended  the 
Hebrews  of  the  northern  kingdom  by  send- 


Amb 


Amb 


(  27  ) 


jng  back,  in  obedience  to  a  prophet’s  direc¬ 
tion,  some  mercenary  troops  whom  he  had 
hired  from  it,  he  had  the  foolish  arro¬ 
gance  to  challenge  Joash,  king  of  Israel,  to 
battle,  despising,  probably,  a  sovereign 
whose  strength  had  been  exhausted  by 
Syrian  wars,  and  who  had  not  yet  made 
himself  respected  by  the  great  successes 
recorded  in  2  Kings  xiii.  25.  But  Judah 
was  completely  defeated,  and  Amaziah 
himself  was  taken  prisoner,  and  conveyed 
by  Joash  to  Jerusalem,  which  opened  its 
gates  to  the  conqueror.  A  portion  of  the 
wall  of  Jerusalem  on  the  side  toward  the 
Israelitish  frontier  was  broken  down,  and 
treasures  and  hostages  were  carried  off  to 
Samaria.  Amaziah  lived  fifteen  years  after 
the  death  of  Joash,  and  in  the  twenty- 
ninth  year  of  his  reign  was  murdered  by 
conspirators  at  Lachish,  whither  he  had  re¬ 
tired  for  safety  from  Jerusalem.  (2  Chron. 
xxv.  27.)  (2)  A  descendant  of  Simeon.  (1 

Chron.  iv.  34.)  (3)  A  Levite.  (1  Chron.  vi. 
45.)  (4)  Priest  of  the  golden  calf  at  Bethel, 
who  endeavored  to  drive  the  prophet  Amos 
from  Israel  into  Judah.  (Amos  vii.  10,  12, 
14.)” — Smith:  Diet,  of  the  Bible. 

Ambo,  a  reading-desk,  or  pulpit,  in  early 
Christian  churches,  which  was  placed  in 
the  centre  of  the  nave.  It  was  sometimes 
large  enough  to  accommodate  fifty  per¬ 
sons.  The  lessons  were  read  from  it,  and 
it  was  occasionally  used  by  the  preacher. 
The  ambo  has  given  place  in  modern 
churches  to  the  lectern  and  pulpit. 

Ambrose,  Isaac,  a  celebrated  Puritan  di¬ 
vine,  b.  May  29, 1604;  d.  1663.  A  graduate  of 
Oxford,  he  was  vicar  at  Gerstang  when  the 
Act  of  Uniformity  was  passed.  He  retired; 
and  spent  his  later  years  in  Preston,  where 
he  had  formerly  been  vicar.  His  practical 
and  devotional  writings  were  very  popular, 
and  one  of  his  publications,  Looking  Unto 
Jesus  (1658),  is  still  read  with  interest,  hav¬ 
ing  never  been  out  of  print. 

Ambrose,  St.,  Bishop  of  Milan,  and  one 
of  the  most  distinguished  of  the  Latin 
fathers  of  the  fourth  century;  b.  about  the 
year  340,  probably  at  Treves,  in  Gaul,  where 
his  father  held  the  office  of  prefect.  He 
received  a  good  education  under  the  direc¬ 
tion  of  a  noble  and  pious  mother.  He  be¬ 
came  proficient  in  Greek  and  Roman  liter¬ 
ature  and  entered  the  profession  of  law. 
Appointed  consular  prefect  of  the  province, 
which  included  a  considerable  part  of  north¬ 
ern  Italy,  he  made  his  residence  at  Milan, 
where  his  administration  gained  great  pub¬ 
lic  approval.  At  the  death  of  Auxen- 
tius,  in  374,  the  divisions  that  existed  be¬ 
tween  the  orthodox  party  and  the  Arians 


gave  rise  to  a  violent  contest  in  the  choice 
of  his  successor.  Ambrose,  in  a  public  ad¬ 
dress,  counseled  peace  and  wise  action. 
The  suggestion  that  the  prefect  should  be 
made  bishop  was  ratified  by  his  unanimous 
election.  At  first  he  declined,  but  finally 
was  baptized  and  ordained  bishop  about 
374.  This  high  office  he  filled,  until  his 
death,  with  marked  ability,  fidelity,  and 
courage.  This  last  quality  was  illustrated 
in  his  action  toward  the  Emperor  Theodo¬ 
sius.  During  the  popular  revolt  in  Thes- 
salonica,  in  A.  D.  390,  some  officers  of  the 
Roman  garrison  were  massacred.  In  his 
anger  Theodosius,  in  putting  down  the  in¬ 
surrection,  slew  seven  thousand  persons. 
For  this  action  Ambrose  rebuked  him  in  the 
severest  terms,  and  refused  either  to  ad¬ 
minister  or  celebrate  the  Eucharist  in  his 
presence  until  he  had  made  atonement  for 
his  crime  by  the  most  severe  penance. 
Ambrose  was  not  only  eminent  as  an  eccle¬ 
siastic  but  popular  as  a  preacher.  He  was 
the  spiritual  father  of  Augustine  and  a  vo¬ 
luminous  writer;  but  his  works  do  not 
stand  in  the  highest  rank  of  Patristic  liter¬ 
ature.  The  Hymns  of  St.  Ambrose  have 
been  a  treasure  of  the  church  universal. 
Many,  however,  have  been  attributed  to 
him  that  he  did  not  write.  Ambrose  died 
April  4,  397.  His  mortal  remains  rest  un¬ 
der  the  high  altar  of  the  great  Cathedral  of 
Milan. 

Ambrosian  Chant  denotes  the  mode  of 
church  singing  introduced  into  the  Western 
Church  by  St.  Ambrose.  Just  what  the 
form  was  is  now  unknown,  but  it  is  thought 
that  it  was  a  modification  of  a  more  simple 
mode  of  chanting.  The  Ambrosian  chant 
was  further  developed  into  the  elaborate 
Gregorian  system.  St.  Augustine  says  it 
was  first  introduced  into  the  Church  of 
Milan. 

Ambrosiaster,  the  name  given,  for  lit¬ 
erary  and  critical  purposes,  to  the  unknown 
author  of  a  Commentary  on  the  Epistles  of 
St.  Paul ,  which  was  formerly  believed  to 
be  one  of  the  works  of  St.  Ambrose,  but 
which  is  now  known  to  have  been  written 
some  years  before  he  was  baptized,  be¬ 
tween  A.  D.  366  and  A.  D.  384.  It  is  a  workj 
of  high  value  as  an  early  interpretation  of 
St.  Paul’s  writings,  and  also  as  containing 
many  quotations  from  the  ancient  Vulgate, 
a  Latin  version  of  the  Scriptures  earlier 
than  that  of  St.  Jerome.  — Benham. 

Ambulatory,  literally,  a  place  to  walk 
in,  from  the  Latin  word  ambulare.  It  is  used 
ecclesiastically  to  designate  a  covered  clois¬ 
ter  outside  of  a  church,  or  the  aisles  with¬ 
in,  principally  the  aisle  around  the  choir  in 


Ame 


(  28  ) 


Amm 


cathedrals  and  other  large  churches,  which 
was  used  as  a  “  procession  path.” — Ben- 
ham. 

Amen  {true,  faithful).  In  the  Old  Tes¬ 
tament  “amen”  was  used  mostly  in  a 
liturgical  sense.  In  the  apostolic  church 
it  was  uttered  by  the  people  as  a  response 
at  the  close  of  the  public  prayers.  (1  Cor. 
xiv.  26.)  In  liturgical  use  it  has  the  two¬ 
fold  sense  of  emphatic  assent,  “  So  it  is,” 
or  “  So  I  believe,”  and  that  of  ratification, 
“  So  be  it.”  Jesus  calls  himself  the  Amen. 
(Rev.  iii.  14.) 

American  and  Foreign  Christian  Union. 
This  society,  organized  in  1849,  had  f°r  its 
special  purpose  the  conversion  of  foreign 
Roman  Catholics.  For  a  time  it  prose¬ 
cuted  its  work  with  considerable  vigor, 
but  it  now  does  nothing  beyond  the  sup¬ 
port  of  the  American  Chapel  in  Paris. 

American  and  Foreign  Bible  Society. 

See  Bible  Societies. 

American  Bible  Union.  See  Bible  Soci¬ 
eties,  American. 

American  Bible  Society.  See  Bible 
Societies,  American. 

American  Baptist  Missionary  Union. 

See  Missions,  Baptist. 

American  Baptist  Publication  Society. 

See  Baptists. 

American  Board  of  Commissioners  for 
Foreign  Missions.  See  Missions;  Congre- 
GATIONALISTS. 

American  Home  Missionary  Society. 

See  CONGREGATIONALISTS. 

American  Sunday-school  Union.  See 
Sunday-schools. 

American  Tract  Societies.  See  Tract 
Societies. 

Ames,  Edward  R.,  D.  D.,  b.  at  Ames- 
ville,  Ohio,  May  20,  1S06;  a  bishop  of  the 
Methodist  Episcopal  Church.  He-entered 
the  Ohio  University  in  1826,  and  in  1836 
became  an  itinerant  minister  in  the  Indiana 
Conference.  He  was  elected  a  delegate  to 
the  General  Conference  in  1840,  and  soon 
after  became  corresponding  secretary  of 
the  Missionary  Society  for  the  South  and 
West.  From  1844101852  he  held  the  office 
of  presiding  elder,  and  was  elected  bishop 
in  1S52.  He  was  a  man  of  great  executive 
ability,  and  during  the  war  was  often  con¬ 


sulted  by  President  Lincoln,  at  whose  re¬ 
quest  he  served  on  several  important  com¬ 
missions.  He  died  at  Baltimore  in  1879. 

Ames,  William,  a  celebrated  Puritan 
divine;  b.  in  Norfolk,  1576;  d.  at  Rotter¬ 
dam  in  1633.  He  was  graduated  at  Christ’s 
College,  Cambridge,  and  received  the  ap¬ 
pointment  of  chaplain  to  the  university. 
His  plain,  outspoken  preaching  against 
certain  evil  practices  aroused  so  much 
opposition  that  he  left  England,  and  be¬ 
came  English  chaplain  at  the  Hague,  and 
afterward  professor  of  divinity  at  Franeker 
in  Friesland.  He  was  an  eminent  contro- 
versalist,  and  strong  opponent  of  Arminian- 
ism.  He  wrote  many  works.  See  Neal: 
Hist,  of  the  Puritans. 

Amess,  a  tippet  of  fur  worn  by  canons 
and  other  dignitaries  of  cathedrals  during 
cold  weather. 

Amice,  a  piece  of  fine  linen  tied  around 
the  neck.  It  is  worn  over  the  cassock,  and 
is  put  on  by  the  officiating  priest  during  the 
celebration  of  the  mass  in  Roman  churches. 

Ammonites,  “  a  people  descended  from 
Ben-Ammi,  the  son  of  Lot  by  his  younger 
daughter  (Gen.  xix.  38;  comp.  Psa.  lxxxiii. 
7,  8),  as  Moab  was  by  the  elder,  and  dat¬ 
ing  from  the  destruction  of  Sodom.  The 
near  relation  between  the  two  peoples,  in¬ 
dicated  in  the  story  of  their  origin,  con¬ 
tinued  throughout  their  existence.  (Comp. 
Judg.  x.  6;  2  Chron.  xx.  1;  Zeph.  ii.  8, 
etc.)  Indeed,  so  close  was  their  union, 
and  so  near  their  identity,  that  each  would 
appear  to  be  occasionally  spoken  of  un¬ 
der  the  name  of  the  other.  Unlike  Moab, 
the  precise  position  of  the  territory  of  the 
Ammonites  is  not  ascertainable.  In  the 
earliest  mention  of  them(Deut.  ii.  20)  they 
are  said  to  have  destroyed  the  Rephaim, 
whom  they  called  the  Zamzummim,  and  to 
have  dwelt  in  their  place,  Jabbok  being 
their  border.  (Num.  xxi.  24;  Deut.  ii. 
37;  iii.  16.)  *  Land’  or  ‘  country’  is,  how¬ 

ever,  but  rarely  ascribed  to  them,  nor  is 
there  any  reference  to  those  habits  and  cir¬ 
cumstances  of  civilization,  which  so  con¬ 
stantly  recur  in  the  allusions  to  Moab.  (Isa. 
xv.,  xvi. ;  Jer.  xlviii.)  On  the  contrary, 
we  find  everywhere  traces  of  the  fierce  hab¬ 
its  of  marauders  in  their  incursions  (1  Sam. 
xi.  2;  Amos  i.  13),  and  a  very  high  degree 
of  crafty  cruelty  to  their  foes.  (Jer.  xli.  6, 
7;  Judg.  vii.  11,  12.)  It  appears  that  Moab 
was  the  settled  and  civilized  half  of  the  na¬ 
tion  of  Lot,  and  that  Ammon  formed  its 
predatory  and  Bedouin  section.” — Smith: 
Diet,  of  the  Bible.  The  Ammonites  are 
mentioned  by  Justin  Martyr  as  being  nu- 


Amm 


(29) 


Amo 


merous  in  his  day.  They  afterward  were 
lost  to  sight,  and  merged  into  the  general 
Arab  population. 

Ammonius,  (1)  the  originator  of  the 
neo-Platonic  movement,  lived  at  Alexan¬ 
dria  during  the  2d  century,  and  d.  there, 
241.  Very  little  is  known  of  his  life. 
From  Hierocles,  as  quoted  by  Photius,  we 
learn  that  his  fundamental  doctrine  was  an 
eclecticism,  or  union  of  Plato  and  Aristotle. 
How  his  system  stood  related  to  the  Jew¬ 
ish  and  Christian  theosophies  we  have  no 
means  of  knowing.  (2)  A  Christian  writer 
who,  about  the  middle  of  the  third  century, 
prepared  a  harmony  of  the  Gospels. 

A'mon  ( builder ),  son  and  successor  of 
Manasseh  as  king  of  Judah.  After  a  wick¬ 
ed  and  idolatrous  reign  of  two  years,  his 
servants  conspired  against  him  and  slew 
him  in  the  palace.  The  people  put  the 
conspirators  to  death  and  placed  his  son 
Josiah  on  the  throne.  (2  Kings  xxi.  19;  2 
Chron.  xxxiii.  21-25.) 

Am'orite,  the  Am'orites  (i.  e.,the  dwell¬ 
ers  on  the  summits ;  or  mountaineers ),  one 
of  the  chief  nations  who  possessed  the 
land  of  Canaan  before  its  conquest  by  the 
Israelites.  In  the  genealogical  table  of 
Gen.  x.  “the  Amorite  ”  is  given  as  the 
fourth  son  of  Canaan,  with  “  Zidon,  Heth 
(Hittite),  the  Jebusite,”  etc.  As  dwelling 
on  the  elevated  portions  of  the  country, 
they  are  contrasted  with  the  Canaanites, 
who  were  the  dwellers  in  the  lowlands; 
and  the  two  thus  formed  the  main  broad 
divisions  of  the  Holy  Land.  Their  terri¬ 
tory  was  divided  between  Reuben  and  Gad 
and  the  half-tribe  of  Manasseh.  (Josh.  xiii. 
8,  sq.)  They  were  so  completely  defeated 
(Deut.  ii.  36;  Josh.  x.  5),  that  they  never 
again  were  powerful,  and  are  rarely  men¬ 
tioned. 

Amortization.  See  Mortmain. 

A'mos  (burden),  “a  native  of  Tekoa,  in 
Judah,  about  six  miles  south  of  Bethle¬ 
hem;  originally  a  shepherd  and  dresser  of 
sycamore  trees,  who  was  called  by  God’s 
Spirit  to  be  a  prophet,  although  not  trained 
in  any  of  the  regular  prophetic  schools. 
(Am.  i.  1;  vii.  14,  15.)  He  travelled  from 
Judah  into  the  northern  kingdom  of  Israel, 
or  Ephraim,  and  there  exercised  his  minis¬ 
try,  apparently  not  for  any  long  time.  His 
date  cannot  be  later  than  the  fifteenth  year 
of  Uzziah’s  reign  (b.  c.  808),  for  he  tells  us 
that  he  prophesied  ‘  in  the  reigns  of  Uz- 
ziah,  king  of  Judah,  and  Jeroboam,  the  son 
of  Joash,  king  of  Israel,  two  years  before 
the  earthquake.’  This  earthquake  (also 


mentioned,  Zech.  xiv.  5)  cannot  have  oc¬ 
curred  after  the  seventeenth  year  of 
Uzziah,  since  Jeroboam  II.  died  in  the  fif¬ 
teenth  year  of  that  king’s  reign,  which, 
therefore,  is  the  latest  year  fulfilling  the 
three  chronological  indications  furnished  by 
the  prophet  himself.  But  his  ministry  prob¬ 
ably  took  place  at  an  earlier  period  of 
Jeroboam’s  reign,  perhaps  about  the  mid¬ 
dle  of  it;  for,  on  the  one  hand,  Amos 
speaks  of  the  conquests  of  this  warlike 
king  as  completed  (vi.  13;  cf.  2  Kings  xiv. 
25);  and,  on  the  other,  the  Assyrians,  who, 
towards  the  end  of  his  reign,  were  ap¬ 
proaching  Palestine  (Hos.  x.  6;  xi.  5),  do 
not  seem  as  yet  to  have  caused  any  alarm 
in  the  country.  Amos  predicts,  indeed, 
that  Israel  and  other  neighboring  nations 
will  be  punished  by  certain  wild  conquer¬ 
ors  from  the  North  (i.  5;  v.  27;  vi.  14), 
but  does  not  name  them,  as  if  they  were 
still  unknown  or  unheeded.  In  this 
prophet’s  time  Israel  was  at  the  height  of 
power,  wealth,  and  security,  but  infected 
by  the  crimes  to  which  such  a  state  is 
liable.  The  poor  were  oppressed  (viii.  4), 
the  ordinances  of  religion  thought  burden¬ 
some  (viii.  5),  and  idleness,  luxury,  and 
extravagance  were  general,  (iii.  15.)  The 
source  of  these  evils  was  idolatry — that  of 
the  golden  calves.  Calf-worship  was 
specially  practised  at  Bethel,  where  was  a 
principal  temple  and  summer  palace  for 
the  king  (vii.  13;  cf.  iii.  15);  also  at  Gilgal, 
Dan,  and  Beer-sheba  in  Judah  (iv.  4;  v.  5; 
viii.  14),  and  was  offensively  united  with 
the  true  worship  of  the  Lord.  (v.  14,  21- 
23;  cf.  2  Kings  xvii.  33.)  Amos  went  to 
rebuke  this  at  Bethel  itself,  but  was  com¬ 
pelled  to  return  to  Judah  by  the  high- 
priest  Amaziah,  who  procured  from  Jero¬ 
boam  an  order  for  his  expulsion  from  the 
northern  kingdom.  The  book  of  the  proph¬ 
ecies  of  Amos  seems  divided  into  four 
principal  portions,  closely  connected  to¬ 
gether.  (1)  From  i.  1  to  ii.  3  he  denounces 
the  sins  of  the  nations  bordering  on  Israel 
and  Judah,  as  a  preparation  for  (2),  in 
which,  from  ii.  4  to  vi.  14,  he  describes  the 
state  of  those  two  kingdoms,  especially  the 
former.  This  is  followed  by  (3)  vii.  1  to  ix. 
10,  in  which,  after  reflecting  on  the  pre¬ 
vious  prophecy,  he  relates  his  visit  to 
Bethel,  and  sketches  the  impending  pun¬ 
ishment  of  Israel,  which  he  predicted  to 
Amaziah.  After  this  in  (4)  he  rises  to  a 
loftier  and  more  evangelical  strain,  look¬ 
ing  forward  to  the  time  when  the  hope  of 
the  Messiah’s  kingdom  will  be  fulfilled, 
and  His  people  forgiven,  and  established 
in  the  enjoyment  of  God’s  blessings  to  all 
eternity.  The  chief  peculiarity  of  the  style 
consists  in  the  number  of  allusions  to 
natural  objects  and  agricultural  occupa- 


Amp 


(  30  ) 


Ana 


tions,  as  might  be  expected  from  the  early 
life  of  the  author.  See  i.  3;  ii.  13;  iii.  4, 
5;  iv.  2,  7,  9;  v.  8,  19;  vi.  12;  vii.  1;  ix.  3, 
9,  13,  14.  The  references  to  it  in  the  New 
Testament  are  two:  v.  25,26,  27  is  quoted 
by  St.  Stephen,  in  Acts  vii.  42,  43;  and  ix. 
11  by  St.  James,  in  Acts  xv.  16.  As  the 
book  is  evidently  not  a  series  of  detached 
prophecies,  but  logically  and  artistically 
connected  in  its  several  parts,  it  was  prob¬ 
ably  written  by  Amos,  as  we  now  have  it, 
after  his  return  to  Tekoa  from  his  mission 
to  Bethel.”  —  Smith:  Diet,  of  the  Bible. 
See  the  general  commentaries,  T.  W. 
Chambers  ;  Commentary  on  Amos  (en¬ 
larged  from  Schmoller  s),  in  the  American 
edition  of  Lange’s  Cotnmentary  (N.  Y., 
1875);  Pusey :  Co?n?nentary  on  the  Minor 
Prophets  (N.  Y. ,  1885). 

Ampulla,  (1)  a  flask  or  cruet  for  holding 
the  consecrated  oil  or  chrism  used  in  cere¬ 
monies  of  unction.  (2)  The  cruets  hold¬ 
ing  the  wine  and  water  used  in  the  Eu¬ 
charist. 

Amsdorf,  Nikolaus  von,  b.  in  Saxony 
1483;  d.  at  Eisenach,  May  14,  1565.  He 
was  educated  at  Wittenberg,  where  he 
became  professor  of  theology  (1511),  and 
took  a  leading  part  in  advancing  the  cause 
of  the  Reformation.  In  the  course  of  a 
vigorous  controversy  with  George  Major, 
a  Lutheran  divine  of  Wittenberg,  Amsdorf 
maintained  an  exaggerated  form  of  the  doc¬ 
trine  of  Luther  respecting  the  inefficacy 
of  good  works  to  salvation,  declaring  that 
they  were  not  only  not  necessary,  but  were 
even  a  hindrance  to  salvation.  The  parties 
of  the  two  divines  were  reconciled  by  a 
‘Formula  of  Concord,’ which  was  drawn 
up  at  Bergen  in  the  year  1577.  Amsdorf 
was  consecrated  bishop  of  Naumburg,  by 
Luther  in  1542,  but  he  lost  his  see  during 
the  Smalcald  war  (1547),  and  was  appoint¬ 
ed  general  superintendent  at  Eisenach.  His 
followers  were  known  as  Amsdorfians. 

Amsdorfians.  See  above. 

Amulets,  something  worn  as  preserva¬ 
tives  against  the  power  of  enchantments. 
More  commonly  they  were  worn  as  orna¬ 
ments,  and  suspended  from  a  necklace  or 
ear-ring,  with  an  inscription  or  figure  of  a 
god  upon  them.  Sometimes  they  were  in 
the  form  of  charms  written  upon  papyrus  or 
parchment,  rolled  tightly  and  sewed  in  lin¬ 
en.  These  are  the  tablets  referred  to  in 
Isa.  iii.  20,  and  which  in  the  Revised  Ver¬ 
sion  is  rendered  amulets.  The  wearing  of 
amulets  became  so  common  among  Chris¬ 
tians  that  the  Council  of  Trullo  (692),  ex¬ 
communicated  the  makers  of  them,  and 


condemned  the  custom  as  a  heathen  super¬ 
stition. 

Amyraldism.  This  is  the  name  given  to 
the  theory.of  predestination  held  by  Amy- 
raut  (see  below)  and  his  followers.  This 
theory  opposed  the  extreme  Calvinistic 
doctrine  of  the  Divine  decrees,  in  that  it  was 
maintained  that  all  had  salvation  within 
their  power,  while  saving  grace  was  given 
only  to  the  elect.  Baxter,  Fuller,  and  the 
New  England  divines  have  favored  this 
theory. 

Amyraut,  MoIse,  an  eminent  French  Prot¬ 
estant  theologian  and  metaphysician,  b.  at 
Bourgueil,  in  Tourraine,  Sept.  1596;  d.  at 
Saumur,  Jan.  8,  1664.  He  prosecuted  with 
success  the  study  of  law  in  the  University 
of  Poitiers;  but  on  his  way  home  he  met 
a  Protestant  minister  who,  with  the  added 
influence  of  a  prominent  official,  persuaded 
him  to  leave  the  law  for  theology.  He 
studied  at  Saumur  with  the  famous  teach¬ 
er,  Cameron.  His  reputation  for  scholarly 
ability  gained  him  invitations  to  many 
prominent  churches  and  universities.  He 
referred  them  all  to  the  synod  of  Anjou, 
and  it  was  decided  that  he  should  remain 
at  Saumur.  The  bond  of  affection  that 
bound  together  the  teachers  in  this  school 
was  beautiful  and  remarkable.  Amyraut 
was  a  recognized  leader  in  the  great  theo¬ 
logical  controversies  of  his  times.  A  strong 
advocate  of  a  moderate  type  of  Calvinism, 
he  was  noted  for  his  liberality  and  kindness 
of  spirit.  Saumur  became  a  stronghold  of 
Protestantism.  Amyraut,  among  other  la¬ 
bors,  wrote  many  books,  some  of  which 
still  carry  religious  instruction  and  comfort 
into  the  Protestant  homes  of  France.  His 
Traite  des  Religio7is  (1631),  translated  into 
English  (London,  1660),  is  still  a  living 
work. 

Anabaptists.  See  Baptists.  For  his¬ 
tory  of  the  excesses  of  the  fanatical  Ana¬ 
baptists  of  the  sixteenth  century,  see  Mun¬ 
ster. 

Anachorites.  See  Anchorites. 

Anacle'tus,  the  name  of  two  popes.  See 

Popes. 

Anagogical,  a  word  derived  from  the 
Greek  anagein  (to  lead  upwards),  and  des¬ 
ignating  that  form  of  the  mystical  interpre¬ 
tation  of  Holy  Scripture  which  raises  the 
thoughts  from  an  earthly  meaning  to  a 
heavenly.  Thus,  the  weekly  rest  of  the 
earthly  Sabbath  may  be  anagogicallv  inter¬ 
preted  of  the  sabbatismos ,  or  sabbatical  and 
eternal  rest  of  heaven  (Heb.  iv.  4-11);  or 


Ana 


(  3i  ) 


And 


the  mystery  of  the  union  between  man  and 
wife  of  the  union  between  Christ  and  the 
Church.  (Eph.  v.  22-32.) — Benham. 

Anagnostes,  the  name  given  to  the  order 
of  a  reader  in  the  Eastern  Church. 

Analogion,  the  name  of  the  pulpit  in  a 
Greek  or  Eastern  Church. 

Analogy  of  Faith.  See  Faith;  Herme¬ 
neutics. 

Anam'melech,  an  idol  god  in  whose 
worship  the  Sepharvites  burnt  their  chil¬ 
dren.  (2  Kings  xvii.  31.)  Anammelech  is 
supposed  to  represent  the  moon  and  Ad- 
rammelech  the  sun. 

Anani'as  (the  Greek  form  of  Hananiah; 
whom  Jehovah  has  graciously  given),  (1) 
one  who  professed  conversion  under  the 
preaching  of  the  apostles.  The  story  of 
his  perfidy  and  death  is  told  in  Acts  v.  1-11. 
(2)  A  Jewish  Christian  of  Damascus  who 
visited  Saul  in  his  blindness,  and,  after  re¬ 
storing  his  sight,  baptized  him.  (Acts  ix. 
10-18.)  (3)  A  high  -  priest,  appointed  by 
Herod,  King  of  Chalcis,  A.  D.  48.  He  was 
sent  to  Rome  to  be  tried  under  a  charge  of 
oppression  preferred  by  the  Samaritans, 
but  was  acquitted.  Paul  was  tried  before 
him.  (Acts  xxiv.  1.)  He  was  deposed  not 
long  after  this,  and  finally  murdered,  A.  D. 

67. 

Anaphora,  that  part  of  the  Liturgies  of 
the  Eastern  Churches  which  corresponds 
to  the  Canon  of  the  Mass  in  the  Western, 
and  contains  the  prayers  and  praises  con¬ 
nected  with  the  Acts  of  Consecration  and 
Communion.  The  corresponding  portion 
of  the  Liturgy  in  the  English  service  is 
that  which  begins  with  “  Lift  up  your 
hearts,”  and  ends  with  the  Benediction. 
It  is  the  most  ancient  part  of  the  Eucha¬ 
ristic  Service. — Benham. 

Anastasias,  the  name  of  four  popes  and 
one  antipope.  See  Popes. 

Anathema,  a  Greek  word  equivalent 
to  the  Hebrew  cherem ,  which  signified 
things  or  persons  so  set  apart,  or  devoted 
to  the  Lord,  for  the  purpose  of  destruction, 
that  they  could  not  be  redeemed.  (Josh, 
vi.  17.)  In  the  New  Testament  it  means 
accursed,  and  separated  from  the  church, 
and  at  an  early  date  became  the  technical 
term  for  a  form  of  excommunication. 
(Rom.  ix.  3;  1  Cor.  xvi.  22;  Gal.  i.  8.) 

Anato'lius,  bishop  of  Constantinople;  d. 
458.  He  is  the  author  of  several  hymns, 


the  best  known  of  which  is  the  one  begin¬ 
ning,  “  Fierce  was  the  wild  billow,”  trans¬ 
lated  by  John  Mason  Neale.  Hymns  of  the 
Eastern  Church  (London,  1863). 

Anchieta  ( an-she-d-ta )  Jose  de,  the  Jesuit 
“apostle  of  Brazil,”  b.  at  Laguna,  1533; 
d.  at  Retirygba,’June  9,  1597.  He  began 
his  labors  as  a  missionary  in  Brazil  in 
1553,  and  made  many  converts  among  the 
Indians,  and  prepared  a  grammar  of  their 
language  (1595),  still  in  use. 

Anchorites  or  Anachorites  (Gr.  ana- 
chorein ;  to  retire,  withdraw),  the  name 
given  to  the  hermits  who  lived  in  solitude 
that  they  might  practice  their  devotional 
exercises  without  distraction  of  any  kind. 
They  first  appear  in  the  second  and  third 
centuries.  Living  in  caves,  for  the  most 
part,  they  held  no  intercourse  with  others, 
partook  of  as  little  food  as  possible,  and 
prayed  in  silence.  Some,  who  were  known 
as  Stylites,  stood,  in  all  kinds  of  weather, 
on  high  hill-tops  or  columns.  Their 
sanctity  drew  many  to  visit  them,  and 
seek  their  blessing.  Sometimes,  with 
prophetic  zeal,  they  suddenly  appeared  in 
the  cities  with  messages  of  rebuke  and 
warning.  In  time  it  became  customary  for 
several  anchorites  to  unite  in  a  community, 
building  their  cells  about  a  chapel.  In 
this  way  the  anchorites  became  coenobites. 
A  few  anchorites  still  are  found  on  Mount 
Athos,  not  connected  with  the  monastery. 

Anderson,  Rufus,  D.  D. ,  LL.  D. ,  b.  Aug. 
17,  1796,  at  North  Yarmouth,  Me;  d.  May 
30,  1880,  at  Boston,  Mass.  He  was  gradu¬ 
ated  at  Bowdoin  College,  Me.,  in  1818,  and 
studied  at  Andover  Seminary,  1819-1822. 
He  became  an  assistant  to  the  corresponding 
secretary  of  the  American  Board  of  Com¬ 
missioners  for  Foreign  Missions  after  being- 
graduated  at  the  seminary ;  assistant  cor¬ 
responding  secretary  in  1824;  foreign  sec¬ 
retary,  1832.  This  position  he  held  until 
1866,  when  he  resigned,  because  he  was 
convinced  that  seventy  years  form  “  a  limit 
beyond  which  it  would  not  be  wise  for  him 
to  remain  in  so  arduous  a  position.”  Dr. 
Anderson  was  eminently  successful  as  an 
administrator,  and  wrote  several  volumes 
in  regard  to  mission  work  and  its  conduct. 
He  was  one  of  the  founders  of  Mount 
Holyoke  Seminary,  and  a  member  of  the 
Board  of  Trust  of  Andover  Seminary. 
Among  his  published  works  are:  Foreign 
Missions ,  their  Relations  and  Claims  { N.  Y., 
1869);  History  of  the  Missions  of  A.  B.  C. 
F.  M.  to  the  Oriental  Churches  (1872),  2 
vols.,  and  in  India  (1874). 

Andrea  (an-dra-a),  Jacob  (1528-90),  a 


And 


(  32  ) 


Ang 


\ 


German  theologian.  Educated  at  Stutt¬ 
gart  and  Tubingen,  he  returned  to  the  lat¬ 
ter  city  in  1548,  where  he  gained  reputa¬ 
tion  as  a  Protestant  preacher.  In  1562  he 
was  appointed  professor  of  theology,  pro¬ 
vost,  and  chancellor  of  the  University  of 
Tubingen.  He  was  an  active  and  ardent 
leader  of  the  Lutherans,  and  was  indefati¬ 
gable  in  his  efforts  to  unite  the  various 
parties  whose  differences  threatened  the 
cause  of  Protestantism.  He  was  promi¬ 
nent  in  the  conferences  that  led  to  the 
preparation  of  the  Forttiula  Concordia , 
which  was  accepted  as  one  of  the  symbol¬ 
ical  books  of  the  Lutheran  Church.  An¬ 
drea  was  the  author  of  more  than  a  hun¬ 
dred  and  fifty  works,  most  of  which  are 
polemical. 

Andrewes,  Lancelot,  b.  in  London,  1555; 
d.  at  Winchester,  Sept.  25,  1626.  A  grad¬ 
uate  of  Cambridge,  he  became  master  of 
Pembroke  Hall,  Chaplain  to  the  Queen, 
dean  of  Westminster,  1601;  bishop  of  Chi¬ 
chester,  1605;  of  Ely  in  1609;  and  of  Win¬ 
chester  in  1618.  He  was  a  very  learned 
and  influential  prelate,  and  was  appointed 
first  on  the  list  of  the  King  James’  Bible 
Revisers  (1607-11).  He  published  ninety- 
six  sermons,  an  edition  of  which  is  given 
in  the  Anglo-Catholic  Library,  Oxford, 
1841-43.  These  are  “  full  of  learned  the¬ 
ology  and  rich  in  devotional  thought,”  but 
his  best-known  work  is  his  Private  Devo¬ 
tions  (latest  edition,  London,  1883). 

An'drew  ( manly ),  one  of  the  twelve  dis¬ 
ciples,  the  son  of  Jonas  and  brother  of  Si¬ 
mon  Peter.  The  incidents  of  his  life,  as 
recorded  in  the  gospels,  are  found  in  Matt, 
iv.  18-20;  Mark  xiii.  3;  John  i.  35-40;  vi. 
3-13;  xii.  22.  According  to  tradition,  An¬ 
drew  preached  in  Scythia,  Greece,  and 
Asia  Minor,  where  he  was  crucified  upon 
a  cross  which,  from  its  peculiar  shape  (X), 
is  named  St.  Andrew’s  cross.  St.  Andrew’s 
Day  is  Nov.  30. 

Angel  (Gr.  angelos).  This  word  has  the 
original  sense  of  “  messenger,”  but  in  the 
Old  and  New  Testaments  it  always  means 
a  Divine  messenger,  or  messenger  sent  by 
God.  Thus  our  Lord  is  called  “  the  Mes¬ 
senger,”  or  Angel, “  of  the  Covenant”  (Mai. 
iii.  1);  St.  John  the  Baptist  “  the  messen¬ 
ger,”  or  angel, “of  God”  (Mai.  iii.  1 ;  comp. 
Matt.  xi.  10);  and  a  certain  class  of  bishops 
“  Angels  of  the  Churches.”  (Rev.  i.  20.) 
But  the  most  common  sense  in  which  the 
word  “  angel  ”  is  used  is  to  designate  a 
created  being  of  a  different  nature  from 
that  of  men,  and  one  having  special  minis¬ 
trations  to  perform  toward  God  and  toward 
man. 


The  Nature  and  For?n  of  Angels. — That 
the  angelic  nature  is  not  the  same  as  human 
nature  is  declared  by  St.  Paul,  when  he  says 
that  the  Son  of  God  did  not  take  hold  of 
angels  by  assuming  their  nature,  but  took 
hold  of  the  seed  of  Abraham,  thus  assum¬ 
ing  human  nature  (Heb.  ii.  16);  words 
which  imply  that  the  two  natures  are  differ¬ 
ent.  He  also  says  that  angels  are  “  spirits 
engaged  in  sacred  service”  (Heb.  i.  14); 
words  which  imply  that  angels  live  under 
the  condition  of  spiritual  beings,  not  that 
of  corporeal  beings.  The  experience  of 
those  who  have  seen,  or  have  been  visited 
by,  angels  has  been  that  those  who  have 
been  seen  on  earth  have  had  the  human 
form,  but  that  they  have  appeared  and  dis¬ 
appeared,  descended  from  above  and  as¬ 
cended  thither  again,  in  a  manner  which 
shows  that  they  are  not  subject  to  the  laws 
affecting  material  substances  as,  or  to  the 
same  extent  as,  human  beings  are.  Yet 
these  angelic  spirits  seem  to  have  some 
bodily  substance  as  well  as  bodily  form,  by 
means  of  which  they  are  capable  of  per¬ 
forming  acts  in  a  similar  manner  to  that  in 
which  they  are  performed  by  material  be¬ 
ings.  Such  appears  to  be  the  natural  in¬ 
ference  to  be  drawn  from  statements  re¬ 
specting  angels  at  different  periods — that 
they  “  put  forth  their  hand  and  pulled  Lot 
into  the  house  to  them,  and  shut  to  the 
door;”  or,  “laid  hold  upon  his  hand,  and 
upon  the  hand  of  his  wife,  and  upon  the 
hand  of  his  two  daughters,”  and  led  them 
out  of  the  city  (Gen.  xix.  10,  16);  or,  par¬ 
took  of  the  food  which  Abraham  and  Lot 
prepared  for  them  (Gen.  xviii.  8;  xix.  3); 
or,  “  rolled  back  the  stone  from  the  door,” 
of  the  Holy  Sepulchre,  “  and  sat  upon  it  ” 
(Matt,  xxviii.  2);  or,  “  smote  Peter  on  the 
side  and  raised  him  up  ”  (Acts  xii.  7);  or, 
spoke  with  audible  voices  in  human  lan¬ 
guage. 

As  to  their  form,  it  is  evident  that  when¬ 
ever  angels  have  become  visible  upon 
earth  they  have  appeared  in  the  form  of 
human  beings,  though  mostly  with  some 
special  signs  of  celestial  brightness  and 
glory  that  distinguished  them  from  human 
beings.  Thus,  those  who  appeared  to  Abra¬ 
ham  in  the  plains  of  Mamre  are  spoken  of 
as  “three  men.”  (Gen.  xvi.  7;  xviii.  2,  3; 
xxii.  16;  xxxii.  24.)  So,  also,  Ezekiel  saw 
a  vision  of  six  destroying  angels  coming  to 
Jerusalem  in  the  form  of  “  six  men”  (Ezek. 
ix.  2);  and  in  later  ages  Zacharias  and  the 
Blessed  Virgin  saw  the  angel  Gabriel  in 
human  form,  and  heard  him  speak  to  them 
with  human  voice.  (Luke  i.  11-20,  26-38.) 
So  the  holy  women  at  the  Sepulchre  saw  “a 
vision  of  angels  ”  as  “  two  men,”  who  stood 
by  them  in  shining  garments  (Luke  xxiv. 
4.  23),  whom  Mary  Magdalene  had  seen  as 


An  g 


Ang 


(  33  ) 


“  two  angels  in  white  sitting,  the  one  at  the 
head,  and  the  other  at  the  feet,  where  the 
body  of  Jesus  had  lain  ”  (John  xx.  12),  and 
one  of  whom  had  been  seen  by  the  sentinels 
as  he  “descended  from  heaven,  and  came 
and  rolled  back  the  stone  from  the  door 
and  sat  upon  it,  his  countenance  ”  being 
“  like  lightning,  and  his  raiment  white  as 
snow.”  (Matt,  xxviii.  2,  3.)  Of  a  similar 
appearance  and  form  were  the  angels  who 
appeared  to  the  Apostles  at  the  time  of  our 
Lord’s  ascension  (Acts  i.  10);  those  who 
appeared  to  Cornelius  (Acts.  x.  3),  and  to 
St.  Peter  in  his  prison  (Acts.  xii.  7-10);  and 
those  whom  St.  John  saw  in  his  Apocalyp¬ 
tic  visions.  (Rev.  viii.  2,  3;  x.  1,  10;  xvi. 
1,6;  xxi.  9,  17;  xxii.  8,9.)  But  the  human 
form  is  not  invariably  attributed  to  angels, 
for  we  must  regard  as  angels  those  beings 
who  minister  before  God  as  Seraphim  (Isa. 
vi.  2-4),  and  Cherubim  (Ezek.  i.  4-25;  Rev. 
iv.  6-8),  living  creatures  (or  created  beings, 
as  distinguished  from  the  Uncreated  Divine 
Being),  whose  mysterious  form  and  glory 
transcends  the  power  of  human  language 
to  describe,  unless  it  may  be  generally 
spoken  of  as  that  of  winged  men  with  feat¬ 
ures  taken  from  some  of  the  noblest  of 
animal  beings  of  a  lower  order. 

The  general  conclusion  to  be  drawn  re¬ 
specting  the  nature  and  form  of  angels 
seems  to  be  that  they  are  spirits  embodied 
in  some  pure  corporeal  substance  of  a 
highly  attenuated  kind,  which  is  not  sub¬ 
ject  to  the  ordinary  laws  of  matter;  that 
those  have  most  frequently  been  seen  on 
earth  which  are  in  human  form,  but  that 
others  exist  which  have  other  forms  also, 
and  that  all  belong  to  that  order  of  creation 
to  which  the  “spiritual  body”  of  the  resur¬ 
rection  will  belong  (1  Cor.  xv.  44) — beings 
whose  natural  abode  is  heaven,  and  whose 
nature  is  fitted  to  the  conditions  of  life 
there. 

The  Ministration  of  Angels  Toward  God. 
— Whenever  there  has  been  a  revelation 
of  the  manner  in  which  angels  are  engag¬ 
ed  in  heaven,  they  have  always  appear¬ 
ed  in  the  immediate  Presence  of  God, 
bearing  up  His  throne  of  glory,  as  the 
Cherubim  (Ezek.  i.  26;  x.  1);  perpetually 
adoring  Him,  like  the  Seraphim  hovering 
above  it  (Isa.  vi.  1-3);  “  standing  by  Him 
on  His  right  hand  and  on  His  left”  (1  Kings 
xxii.  19),  “thousand  thousands”  that  “min¬ 
istered  unto  Him,  and  ten  thousand  times 
ten  thousand”  that  “stood  before  him” 
(Dan.vii.  9,  10),  waiting  to  go  forth  whither¬ 
soever  He  should  send  them;  and  all  a 
myriad  of  adoring  spirits,  “  the  number”  of 
whom  “  was  ten  thousand  times  ten  thou¬ 
sand  and  thousands  of  thousands”  singing, 
“  Worthy  is  the  Lamb  that  was  slain  to  re¬ 
ceive  power,  and  riches,  and  wisdom,  and 


strength,  and  honor,  and  glory,  and  bless¬ 
ing.”  (Rev.  v.  11,  12.)  The  general  picture 
presented  to  our  minds  is  that  of  a  vast  an¬ 
gelic  host,  continually  attendant  on  the 
Divine  Presence;  constantly  engaged  in 
acts  of  adoration  and  praise,  and  ever  wait¬ 
ing  to  do  willing  and  obedient  service  to 
Him  whom  they  adore.  The  old  devotional 
theology  of  the  Church  loved  to  represent 
these  Hosts  of  God  as  consisting  of  Nine 
Orders  of  Angels,  namely:  Seraphim  (Isa* 
vi.  2),  Cherubbn  (Ezek.  i.  5),  Thronesy 
Dominions ,  Principalities ,  Powers ,  Mights 
(Col.  i.  16;  Rom.  viii.  38;  Eph.  i.  21 ;  iii.  10), 
Archangels  (Tobit  xiii.  15;  1  Thess.  iv.  16; 
Jude  9),  and  Angels.  So  from  before  her 
altars  the  hymn  of  praise  continually  min¬ 
gled  with  that  on  high,  “  Therefore  with 
Angels  and  Archangels,  and  with  all  the 
company  of  Heaven,  we  laud  and  magnify 
Thy  glorious  Name;  evermore  praising 
Thee,  and  saying,  Holy,  Holy,  Holy,  Lord 
God  of  Hosts,  Heaven  and  Earth  are  full 
of  Thy  Glory:  Glory  be  to  Thee,  O  Lord 
most  High.” 

The  Ministration  of  Angels  Toward  Men. 
— But  for  twelve  or  thirteen  centuries 
the  faith  of  the  Christian  world  has  also 
been  expressed  in  words  of  prayer,  as  well 
as  of  praise.  “  O  everlasting  God,  Who 
hast  ordained  and  constituted  the  services 
of  Angels  and  Men  in  a  wonderful  order; 
Mercifully  grant,  that  as  Thy  holy  Angels 
always  do  Thee  service  in  Heaven,  so  by 
Thy  appointment  they  may  succor  and  de¬ 
fend  us  on  earth,  through  Jesus  Christ  our 
Lord.”  This  belief  is  in  strict  accordance 
with  the  well-known  words  of  St.  Paul, 
“  Are  they  not  all  ministering  spirits,  sent 
forth  to  minister  for  them  who  shall  be 
heirs  of  salvation  ?”  (Heb.  i.  14),  and. with 
many  instances  of  such  ministrations  re¬ 
corded  in  Holy  Scripture. 

From  these  instances  we  may  gather 
that  the  angels  are  sometimes  sent  forth 
among  men  on  special  and  extraordinary 
missions:  as  when  they  were  sent  forth  as 
messengers  from  God  to  Lot,  or  to  Jacob, 
or  to  the  prophets  of  the  Old  Testament, 
or  to  the  Seer  of  the  New  Testament,  or  to 
those  appointed  to  special  service — as  the 
Apostles. 

But  there  is  abundant  evidence,  also,  in 
Holy  Scripture  that  there  are  many  ordi¬ 
nary  ministrations  in  which  the  Angel  of  the 
Lord  encampeth  round  about  them  that 
fear  Him,  as  the  hosts  of  Mahanaim  did 
around  Jacob  (Psa.  xxxiv.  7),  and  in  which 
the  words  spoken  respecting  Christ  are  ful¬ 
filled  in  respect  to  His  members/1  He  shall 
give  His  Angels  charge  over  thee,  to  keep 
thee  in  all  thy  ways.”  (Psa.  xci.  11;  comp. 
Matt.  iv.  6.)  Ever  and  anon  they  manifested 
their  presence  round  the  Holy  Jesus,  as 


Ang 


Ang 


(  34  ) 


when  Gabriel,  the  angel  of  the  Incarnation, 
was  sent  to  Zacharias  to  warn  him  of  the 
comingbirthof  Christ’s  Forerunner  (Luke  i. 
11-20);  and  to  the  Virgin  Mary  to  announce 
her  maternity  as  the  mother  of  Him  whom 
the  Forerunner  heralded  (Luke  i.  26-38); 
and  to  Joseph,  bidding  him  take  the  Lord’s 
mother  for  his  wife  (Matt.  i.  20,  21);  and  to 
the  shepherds  to  tell  them  of  the  glad  ti¬ 
dings  which  they  were  presently  afterward 
to  hear  proclaimed  by  a  multitude  of  the 
heavenly  host  (Luke  ii.  9-14);  and  to 
Joseph  again,  to  guide  him  in  his  care  of 
the  Holy  Child.  (Matt.  ii.  13-19.)  Such 
ministrations  to  the  Child  Jesus  lead  to  the 
belief  that  there  is  sound  truth  in  the  old 
Christian  conviction  that  little  children  are 
specially  under  the  guardianship  of  the 
angels,  and  that  our  Lord’s  own  words  are 
to  be  accepted  in  a  literal  sense:  “  Take 
heed  that  ye  despise  not  one  of  these  little 
ones;  for  I  say  unto  you,  That  in  heaven 
their  angels  do  always  behold  the  face  of 
my  Father  which  is  in  heaven.”  (Matt, 
xviii.  10.)  And  tender  thoughts  of  com¬ 
forting  faith  may  thus  be  suggested  to 
parents  in  regard  to  their  little  ones  who 
have  been  made  children  of  God  and  heirs 
of  salvation. 

Later  on  in  His  holy  life,  when  the 
Fasting  and  Temptation  of  our  Lord — the 
trial  of  His  spiritual  life — had  weakened 
His  human  nature,  “angels  came  and  min¬ 
istered  unto  Him”  (Matt.  iv.  11);  and  in 
the  depression  of  His  agony  “  there  ap¬ 
peared  an  angel  unto  Him  from  heaven, 
strengthening  Him.”  (Luke  xxii.  43.)  They 
ministered  to  Hirnalso  at  the  Resurrection 
(Luke  xxiv.  23;  Johnxx.  12);  and  when  He 
ascended  up  on  high,  the  chariot  of  the 
Cherubim  received  Him  out  of  the  Apos¬ 
tles’  sight,  and  multitudes  of  the  heavenly 
host  surrounded  Him,  singing  some  such 
strain  as  “  Lift  up  your  heads,  O  ye  gates, 
and  be  ye  lifted  up,  ye  everlasting  doors; 
and  the  King  of  Glory  shall  come  in.”  (Psa. 
xxiv.  9.)  So,  it  may  be  devoutly  and  rev¬ 
erently  hoped,  are  the  “  ministering  spirits 
sent  forth  to  minister  for  them  who  shall 
be  heirs  of  salvation.”  Such  ministrations 
are  more  than  implied  in  the  words, “There 
is  joy  in  the  presence  of  the  angels  of  God 
over  one  sinner  that  repenteth  ”  (Luke  xv. 
10);  in  the  succor  which  angels  gave  to  St. 
Peter,  St.  Paul,  and  St.  Silas  (Acts.  xii.  7- 
10);  in  the  charge  which  St.  Paul  gives  to 
Timothy,  not  only  “  before  God  and  Christ 
Jesus,”  but  also  before  “  the  elect  angels  ” 
(1  Tim.  v.  21);  in  the  assuring  words 
which  “ an  Angel  of  God”  spoke  to  Corne¬ 
lius,  “Thy  prayers  and  thine  alms  are  come 
up  for  a  memorial  before  God;”  and  in  the 
directions  which  the  same  Angel  gave  to 
him  respecting  the  means  by  which  he  was 


to  attain  to  a  higher  state  of  grace.  (Acts, 
x.  4-6.) 

It  has  also  been  revealed  by  our  Lord 
Himself,  in  His  parable  of  the  Rich  Man 
and  Lazarus  (Luke  xvi.  22),  that  when  the 
souls  of  those  who  die  in  His  faith,  fear, 
and  love,  go  forth  into  the  world  of  spirits, 
they  do  not  go  forth  alone  and  in  darkness, 
but  are  received  by  the  hands  of  the  angels 
appointed  to  minister  to  them.  And  in 
such  a  light  as  the  presence  of  angels  brings 
from  their  abode  of  light,  the  souls  of  God’s 
children  are  carried  onward  toa  better  light, 
the  light  of  Christ’s  own  Presence  in  Para¬ 
dise. —  Benham:  Dictionary  of  Religion. 

Angel  of  the  Church.  (Rev.  ii.  1.)  “The 
only  true  interpretation  of  this  phrase  is 
the  one  which  makes  the  angels  the  rulers 
and  teachers  of  the  congregation,  so  called 
because  they  were  the  ambassadors  of  God 
to  the  churches,  and  on  them  devolved  the 
pastoral  care  and  government.” — Schaff: 
Bible  Dictionary. 

Angelicals,  an  order  of  nuns  founded  at 
Milan  about  1530  by  Louisa,  the  wealthy 
Countess  of  Guastella.  They  followed  the 
rule  of  St.  Augustine.  It  no  longer  exists. 

Angelic  Hymn,  the  “  Gloria  in  Excelsis.” 
See  Gloria  in  Excelsis. 

Angelic  Salutation,  the  words  of  the 
Archangel  Gabriel  to  the  Virgin  Mary 
when  announcing  the  incarnation  of  the 
Son  of  God  through  her  means.  (Luke  i.  28.) 

Angelus,  a  Roman  Catholic  devotion 
which  gathered  around  the  ancient  form  of 
the  “Hail  Mary”  (angelic  salutation)  in 
the  beginning  of  the  sixteenth  century, 
in  the  following  form:  “  The  angel  of  the 
Lord  announced  unto  Mary,  and  she  con¬ 
ceived  of  the  Holy  Ghost.  Hail,  thou  that 
art  highly  favored,  the  Lord  is  with  thee; 
blessed  art  thou  among  women,  and  blessed 
is  the  fruit  of  thy  womb,  Jesus.  Holy 
Mary,  Mother  of  God,  pray  for  us  sinners, 
now  and  at  the  hour  of  our  death.  Amen. 
Behold  the  handmaid  of  the  Lord;  be  it 
done  unto  me  according  to  thy  word.  Hail, 
Mary,  thou  that  art,”  etc.  “And  the  Word 
was  made  Flesh,  and  dwelt  among  us.  Hail, 
Mary,  thou  that  art,”  etc.  “  We  beseech 
thee,  O  Lord,  pour  thy  grace  <into  our 
hearts,  that  as  we  have  known  the  Incarna¬ 
tion  of  thy  Son,  Jesus  Christ,  by  the  mes¬ 
sage  of  an  angel,  so  by  His  cross  and  pas¬ 
sion  we  may  be  brought  unto  the  glory  of 
His  Resurrection;  through  the  same  Jesus 
Christ  our  Lord.  Amen.”  This  memorial 
of  the  Incarnation  is  said  three  times  a  day 
— in  the  early  morning,  at  noon,  and  in  the 


An  g 


Ann 


(  35  ) 


•evening,  by  strict  Roman  Catholics,  and 
one  of  the  church  bells,  called  the  “  An- 
gelus  Bell,”  is  rung  to  give  warning  of  the 
time  for  the  devotion,  which  is  said  wher¬ 
ever  persons  may  happen  to  be. 

Arigilbert,  St.,  the  friend  of  Charlemagne, 
and  the  most  distinguished  poet  of  his  age. 
Having  married  Bertha,  the  daughter  of 
Charlemagne,  he  retired  in  790  to  the  mon¬ 
astery  of  St.  Centule,  now  St.  Riquier,  of 
wrhich  he  was  made  abbot  in  794.  He  was 
called  the  Homer  of  his  time.  He  d.  in  814. 

Anglican,  a  distinctive  name  given  in  re¬ 
cent  times  to  High-Churchmen,  who  con¬ 
sider  that  the  doctrine  and  ritual  of  the 
Church  of  England  are  strictly  those  of  the 
Post-Reformation  Church  of  England. 

Anglo-Catholics,  a  designation  frequent¬ 
ly  assumed  by  the  earlier  members  of 
the  High-Church  party  to  indicate  their 
community  of  faith  and  practice  with  the 
churches  in  open  communion  with  Rome, 
and  with  the  Catholic  Churches  of  the  East 
and  West,  rather  than  with  Protestants. 

Anglo-Saxons,  Conversion  of  the.  See 
Church  of  England. 

Angus,  Joseph,  D.  D.  (Brown  Univer¬ 
sity,  1852),  Baptist;  b.  at  Bolam,  North¬ 
umberland,  England,  Jan.  16,  1816.  He 
was  graduated  at  Edinburgh  University 
in  1838,  and  became  pastor  of  the  New 
Park  Street  Baptist  Church,  London,  in  the 
same  year;  secretary  of  the  Baptist  Mis¬ 
sionary  Society  in  1842,  and  president  of 
Regent’s  Park  College  in  1849,  where  he 
has  since  remained.  Of  his  published 
'works  The  Bible  Hand-Book  (1854)  has  had 
a  large  circulation  in  the  United  States. 

An'imal.  The  distinction  made  by  the 
Hebrews  between  clean  and  unclean  ani¬ 
mals,  and  their  use  in  sacrifice  and  food,  is 
given  in  Lev.  xi. 

Anna,  St.,  the  name,  according  to  tra¬ 
dition,  of  the  mother  of  the  Virgin  Mary. 
She  was  the  daughter  of  Matthan  the 
priest,  who  lived  in  Bethlehem.  Her  hus¬ 
band  was  a  Galilean,  named  Joachim,  and 
they  had  been  married  many  years  before 
the  Virgin  Mary  was  born.  They  lived  at 
Nazareth.  As  early  as  the  fourth  century 
St.  Anna  was  deeply  venerated  by  the 
Eastern  Church.  She  is  commemorated  by 
the  Greek  Church  on  three  days,  Sept.  4, 
as  her  festival;  Dec.  9,  as  the  day  of  her 
conception;  July  25,  as  that  of  her  death. 
The  Roman  Catholic  Church  and  the 
Church  of  England  commemorate  her  on 


July  26.  In  sacred  art  St.  Anna  is  usually 
represented  as  teaching  the  Virgin  Mary 
to  read  the  Old  Testament  Scriptures. 

An'nas,  a  high-priest  of  the  Jews.  “  He 
was  the  son  of  one  Seth,  and  was  appointed 
high-priest  in  the  year  a.  d.  7,  by  Quirinus, 
the  imperial  governor  of  Syria;  but  was 
obliged  by  Valerius  Gratus,  procurator  of 
Judaea,  to  give  way  to  Ismael,  son  of 
Phabi,  at  the  beginning  of  the  reign  of  Ti¬ 
berius,  A.  D.  14.  But  soon  Ismael  was  suc¬ 
ceeded  by  Eleazar,  son  of  Annas;  then  fol¬ 
lowed,  after  one  year,  Simon,  son  of  Cam- 
ithus,  and  then,  after  another  year  (about 
A.  D.  25),  Joseph  Caiaphas,  son-in-law  of 
Annas.  (John  xviii.  13.)  But  in  Luke  iii. 
2,  Annas  and  Caiaphas  are  both  called 
high-priests,  Annas  being  mentioned  first. 
Our  Lord’s  first  hearing  (John  xviii.  15) 
was  before  Annas,  who  then  sent  him 
bound  to  Caiaphas.  In  Acts  iv.  6,  Annas 
is  plainly  called  the  high-priest,  and  Caia¬ 
phas  merely  named  with  others  of  his 
family.  It  is  no  easy  matter  to  give  an 
account  of  the  seemingly  capricious  ap¬ 
plications  of  this  title.  Some  maintain 
that  the  two,  Annas  and  Caiaphas,  were  to¬ 
gether  at  the  head  of  the  Jewish  people — 
Caiaphas  as  actual  high-priest,  Annas  as 
president  of  the  Sanhedrim.  Others  again 
suppose  that  Annas  held  the  office  of 
sagan,  or  substitute  of  the  high-priest, 
mentioned  by  the  later  Talmudists.  He 
lived  to  old  age,  having  had  five  sons  high- 
priests.” — Smith:  Did.  of  the  Bible. 

Annates,  the  first  year’s  income  of  an 
ecclesiastical  benefice.  They  were  also 
known  as  “  First  Fruits,”  and  this  is  the 
name  by  which  the  payment  is  known  at 
the  present  time.  Before  the  separation 
of  the  Church  of  England  from  the  Roman 
Church  this  tax  was  paid  to  the  pope. 
Afterward  it  was  paid  to  the  Crown,  but 
in  the  reign  of  Queen  Anne  this  revenue 
was  placed  in  the  hands  of  commission¬ 
ers  under  the  name  of  “  Queen  Anne’s 
Bounty  ”  to  increase  the  income  of  poorly 
endowed  benefices. 

Annihilationism  is  that  theory  which 
holds  that  the  everlasting  punishment  of 
the  wicked  consists  in  utter  destruction, 
annihilation.  This  view  has  found  some 
earnest  advocates,  and  numbers  many  be¬ 
lievers.  It  is  held  by  many  Adventists 
as  a  part  of  their  creed.  See  Richard 
Whately:  A  View  of  the  Scripture  Revela¬ 
tions  Concerning  a  Futtire  State  (London, 
1832);  Hudson:  Debt  and  Grace  as  related  to 
the  Doctrine  of  a  Future  State{  1857);  White: 
Life  in  Christ  (1875);  Pettingill:  Theolog - 
ica  l  T rileni  ma . 


Ann 


(36) 


Ant 


Annunciation.  This  festival,  which  com¬ 
memorates  the  visit  of  the  Angel  Gabriel 
to  the  Virgin  Mary  (Luke  i.  26,  sqq.),  is 
celebrated  on  March  25. 

Anointing,  in  the  East,  early  came  into 
use  (1)  as  a  means  of  health.  The  entire 
body  or  head  was  covered  with  an  aromatic 
oil,  the  application,  as  a  rule,  being  made 
in  connection  with  the  bath.  (2)  Guests 
and  strangers  were  anointed  upon  the 
head  as  a  token  of  honor.  (Psa.  xxiii.  5; 
Luke  vii.  46.)  (3)  As  a  symbol  of  con¬ 

secration  the  Jews,  from  the  time  of  the 
exodus,  practised  anointing  those  who  were 
set  apart  to  be  prophets,  priests,  and 
kings.  The  titles  Messiah  and  Christ ,  both 
signifying  anointing,  are  applied  .to  the 
Savior  in  his  character  of  prophet,  priest, 
and  king.  Anointing,  as  a  symbolic  ser¬ 
vice,  is  now  used  in  connection  with  many 
rites  and  ceremonials  in  the  Roman,  Greek, 
and  Episcopal  churches.  See  Extreme 
Unction. 

Anomceans,  the  most  extreme  party  of 
the  Arians,  so  named  from  its  distinctive 
tenet,  that  the  Second  Person  of  the  Holy 
Trinity  is  entirely  unlike  to  the  First  Per¬ 
son  in  essence  or  substance.  See  Arius. 

Anselm,  St.,  Archbishop  of  Canterbury, 
and  one  of  the  greatest  of  scholastic  phil¬ 
osophers  and  theologians;  b.  at  or  near 
Aosta,  in  Piedmont,  in  1033;  d.  at  Canter¬ 
bury,  April  21,  1109.  The  son  of  wealthy 
parents  his  early  life  was  checkered  in  ex¬ 
perience.  The  fame  of  Lanfrance  attracted 
him  to  the  monastery  of  Bee,  where,  at  the 
age  of  twenty-seven,  he  became  a  monk. 
Three  years  later  he  became  prior,  and  in 
1078  abbot  of  the  monastery,  then  the 
most  renowned  school  of  the  eleventh 
century.  After  the  death  of  Lanfrance  the 
Archbishopric  of  Canterbury  remained 
vacant  for  four  years,  when  the  serious  ill¬ 
ness  of  the  king,  William  Rufus,  led  him 
to  send  for  Anselm,  whom  he  nominated, 
and  urged  to  accept  the  vacant  see.  He 
did  so  with  the  understanding  that  the  king 
should  give  up  all  the  revenues  and  pos¬ 
sessions  of  the  see.  This  he  was  loath  to 
do.  Anselm  insisted  that  his  Pallium ,  or 
robe  of  office,  should  be  given  by  Pope 
Urban,  but  William  would  not  permit  this, 
as  he  favored  the  antipope  Clement. 
These  differences  resulted  in  a  conflict, 
which  revealed  the  resolute  and  vigorous 
character  of  Anselm,  and  had  an  important 
influence  in  the  progress  of  events  that  cul¬ 
minated  in  the  organization  and  independ¬ 
ent  authority  of  the  Church  of  England. 
In  close  alliance  with  Rome,  much  of  the 
time  an  exile  from  his  see,  Anselm  labored 


to  free  the  ecclesiastical  power  in  England 
from  the  control  of  the  Throne,  and  at  the 
same  time  favored  the  usurpations  and 
dominance  of  the  popes  of  Rome.  During 
a  period  of  voluntary  exile  from  Canter¬ 
bury  he  finished  his  great  treatise  on  the 
atonement,  Cur  Deus  ho?no.  He  was'  one 
of  the  first  and  ablest  of  the  schoolmen. 
Holding  fast  to  the  doctrines  of  the  church 
as  stated  by  Augustine,  he  still  affirmed 
that,  while  faith  must  precede  knowledge, 
every  effort  should  be  made  to  demonstrate 
by  reason  the  truth  of  what  we  believe. 
Among  the  schoolmen  Anselm  has  been 
styled  the  head  of  the  orthodox  or  realistic 
party.  Translations  of  his  Cur  Deus  hotner 
and  Proslogium  are  given  in  the  Bibliotheca 
Sacra ,  vols.  viii.,  ix.,  xii.  See  his  Life  by 
Dean  Church  (London,  1875).  See  Atone¬ 
ment. 

Anselm  of  Laon,  a  famous  theologian,. 
b.atLaon;  d.1117.  He  is  said  to  have  been 
a  pupil  of  St.  Anselm  at  Bee.  He  taught 
at  Paris  about  1076,  and  then  became  the 
head  of  a  school  of  theology  in  his  native 
place  that  was  the  most  famous  in  Europe. 
His  greatest  work  was  an  interlinear  gloss 
of  the  Vulgate,  which  has  been  frequently 
reprinted. 

Ansgar,  called  the  “apostle  of  the 
North,”  because  of  his  labors  to  intro¬ 
duce  Christianity  into  Scandinavia  ;  b. 
Sept.  9,  801,  in  the  diocese  of  Amiens;  d. 
in  Bremen,  Feb.  3,  865.  He  was  edu¬ 
cated  in  the  monastery  of  Corbie,  and  in 
826  entered  upon  his  labors  in  Jutland  as 
missionary  among  the  Danes.  In  831  he 
was  appointed  bishop  of  Hamburg,  and  in 
864  he  became  archbishop  of  Scandinavia. 
In  the  face  of  great  difficulties  and  the 
fierce  opposition  of  the  heathen  Danes, 
Ansgar,  in  his  life-time,  saw  Christianity 
gain  a  strong  hold  among  this  people. 

Antependium,  the  cloth  which  hangs  in 
front  of  the  altar. 

Anthologion,  the  name  of  one  of  the 
church-books  of  the  Greek  Church  contain¬ 
ing  the  prayers,  hymns,  and  scripture 
readings  to  be  chanted  on  feast  and  saints' 
days. 

Anthony,  St.,  the  founder  of  monasti- 
cism;  b.  in  the  village  of  Coma  in  Egypt, 
251;  d.  in  the  desert  near  the  Red  Sea  in 
356.  Falling  heir  to  a  large  fortune,  he 
distributed  it  among  his  neighbors  and  the 
poor,  and  devoted  himself  to  a  life  of 
asceticism.  Many  followed  him  to  his  re¬ 
treat  at  Fayoom,  and,  building  their  cells 
near  his,  formed  the  first  monastic  com- 


Ant 


^  (  37  ) 


Ant 


munity.  When  nearly  a  hundred  years 
old  he  visited  Alexandria,  and  took  part  in 
the  controversy  with  the  Arians,  dying 
soon  after  his  return.  According  to  tradi¬ 
tion  many  miracles  were  wrought  by  him, 
especially,  in  the  cure  of  “  sacred  fire,” 
afterwards  called  “St.  Anthony’s  fire” 
(erysipelas).  For  this  reason  he  is  gen¬ 
erally  represented  with  a  fire  by  his  side. 
His  sore  temptation  by  the  devil  in  early 
life,  and  his  meeting  with  St.  Paul,  have 
been  made  the  subject  of  celebrated  paint¬ 
ings.  Seven  Latin  translations  of  his  let¬ 
ters  are  extant.  His  day  is  celebrated  Jan. 
17.  See  Monasticism. 

Anthony,  St.,  Order  of,  an  order  of 
monks  established  in  the  eleventh  century 
for  nursing  persons  afflicted  with  “  St. 
Anthony’s  fire.”  At  the  time  of  the 
Reformation  the  order  had  fallen  into  dis¬ 
repute,  and  in  1774  it  was  united  with  the 
Malthese,  and  with  that  order  was  finally 
dissolved. 

Anthony  of  Padua,  a  great  Franciscan 
preacher;  b.  at  Lisbon,  Aug.  15,  1195;  d. 
at  Padua,  1231,  and  was  canonized  in  the 
following  year. 

Anthropology  {the  doctrine  of  man).  See 
Theology. 

Anthropomorphism  is  a  term  which  de¬ 
notes  those  views  which  represent  God  as 
possessed  of  corporeal  and  human  prop¬ 
erties. 

Anthropomorphites.  See  Audiens. 

Antiburghers,  the  name  given  those  in 
the  Secession  Church  of  Scotland  who 
denied,  on  the  grounds  of  conscience,  the 
lawfulness  of  the  oath  administered  to 
burghesses  in  Edinburgh,  Glasgow,  and 
Perth.  See  Secessionists. 

Antichrist.  “  The  word  occurs  in  the 
New  Testament  only  in  the  Epistles  of 
John;  but  the  idea — an  antitype  to  the 
Messiah,  a  worldly  power  working  against 
lthe  divine  scheme  of  salvation,  the  last  and 
greatest  enemy  which  the  Saviour  of  man¬ 
kind  has  to  defeat — is  often  referred  to  in 
the  eschatological  discourses  of  the  Gospels 
(Matt.  xxiv.  15,  sqq.),  in  the  Epistles  of 
Paul  (2  Thess.  ii.  3),  in  Revelation  (xvi. , 
xvii.);  and  it  has  its  roots  in  the  Old  Testa¬ 
ment.  (Ezek.  xxxviii.,  xxxix. ;  Dan.  xi.) 
The  idea  is  apocalyptic  in  its  whole  charac¬ 
ter — dim,  giving  only  one  vague  glimpse 
of  what  is  to  happen  when  the  time  has 
come,  and  yet  full  of  warning,  and,  by  its 
fitness  for  application,  offering  a  clew  to 


the  meaning  of  the  passing  times.  Daniel 
seems  to  apply  it  to  Antiochus  Epiphanes; 
the  Revelation  to  Nero — if  the  interpreta¬ 
tion  of  the  cabalistic  figure  666  is  correct — 
the  Christians  of  the  eighth  century  to 
Mohammed;  the  reformers  to  the  pope — 
the  idea  involving  hostility  to  Christ,  and 
false  teaching  ;  Hengstenberg  and  his 
school  to  that  combination  of  social  radi¬ 
calism  and  military  despotism  which  char¬ 
acterized  the  government  of  Napoleon  III. ; 
Godet,  Martensen,  and  others,  to  that 
merely  negative  liberalism,  which,  accom¬ 
panied  by  an  almost  cynical  sensualism, 
works  in  modern  civilization  as  a  most 
baneful  agency  of  demoralization.” — M. 
Kahler,in  Schaff-Herzog:  Ency.  ,vol.  i,p.g2. 

Antidicomarianites  (« opposers  of  Mary),  a 
sect  which  flourished  in  the  latter  part  of 
the  fourth  century.  They  maintained  that 
Mary  had  other  children  than  our  Lord, 
either  by  a  husband  whom  she  married 
after  the  death  of  Joseph,  or  by  Joseph 
himself.  The  Puritans  of  the  time  of  the 
Reformation,  in  holding  this  opinion,  were 
vigorously  opposed  by  the  Reformers  of 
the  Church  of  England,  who  defended  the 
view  of  Mary’s  perpetual  virginity. 

Antidoron,  the  name  given,  in  the  Greek 
Church,  to  the  bread  which  is  blessed,  but 
not  needed  in  consecration,  and  given  to 
the  people  after  mass. 

Antilegomena,  a  term  used  in  early 
Christian  times  to  designate  books  which 
claimed  to  be  part  of  the  New  Testament, 
but  whose  authority  was  disputed,  or 
“spoken  against,”  as  is  the  literal  meaning 
of  the  word.  Such  were  the  seven  General 
Epistles,  the  Epistle  to  the  Hebrews,  and 
the  Revelation  of  St.  John  the  Divine. 
(Euseb. :  Eccl.  Hist.  vi.  14.)  As  there  were 
such  books,  also — those  now  called  “Apoc¬ 
rypha” — in  the  Greek  version  of  the  Old 
Testament,  the  name  of  Antilegomena 
came  to  be  applied  to  them  also.. — Beii- 
ha7n. 

Antimensium  ( instead  of  a  table),  the 
name  given  in  the  Greek  Church  to  the 
consecrated  altar-cloth,  which  answers  to 
the  “  corporal  ”  of  the  Latin  Church.  The 
same  name  is  given  to  portable  altars  in 
the  Latin  Church. 

Anti-Mission  Baptists  (Primitive,  or 
Old-School  Baptists),  are  in  accord  with 
the  doctrines  and  polity  of  the  regular 
Baptists,  but  are  opposed  to  missions, 
Sunday-schools,  and  kindred  organiza¬ 
tions.  The  Chemung  Association  (N.  Y. 
and  Pa.)  was  the  first  to  withdraw  fellow- 


Ant 


Ant 


( 38) 


ship  (1835)  from  other  Baptist  churches  on 
this  ground.  The  Baltimore  Association 
followed  in  1836,  and  the  division  extended 
mostly  in  the  South  and  West.  Their 
estimated  number  in  1888  gave  them 
46,000  communicants,  with  1,800  churches, 
and  goo  ministers. 

Antinomianism  (Gr.  anti ,  against;  and 
nomos ,  law),  the  doctrine  or  opinion  that  a 
perfect  Christian  is  freed  from  obligation 
to  keep  the  precepts  of  the  moral  law. 
The  tendency  to  this  error  appeared  early, 
and  is  referred  to  by  St.  Paul.  (Rom.  vi. 
14,  15.)  Antinomianism  is  found  in  the 
views  held  by  many  of  the  Gnostic  sects, 


in  itself  was  wicked.  This  view  found 
but  few  adherents,  and  it  is  to  be  distin¬ 
guished  from  that  held  by  the  German  Re¬ 
formers,  who.  while  contending  that  the 
law  of  Moses  was  no  longer  a  rule  bind¬ 
ing  upon  Christians,  also  admitted  that 
a  Christian  was  under  obligatfon  to  lead 
a  holy  life. 

Antioch,  in  Syria,  was  founded  by  Seleu- 
cus  Nicator,  about  300  b.  C.  It  was  situated 
not  far  from  300  miles  north  of  Jerusalem 
on  the  left  bank  of  the  Orontes,  sixteen  and 
a  half  miles  from  the  Mediterranean.  It 
was  the  third  city  in  the  Roman  Empire  in 
population  (500,000),  and  wealth.  It  was 


ANTIOCH,  IN  SYRIA. 


who  taught  that  a  “  truly  spiritual  man 
could  and  should  be  entirely  indifferent  to 
the  moral  sphere  of  human  life.  ”  The  term 
was  first  employed  by  Luther  in  his  oppo¬ 
sition  to  the  views  advocated  by  John 
Agricola.  In  the  reaction  from  the  extreme 
stress  laid  upon  the  value  of  good  works 
by  the  Roman  Church,  Agricola  utterly 
ignored  the  claims  of  the  moral  law  as  a 
condition  of  salvation.  His  position  was 
so  earnestly  opposed  by  Luther  that  he 
left  Wittenberg.  In  later  years  he  again 
opened  the  controversy  which  was  kept 
alive  by  others  for  a  long  time.  In  Eng¬ 
land,  during  the  seventeenth  century,  some 
extreme  Calvinists  held  that  an  elect  per¬ 
son  did  not  sin,  even  if  he  did  that  which 


here  the  disciples  were  first  called  Chris¬ 
tians  (Acts  xi.  26),  and  it  became  a  centre 
from  which  the  gospel  spread. 

The  church  at  Antioch  early  became  the 
most  prominent  one  in  Asia.  It  has  been 
the  seat  of  a  patriarch  since  the  fifth  cen¬ 
tury.  During  the  time  of  Chrysostom  (b. 
there  347),  it  is  said  that  of  the  population 
of  two  hundred  thousand  one-half  were 
professing  Christians.  From  252  to  3S0 
ten  councils  were  held  here,  some  of  them 
of  importance  in  connection  with  the  Arian 
controversy.  In  635  the  city  fell  into  the 
hands  of  the  Saracens,  was  retaken  in  969, 
captured  by  the  Crusaders,  109S,  and  since 
1268  ruled  by  the  Mohammedans.  It  has 
suffered  repeatedly  from  earthquakes,  and 


Ant 


Ape 


(  39  ) 


is  now  an  insignificant  town  of  about  six 
thousand  inhabitants.  It  still  holds  the 
position  of  a  patriarchate  both  in  the  Greek 
and  Latin  churches.  There  is  a  flourishing 
Protestant  mission  in  the  place. 

Antioch,  School  of,  “a  theological  sem¬ 
inary  which  arose  at  the  end  of  the  fourth 
century,  but  which  had  been  prepared  for 
a  century  before  by  the  learned  presbyters 
of  the  Church  of  Antioch.  It  distinguish¬ 
ed  itself  by  diffusing  a  taste  for  scriptural 
Knowledge,  and  aimed  at  a  middle  course 
in  Biblical  Hermeneutics,  between  a  vigor¬ 
ously  literal  and  an  allegorical  method  of 
interpretation.  Several  other  seminaries 
sprung  from  it  in  the  Syrian  Church.  As 
distinguished  from  the  school  of  Alexan¬ 
dria,  its  tendency  was  logical  rather  than 
intuitional  or  mystical.  The  term  school  of 
Antioch  is  used  also  to  denote  the  theolog¬ 
ical  tendencies  of  the  Syrian  Church  clergy. 
Nestorianism  arose  out  of  the  bosom  of 
this  school.” — McClintock  and  Strong: 
Ency.  It  was  in  the  school  of  Antioch 
that  Chrysostom  learned  the  method  of 
exegesis  that  made  his  writings  the  source 
of  sound  theology. 

Antipaedobaptists,  opponents  of  infant 
(Gr.  paidios )  baptism. 

Antipaschal  Week.  The  week  beginning 
with  Low  Sunday ,  or  the  first  Sunday  after 
Easter,  is  so  called  in  the  Eastern  Church. 

Antiphony,  a  form  of  singing  in  which 
the  choir  or  congregation,  being  divided  in¬ 
to  two  parts,  sing  alternately.  It  originated 
probably  in  the  service  of  the  ancient  Jew¬ 
ish  Church.  Ignatius  (d.  115)  is  said  to 
have  introduced  it  into  Christian  worship. 
The  antiphonary,  now  used  in  the  Roman 
Catholic  Church,  was  compiled  by  Gregory 
the  Great  (590). 

Antipopes,  those  who  have  claimed  to  be 
popes,  but  whose  pretensions  to  the  papal 
throne  have  been  uncanonical.  During  the 
great  schism,  1378-1409,  there  was  great 
confusion,  and  popes  and  antipopes  excom¬ 
municated  each  other.  The  following  is 
the  list  of  antipopes:  (1)  Hippolytus,  218- 
223;  (2)  Novatianus,  251 ;  (3)  Felix  II. ,  355- 
366;  (4)  Ursinus,  366;  (5)  Eulalius,  418;  (6) 
Laurentius,  498  ;  (7)  Dioscorus,  530  ;  (8) 
Paschal,  687-692;  (9)  John,  844;  (10)  Anas- 
tasius,  855;  (11)  Boniface  VII.,  974;  (12) 
Calabritanus  (John  XVI.),  997-998  ;  (13) 
Gregory,  1012;  (14)  Sylvester  III.,  1044- 
1046;  (15)  Cadalous  (Honorius  II.),  1061; 

(16)  Wilbertus  (Clement  III.),  1080-1100; 

(17)  Theodoricus,  1100;  (18)  Albertus,  1102; 

(19)  Maginulfus  (Sylvester  IV.),  1105-1111; 


(20)  Burdinus  (Gregory  VIII. ),  1118-1121; 

(21)  Theobaldus  Buccapecus  (Celestine), 
1124;  (22)  Anacletus  II.,  1130-1138;  (23) 
Gregory  (Victor  IV.),  1138;  (24)  Octavianus 
(Victor  IV.),  1159-1164;  (25)  Guido  Cre- 
mensis  (Paschal  III.),  1164-1168;  (26) 
Johannes  de  Struma  (Calixtus  III.),  1168- 
1178;  (27)  Landus  Titinus  (Innocent  III.), 
1178-1180;  (28)  Clement  VII.,  1378-1394; 
(29)  Benedict  XIII.  (deposed  1409),  1394- 
1423;  (30)  Clement  VIII.,  1417-1431;  (31) 
Felix  V.,  1439-1449. 

Antitaetae.  See  Gnosticism. 

Antitrinitarians,  those  who  deny  the  doc¬ 
trine  that  God  is  Three  Persons  in  One 
God — “  One  God  in  Trinity,  and  Trinity  in 
Unity” — and  oppose  to  it  the  tenet  of  a 
God  without  distinction  of  Persons.  The 
Antitrinitarians  of  the  early  Church  were 
the  Sabellians  and  the  Arians;  the  leading 
ones  in  modern  times  have  been  the 
Socinians  and  the  Unitarians,  but  no  doubt 
Antitrinitarianism  is  maintained  by  many 
who  do  not  definitely  belong  to  either  of 
these  sects. 

Antonelli,  Giacomo,  a  noted  Italian  car¬ 
dinal  and  statesman;  b.  at  Sonnino,  April 
2,  1806;  d.  in  Rome,  Nov.  7,  1876.  He 
early  won  distinction,  and  Gregory  XVI., 
in  1845,  made  him  his  minister  of  finance. 
He  was  appointed  cardinal-deacon  (1847) 
by  Pius  IX.,  who  made  him  his  secretary 
of  foreign  affairs  in  1849.  He  proved  an 
astute  adviser,  but  he  could  not  stay  the 
tide  of  affairs;  and  Victor  Emmanuel  en¬ 
tered  Rome,  as  king  of  Italy,  Nov.  21, 
1871.  The  moral  character  of  the  great 
Italian  prelate  suffered  from  the  disclo¬ 
sures  that  were  brought  out  in  the  suit 
urged  by  Countess  Lambertini  to  obtain 
his  property,  who  claimed  to  be  his  natural 
daughter. 

Antrim,  Presbytery  of,  a  section  of 
the  Irish  Presbyterians,  which  separated 
from  the  main  body  in  a.  d.  1750-.  They 
refused  to  subscribe  to  the  Westminster 
Confession  of  Faith,  and  adopted  Arian 
principles. 

Apelleians,  Apellianists,  or  Apellites, 
a  Gnostic  sect  of  the  second  century, 
which  took  its  name  from  Apelles,  its 
founder.  Apelles  had  been  a  follower  of 
Marcion  ( Marcionites ),  but  was  repudi¬ 
ated  by  the  latter  on  account  of  his  licen¬ 
tiousness.  He  then  established  a  sect 
which  embraced  some  of  the  opinions  of 
Marcion,  but  rejected  others.  The  Apelle¬ 
ians  attributed  the  creation  of  the  world  to 
a  being  created  by  God,  not  to  God  him- 


Aph 


(  40  ) 


Apo 


.  self,  and  believed  that  this  creator  was  the 
author  of  evil.  Christ,  who  suffered  and 
died,  was,  in  their  opinion,  a  Spirit  who 
descended  from  heaven,  and  assumed  a 
body  compounded  of  the  four  elements, 
earth,  air,  fire,  and  water,  which  elements 
being  dispersed,  the  Spirit  called  Christ 
reascended  to  heaven:  the  prophets  of 
the  Old  Testament  were  inspired  by  the 
author  of  evil,  the  creator  of  the  world, 
and  the  Law  of  Moses  was  also  evil. — 
Benham:  Diet,  of  Religion. 

A'phek  {strength),  (1)  a  city  on  the 
northwest  slopes  of  Mount  Lebanon,  as¬ 
signed  to  the  tribe  of  Asher.  (2)  A  place 
noted  in  the  wars  with  the  Philistines.  (1 
Sam.  iv.  1;  xxix.  1.)  (3)  A  city  six  miles 

east  of  the  Sea  of  Galilee.  (1  Kings  xx.  24- 
26.) 

Apthartodocetae.  See  Monophysites. 


Apis,  the  bull  worshiped  by  the  Egyp¬ 
tians,  who  considered  it  as  a  symbol  of 
Osiris.  It  was  kept  at  Memphis,  in  the 
care  of  a  retinue  of  priests.  The  marks  of 
the  Apis  wrere  a  black  hide,  with  a  white 
triangle-shaped  spot  on  the  forehead,  the 
liair  on  the  back  shaped  like  an  eagle,  a 
white  mark  on  the  right  side  resembling  a 
lunar  crescent,  and  a  knot  under  the  tongue 
formed  like  a  scarabaeus,  the  sacred  insect 
and  emblem  of  Ptah,  at  whose  temple  the 
bull  was  kept.  If  it  did  not  die  before  the 
age  of  twenty-five  it  was  secretly  killed. 
When  a  calf  was  discovered  with  the  re¬ 
quired  marks,  it  was  taken  to  Memphis, 
and  treated  with  great  care,  until  it  was, 
by  the  death  of  the  old  Apis,  installed  in 
the  old  temple  as  a  god.  The  last-known 
Apis  was  the  one  brought  to  the  Emperor 
Julian  II.,  362-363  A.  d. 

Apocalypse.  See  Revelation. 

Apocalyptic  Books.  See  Apocrypha  of 
New  Testament. 


Apocrisiarius.  Ecclesiastical  ambassa¬ 
dors,  representing  patriarchs  and  popes  at 
the  court  of  the  Greek  emperor. 

Apocrypha  and  Pseudepigrapha  of  the 
Old  Testament.  After  a  careful  examina¬ 
tion  of  the  scope  of  the  biblical  canon, 
the  ancient  church  divided  the  mass  of  bib¬ 
lical  literature,  in  the  widest  sense  of  the 
word,  into  three  classes:  (r)  the  canonical 
and  inspired;  (2)  the  non-canonical,  but,  on 
account  of  their  long  use,  worthy  of  being 
read  in  the  churches  {antilego?nena  or  ec¬ 
clesiastical)’,  and  (3)  the  other  books  of  a 
biblical  character  in  circulation  (biblical 
name  in  the  title,  a  biblical  form,  biblical 
contents,  but  differing  greatly  in  spirit  and 
truth  from  the  canonical  books),  called 
apocryphal,  or  such  as  should  be  kept 
secret.  Virtually  the  same  books  which 
the  ancient  church  called  apocrypha  are 
embraced  under  the  name  Pseudepigrapha 
by  the  Protestant  Church.  Since,  after 
the  example  of  Jerome,  the  non-canonical 
books  of  the  Old  Testament  received  the 
name  apocrypha,  it  became  necessary  to 
find  a  new  one  for  the  third  class.  The 
name  Pseudepigrapha  is,  indeed,  as  Dill- 
mann  remarks,  “  taken  only  from  a  single 
and  outward  mark,  namely:  the  spurious 
character  of  the  author’s  name  which  they 
bear.  It  is  neither  sufficiently  compre¬ 
hensive,  nor  does  it  distinguish  sufficiently 
this  class  of  writings  from  the  anti- 
legomena;  nor  is  it  applicable  to  all  the 
writings  of  the  third  class.  Since,  however, 
the  pseudepigraphic  form  suits  at  least 
most  of  these  writings,  since  this  form  is 
intimately  connected  with  the  uncertainty 
and  spuriousness  of  the  contents,  and  since, 
finally,  pseudepigraphic  literary  work  is  a 
characteristic  mark  of  the  whole  period,  to 
which  these  books  mainly  belong,  this 
term  alwa3's  retains  its  good  sense  and 
right.”  We  accordingly  speak  (1)  of  the 
Apocrypha;  (2)  of  the  Pseudepigrapha. 

I.  The  Apocrypha.  To  this  class  belong 
the  following  writings: 

(1)  The  Apocryphal  Esdras  or  Ezra  (call¬ 
ed  the  first  in  the  Greek,  the  third  in  the 
Latin  Bibles),  a  compilation,  identical  in 
its  chief  contents  with  the  canonical  Ezra 
(ch.  i.=2  Chron.  xxx.  6;  ii.  i-4=Ezra  i;  ii. 
15-25;  Ezra  iv.  7-24;  iii. ;  Ezra  v.  6;  v.  7 
-io==Ezraii.  1  toiv.  5;  vi.,  vii=Ezra  v.,vi. , 
viii. ;  ix.  36=Ezra  vii.  to  x;  ix.  37-55=Neh. 
vii.  13  to  viii.  13.)  The  author  evidently 
“  desired  to  present  a  history  of  the 
temple  from  the  last  days  of  the  legal 
authors  to  the  building  of  the  temple,  and 
the  restoration  of  the  worship,  compiled 
from  other  works.”  (2)  Additions  to  Esther. 
(3)  Additions  to  Daniel:  (a)  the  prayer  of 
Azarias,  and  the  song  of  the  Three  Children 


Apo 


Apo 


(  4i  ) 


in  the  oven;  ( b )  the  history  of  Susanna;  (c) 
the  history  of  Bel  and  the  Dragon.  (4) 
The  prayer  of  Manasses,  probably  with 
reference  to  2  Chron.  xxxiii.  12,  13,  18. 
{5)  Baruck ,  in  which,  after  a  confession  and 
prayer,  Israel  is  admonished  to  understand 
wisdom,  and  Jerusalem  exhorted  to  re¬ 
joice,  for  she  will  return  from  captivity 
with  glory.  (6)  The  letter  of  Jereniiah.  ad¬ 
dressed  to  the  captives  of  Nebuchadnezzar 
in  Babylon,  warning  them  against  idolatry. 
(7)  Tobit ,  containing  an  interesting  di¬ 
dactic  tale,  whose  object  it  is  to  show  the 
value  and  reward  of  serving  God  faithfully, 
composed  probably  about  200  b.  c.  (8) 
Judith ,  containing  the  story  of  a  Jewish 
widow  called  Judith,  who  delivered  her 
native  town,  Bethulia,  and  all  Israel  from 
destruction.  Originally  written  in  Hebrew. 
(9)  The  first  book  of  Maccabees,  relating 
the  fortunes  of  the  Jews  from  the  accession 
of  Antiochus  Epiphanes  to  the  death  of  the 
high-priest  Simon  ( 1 75—135  B.  c.).  It  was 
originally  written  in  Hebrew.  (10)  The 
second  book  of  Maccabees,  originally  in  Greek, 
is  professedly  an  extract  from  a  history  of 
the  Maccabaean  struggle  written  by  Jason 
of  Cyrene.  (11)  The  third  book  of  the  Mac¬ 
cabees  relates  to  the  attempted  endeavor  of 
Ptolemy  IV.  (Philopater)  to  enter  the 
Holy  of  Holies  (b.  c.  267),  and  how  he  fell 
down  paralyzed.  In  revenge  he  persecuted 
the  Jews  of  Alexandria.  (12)  Jesus  Sirach, 
commonly  known  as  Ecclesiasticus ,  often 
quoted  in  the  Talmud,  like  the  canonical 
Scriptures,  but  only  extant  now  in  the 
Greek  translation  of  the  grandson,  who 
came  to  Egypt  about  b.  c.  132,  and  made 
the  translation  here.  (13)  The  Wisdom 
of  Solomon,  a  hymn  in  praise  of  wisdom, 
written  by  a  Jewish  Alexandrian  philos¬ 
opher  between  150 — 50  b.  c. 

The  literature  on  the  Apocrypha  is  very 
rich,  but  the  reader  will  find  all  that  is 
necessary  in  Bissell:  The  Apocrypha  of  the 
Old  Testa?nent,  with  historical  introductions; 
a  revised  translation  and  notes  critical  and 
explanatory  (New  York  1880,  being  a  sup¬ 
plement  volume  to  the  American  edition 
of  Lange’s  Old  Testament  Commentary ); 
and  the  Apocrypha ,  edited  by  H.  Wace,  2 
vols.  (London  1888),  (additional  vols.  to 
the  Speaker' s  Commentary)',  in  the  elaborate 
article  of  Schlirer,  in  Herzog’s  Real  Ency ., 
vol.  I.  (2d  ed.),  s.  v.  Apokryphen  des  Alten 
Testament,  and  in  his  The  Jewish  People  in 
the  Time  of  Christ,  vol.  ill.  (of  the  2d  divi¬ 
sion  in  the  English  translation). 

(2)  The  Pseudepigrapha,  or  Pseudonymic 
writings.  They  are  so  called  because,  as 
has  already  been  stated,  most  of  the  works 
so  composed  appeared  under  the  assumed 
name  of  some  famous  person.  The  general 
character  of  these  writings  is  anti-heathen, 


perhaps  missionary,  but  chiefly  apocalyp¬ 
tic.  They  are  attempts  at  taking  up  the 
key-note  struck  in  the  prophecies  of  Daniel, 
and  are  therefore  valuable  because  they 
throw  light  upon  Jewish  belief  at  the  most 
important  era.  Those  which  are  plainly 
antecedent  to  Christian  times  have  their 
own  special  utility;  while  the  later  produc¬ 
tions,  which  belong  to  the  first  Christian 
centuries,  show  the  influence  of  new  ideas, 
even  on  those  who  retained  their  affection 
for  the  old  religion.  The  number  of  these 
writings  must  have  been  once  very  large. 
In  one  of  the  latest  of  them  (4  Esdras  xiv. 
44,  46),  they  are  put  down  at  seventy, 
probably  a  round  number,  and  are  de¬ 
scribed  as  intended  for  the  wise  among  the 
people  ;  “  for  in  them  is  the  spring  of 
understanding,  the  fountain  of  wisdom,  and 
the  stream  of  knowledge.” 

The  documents  may  be  divided  into 
three  classes;  typical,  prophetical,  and  his¬ 
torical.  Confining  ourselves  to  the  most 
important  only,  we  mention  as  belonging 
to  the  first  class  (1)  the  Psalter  of  Solomon, 
a  collection  of  eighteen  Psalms,  written 
originally  in  Hebrew,  about  half  a  cen¬ 
tury  before  the  Christian  era,  but  ex¬ 
tant  only  in  a  Greek  version.  They  ex¬ 
press  ardent  Messianic  aspirations,  and  a 
firm  faith  in  the  Resurrection,  and  in  eter¬ 
nal  rewards  and  punishments.  The  second 
class  is  called  prophetical,  and  may  be 
divided  into  two  sections,  composed  re¬ 
spectively  of  Apocalypses  and  Testaments. 
Apocalyptic  writings  are  very  numerous, 
the  most  celebrated  being  (2)the  Fourth  Book 
of  Esdras,  (called  the  Second  in  our  Eng¬ 
lish  Bibles),  and  (3)  the  Book  of  Enoch.  The 
document  from  which,  according  to  Origen, 
St.  Jude  borrowed  his  allusion  to  Michael’s 
dispute  with  Satan  about  the  body  of 
Moses,  is  called  (4)  the  Assumption  of  Moses. 
Different  from  the  Book  of  Baruch  and  the 
Epistle  of  Jeremy,  in  our  English  Apocry¬ 
pha,  is  (5)  the  Apocalypse  of  Baruch.  A 
work  describing  the  martyrdom  of  Isaiah 
— an  allusion  to  which  is  supposed  to  be 
made  in  Heb.  xi.  37 — is  (6)  the  Ascension  of 
Isaiah.  There  is  a  Prophecy  and  Revela¬ 
tion  of  Esdras,  another  of  Baruch,  an 
apocalypse  of  Elijah,  Jeremiah,  Zephaniah, 
Ezekiel,  Habakkuk,  Zechariah;  a  revela¬ 
tion  of  Adam,  Lamech,  Moses,  and  Abra¬ 
ham;  a  prophecy  of  Eldad  and  Modah. 
Among  the  productions  which  assume  the 
Testamentary  form  we  mention  especially 
(7),  the  Testaments  of  the  Twelve  Patriarchs , 
containing  many  legendary  particulars  of 
the  sons  of  Jacob  not  found  in  Scripture; 
revelations  of  the  future;  and  Messianic 
predictions.  To  the  third  class,  which 
takes  a  historical  character,  belongs  (8)  the 
Book  of  Jubilees  or  Little  Genesis,  a  kind  of 


Apo 


Apo 


(  42  ) 


legendary  supplement  to  the  Book  of 
Genesis,  intended  to  explain  some  of  its 
difficulties,  and  to  fill  up  its  historic  lacuna. 
Other  works  of  which  little  is  known  are: 
the  history  of  Jannes  and  Jambres,  the 
magicians  who  withstood  Moses;  the  con¬ 
version  of  Manasses,  a  different  work  from 
the  prayer  of  Manasses  in  our  Apocrypha; 
the  life,  revelation,  and  repentance  of 
Adam;  the  daughters  of  Adam;  the  story 
of  Asenath,  Joseph’s  wife,  and  that  of  Noria, 
the  wife  of  Noah.  As  belonging  to  neither 
of  the  seclasses  we  mention  (9),  the  Sibylline 
oracles ,  of  which  the  oldest  portions  date 
from  about  160  B.  c. ,  that  come  to  us  from 
Egypt.  In  a  very  elaborate  manner  the 
Pseudepigrapha  have  been  located  by  Dill- 
mann,  in  Herzog’s  Real  Ency . ,  vol.  xii. 
(2d  ed.),  pp.  341-367,  and  by  Schiirer  in 
his  work  quoted  already.  B.  Pick. 

Apocrypha  of  the  New  Testament.  The 
relation  of  the  apocrypha  of  the  New  Tes¬ 
tament  to  the  canonical  books  of  the  New 
Testament  is  essentially  different  from 
that  of  the  Old  Testament  apocrypha  to 
the  canonical  books  of  the  Old  Testament. 
The  Old  Testament  apocrypha  aim  simply 
at  a  continuation  of  the  sacred  history, 
and  pursue  this  aim  in  an  honest  manner, 
though  without  divine  authority.  The 
apocrypha  of  the  New  Testament,  on  the 
contrary,  purpose  directly  to  substitute 
spurious  sources  for  genuine.  The  Church, 
however,  has  never  recognized  them,  nor 
given  them  a  place  in  the  canon  of  the  New 
Testament.  The  great  mass  of  these  apoc¬ 
ryphal  writings  is  divided  into  four  classes: 
(1)  Apocryphal  Gospels ;  (2)  Apocryphal 
Acts;  (3)  Apocryphal  Epistles;  and  (4) 
Apocryphal  Revelations. 

A.  The  Apocryphal  Gospels.  About  50 
such  gospels  are  still  extant,  or,  at  least, 
known  to  us.  Some  have  come  down  to  us 
entire,  others  only  in  fragments;  and  of  a 
few  we  only  know  the  names.  The  char¬ 
acter  of  these  gospels  is  thus  described  by 
Hofmann:  “  The  method  employed  in  these 
compositions  is  always  the  same,  whether 
the  author  intended  simply  to  collect  and 
arrange  what  was  floating  in  the  general 
tradition,  or  whether  he  intended  to  pro¬ 
duce  a  definite  dogmatical  effect.  Rarely 
he  threw  himself  on  his  own  invention,  but 
generally  he  elaborated  what  was  only 
hinted  at  in  the  canonical  gospels,  or  tran¬ 
scribed  words  of  Jesus  into  actions,  or  de¬ 
scribed  the  literal  fulfilment  of  some  Jew¬ 
ish  expectation  concerning  the  Messiah,  or 
repeated  the  wonders  of  the  Old  Testa¬ 
ment,  but  in  a  more  complete  form,  etc. 
The  work  done,  he  took  care  to  conceal 
his  own  name,  and  inscribed  his  book  with 
the  name  of  some  apostle  or  disciple,  in 
order  to  give  it  authority.”  As  a  rule, 


therefore,  the  apocryphal  gospels  give  de¬ 
tails  regarding  those  periods  of  our  Lord’s 
life  about  which  the  New  Testament  is 
wisely  silent.  The  following  is  a  list  of 
the  different  gospels: 

a.  The  gospel  of  James  (commonly  call¬ 
ed  the  Protevangelium), comprising  the  pe¬ 
riod  from  the  announcement  of  the  birth 
of  Mary  to  the  massacre  of  the  innocents. 

b.  The  gospel  of  Pseudo-Matthew,  or  of 
the  Infancy  of  Mary  and  of  Jesus. 

c.  The  gospel  of  the  Nativity  of  Mary. 

d.  The  history  of  Joseph  the  Carpenter. 

e.  The  gospel  of  Thomas,  extant  in 
three  recensions — twoGreek  and  one  Latin. 

f.  The  Arabic  gospel  of  the  Infancy. 

g.  The  gospel  of  Nicodemus,  consisting 
of  two  separate  works:  The  Acts  of  Pilate , 
in  three  recensions,  two  in  Greek  and  one 
in  Latin;  and  Descent  of  Christ  to  the  Under¬ 
world,  in  three  recensions,  one  in  Greek 
and  two  in  Latin. 

h.  The  letter  of  Pilate  to  Tiberius,  giv¬ 
ing  a  report  of  Christ’s  resurrection. 

i.  The  epistle  of  Pilate  to  Caesar. 

k.  The  report  of  Pilate  on  the  trial,  ex¬ 
ecution,  death,  and  resurrection  of  Jesus. 

/.  The  trial  and  condemnation  of  Pilate. 

m.  The  death  of  Pilate. 

n.  The  story  of  Joseph  of  Arimathea. 

o.  The  avengingof  the  Saviour,  contain¬ 
ing  the  legend  of  Veronica. 

Besides  the  gospels  already  mentioned, 
there  were  circulated  about  thirty  others, 
of  which  we  have  fragments  only,  or  their 
mere  names. 

B.  The  Apocryphal  Acts.  To  this  class 
belong  the  following: 

a.  The  acts  of  Peter  and  Paul. 

b.  The  acts  of  Paul  and  Thecla. 

c.  The  acts  of  Barnabas. 

d.  The  acts  of  Philip. 

e.  The  acts  of  Philip  in  Hellas. 

f.  The  acts  of  Andrew. 

g.  The  acts  of  Andrew  and  Matthias. 

h.  The  acts  and  martyrdom  of  Matthew. 

i.  The  acts  of  Thomas. 

k.  The  consummation  of  Thomas. 

/.  The  martyrdom  of  Bartholomew. 

m.  The  acts  of  Thaddseus. 

n.  The  acts  of  John. 

o.  The  acts  of  Peter  and  Andrew. 

C.  The  Apocryphal  Epistles. 

a.  The  letter  of  Abgar  to  Jesus,  and 

b.  The  letter  of  Jesus  to  Abgar. 

c.  The  letter  of  Lentulus. 

d.  The  epistles  of  Mary  to  Ignatius;  to 
the  Messanenses  and  Florentines. 

e.  The  epistle  of  Paul  to  the  Laodiceans. 

/.  A  third  (or  rather  first)  epistle  of  Paul 

to  the  Corinthians. 

g.  The  correspondence  of  St.  Paul  and 
Seneca. 

h.  An  epistle  of  Peter  to  James,  and 


Apo 


(  43  ) 


Apo 


i.  An  epistle  of  John  to  a  dropsical  man. 

D.  The  Apocryphal  Apocalypses. 

a.  The  apocalypse  of  Moses. 

b.  The  apocalypse  of  Esdras. 

c.  The  apocalypse  of  Paul. 

d.  The  apocalypse  of  John. 

e.  f,  g.  The  assumption  of  Mary. 

The  literature  on  the  New  Testament 
apocrypha  is  very  rich.  The  reader  will 
find  the  necessary  material  in  Hofmann’s 
art.  Apokryphen  des  Neue  Testa?nent,  in  Her¬ 
zog’s  Real  Ency.  (2d  ed.),  vol.  i.,  pp.  51 1- 
529 ;  in  the  Dictionary  of  Christian  Biography 
(ed.  Smith  and  Wace),  arts.  Apocalypses, 
Epistles,  Gospels,  Acts  (apocryphal).  An 
English  translation  of  the  apocrypha  is 
found  in  the  “  Ante-Nicene  Library,”  Ed¬ 
inburgh,  1870,  republished  in  Coxe’s  edi¬ 
tion  Anti-Niccne  Fathers,  vol.  viii.  (Buffalo, 
1886);  a  Life  of  Jesus,  according  to  the 
apocryphal  gospels,  was  published  by  B. 
Pick  (New  York,  1887).  B.  Pick. 

Apokatastasis.  See  Restorationism. 

Appollinarianism.  See  Appollinaris. 

Appollinaris,  the  younger,  bishop  of 
Laodicea,  in  Syria  (d.  392),  was  one  of  the 
warmest  opponents  of  Arianism.  Both  as 
a  man  and  a  scholar,  he  was  held  in  the 
greatest  reverence;  and  his  writings  were 
extensively  read  in  his  own  day.  He  main¬ 
tained  the  doctrine  that  the  Logos,  or  divine 
nature  in  Christ,  took  the  place  of  the  ra¬ 
tional  human  soul  or  mind,  and  that  the 
body  of  Christ  was  a  spiritualized  and 
glorified  form  of  humanity.  This  doctrine 
was  condemned  by  the  Council  of  Con¬ 
stantinople  (381)  and  other  synods,  on  the 
ground  that  it  denied  the  true  human  nat¬ 
ure  of  Christ.  The  heresy  styled  Appol¬ 
linarianism  spread  itself  rapidly  in  Syria 
and  neighboring  countries,  and,  after  the 
death  of  its  author,  divided  itself  into  two 
sects,  one  of  which,  the  Polemians,  assert¬ 
ed  that  the  divine  and  human  natures  were 
so  blended  as  one  substance  in  Christ  that 
his  body  was  a  proper  object  of  adoration. 
Only  fragments  of  his  works  are  extant. 

Apollonia,  St.,  suffered  martyrdom  at 
Alexandria  during  the  Decian  persecution 
(249).  “  She  was  seized,  together  with 

other  Christians,  and  received  such  violent 
blows  upon  her  jaws  that  she  lost  all  her 
teeth.  The  pagans  then  lit  the  pyre,  and 
demanded  that  she  should  curse  Christ. 
She  hesitated  for  a  moment,  and  then  she 
suddenly  leaped  into  the  fire.  During  the 
Middle  Ages  she  was  worshiped  as  the  pat¬ 
roness  against  the  toothache.  She  is  com¬ 
memorated  in  the  Roman  Church  on  Feb. 
9.” — Schaff-Herzog:  Ency. 


Apol'los,  “  a  Jew  from  Alexandria,  elo¬ 
quent  (which  may  also  mean  learned ),  and 
mighty  in  the  Scriptures  :  one  instructed 
in  the  way  of  the  Lord,  according  to  the 
imperfect  view  of  the  disciples  of  John  th.e 
Baptist  (Acts  xviii.  25),  but,  on  his  coming 
to  Ephesus  during  a  temporary  absence  of 
St.  Paul,  A.  D.  54,  more  perfectly  taught  by 
Aquila  and  Priscilla.  After  this  he  be¬ 
came  a  preacher  of  the  Gospel,  first  in 
Achaia  and  then  in  Corinth  (Acts  xviii.  27; 
xix.  1),  where  he  watered  that  which  Paul 
had  planted.  (1  Cor.  iii.  6.)  When  the 
apostle  wrote  his  first  Epistle  to  the  Corin¬ 
thians,  Apollos  was  with  or  near  him  (iCor. 
xvi.  12),  probably  at  Ephesus,  in  a.  d.  57: 
we  hear  of  him  then  that  he  was  unwilling 
at  that  time  to  journey  to  Corinth,  but 
would  do  so  when  he  should  have  conven¬ 
ient  time.  He  is  mentioned  but  once  more 
in  the  New  Testament,  in  Tit.  iii.  13,  where 
Titus  is  desired  to  ‘  bring  Zenas  the  law¬ 
yer  and  Apollos  on  their  way  diligently, 
that  nothing  may  be  wanting  to  them.’ 
After  this  nothing  is  known  of  him.” — 
Smith:  Did.  of  the  Bible.  Some  have  sup¬ 
posed  that  he  was  author  of  the  Epistle  to 
the  Hebrews.  Tradition  asserts  that  he 
became  bishop  of  Caesarea. 

Apologetics,  from  a  Greek  word  mean¬ 
ing  defensive  speech ,  is  a  designation  ap¬ 
plied  to  the  defense  of  revelation.  It  is 
that  branch  of  theological  science  which 
maintains  Christianity  to  be  the  absolute 
truth.  To  the  believer  there  is  no  need  of 
such  a  defense.  The  gospel  has  been  at¬ 
tested  in  his  own  heart  as  the  power  of 
God,  and  there  is  as  much  occasion  for 
demonstrating  that  light  is  a  reality,  or 
that  bread  is  nourishment,  as  for  proving 
to  him  that  the  faith  he  holds  is  from 
above. 

On  the  other  hand,  devout  inquirers,  as 
well  as  the  avowed  enemies  of  Christian¬ 
ity,  have  at  all  times  demanded  scientific 
evidence  of  its  supernatural  origin,  and 
Christians  are  charged  by  their  own  oracles 
“  to  be  ready  always  to  give  an  answer  to 
every  man  that  asketh  a  reason  of  the  hope 
that  is  in  them.”  There  rests  upon  the 
Church  the  twofold  service  of  spreading 
the  gospel  and  of  sustaining  its  claims 
against  assault.  And  the  truth  has  never 
been  left  without  faithful  witnesses.  The 
line  of  defense  shifts  from  time  to  time, 
with  the  form  of  attack,  but  the  issue  is 
always  the  same.  Can  it  be  shown  from 
reason  that  Christianity  is  of  God  ?  Is  the 
system,  as  a  whole,  compatible  with  the 
postulates  of  philosophy  ? 

Apologetics  became  a  distinct  branch  of 
theological  science  as  late  as  the  eighteenth 
century;  but  the  hostility  alike  of  Jews 


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(  44  ) 


and  pagans  called  for  a  scientific  vindica¬ 
tion  of  the  new  religion  in  the  first  period 
of  its  history.  It  had,  in  its  infancy,  to 
battle  for  existence  against  the  learning  of 
the  world,  and  this  struggle  so  impressed 
itself  upon  the  age,  that  it  is  wont  to  be 
called  the  Age  of  Apologetics,  while  the 
earliest  Christian  writers  of  distinction  are 
called  the  Apologists,  chief  among  whom 
were  Justin  Martyr  and  Origen. 

The  argument  was,  from  the  first,  divided 
into  two  classes,  the  internal  and  the  ex¬ 
ternal.  By  the  former  was  shown  the  in¬ 
trinsic  excellence  and  reasonableness  of 
Christianity;  the  incomparable  superiority 
of  its  ideas  and  principles  to  every  other 
system  of  religion  or  philosophy;  its  real¬ 
ization  of  the  yearnings  and  hopes  of 
heathenism,  as  well  as  its  fulfillment  of  the 
prefigurations  and  prophecies  of  Judaism. 
It  arose  as  the  full-orbed  light,  from  which 
had  radiated  every  moral  and  spiritual 
beam  in  preceding  ages.  A  profound  cor¬ 
respondence  is  discovered  between  Chris¬ 
tianity  and  human  nature.  The  former  is 
such  an  adaptation  to  the  needs  and  condi¬ 
tions  of  the  latter,  that  it  must  be  designed 
by  the  author  of  our  being  as  a  redemp¬ 
tion  from  the  ills  of  life,  an  agency  by 
which  alone  the  soul  can  reach  its  destina¬ 
tion — a  favorite  phase  of  this  argument, 
and  one  of  peculiar  force  in  the  face  of  cor¬ 
rupt  heathenism,  being  the  moral  effect  of 
Christianity  upon  its  adherents. 

The  external  form  of  the  argument  em¬ 
braces  the  historical  evidences,  such  as 
miracles,  the  fulfillment  of  prophecy,  the 
preservation  and  trustworthiness  of  the 
Scriptures.  The  early  Apologists  claimed 
to  have  known  persons  who  had  been 
miraculously  healed  or  restored  to  life  by 
Jesus,  and  appealed  to  the  occurrence  of 
indubitable  miracles  in  their  day,  espe¬ 
cially  the  cure  of  demoniacs  through  his 
name  and  the  sign  of  the  cross.  The 
accomplishment  of  prophecy,  in  the  de¬ 
struction  of  Jerusalem  and  the  temple,  and 
the  extraordinary  spread  of  Christianity  in 
the  midst  of  bloody  persecutions,  were 
cited  as  irresistible  proofs  that  the  gospel 
was  not  evolved  from  the  human  mind. 
The  ablest  apology  put  forth  by  the  an¬ 
cient  Church  is  Augustine’s  De  Civitate 
Dei. 

After  Constantine  granted  imperial 
recognition  to  Christianity,  it  became  the 
religion  of  the  civilized  world,  and  the 
assaults  of  the  learned  came  to  an  end. 
During  the  Middle  Ages  only  Jews  and 
Mohammedans  provoked  Apologetical 
writings;  but  just  when  the  subtle  dialec¬ 
tics  of  the  schoolmen  had  completed  the 
dogmatic  development  of  Christianity,  the 
whole  structure  was  shaken  by  the  prob¬ 


lem  of  the  relation  of  faith  and  knowledge, 
revelation  and  reason.  The  profound 
philosophy  of  Thomas  Aquinas  offered  a 
solution  in  the  proposition  that  the  doc¬ 
trines  of  revelation  are  above  reason,  but 
not  contradictory  to  it. 

Under  the  influence  of  pagan  philosophy, 
unbelief  made  its  appearance  within  the 
Church  during  the  Renaissance,  when 
writers  like  Grotius,  and,  above  all  others, 
Pascal,  made  a  noble  defense  of  Christian 
truth. 

The  prevalence  of  Deism  in  England  in 
the  seventeenth  and  eighteenth  centuries 
gave  birth  to  a  voluminous  literature  in 
support  of  the  possibility,  necessity,  and 
value  of  a  supernatural  revelation,  its 
principal  representatives  being  Baxter, 
Cudworth,  Bentley,  Waterland,  Paley, 
and,  surpassing  all,  Bishop  Butler, 
author  of  the  immortal  Analogy.  The 
frivolous  skepticism  of  Voltaire,  Rousseau, 
and  the  encyclopaedists  of  France  was  met 
by  a  number  of  able  and  learned  refuta¬ 
tions,  alike  from  Roman  Catholics  and 
Protestants. 

From  the  middle  of  the  eighteenth  cen¬ 
tury  a  rationalistic  atmosphere  enveloped 
German  theology,  and  its  baleful  influence 
produced  a  period  of  the  boldest  doubt 
and  criticism.  Since  then,  the  claims  alike 
of  natural  and  revealed  theology  have  sus¬ 
tained  the  assaults  of  a  combination  of  all 
possible  forms  of  skepticism,  the  triumph 
over  which  has  once  more  demonstrated 
the  indestructibility  of  Christianity. 

The  Wolfenbiittel  Fragments  contested 
the  truth  of  the  gospel  narratives.  The 
Tubingen  School  assailed  the  historic 
foundations  of  Scripture.  Naturalistic  in¬ 
terpretation  undermined  its  infallible  au¬ 
thority,  Physical  Science  has  denied  the 
miracles,  and  Agnosticism  holds  to  the 
impossibility  of  verifying  the  supernatural. 

Modern  Apologists  have  anew  formu¬ 
lated  the  proofs  for  the  Divine  Existence 
from  the  light  of  nature,  and  contended, 
though  not  without  varying  concessions, 
for  the  inspiration  and  consequent  author¬ 
ity  of  the  Scriptures;  but  their  main 
ground  of  defense  has  been  the  moral  per¬ 
fection  of  the  Christ  of  the  Gospels,  whose 
historical  trustworthiness  is  irrefragable. 
Everything  is  finally  staked  upon  his 
resurrection,  an  event  established  beyond 
question  in  the  four  epistles  which  the 
most  adverse  criticism  ascribes  to  Paul. 
Christ  is  the  argument  for  Christianity. 
His  resurrection  declared  him  to  be  the 
Son  of  God  with  power.  On  these  immov¬ 
able  facts  rests  the  whole  Christian  sys¬ 
tem.  Besides  this  triumphant  victory  of 
Apologetics,  the  long  conflict  with  doubt 
has  yielded  another  result,  second  only  in 


Apo 


Apo 


(  45  ) 


importance  to  this,  namely:  that  between 
Christianity  as  a  revelation  and  absolute 
despair  there  is  no  resting-place  for  the 
human  mind. 

Among  the  ablest  of  modern  Apologists 
are:  Dawson:  Origin  of  the  World;  Drum¬ 
mond:  Natural  Law  in  the  Spiritual 
World;  Westcott:  History  of  the  Canon  of 
the  New  Testament;  Bruce  :  The  Mirac¬ 
ulous  Element  in  the  Gospels;  Lightfoot: 
Supernatural  Religion;  Fisher:  Grounds  of 
Theistic  and  Christian  Belief;  and  Row: 
Manuals  of  Christian  Evidences;  and  the 
Apologetic  works  of  Luthardt,  Christlieb, 
and  Ebrard.  E.  J.  Wolf. 

Apostasy  denotes  entire  renunciation  of 
the  Christian  faith.  In  the  early  days  of 
Christianity,  persecution  induced  many  to 
apostatize,  and  it  was  common  for  them  to 
indicate  the  act  by  offering  incense  to  a 
heathen  deity,  or  blaspheming  the  name  of 
Christ.  Those  who  thus  denied  the  faith, 
and  afterward  desired  to  return,  were  re¬ 
fused  absolution;  but  in  time  this  severe 
rule  was  relaxed,  and  they  were  restored 
on  condition  of  repentance  and  penance. 
Apostasy  is  applied,  in  the  Roman  Church, 
to  those  who  renounce  their  monastic 
vows,  and  those  who  abandon  the  clerical 
profession  for  the  life  of  the  world., Under 
the  first  Christian  emperors  apostasy  was 
considered  a  civil  crime,  and  severely  pun¬ 
ished.  Excommunication  is  the  only  pen¬ 
alty  that  can  now  be  enforced,  and  the 
only  one  desired  by  Protestants. 

Apos'tle,  a  word  derived  from  a  Greek 
verb,  apostellein,  signifying  to  send  on  a 
message.  The  title  was  first  given  by  our 
Lord  to  the  twelve  especially  chosen  dis¬ 
ciples.  “  The  office  and  commission  of  the 
apostles  were  remarkable  in  the  following 
particulars:  (i)  They  were  all  required  to 
have  been  eye-and-ear  witnesses  of  what 
they  testified,  especially  of  the  resurrec¬ 
tion  of  Christ.  (John  xv.  27;  Acts  i.  21;  1 
Cor.  ix.  1,  15.)  (2)  They  were  all  called 

or  chosen  by  our  Saviour  himself.  (Luke 
vi.  13;  Gal.  i.  1.)  Even  Matthias  is  not 
an  exception  to  this  remark,  as  the  deter¬ 
mination  of  the  lot  was  of  God.  (Acts  i.  24 
-26.)  (3)  They  were  inspired.  (John  xvi. 

13.)  (4)  They  had  the  power  of  miracles. 

(Mark  xvi.  20;  Acts  ii.  43;  2  Cor.  xii.  12.)” 
— Schaff:  Bible  Diet.  The  title  “  apostle  ” 
is  once  used  of  our  Lord  himself  (Heb. 
iii.  1),  and  it  is  applied  in  a  wider  sense 
to  other  than  the  twelve.  (2  Cor.  viii.  23; 
Phil.  ii.  25.) 

Apostles’  Creed.  See  Creed. 

Apostolici,  or  Apostolic  Brethren, 


the  name  assumed  by  three  different  sects, 
who  professed  to  adhere  very  closely  to 
the  practices  and  doctrine  of  the  apostles. 
The  most  important  of  these  sects  was 
founded  toward  the  close  of  the  thirteenth 
century  by  Gerhard  Sagarelli,  a  mechanic 
of  Parma.  Having  sought  admittance  to 
the  Franciscan  order,  and  being  rejected, 
he  set  himself  to  work  to  organize  a  com¬ 
munity  in  which  the  life  of  the  apostles  was 
to  be  followed  as  closely  as  possible.  In 
time  he  gathered  quite  a  following  among 
the  lower  classes.  His  arrest,  and  the  is¬ 
sue  of  a  decree  against  them  by  Honorius 
IV.  (1286),  and  Nicholas  IV.  (1290),  placed 
them  in  open  hostility  to  Rome.  They 
prophesied  the  downfall  of  the  papacy,  and 
the  establishment  of  a  purer  Church. 
Sagarelli  was  accused  of  heresy,  in  1294, 
but  escaped  for  the  time  by  recantation. 
In  1300  he  was  again  condemned  as  a  re¬ 
lapsed  heretic,  and  burned  at  the  stake. 
Dolcino,  of  Novara,  now  became  the  leader 
of  the  sect,  which  grew  rapidly  under  his 
guidance,  until,  finally,  he  was  taken  pris¬ 
oner  and  put  to  death.  The  Apostolici, 
often  called  “  Dolcinists,”  did  not  become 
extinct  until  the  beginning  of  the  fifteenth 
century. 

Apostolic  Canons,  “  a  compilation  of 
practical  rules  for  the  guidance  of  the 
clergy,  made  from  Holy  Scripture,  the 
decisions  of  the  earlier  councils,  and  exist¬ 
ing  ecclesiastical  usage  by  an  unknown 
ecclesiastic,  belonging,  probably,  to  the 
Syrian  Church,  who  lived  in  the  fourth  or 
fifth  century.” — T.  M.  Lindsay.  See  his 
article  in  Ency.  Brit.,  also  article  Apos¬ 
tolical  Canons  in  Smith  and  Cheetham: 
Dictionary  of  Christian  Antiquities. 

Apostolic  Constitutions  “  are  a  collec¬ 
tion  of  eight  books  of  directions  and  pre¬ 
scriptions  on  ecclesiastical  and  theological 
matters,  for  which  apostolic  origin  and 
authority  have  been  frequently  claimed. 
The  book  as  a  whole  has  never  been  re¬ 
ceived  as  an  authority,  and  its  influence 
has  been  greater  in  the  East  than  in  the 
West.  ’  ’ — Lindsay. 

Apostolic  Fathers,  the  name  given  to 
the  immediate  disciples  and  fellow-laborers 
of  the  apostles,  and  especially  to  those 
among  them  whose  writings  have  been 
handed  down  to  us.  They  are  usually 
divided  into  two  classes,  viz.:  disciples  of 
Paul:  Barnabas,  Clemens  Romanus,  and 
Hermas;  and  disciples  of  John:  Ignatius, 
Polycarp,  and  Papias.  See  Fathers. 

Apostolical  Council,  a  title  sometimes 
given  to  the  assembly  of  the  apostles,  of 


Apo 


(46) 


Ara 


which  an  account  is  given  in  the  fifteenth 
chapter  of  the  Acts.  It  is  also  sometimes 
called  “  The  Council  of  Jerusalem.” 

Apotactici,  a  sect  of  the  third  century, 
in  Phrygia,  Cilicia,  and  Pamphylia  who 
assumed  their  name  (Renuntiants),  because 
they  claimed  to  follow  the  apostles  in  re¬ 
nouncing  private  property,  marriage,  etc. 
See  Apostolici. 

Appellants.  See  Jansenism. 

Approbation  of  Books.  The  fifth  Lat- 
eran  council  (1512)  decided  that  no  theo¬ 
logical  book  should  be  published  without 
the  approval  of  a  bishop.  This  rule  still 
holds  in  the  Roman  Church.  See  Index 
Expurgatorius. 

Apse,  the  semicircular  or  polygonal  ter¬ 
mination  to  a  church.  This  form  was  prob¬ 
ably  derived  from  the  concha  or  bema,  in 
the  classic  and  early  Christian  basilica. 

Aquaviva,  Claudius,  general  of  the  Jes¬ 
uit  order  in  1580;  b.  1543;  d.  1615.  In  the 
face  of  many  difficulties  the  order  flourish¬ 
ed  under  his  leadership.  “  He  was  pru¬ 
dent  enough  to  silence  Molino,  when  the 
controversy  with  the  Dominicans  became 
too  hot;  and  to  silence  Mariana,  whose  doc¬ 
trine  of  the  allowableness  of  the  murder  of 
tyrants  produced  the  deepest  indignation.” 
— Schaff-Herzog:  Ency . 

Aq'uila  (eagle),  a  native  of  Pontus,  by 
occupation  a  tent-maker.  Previous  to  his 
stay  at  Corinth  he  had  resided  at  Rome, 
and  both  himself  and  his  wife  Priscilla 
united  with  the  Church  there.  He  was 
forced  to  leave  the  city  in  consequence  of 
an  edict  issued  by  Claudius,  commanding 
all  Jews  to  leave  Rome.  At  Corinth, 
Aquila  and  Priscilla  met  Paul,  and  became 
his  companions  in  some  of  his  mission¬ 
ary  labors,  and  instructed  Apollos.  (Acts, 
xviii.  2,  18,  26;  Rom.  xvi.  3;  1  Cor. 

xvi.  19.) 

Aqui'nas,  Thomas,  one  of  the  most  influ¬ 
ential  of  the  scholastic  theologians,  was  of 
an  illustrious  family  in  the  kingdom  of 
Naples;  b.  1224  or  1227,  in  the  castle  of  his 
father  at  Rocca  Sicca,  in  the  territory  of 
Naples  ;  d.  in  the  monastery  of  Fossa 
Nuova,  March  7,  1274.  A  strong  love  for 
philosophical  speculation  determined  the 
young  nobleman,  against  the  will  of  his 
family,  to  enter  a  Dominican  convent.  In 
order  to  frustrate  the  attempts  of  his 
friends  to  remove  him  from  the  convent  he 
was  sent  to  Naples,  but  on  the  way  his 
brothers  seized  him  from  his  conductors, 


and  carried  him  to  the  paternal  castle, where 
he  was  guarded  as  a  prisoner  for  two  years. 
By  the  help  of  Dominicans  he  finally  es¬ 
caped,  and  went  to  the  convent  at  Cologne, 
when  he  enjoyed  the  instructions  of  the 
famous  Albert  Magnus.  Another  account 
says  that  the  emperor  and  pope  secured  his 
release.  He  gained  great  reputation  as  a 
lecturer  at  Paris,  and  was  called  by  the  pope 
to  teach  philosophy  in  Rome,  Bologna,  and 
Pisa. 

“  The  writings  of  Thomas  are  of  very 
great  importance  for  philosophy  as  well  as 
theology,  for  he  is  the  spirit  of  scholastic¬ 
ism  incarnate,  and  has  done  more  than  any 
other  writer,  save  Augustine,  to  fashion  the 
theological  language  of  the  Western 
Church.  He  held  that  there  were  two 
sources  of  knowledge  —  the  mysteries  of 
Christian  faith  and  the  truths  of  human 
reason.” — Lindsay.  But  while  reason  and 
revelation  were  two  distinct  sources  of 
truth,  yet  the  truths  which  each  revealed 
are  not  in  themselves  contradictory.  He 
held  that  revelation  is  the  more  important 
of  the  two.  His  principal  works  on  the¬ 
ology  are  his  Commentary  on  Peter  the 
Lombard’s  Sentences , ‘  Compendium  Theologice 
(incomplete)  ;  the  Adversus  Gentiles  and 
Summa  Totius  Theologice.  The  best  edition 
of  his  works  is  the  one  published  in  Venice 
in  1787,  in  28  quarto  vols. 

Ara'bia  ( wilderness ),  the  great  south¬ 
western  peninsula  of  Asia.  In  the  Bible, 
however,  the  name  designates  only  the 
northern  part,  contiguous  to  Palestine.  Its 
length,  from  north  to  south,  is  about  1,500 
miles,  its  breadth  about  800.  Arabia  is 
mentioned  in  1  Kings  x.  15;  Ezek.  xxvii. 
21;  Gal.  iv.  25.  Paul  went  into  Arabia. 
(Gal.  i.  17.)  In  modern  geography  the 
country  is  divided  into  (1)  Arabia  Pe- 
tr^A,  which  lies  south  of  the  Holy  Land, 
and  had  Petra  for  its  capital.  Here  were 
Kadesh-barnea,  Gerar,  Beer-sheba,  Paran, 
Arad,  etc.;  it  included,  also,  the  peninsula 
of  Mount  Sinai,  and  the  land  of  Midian. 

(2)  Arabia  Fe'lix  is  the  country  still  fur¬ 
ther  south,  being  bounded  on  the  east  by 
the  Persian  Gulf,  and  west  by  the  Red 
Sea.  The  Queen  of  Sheba  was  probably 
queen  of  a  part  of  this  country.  The  cities 
of  Mecca  and  Medina  are  in  Arabia  Felix. 

(3)  Arabia  Deserta  is  the  vast  steppe, 
with  occasional  hills,  bounded  by  the 
mountains  of  Gilead  on  the  west,  and 
River  Euphrates  on  the  east,  and  extend¬ 
ing  far  to  the  south.  Here  the  Ishmaelites 
and  other  wandering  tribes  dwelt. 

Arabian  life  is  now  either  nomadic  or 
settled.  The  wandering  tribes,  or  Bedou¬ 
ins,  look  with  contempt  upon  the  located 
tribes.  Few  nations  have  approached  so 


(  A7  ) 


Ara 


(43) 


Arc 


near  as  the  Arabs  to  the  condition  of 
standing  still  for  centuries,  in  a  moral  and 
social  point  of  view.  They  are  nominally 
Mohammedan,  but  the  Bedouins  pay  slight 
attention  to  the  ceremonial  precepts  of  the 
Koran.  In  hospitality  the  Arabs  of  our 
times  have  in  no  degree  degenerated  from 
the  reputation  they  have  always  borne. 
The  study  of  their  customs  and  language 
still  throws  important  light  on  the  Old 
Testament.  See  Robinson:  Biblical  Re¬ 
searches  in  Palestine  (Boston,  1850),  3  vols. ; 
Stanley:  Sinai  and  Palestine  (1856);  Pal- 
grave  :  Journey  through  Central  and  Eastern 
Arabia  (London,  1865);  Schaff:  Through 
B ible- Lands  (N.  Y. ,  1879), 


northeast  of  Palestine,  in  the  direction  of 
the  Euphrates  river.  (Num.  xxiii.  7;  1 
Chron.  i.  17;  ii.  23.)  It  was  nearly  iden¬ 
tical  with  Syria.  Aram-Naharaim  of  Gen. 
xxiv.  10,  is  translated  Mesopotamia  in  the 
English  version,  and  refers  to  the  region 
between  the  Euphrates  and  Tigris  rivers. 
There  were  probably  several  petty  king¬ 
doms  included  under  Aram,  as  Aram- 
Zobah,Aram-Beth-rehob,  Aram-Damascus, 
Padan-aram;  all  these  were  gradually  ab¬ 
sorbed  by  that  of  Damascus,  which  became 
the  capital  of  all  ‘  Aram,’ or  ‘Syria.’” — 
Schaff:  Bible  Did. 

Ararat  (holy  land  or  high  land)  orig- 


MOUNT  ARARAT,  ARMENIA. 


Arabians  or  Arabici,  a  sect  which  arose 
early  in  the  third  century.  They  held  to 
the  doctrine  that  the  soul  perished,  and 
was  restored  to  life  with  the  body.  They 
are  mentioned  by  Augustine,  and  Eusebius 
says  that  the  sect  were  convinced  of  their 
error  by  Origen,  and  renounced  it  at  a 
council  held  about  246. 

A'rad,  a  royal  city  of  the  Canaanites, 
situated  about  twenty  miles  south  of  He¬ 
bron,  on  the  border  of  Judah,  on  a  hill  now 
called  Tel  Arad.  (Josh.  xii.  14;  Num.  xxi. 

i-3- ) 

A'ram  ( highlands ),  “  the  elevated  region 


inally  designated  an  entire  district  of  Asia 
(Gen.  viii.  4),  but  is  used  now  with  refer¬ 
ence  to  the  lofty  Armenian  mountain 
which  stands  on  the  confines  of  the  Rus¬ 
sian,  Turkish,  and  Persian  dominions.  It 
is  called  by  the  Persians  Kuh-i-Nuh ,  or 
Noah’s  Mountain.  According  to  tradition 
the  ark  rested  on  the  southern  slope  of  the 
mountain.  Another  tradition  has  fixed 
upon  Mount  Judi,  in  the  south  of  Armenia, 
as  the  ark’s  resting-place. 

Arcani,Disciplina,“  a  term  applied  to  the 
practice,  general  in  the  ancient  Church,  of 
excluding  all  the  uninitiated  from  certain 
parts  of  the  divine  service,  and  maintain- 


Arc 


(  49  ) 


Arc 


ing  a  studied  reticence,  when  speaking  in 
public,  about  certain  sacred  objects  and 
proceedings.  The  reason  for  this  practice 
was  simply  that  Christianity  was  an  ‘  un¬ 
recognized  religion,’ and,  as  such,  exposed 
to  the  fury  and  persecutions  of  the  pagans. 
When  these  circumstances  changed,  the 
practice  itself  disappeared.” — Zezschwitz. 
Seehisart.  inSchaff-Herzog:  Amrj.;  alsoart. 
“  Disciplina  Arcani  ”  in  Smith  and  Cheet- 
ham:  Dictionary  Christian  Antiquities. 

Archaeology,  Biblical,  leaving  out  bib¬ 
lical  history,  properly  so-called,  has 
been  defined  “as  a  representation  of  the 
physical,  geographical,  statistical,  econom¬ 
ical,  and  social  conditions  of  that  nation 
which  produced  the  Bible.”  Of  the  antiq¬ 
uities  of  other  nations  that  came  in 
contact  with  the  Hebrews,  only  those  are 
admitted  that  have  a  direct  bearing  on 
some  scriptural  passage.  “The  sources  of 
this  science  comprise  :  (i)  Antique  monu¬ 
ments  and  buildings,  plastic  represen¬ 
tations,  inscriptions  and  coins.  (2)  Among 
the  written  sources  the  Bible  occupies 
the  first  place.  The  writings  of  Philo  and 
Josephus  give  excellent  information  with 
regard  to  their  own  times  ;  but  for  the 
older  periods  they  must  be  used  with 
caution.  The  Talmud,  Targums,  and  the 
Rabbins  form  a  ‘  rich  but  not  clear  source.’ 
The  older  portions  of  them  are  of  great 
value  for  the  explanation  of  the  New 
Testament.” — Ruetschi.  Some  Greek  and 
Roman  authors  give  important  informa¬ 
tion, and  also  Oriental  writers, and  the  relig¬ 
ious  books  of  the  Arabs  and  Parsees.  The 
literature  both  of  Biblical  and  Ecclesiasti¬ 
cal  Archaeology  is  extensive.  See  Kitto; 
Smith;  McClintock and  Strong;  and  Bissell: 
Antiquities  of  the  Bible  (American  S.  S. 
Union,  1888). 

Archaeology,  Ecclesiastical,  treats  of 
the  organization  of  the  Christian  Church, 
its  officers,  legislation,  discipline,  and  rev¬ 
enues;  the  social  life  of  Christians;  their 
worship  and  ceremonial,  with  the  accom¬ 
panying  music,  vestments,  instruments, 
vessels,  and  insignia;  their  sacred  places; 
their  architecture  and  other  forms  of  Art; 
their  symbolism;  their  sacred  days  and 
seasons,  and  all  matters  pertaining  to 
ecclesiastical  order  and  development.  See 
Smith  and  Cheetham:  Dictionary  of  Chris¬ 
tian  Antiquities  (London,  1875-80),  2  vols., 
an  authority  on  this  subject  for  the  first 
eight  centuries ;  also  Bingham  :A ntiquities  of 
the  Christian  Church  (London,  1878),  2  vols. 

Archangel,  a  chief  or  principal  angel. 
The  word  only  occurs  twice  in  the  Bible. 
(1  Thess.  iv.  16  :  Jude  9.)  See  Angel. 


Archbishop,  “  the  title  of  a  church  digni¬ 
tary  of  the  first  class.  Archbishops  were 
not  known  in  the  Church  before  the  fourth 
century  after  Christ,  when  the  term 
‘  Archbishop  ’  was  introduced  in  the  East 
as  a  title  of  dignity,  which  did  not  neces¬ 
sarily  imply  any  superiority  of  jurisdiction 
over  a  bishop.” — Ency.  Britannica.  See 
Bishop. 

Archdeacon.  “  The  office  of  archdeacon 
is  of  ancient  institution  in  the  Christian 
Church,  as  archdeacons  are  mentioned  in 
the  fourth  century  after  Christ.  The  title 
was  originally  given  to  the  chief  deacon 
in  each  diocese,  who  had  charge  of  the  tem¬ 
poral  affairs  of  the  church,  and  the  super¬ 
vision  of  all  matters  which  appertained  to 
the  order  and  decency  of  divine  service.” — 
Ency.  Britannica.  In  time,  the  archdeacons 
encroached  upon  the  episcopal  jurisdiction, 
but  they  were  restrained  by  councils  held 
in  the  thirteenth  and  fourteenth  centuries. 
In  the  Church  of  England  the  archdeacons 
are  appointed  by  the  bishops,  and  have  a 
general  oversight  of  the  churches  within 
the  bounds  of  the  archdeaconry. 

Archpresbyter.  See  Archdeacon. 

Archela'us  ( ruler  of  the  people},  a  son  of 
Herod  the  Great,  and  elder  brother  of 
Herod  Antipas,  with  whom  he  was  brought 
up  at  Rome.  He  succeeded  his  father  in 
the  government  of  Judaea  and  Samaria, 
with  the  title  of  ethnarch.  His  cruelty 
led  to  his  deposition  by  Augustus  in  the 
tenth  year  of  his  reign,  and  he  was  banish¬ 
ed  to  Vienne,  in  Gaul,  where  he  died. 

Ar'chevites,“the  name  of  a  people  trans¬ 
planted  by  the  Assyrians  into  the  depopu¬ 
lated  Samaria.  (Ezek.  iv.  9.)  They  were 
inhabitants  of  Erech  and  its  neighborhood, 
mentioned  in  Gen.  x.  10  as  belonging  to 
the  kingdom  of  Nimrod.  Erech  has  been 
identified  in  the  ruins  of  Warka,  on  the 
banks  of  the  Euphrates,  eighty-two  miles 
south-east  from  Babylon.” — Wolf  Baudis- 
sin. 

Archiman'drite.  Since  the  fifth  century 
this  name  has  been  given  by  the  Greek 
Christians  to  the  head  of  a  monastery,  and 
the  title  is  retained  even  after  the  office  is 
resigned. 

Architecture,  Christian.  It  was  not  until 
the  time  of  Constantine  that  Christian  ar¬ 
chitecture  began  to  develop  as  an  art.  (1) 
The  so-called  Basilican  style  was  an  imita¬ 
tion  of  the  Roman  basilica,  a  rectangular 
building  with  plain  walls  on  the  outside, 
and  on  the  interior  a  large  hall  surrounded 


Arc  (  50  )  Arc 


by  columns  and  galleries.  The  alterations 
required  to  change  an  ancient  basilica  into 
a  church  were  very  slight.  The  atrium 
(q.  v.)  was  enlarged  and  provided  with  a 
fountain.  The  main  room  was  entered  by 
several  doors,  according  as  the  hall  was  di¬ 
vided  into  three,  five,  or  seven  aisles. 
Three  was  the  more  common  number.  The 
place  for  the  clergy  was  slightly  elevated 
above  the  nave,  and  separated  from  it  by  a 
railing.  Here  stood,  in  the  centre  the  altar 
and  on  either  side,  the  pulpits.  The  bish¬ 
op’s  throne  was  back  of  the  altar,  and  the 
seats  for  the  clergy  were  ranged  along  the 
wall.  Some  of  the  early  basilicas  were 
very  richly  furnished  with  pictures  and 
hangings  of  costly  stuffs. 

(2)  The  Byzantine  style  had  its  origin 
probably  from  the  Roman  mausoleum, 
modified  by  Persian  influence.  The  pecul¬ 
iarity  of  this  style  was  the  combination  of 
the  cupola  and  the  square.  The  two  great 
masterpieces  of  the  style  are  St.  Vitale  in 
Ravenna  (526-547),  and  St.  Sophia  in  Con¬ 
stantinople  (532-557).  A  later  development 
of  the  Byzantine  style  substituted  the 
Greek  cross  for  the  square  substructure, 
and  increased  the  number  of  cupolas.  The 
Church  of  St.  Mark,  in  Venice  (1043-71),  is 
a  noble  example.  (3)  The  Ro??ianesque 
style  was  an  adaptation  of  the  Basilican 
with  that  of  the  Byzantine.  It  dates  from 
the  beginning  of  the  eleventh  century,  and 
disappeared  in  the  thirteenth  century,  as  the 
Gothic  style  developed.  See  Gothic  Ar¬ 
chitecture. 

(4)  The  Renaissance  style  superseded  the 
Gothic  in  the  fifteenth  and  sixteenth  cen¬ 
turies.  It  was  a  reproduction  of  classical 
forms.  Its  greatest  example  is  St.  Peter’s 
at  Rome  ( q .  v. ).  In  modern  times  church 
building  represents  a  mixture  of  styles. 
See  Brown:  Sacred  Architecture  (London, 
1845);  Charles  Eliot  Norton:  Studies  of 
Church-building  in  the  Middle  Ages  (New 
York,  1880). 

Architecture,  Hebrew.  It  was  not  until 
after  the  occupation  of  Canaan  that  the  Is¬ 
raelites  became  dwellers  in  towns,  and  lived 
in  houses  of  stone.  Solomon  was  the  first 
in  the  royal  line  who  gave  a  great  impulse 
to  architecture.  “  Besides  the  Temple  and 
his  other  great  works,  he  built  fortresses 
and  cities  in  various  places,  among  which 
Baalath  and  Tadmor  are  in  all  probability 
represented  by  Baalbec  and  Palmyra.  (1 
Kings  ix.  15,  24.)  Among  the  succeeding 
kings  of  Israel  and  of  Judah,  more  than  one 
is  recorded  as  a  builder:  Asa  (1  Kings  xv. 
23),  Baasha  (xv.  17),  Omri  (xvi.  24),  Ahab 
xvi.  32;  xxii.  39),  Hezekiah(2  Kings  xx.  20: 
2  Chron.  xxxii.  27-30),  Jehoash  and  Josiah 
(2  Kings  xii.  11,  12;  xxii.  6);  and,  lastly,  Je- 


hoiakim,  whose  winter  palace  is  mentioned. 
(Jer.  xxii.  14;  xxxvi.  22;  see  also  Amos.  iii. 
15.)  On  the  return  from  captivity  the 
chief  care  of  the  rulers  was  to  rebuild  the 
Temple  and  the  walls  of  Jerusalem  in  a 
substantial  manner,  with  stone,  and  with 
timber  from  Lebanon.  (Ezra  iii.  8;  v.  8; 
Neh.  ii.  8;  iii.)  But  the  reigns  of  Herod 
and  his  successors  were  especially  remark¬ 
able  for  their  great  architectural  works. 
Not  only  was  the  Temple  restored,  but  the 
fortifications  and  other  public  buildings  of 
Jerusalem  were  enlarged  and  embellished. 
(Luke  xxi.  5.)  The  town  of  Caesarea  was 
built  on  the  site  of  Strato’s  Tower;  Samaria 
was  enlarged  and  received  the  name  of  Se- 
baste.  Of  the  original  splendor  of  these 
great  works  no  doubt  can  be  entertained; 
but  of  their  style  and  appearance  we  can 
only  conjecture  that  they  were  formed  on 
Greek  and  Roman  models.  The  connec¬ 
tion  of  Solomon  vvith  Egypt  and  with  Tyre, 
and  the  influence  of  the  Captivity,  must 
necessarily  have  affected  the  style  of  the 
palatial  edifices  of  that  monarch,  and  of  the 
first  and  second  temples.  The  enormous 
stones  employed  in  the  Assyrian,  Persepol- 
itan,  and  Egyptian  buildings,  find  a  paral¬ 
lel  in  the  substructions  of  Baalbec,  and  in 
the  huge  blocks  which  still  remain  at  Jeru¬ 
salem,  relics  of  the  buildings  either  of  Sol¬ 
omon  or  of  Herod.  But  few  monuments 
are  known  to  exist  in  Palestine  by  which 
we  can  form  an  accurate  idea  of  its  build¬ 
ings;  and  even  of  those  which  do  remain,  no 
trustworthy  examination  has  yet  been 
made.  It  is  probable,  however,  that  the 
reservoirs  known  under  the  names  of  the 
Pools  of  Solomon  and  Hezekiah  contain 
some  portions,  at  least,  of  the  original  fab¬ 
rics.  The  domestic  architecture  of  the 
Jews,  so  far  as  it  can  be  understood,  is 
treated  under  House.” — Smith:  Did.  of  the 
Bible. 

Archontics,  a  sect  of  local  Gnostics 
which  arose  in  Palestine  in  the  middle  of 
the  second  century,  and  derived  its  name 
from  the  “  Archons,”  or  sub-deities,  who 
corresponded  in  their  system  with  the 
^Eons  of  Simon  Magus  and  the  Valentinians 
(Ton).  The  sect  spread  to  Armenia,  but 
was  never  very  numerous,  and  seems 
to  have  been  a  branch  of  the  Egyptian 
Ophites.  They  had  various  apocryphal 
books,  and  among  them  that  known  as  the 
Ascension  of  Isaiah. 

Archpriest.  In  the  primitive  Church 
this  was  the  principal  priest  of  a  diocese, 
usually  the  senior  one,  according  to  the 
date  of  his  ordination  as  priest.  As  the 
organization  of  dioceses  advanced,  the  num¬ 
ber  of  archpriests  increased,  and  one  was 


Are 


(5i) 


Ari 


appointed  for  each  principal  town  and  its 
neighborhood  under  the  name  of  the  “rural 
archpriest.”  The  office  is  often  confused 
with  that  of  the  Chorepiscopus ,  but  was 
in  reality  the  same  as  that  of  the  Rural 
Dean ,  though  in  mediaeval  times  its  duties 
were  assumed  by  the  Archdeacons. 

Ar'etas,  the  King  of  Arabia  Petraea.  His 
daughter  married  Herod  Antipas,  and  when 
Herod  divorced  her,  to  make  way  for  Hero- 
dias,  Aretas  took  up  arms  against  him,  and 
defeated  him.  The  Roman  emperor,  Ti¬ 
berius,  came  to  the  assistance  of  Antipas, 
and  ordered  Tullius,  governor  of  Syria,  to 
attack  Aretas.  The  death  of  Tiberius  pre¬ 
vented  him;  and  as  Aretas  gained  the  good¬ 
will  of  the  new  emperor,  Caligula,  he  was 
restored  to  the  government  of  Damascus. 
This  explains  the  statement  of  Paul.  (2  Cor. 
xi.  32.) 

Argentine  Republic,  The,  was  discover¬ 
ed  and  occupied  by  the  Spaniards  in  1516. 
The  Roman  Catholic  Church  was  at  once  es¬ 
tablished,  and  has  continued  the  Church  of 
the  State.  Since  1813  most  of  the  convents 
have  been  suppressed,  and  their  property 
confiscated.  The  Government  has  as¬ 
sumed  the  administration  of  tithes,  and  de¬ 
votes  one  part  of  them  for  educational  pur¬ 
poses.  While  the  missions  were  under 
the  control  of  the  Jesuits  (1586-1767), 
large  numbers  of  Indians  were  reclaimed, 
and  were  induced  to  choose  civilized 
methods  of  life  and  work.  Many  were 
taught  agriculture  and  trade.  After  the 
expulsion  of  the  Jesuits,  the  Roman 
Church,  represented  by  the  Dominican 
and  Franciscan  orders,  became  indolent 
and  tyrannical,  and  thousands  of  the  In¬ 
dians  relapsed  into  barbarism. 

Protestant  missionaries  came  into  the 
country  in  1835,  and  several  flourishing 
stations  have  been  established,  especially 
by  the  Methodists. 

Arianism.  See  Arius. 

Arimathe'a,  a  town  in  Judaea,  the  birth¬ 
place  of  Joseph,  in  whose  sepulchre  the 
body  of  Jesus  was  laid.  (Matt,  xxviii.  57; 
Mark  xv.  43;  Luke  xxiii.  51;  John  xix.  38.) 
Some  identify  it  with  Ramah,  the  birth¬ 
place  of  Samuel. 

Aristar'chus,  the  fellow-laborer  of  Paul, 
who  went  with  him  on  his  last  journey  to 
Jerusalem  from  Troas,  and  shared  his  im¬ 
prisonment  at  Caesarea.  (Acts  xix.  29;  xx. 
4;  Col.  iv.  10.)  He  accompanied  the 
apostle  on  the  perilous  sea-voyage  to 
Rome  (Acts  xxvii.  2),  and,  it  appears,  left 
him '  soon  after  their  reaching  that  city. 


According  to  tradition  he  was  Bishop  of 
Thessalonica,  and  suffered  martyrdom  un¬ 
der  Nero. 

Aristobu'lus,  an  Alexandrian  Jew,  re¬ 
ferred  to  in  2  Macc.  i.  10  as  a  “  teacher” 
of  the  king  and  a  man  of  influence  among 
his  people.  Some  think  he  was  the  author 
of  an  allegorical  commentary  on  the  Penta¬ 
teuch,  fragments  of  which  are  preserved  in 
the  writings  of  Clement  of  Alexandria,  and 
Eusebius. 

Aristotle  was  born  at  Stagira,  384  B.  c. ; 
was  a  pupil  of  Plato,  from  364  to  347;  be¬ 
came  preceptor  of  Alexander  the  Great,  in 
342;  and  d.  in  322.  He  divided  the  circle 
of  knowledge  into  Metaphysics  and  Logic, 
Physics,  including  part  of  the  science  of 
mind,  and  Ethics.  “  The  philosophy  of 
Aristotle  is  a  strongly  pronounced  dualism; 
matter  and  form ,  God  and  the  world ,  are  dis¬ 
tinct  though  inseparable  existences.  The 
harmony  of  this  duality  is  an  equally  pro¬ 
nounced  Pantheism;  God  is  an  act  rather 
than  a  will,  a  process  and  not  a  person. 
But  the  dualism  of  Aristotle  is  not  ma¬ 
terialistic;  the  form,  God,  is  the  principal 
constituent;  and  his  Pantheism  is  abso¬ 
lutely  monotheistic,  directly  opposed  to 
every  form  of  polytheism.” — Schaff-Herzog . 
The  philosophy  of  Aristotle  had  a  marked 
influence  upon  the  religious  thought  of  the 
Middle  Ages,  but  was  discarded  by  the 
theologians  of  the  Reformation.  The  best 
edition  of  Aristotle’s  works  is  by  Bekker 
(Berlin,  1831-70),  5  vols.  See  art.  in  Ency. 
Britannica. 

Arius  and  the  Arians.  Early  in  the 
fourth  century  the  heretical  opinions 
which  had  been  promulgated  respecting 
the  Godhead  of  our  Lord  culminated  in 
the  widely  spread  heresy  of  Arianism,  so 
named  after  Arius,  its  principal  leader. 
Arius  was  a  native  of  Ptolemais  (now 
known  as  Tolmeit),  a  city  in  Cyrenaica,  or 
that  part  of  North  Africa  which  lies,  exact¬ 
ly  opposite  to  the  southern  part  of  Greece. 
The  date  of  his  birth  is  uncertain,  but  the 
important  part  of  his  life  takes  in  from 
A.  d.  306  to  A.  D.  336,  and  this  is  the  period 
with  which  we  have  to  deal,  in  treating  of 
his  personal  history  and  influence. 

In  his  appearance  and  manners  he  was 
exceedingly  attractive,  and  much  of  his 
personal  influence  seems  'to  have  been 
gained  by  his  gentle  and  winning  ways  in 
society.  We  read  of  him  as  a  very  tall  and 
thin  man,  of  rigidly  ascetic  look  and  seri¬ 
ous  countenance,  of  downcast  eyes,  per¬ 
haps  from  weak  sight,  and  given  to  violent 
starts  and  wild  glances,  “  as  if  suffering,” 
suggests  Dean  Stanley,  “from  some  vio- 


Ari 


(  52  ) 


Ari 


lent  and  internal  complaint,  the  same,  per¬ 
haps,  that  will  terminate  one  day  in  his 
sudden  and  frightful  death.”  He  was  a 
man  of  much  ability,  tact,  and  learning, 
and  full  of  energy. 

The  first  we  hear  of  Arius  is  as  a  lay¬ 
man,  who  made  himself  so  prominent  as  a 
partisan  of  Meletius,  a  bishop  of  Lycopolis 
(who  had  apostatized  from  Christianity  to 
save  his  life,  during  the  Diocletian  perse¬ 
cution;  and,  when  safe  times  had  returned, 
wished  to  take  up  his  position  as  if  noth¬ 
ing  had  happened),  that  he  appears  to  have 
been  excommunicated  by  his  own  bishop, 
Peter  of  Alexandria.  Arius  was,  however, 
reconciled  to  the  bishop,  and  ordained 
deacon  about  the  year  306.  His  partisan¬ 
ship  was  not  by  any  means  eradicated, 
nevertheless;  for  the  supporters  of  Mele¬ 
tius  having  started  a  church  of  their  own, 
and  Meletius  having  ordained  bishops, 
Arius  advocated  their  claims  to  be  ad¬ 
mitted  on  equal  terms  of  fellowship  by  the 
Bishop  of  Alexandria;  and  this  went  on 
until  he  was  again  ejected  from  the  com¬ 
munion  of  the  Church.  Whenever  he  was 
excommunicated  Arius  seems  to  have  re¬ 
pented,  and,  when  he  was  received  back 
again,  to  have  relapsed  on  the  earliest 
opportunity.  The  repentance  now  came 
with  the  imprisonment  of  the  bishop  by 
the  persecutor  Maximin,  in  31 1. 

Arius  persuaded  a  number  of  the  Alex¬ 
andrian  clergy,  who  probably  thought  the 
matter  between  him  and  the  bishop  was 
more  personal  than  anything  else,  to  go  to 
Peter  in  prison,  and  intercede  for  his 
restoration.  This  was  sternly  refused  by 
the  old  bishop,  who,  it  is  said,  supported 
his  refusal  by  the  narrative  of  a  vision  he 
had  seen  the  night  before,  in  which  it  was 
revealed  to  him  that  Arius  would  be  the 
cause  of  terrible  divisions  in  the  Church  of 
Christ.  Turning  to  two  clergymen,  named 
Achillas  and  Alexander,  he  predicted,  the 
story  continues,  that  they,  and  not  Arius, 
would  each  in  his  turn  be  his  successors; 
and  the  event  proved  his  words  to  be 
prophetic. 

After  the  bishop’s  martyrdom,  in  the 
year  312,  the  first-named  of  these,  Achillas, 
was  elected  bishop,  and  Arius,  appearing 
to  him  to  be  penitent  (and  probably  being 
so  at  the  time,  for  he  was  a  man  of  strong 
impulses),  he  restored  him  to  communion, 
ordained  him  priest,  appointed  him  to  the 
charge  of  the  church  of  Baucalis,  in  Alex¬ 
andria,  and  made  him  Divinity  Lecturer  at 
the  college  of  that  city,  where  he  became 
exceedingly  popular  with  his  pupils. 
Achillas  dying,  Alexander  and  Arius  were 
candidates  for  the  see;  but  it  seems  that  a 
very  small  party  desired  the  election  of 
the  latter,  and  Alexander  was  elected. 


Arius  and  the  party  who  had  supported 
him  were,  however,  thrown  into  a  bitter 
state  of  hostility  towards  those  who  had 
preferred  Alexander;  the  latter,  on  the 
other  hand,  gave  Arius  the  first  place  of 
dignity  among  his  clergy,  next  to  him¬ 
self. 

The  particular  line  which  Arius  marked 
out  for  himself  was  that  of  substituting 
“rational”  ideas  about  the  Blessed  Trinity 
for  those  mysteries  which  had  hitherto 
been  accepted  and  believed  in  by  the  great 
body  of  Christians  at  all  times  and  every¬ 
where.  He  followed  in  the  track  of  for¬ 
mer  heretics,  and  kept  up  the  succession 
which  is  to  be  traced  through  Paul  of 
Samosata,  Sabellius,  Praxeas,  the  Gnostics, 
the  Docette  and  Cerinthus,  back  to  the 
Apostolic  Age  itself;  but  as  the  last  gen¬ 
eral  persecution  of  the  Church  was  the. 
most  severe  which  it  had  to  undergo,  so 
the  last  heresy  of  that  period  was  by  far 
the  most  dangerous  and  the  most  widely 
spread  of  all  heresies. 

Arius  began  by  a  controversy  with  a 
clergyman  named  Baucalas,  in  which  the 
eternal  existence  of  our  Lord,  as  God  the 
Son,  was  the  subject  of  dispute;  but  who 
was  the  original  assailant  of  the  other  does 
not  appear,  though  it  seems  probable  that 
Arius  was,  since  he  had  already  accused 
the  bishop  of  Sabellianism. 

The  matter  became  notorious,  and  the 
bishop  was  driven  to  take  some  steps  re¬ 
specting  it.  What  he  did  was  exceedingly 
fair  and  honorable,  and  shows  that  he  was 
not  actuated  by  any  private  pique  against 
his  late  rival;  for  he  called  together  a 
synod,  composed  of  a  hundred  of  the 
neighboring  bishops,  that  they  might  hear 
what  each  of  the  disputants  had  to  say, 
and  advise  them  as  to  the  right  or  the 
wrong  of  their  arguments.  Arius,  mean¬ 
while,  took  a  step,  which  seems  to  show 
that  he  was  a  thorough  agitator,  for,  while 
his  matter  was  thus  sub  judice,  he  en¬ 
deavored  to  secure  influence  over  his 
judges  by  writing  to  all  neighboring 
bishops. 

All  of  them,  however,  with  the  excep¬ 
tion  of  Eusebius  of  Nicomaedia  (not  Euse¬ 
bius  the  historian,  who  was  bishop  of 
Caesarea),  refused  their  countenance,  and 
referred  him  to  his  diocesan,  Bishop 
Alexander;  and  the  hundred  other  bishops 
decided  that  the  doctrine  of  Arius  was  not 
the  doctrine  of  the  Church,  and  urged  him 
to  recant.  As  he  refused  to  do  so,  and 
the  case  had  become  so  serious  that  no 
alternative  was  left,  the  bishop  excommu¬ 
nicated  him  (a.  d.  320). 

There  are  always  many  to  side  with 
an  oppressed  man,  or  one  who  is  thought 
to  be  so,  and  Arius  was  a  man  made  for 


Ari 


(53) 


Ari 


popularity.  Among  the  ladies  of  Alex¬ 
andria  he  found  many  followers.  Some  of 
the  younger  laity  were  also  won  over  to 
his  side;  a  few  deacons  and  several  priests 
were  his  clerical  supporters,  as  also  the 
Bishop  of  Ptolemais,  his  native  place,  and 
of  Marmarica,  the  see  which  lay  between 
it  and  his  present  abode.  But  he  seems 
never  to  have  numbered  men  of  the  high¬ 
est  class  of  intellect  among  his  followers, 
Eusebius,  the  historian,  being  the  only 
one  who  could  at  all  be  excepted,  and  he 
only  half  inclining  toward  him  at  one 
period  of  his  career,  through  fear  of  the 
clergy  running  into  an  opposite  extreme. 

After  the  condemnation  of  his  opinions 
by  the  bishop  and  provincial  council  of 
Alexandria,  Arius  left  the  city,  and  went 
on  a  tour  among  the  bishops  of  Palestine, 
endeavoring  to  win  them  over  to  his  side. 

This  led  to  a  circular  letter  being  ad¬ 
dressed,  by  Bishop  Alexander,  to  seventy 
of  them,  in  which  he  told  them  the  history 
of  the  controversy,  and  mixed  up  with  it 
the  name  of  the  Bishop  of  Nicomaedia, 
who  had  always  been  an  important  friend 
of  Arius  (Nicomaedia  being  the  capital  of 
the  Eastern  Empire,  as  Rome  was  of  the 
Western),  and  who  now  espoused  his 
cause  more  warmly  still,  receiving  him  as 
a  visitor.  The  tact,  energy,  and  talents  of 
Arius  are  shown  by  his  literary  works 
while  at  Nicomaedia,  for  under  the  name 
of  Thalia  he  composed  some  songs  for 
sailors  and  workmen,  in  which  he  endeav¬ 
ored  to  secure  a  public  opinion  for  his 
tenets  among  the  lower  classes.  These 
songs  no  longer  exist,  except  in  a  few 
fragments,  but  they  are  said  by  St.  Atha¬ 
nasius  to  contain  some  immoralities. 

The  substance  of  Arian  doctrine  may  be 
stated  in  a  few  words:  It  is,  that  although 
the  Second  Person  in  the  Holy  Trinity 
may  be  designated  as  God,  in  some  sense, 
He  is  not  God  in  the  same  sense  as  the 
First,  or  in  any  really  true  sense,  because 
He  is  not  eternal,  and  there  was,  therefore, 
a  time  when  he  did  not  exist.  It  was 
seldom,  however,  that  Arius  put  forth  his 
doctrine  in  this  simple  form,  as  his  object 
seems  to  have  been  rather  to  secure  as 
many  supporters  as  he  could  by  broad  and 
indefinite  statements,  of  which  only  edu¬ 
cated  theologians  could  see  the  bearing. 
That  bearing  is  illustrated  by  the  change 
which  Arius  and  his  followers  adopted  in 
the  old  Doxology  of  the  Church. 

This  they  used  in  .the  form,  “  Glory  be 
to  the  Father,  by  the  Son,  in  the  Holy 
Ghost,”  which  was,  in  the  mouth  of  an 
Arian,  a  most  important  change,  since  the 
more  ancient  form  ascribes  glory  to  the  Son 
as  it  does  to  the  Father,  and  hence  acknowl¬ 
edges  his  equal  Godhead.  The  contro¬ 


versy  thus  settled  on  the  Greek  word 
homdousios,  which,  in  the  English  transla¬ 
tion  of  the  Nicene  Creed,  is  rendered,  “  of 
one  substance  with;”  the  one  side  main¬ 
taining  that  God  the  Son  is  an  uncreated 
being,  as  entirely  God  as  God  the  Father; 
the  other,  that  he  is  a  created  being,  but  in 
some  way  similar  to  God  the  Father;  in 
fact,  a  kind  of  demi-god. 

The  controversy  had  hitherto  been 
represented  by  Alexander,  Bishop  or  Patri¬ 
arch  of  Alexandria,  on  one  side,  and  Arius 
himself  on  the  other.  It  was  while  the 
influence  of  the  latter  was  being  exerted  to 
the  utmost  at  Nicomaedia,  and  had  pene¬ 
trated  into  the  family  circle  of  the  Emperor 
Constantine,  that  a  young  deacon  was 
brought  forward  by  Alexander  as  the  theo¬ 
logical  champion  of  the  old  doctrine.  This 
young  deacon  became  ultimately  that  great 
opponent  of  Arianism,  whose  name  is  pre¬ 
served  in  memory  to  this  day  by  the  hymn 
or  creed  which  is  called  after  his  name  (as 
representing  his  statements  of  the  received 
doctrine),  the  great  Athanasius.  (Athana¬ 
sius,  St.) 

The  controversy  had  now  covered  so 
large  a  surface,  and  involved  so  many  per¬ 
sons  on  either  side,  as  to  have  become  a 
public  question  of  great  importance. 
About  fifty  years  later,  the  general  inter¬ 
est  which  a  revival  of  it  excited  is  quaintly 
but  forcibly  described  by  Gregory  of 
Nyssa.  “  The  town  is  full,”  he  wrote — 
meaning  Constantinople — “  of  those  who 
dogmatize  about  incomprehensible  mat¬ 
ters;  they  are  in  the  streets,  in  the  mar¬ 
kets,  among  the  clothiers,  money-changers 
and  victuallers.  If  you  ask  any  one  how 
much  you  have  to  pay,  they  dogmatize 
about  ‘  being  begotten  ’  and  ‘  not  being 
begotten.’  If  you  ask  the  price  of  bread, 
the  reply  is,  ‘  The  Father  is  greater  than 
the  Son,  and  the  Son  is  inferior  to  the 
Father.’  If  you  ask,  ‘  Is  the  bath  ready?’ 
the  answer  is,  ‘  The  Son  is  made  out  of 
nothing.’  ”  Though  this  was  written  when 
Arianism  was  in  high  favor  with  the  em¬ 
peror,  who  then  held  his  court  at  Con¬ 
stantinople,  it  probably  represents  some¬ 
thing  of  the  tone  of  society  at  Nicomaedia 
and  Alexandria  at  the  earlier  period  with 
which  we  are  now  dealing,  and  the  moving 
causes  which  led  the  Emperor  Constantine 
to  interfere  in  the  controversy.  The  em¬ 
peror  did  not  attempt  to  decide  it  himself, 
but,  finding  a  large  body  of  his  subjects 
were  at  variance  on  a  question  which  he 
was  not  competent  to  investigate,  he  ap¬ 
pointed  a  proper  ecclesiastical  person  as  a 
deputy  for  the  purpose,  intrusting  Hosius, 
Bishop  of  Cordova,  in  the  south  of  Spain, 
with  the  office  of  judging  the  case,  and,  if 
possible,  of  quieting  the  controversy, 


Ari 


Ari 


(  54  ) 


The  report  which  Hosius  made  to  the 
emperor  was  of  such  a  nature  that  Con¬ 
stantine  decided  on  assembling  an  immense 
council  of  bishops  from  every  part  of  the 
world,  and  intrusting  to  them  the  final  de¬ 
cision  of  the  question;  and  there  seems  to 
be  an  intimation  of  the  vital  and  universal 
importance  of  it,  in  the  fact  that  such  an 
idea  was  providentially  impressed  upon 
the  mind  of  a  recent  convert  like  the  em¬ 
peror,  who  could  have  known  very  little  of 
the  real  point  at  issue,  or  of  Christian  the¬ 
ology  in  general.  This  assembly  met  in 
the  year  325,  at  Nicsea,  not  far  from  the  im¬ 
perial  residence  and  the  new  city  which 
Constantine  was  then  building  on  the  op¬ 
posite  shore  of  the  Bosphorus,  and  which 
still  retains  his  name.  To  this  Council  of 
Nicaea,  summoned  by  the  secular  head  of 
the  civilized  world,  318  bishops  traveled 
from  all  parts  of  the  world,  at  the  public 
expense,  and  some,  it  is  thought,  went 
thither  even  from  the  far-distant  country 
of  Britain.  Such  an  assembly,  when  we 
come  rationally  to  consider  its  composition, 
must  have  been  one  to  command  the 
respect  of  the  age,  and  one  which  may  com¬ 
mand  our  respect  also.  Those  who  com¬ 
posed  it  were  men  of  mature  years,  many 
of  them  long  past  the  meridian  of  life; 
they  had  been  picked  out  of  the  best  edu¬ 
cated  class  among  their  fellow-country¬ 
men  at  home,  as  having  the  knowledge, 
judgment,  and  goodness  which  fitted  them 
for  the  office  of  bishop;  they  were,  many  of 
them,  men  who  had  suffered  grievously  for 
their  religion,  showing  by  their  maimed 
bodies,  as  they  sat  in  the  council,  how  real 
those  sufferings  had  been;  they  now  met 
together,  under  imperial  command,  to  de¬ 
cide  on  an  important  public  question,  and 
must  have  felt  the  responsibility  of  their 
office;  and  they  believed  that  God’s  guid¬ 
ance  would  lead  them  to  a  right  decision. 

The  proceeding  of  the  Council  was,  in 
fact,  very  simple.  All  its  members  started 
wTith  the  axiom  that  the  real  object  for 
which  they  had  met  was  not  to  decide 
by  argument  who  was  right  and  who  was 
wrong,  but  to  judge  of  a  fact — who  was 
and  who  was  not  in  agreement  with  the 
general  belief  of  Christians  all  over  the 
world,  from  the  apostles’  time  downwards. 
The  Bishop  of  Cordova  was  President  of 
the  Council.  Sylvester,  the  Bishop  of 
Rome,  was  not  there,  but  sent  two  priests 
as  his  representatives,  who  acted  for  him, 
and  had  the  second  place  of  honor  at  the 
Council. 

Upon  hearing  the  doctrine  of  Arius  from 
his  own  lips,  indignation  and  horror  were 
shown  by  the  great  majority  of  the  bishops: 
it  was  so  plainly  antagonistic  to  the  truth 
which  they  had  received,  and  believed, 


and  taught,  and  on  which  their  hopes  were 
founded.  When  each  in  turn  was  asked  to 
bear  witness  to  the  constant  belief  of  the 
Church  in  his  part  of  the  world,  the  testi¬ 
mony  proved  to  be  an  almost  unanimous 
condemnation  of  the  doctrine  of  Arius. 
And  when  the  Nicene  Creed  (wdth  the  ex¬ 
ception  of  the  clauses  after  “  I  believe  in 
the  Holy  Ghost,”  which  were  added  some 
years  later)  was  submitted  to  the  318 
bishops,  everyone  subscribed  it  as  the  true 
statement  of  their  faith,  except  the  two 
bishops  of  Ptolemais  and  Marmarica,  who 
have  before  been  mentioned  as  being  con¬ 
nected,  the  one  with  the  birthplace  of 
Arius,  and  the  other  with  the  adjacent 
country,  and  who  were  probably,  there¬ 
fore,  his  personal  friends.  Even  Eusebius 
of  Nicomaedia  subscribed,  but  he  did  it  by 
a  subterfuge,  turning  the  word  “  homo- 
ousion  ”  into  “  homoeousion,”  and  thus, 
by  the  substitution  of  a  diphthong  for  a 
single  letter,  making  the  word  mean  “  of  a 
similar  substance,”  instead  of  meaning 
“of  one  substance”  with  the  Father:  a 
perversion  the  full  value  and  importance 
of  which  was  afterward  so  strongly  shown, 
as  to  remind  one,  by  contrast,  of  ourLord’s 
saying  that  not  one  jot  or  one  tittle  of  his 
words  should  fall  to  the  ground. 

Of  the  subsequent  progress  of  Arianism, 
after  this  authoritative  decision,  much  de¬ 
tail  cannot  be  given  without  entering  into 
particulars  that  are  likely  to  prove  weari¬ 
some  to  the  general  reader.  Arius  him¬ 
self  was  restored  to  imperial  favor  through 
the  influence  of  Constantia,  the  emperor’s 
sister,  who  had  been  entirely  gained  over 
to  his  heresy  at  Nicomaedia.  He  was  ex¬ 
iled  after  the  Council,  but  recalled  in  a  few 
years,  and  gradually  gained  so  much  influ¬ 
ence  at  court  that  Constantine  issued  a 
command  to  Alexander,  the  Bishop  of  Con¬ 
stantinople,  to  receive  the  excommunicated 
heretic  back  to  the  communion  of  the 
Church  on  a  certain  Sunday  in  the  year 
336.  Alexander  spent  the  Sabbath,  the 
day  before,  in  prayer,  and  it  is  said  that 
he  prayed  God  that  either  he  or  Arius 
might  be  removed  from  this  life  before  the 
hour  of  trial  came.  The  first  minutes  of 
that  hour  came,  however,  and  both  were 
living.  A  procession  was  formed,  with 
Arius  in  the  midst,  and  began  a  triumph¬ 
ant  march  through  the  city  toward  the 
Church  of  Peace,  where  Alexander  was 
again  prostrate  at  the  altar.  While  the 
procession  was  pompously  parading  the 
city,  and  the  triumph  of  Arius  seemed  all 
but  complete,  he  was  taken  with  a  sudden 
pain,  and  died  a  few  minutes  after. 

Arianism  did  not  cease  with  the  death  of 
its  originator.  It  was  the  rallying  centre 
for  numbers  of  men,  especially  in  the 


Ark 


(  55  ) 


Arm 


Eastern  Church,  for  many  a  long  year; 
and  it  was  also  the  starting-point  for  some 
other  heresies,  the  tendency  of  the  opin¬ 
ions  of  Arius  always  developing  toward  a 
denial  of  the  Incarnation.  After  contro¬ 
versies  which  shook  the  Roman  Empire  to 
its  foundations  for  forty  years,  the  Arians 
were  formally  suppressed,  as  an  organized 
body,  by  decree  of  the  Emperor,  Theodo¬ 
sius  the  Great,  in  A.  d.  381.  But  the  vast 
Gothic  population,  lying  on  the  borders  of 
the  empire,  and  about  to  descend  upon  it 
and  overturn  it,  were  Arians,  as  far  as 
they  were  Christians  at  all.  Alaric,  the 
first  conqueror  of  Rome,  was  an  Arian;  so 
was  Ulfilas,  the  first  translator  of  the 
Scriptures  into  the  Teutonic  language.  It 
was  because  the  Visigoths,  who  settled  in 
Gaul,  were  Arians,  that  the  orthodox 
bishops  invited  Clovis  the  Frank  to  invade 
the  country,  and  Arianism  was  a  great 
factor  in  the  downfall  of  the  Gothic  King¬ 
dom  of  Spain,  and  its  conquest  by  the 
Mohammedans. — Benham:  Dictionary  of 
Religion.  See  W.  Gw  at  kin:  The  Arian 
Controversy  (London,  1889). 


s  '  . ml 


ARK  OF  THE  COVENANT. 

Ark  of  the  Covenant,  “  a  small  chest 
made  of  shittim  wood  overlaid  with  gold, 
on  the  lid  of  which  was  placed  the  golden 
*  mercy-seat,’  over  which  two  cherubim 
extended  their  wings.  It  was  made  to 
preserve  the  two  tables  of  stone,  on  which 
‘  the  Covenant  ’  between  God  and  His 
people  was  engraven.  It  was  2  cubits 
long,  \]/z  broad,  and  1%.  deep.  Around 
its  upper  edge  was  a  cornice  of  gold,  and 
it  was  carried  in  front  of  the  people  on 
their  march,  by  the  Levites,  who  bore  it  by 
means  of  two  poles  of  shittim  wood  cover¬ 
ed  with  gold,  which  were  passed  through 
two  rings  on  each  side  of  the  ark.  In  it 
were  also  placed,  by  Divine  command,  an 
omer  of  manna,  Aaron’s  rod  which  budded, 
and  the  books  of  the  Law.  On  nearing 
Palestine,  the  priests  carried  it  into  the 


Jordan,  whose  stream  stood  still  above 
them,' but  flowed  on  below  as  long  as  the 
ark  was  in  its  bed.  It  was  carried  once 
daily  round  Jericho  for  six  days,  and  seven 
times  on  the  seventh,  when  the  walls  fell 
down.  It  accompanied  the  Israelites  to 
Shechem,  where  the  elders  of  each  tribe 
laid  their  hands  on  it  (after  the  cursings  of 
the  Law  had  been  read  from  Mount  Ebal, 
and  the  blessings  from  Gerizim),  while  all 
the  Congregation  swore  to  observe  the 
Covenant.  After  the  subjugation  of  the 
land,  it  was  placed  in  the  Tabernacle  at 
Shiloh,  till  the  time  of  Eli,  when  it  was 
taken  into  the  camp,  and  captured  by  the 
Philistines,  who  carried  it  to  Ashdod, 
placing  it  in  the  Temple  of  Dagon,  whose 
image  fell  down  before  it  and  was  broken. 
The  plagues  of  emerods  and  mice  com¬ 
pelled  them  to  send  it  away  at  the  end  of 
seven  months,  and  it  was  conveyed  by  two 
milch  kine,  in  a  new  cart,  into  the  field  of 
Joshua,  at  Beth-shemesh.  From  thence  it 
was  carried  to  the  house  of  Abinadab,  at 
Kirjath-jearim,  from  whence  David  tried 
to  fetch  it;  but,  on  the  way,  Uzzah  was 
struck  dead  fdr  touching  it,  and  David, 
fearing  to  continue  the  removal,  left  it  in 
the  care  of  Obed-edom  the  Gittite,  where 
it  remained  three  months.  David  then 
fetched  it  up  to  Mount  Zion,  and  placed  it 
in  a  tabernacle  he  had  erected,  where  it 
continued  till  Solomon  transferred  it  to  his 
new  Temple  on  Mount  Moriah,  placing  it 
in  the  Holy  of  Holies.  At  the  Captivity 
it  is  said  to  have  been  buried  by  Jeremiah 
the  prophet.” — “Oxford”  Teachers’  Bible. 

Ark'ite,  The,  the  name  of  one  of  the 
families  in  Canaan.  (Gen.  x.  17;  1  Chron. 
i.  15.)  The  town  was  called  Arka,  and  its 
ruins  are  still  known  by  the  same  name. 
It  was  situated  on  the  sea-coast,  twelve 
miles  north  of  Tripoli,  at  the  foot  of  Mount 
Lebanon.  It  was  a  famous  stronghold  in 
the  time  of  the  crusades,  and  was  de¬ 
stroyed  by  an  earthquake  in  1202. 

Armenian  Church,  The,  “  is  one  of  the 
oldest  Eastern  Christian  churches  not  in 
communion  with  the  orthodox  Greek 
Church  or  with  the  Church  of  Rome.  The 
historical  founder  of  the  Armenian  Church 
was  S.  Gregory,  called  the  ‘  Illuminator.’ 
He  was  a  prince  of  a  reigning  family,  and 
after  his  conversion  to  Christianity  was 
eager  for  the  conversion  of  his  countrymen. 
In  his  missionary  work  he  endured  many 
persecutions,  but  at  last  managed  to  win 
over  the  King  of  Armenia  and  a  consider¬ 
able  portion  of  his  subjects.  At  the  king’s 
desire  Gregory  went  to  Caesarea,  or  Sis, 
and  was  there  consecrated  bishop  of  Arme¬ 
nia  (302  A.  u. ).  The  infant  church  grew 


Arm 


(  56) 


Arm 


and  prospered  in  spite  of  the  opposition  of 
heathen  fellow-countrymen  and  Persian 
conquerors.  The  Bible  was  translated  in 
410  A.  d.  ;  the  Liturgy,  said  to  be  very  old, 
was  improved,  and  the  Armenian  bishops 
took  part  in  some  of  the  synods  of  the 
Church,  notably  in  the  third  oecumenical 
council  (Ephesus,  431  A.  D.).  The  Arme¬ 
nian  Church  did  not  accept  the  decisions  of 
the  Council  of  Chalcedon,  and  in  491  a.  d. 
the  patriarch,  in  full  synod,  annulled  them. 
This  act  led  to  the  separation  of  the  Ar¬ 
menian  Church  from  the  orthodox  Greek 
Church.  In  spite  of  national  calamities, 
internal  dissensions,  and  even  banishment, 
the  Armenian  Church  preserved  its  char¬ 
acter,  doctrine,  and  discipline  until  the  mid¬ 
dle  of  the  fifteenth  century,  when  contro¬ 
versies  arose  which  resulted  in  schism. 
These  quarrels  were  occasioned  by  Jesuit 
missionaries,  who  endeavored  to  make  the 
Armenians  adopt  the  doctrine,  liturgy,  and 
ceremonies  of  the  Roman  Church.  They 
were  successful  in  gaining  many  adherents, 
and  the  Catholic  Armenians,  as  they  were 
called,  became  a  separate  community  tow¬ 
ard  the  end  of  the  sixteenth  century.  This 
schism  weakened  the  orthodox  church  and 
revived  the  old  persecutions.  About  the 
middle  of  the  eighteenth  century  the  patri¬ 
arch  sought  and  obtained  the  intervention  of 
Peter  the  Great  of  Russia.  Since  then  the 
Armenian  Church  has  found  shelter  under 
the  protection  of  Russia.  There  is  now  a 
reformation  going  on  in  the  Armenian 
Church,  and  a  Reformed  Church  has  arisen, 
which  seeks  to  ally  itself  with  the  Calvin¬ 
ist  churches  of  Europe  and  America.  The 
doctrines  of  the  Armenians  are  almost  iden¬ 
tical  with  those  of  the  orthodox  Greek 
Church.  Their  Liturgy  is  said  to  date  from 
the  first  century,  and  to  have  been  founded 
on  that  of  the  Church  of  Jerusalem.  Pray¬ 
ers  are  said  for  the  dead,  and  entreaty  is 
made  for  the  pardon  of  their  sins;  but  the 
church  does  not  believe  in  purgatory,  nor 
admit  of  indulgences.  The  Church  of  Ar¬ 
menia  has  the  seven  sacraments:  baptism, 
confirmation,  the  eucharist,  penance,  ordi¬ 
nation,  marriage,  and  extreme  unction. 
Baptism  is  by  immersion;  the  child  is  im¬ 
mersed  three  times;  it  is  then  anointed  with 
holy  oil,  is  confirmed,  and  partakes  of  the 
eucharist  in  both  elements.  Confirmation 
is  administered  to  children  immediately 
after  baptism.  The  eucharist  is  adminis¬ 
tered  in  both  elements  to  all  members  of 
the  church.  There  is  a  threefold  order  of 
the  clergy — bishops,  priests,  and  deacons; 
and  there  are  three  degrees  of  episcopal 
rank — the  archbishops  (chief  among  whom 
is  the  patriarch),  the  bishop,  and  the  varta- 
bed,  or  doctor  of  theology,  who  has  fre¬ 
quently  charge  of  a  diocese,  with  episcopal 


functions.  The  clergy  are  further  divided 
into  the  black  and  white.  The  black  clergy 
are  monks,  and  are  alone  eligible  for  the 
higher  clerical  offices;  the  white  clergy 
include  the  parish  priests  and  lower  clergy, 
and  are  permitted  to  marry  before  ordina¬ 
tion,  but  not  after.  The  clergy  of  all  ranks 
are  supported  entirely  by  the  free-will  of¬ 
ferings  of  the  people.” — Ency.  Britannica . 

American  missionaries  began  work 
among  the  Armenians  in  Turkey,  in  1831. 
For  many  years  it  was  hoped  that  they 
might  quietly,  and  without  formal  church 
organizations,  exert  an  influence  that  would 
reform  and  spiritualize  the  ancient  church 
from  within.  Persecution  reluctantly  com¬ 
pelled  the  missionaries  to  seek  protection 
by  forming  a  separate  Protestant  Church 
in  1850.  There  are  now  some  seventy-five 
churches,  with  over  five  thousand  mem¬ 
bers;  three  theological  schools,  and  two 
colleges,  besides  Robert  College  which  is 
not  connected  with  the  missions.  Since  the 
disruption  a  very  friendly  feeling  has  exist¬ 
ed  between  the  Protestants  and  the  Old- 
Church  Armenians. 

Arminianism.  See  Arminians. 

Armin'ians,  a  religious  party  which 
arose  in  Holland  in  the  end  of  the  six¬ 
teenth  century  and  the  beginning  of  the 
seventeenth,  and  strongly  opposed  the 
Calvinistic  doctrine  of  Predestination  to 
Eternal  Salvation  or  Eternal  Punishment. 
The  founder  of  the  party  was  James  Har- 
mensen,  or  Herrimann,  whose  name  was 
Latinized  into  Arminius  (a.  d.  1560-1609). 
He  was  born  at  Oudewater,  on  the  Yssel, 
in  South  Holland,  and  was  the  son  of  a 
cutler,  who  died  while  he  was  yet  a  boy. 
By  the  assistance  of  friends  he  received  a 
learned  education  at  Utrecht,  Marburg, 
Rotterdam,  and  Leyden;  and,  having  heard 
lectures  from  Beza  at  Geneva,  he  visited 
Rome  for  a  short  time.  At  Basle  he  was 
offered  a  Doctor  of  Divinity’s  degree  at  the 
premature  age  of  twenty-two,  but  declined 
the  honor.  Returning  to  Amsterdam  in 
1588,  he  was  appointed  preacher  there,  and 
soon  became  very  popular.  A  layman 
named  Kornhert  had  here  made  some 
vigorous  attacks  upon  Calvin’s  doctrine  of 
predestination,  and  had  been  proclaimed  a 
heretic  by  the  Calvinists.  Arminius  was 
requested  by  the  authorities  to  refute 
Kornhe-rt,  and  also  to  defend  the  Supralap- 
sarian  doctrine  against  the  Sublapsarian. 
In  preparing  to  undertake  the  work  thus 
assigned  him,  Arminius  came  round  to  the 
opinions  of  his  opponent,  and  was  accused 
of  Pelagianism.  Being  summoned  before 
the  magistrates  of  Amsterdam,  he  was 
prevailed  on  to  promise  that  he  would 


Arm 


(  57  ) 


Arm 


teach  nothing  at  variance  with  the  Heidel¬ 
berg  Confession;  but  he  was  again  accused 
of  teaching  that  Christ  died  to  save  all 
men,  instead  of  to  save  only  an  elect  few 
• — an  opinion  which  he  henceforth  avowed 
openly.  In  1603  Arminius  became  Pro¬ 
fessor  of  Divinity  at  Leyden,  where  he 
soon  became  involved  in  a  controversy  so 
fierce  that  the  Government  was  obliged  to 
interfere  for  the  preservation  of  the  peace. 
To  settle  the  controversy,  a  general  synod 
was  summoned,  in  which  the  strict  Cal¬ 
vinists  were  to  be  headed  by  Francis 
Gomas,  the  colleague  of  Arminius  in  the 
university,  while  Arminius  himself  was  to 
lead  his  followers  on  the  anti-Calvinistic 
side.  But  the  controversy  preyed  upon 
the  health  of  Arminius,  and  he  died  before 
the  date  fixed  for  the  meeting  of  the  synod, 
on  Oct.  18,  1609. 

The  Arminian  party  presented  a  “  Re¬ 
monstrance  ”  to  the  States-general  of  Hol¬ 
land  in  the  following  year,  in  self-defence, 
and  hence  received  the  name  of  “  Remon¬ 
strants.”  This  “  Remonstrance”  was,  in 
fact,  a  statement  of  Arminian  principles  in 
five  “  Articles,”  so  well  known  afterward 
as  “  The  Five  Points.”  The  substance  of 
these  articles  was  as  follows:  (1)  That  al¬ 
though  God  had,  from  eternity,  decreed  to 
eternal  life  those  who  would  persevere  in 
their  faith,  and  to  eternal  death  those  who 
should  die  impenitent,  yet  that  His  eternal 
decrees  were  determined  by  His  eternal 
foreknowledge  as  to  the  perseverance  or 
impenitence  to  death  of  each  particular 
person  to  be  saved  or  lost.  (2)  That  our 
Lord  Jesus  made  expiation  by  His  death 
for  the  sins  of  all  men,  but  that  only  be¬ 
lievers  can  be  partakers  of  this  Divine 
benefit.  (3)  That  no  one  can  of  himself, 
or  by  the  power  of  his  will,  originate  sav¬ 
ing  faith  within  him;  but,  being  by  nature 
born  unable  to  think  and  to  do  that  which 
is  good,  he  must  be  born  again  through 
the  operation  of  the  Holy  Ghost.  (4)  That 
God’s  grace  is  not  in  such  a  sense  irresist¬ 
ible,  as  to  compel  a  man  to  be  saved  against 
his  will,  though  it  may  be  repelled  by  his 
perverse  will;  and  that  whatever  is  good 
in  man  comes  from  the  operation  of  this 
grace,  so  that  good  works  done  by  him 
are  to  be  ascribed  to  its  operation  only. 
(5)  That  those  who  are  united  to  Christ 
by  faith  have  sufficient  spiritual  strength 
to  continue  In  that  union  until  their  lives 
end,  but  whether  they  can  fall  away  or  not 
is  a  question  respecting  which  we  have  not 
sufficient  evidence  in  Holy  Scripture. 
From  the  “  Five  Articles”  thus  summa¬ 
rized,  the  dispute  between  the  Dutch  Cal¬ 
vinists  and  the  Dutch  Arminians  came  to 
be  called  “  The  Quinquarticular  Contro¬ 
versy,”  and  it  became  one  of  the  most  bit¬ 


ter  controversies  known  to  history.  With¬ 
in  the  five  or  six  years  that  followed  the 
death  of  Arminius,  conferences  were  held 
at  the  Hague  (a.  d.  1610),  and  at  Delft 
(a.  D.  1613);  and  a  decree  was  issued  by 
the  States  -  general  enforcing  toleration 
and  forbidding  controversy,  but  all  in 
vain.  Strong  political  feeling  aided  in 
making  the  two  parties  more  exasperated 
against  each  other,  the  Arminians  wishing 
for  peace  with  Spain,  and  the  Calvinists 
urging  the  Prince  of  Orange  and  the  States- 
general  to  begin  war;  and  the  language  of 
the  Calvinists  toward  their  opponents  was 
so  violent  and  blood-thirsty  that  the  latter 
thought  it  necessary  to  organize  a  militia 
for  self-defence. 

At  last  it  was  determined  by  the  Prince 
and  the  States-general  that  another  assem¬ 
bly  of  Protestant  divines  should  be  sum¬ 
moned,  the  decision  of  which  should  be 
final.  The  Synod  of  Dort,  or  Dordrecht, 
was  therefore  convened,  and  sat  in  the 
city  from  which  it  took  its  name,  from  Nov. 
13,  1618,  until  the  end  of  April,  1619.  It 
consisted  entirely  of  Calvinist  divines,  the 
intention  being  to  assume  throughout  that 
the  Arminian  divines  were  present  on 
their  defence  as  accused  persons,  and  not 
for  the  purpose  of  equal  deliberation  with 
the  others.  (Dort,  Synod  of.  )  The  object 
of  the  Calvinist  party  was  effectually  ob¬ 
tained.  The  opinions  of  Arminius  were 
condemned,  and  the  “  Remonstrants,”  or 
Arminian  party,  were  required  to  sub¬ 
scribe  the  condemnation.  Seven  hundred 
families,  whose  heads  refused  to  subscribe, 
were  banished  from  Holland  by  a  decree 
of  the  States-general.  Grotius  and  Hoog- 
arbetz,  two  of  the  chief  of  their  leaders, 
were  sentenced  to  perpetual  imprison¬ 
ment,  from  which  Grotius  escaped  two 
years  afterward,  concealed  in  a  linen- 
chest.  Barqeveldt,  an  aged  member  of 
the  States-general  who  had  protected  the 
Arminian  party,  was  actually  put  to 
death. 

But,  notwithstanding  the  sympathy 
which  the  sufferings  of  the  Dutch  Armin¬ 
ians  aroused,  there  can  be  no  doubt  that 
the  tendency  of  their  opinions  after  the 
death  of  Arminius  was  decidedly  toward  a 
denial  of  the  leading  principles  of  Christi¬ 
anity.  Episcopius,  their  principal  theolo¬ 
gian,  returned  from  exile,  on  the  promul¬ 
gation  of  a  decree  of  toleration  in  1634,  to 
open  a  college  in  Amsterdam,  in  which  he 
taught  theories  which  practically  ended  in 
Unitarianism  and  Universalism.  Ever 
since  that  time  the  descent  has  been  on 
a  downward  path,  in  the  direction  of 
Rationalism,  some  of  the  most  distin¬ 
guished  teachers  of  the  Rationalist  school 
having  also  sprung  from  among  them. 


/ 


Arm 


Am 


( 58  > 


Few  are  now  to  be  found,  except  in  Am¬ 
sterdam  and  Rotterdam. 

Those  who  have  been  called  Arminians 
in  England,  were  called  so  as  following  the 
earlier  teaching  of  Arminius  himself,  and 
not  the  later  teaching  of  his  disciples.  Be¬ 
fore  the  Great  Rebellion  the  name  was 
freely  given  to  the  Laudian  party,  a  cer¬ 
tain  likeness  being  evident  between  the 
High-church  anti-Calvinism  and  the  anti- 
Calvinism  of  the  Arminians.  After  the 
Restoration  the  name  passed  over  to  the 
Latitudinarians,  or  Broad  -  church  party, 
of  which  Tillotson  was  the  representative. 
When  Whitefield  and  Wesley  established 
their  work  on  different  lines, Whitefield  be¬ 
came  the  father  of  Calvinistic  Methodists, 
and  Wesley  of  Arminian  Methodists. — 
Benham:  Diet,  of  Religion. 

Great  was  the  opposition  between  those 
who  held  with  Whitefield  the  doctrine  of 
the  Divine  decrees  to  salvation  or  con¬ 
demnation,  and  those  who  held  with  Wes¬ 
ley  that  God  ever  desires  the  salvation  of 
all  men,  gives  them  a  free  will  to  choose 
the  way  of  salvation,  and  offers  them  grace 
to  help  them  on  the  road.  The  leading 
representatives  of  Arminianism  are  the 
Wesleyans  of  Great  Britain  and  the  Meth¬ 
odists  of  America,  but  its  tenets  are  held, 
with  varied  interpretation,  by  many  con¬ 
nected  with  other  denominations.  The 
writings  of  Arminius  were  published  at 
Leyden,  1629.  An  American  edition  of 
the  English  translation  was  published  at 
Auburn  and  Buffalo  (1853),  3  vols.  See 
Bangs:  Life  of  Arminius.  Among  author¬ 
ities  on  Wesleyan  or  Methodist  Arminian¬ 
ism  are  Fletcher:  Checks  to  Antinomian- 
ism;  Wesley:  Sermons ;  Richard  Watson: 
Institutes ;  Miner  Raymond  :  Systematic 
Theology  (1879),  3  vols.;  Pope:  Christian 
Theology ;  Strong:  Arminianism  (Wes¬ 
leyan),  art.  in  S chaff- Herzog,  vol.  i.,  p.  145. 

Arminius.  See  Arminians. 

Armitage,  Thomas,  D.  D.,  Baptist;  b.  at 
Pontefract,  Yorkshire,  England,  Aug.  2, 
1819.  He  came  to  the  United  States  in 
1838,  and  for  some  years  was  a  minister  in 
the  Methodist  Episcopal  Church.  Having 
changed  his  views  regarding  baptism,  he 
entered  the  Baptist  ministry  in  1848,  and 
became  pastor  of  the  Fifth  Avenue  Baptist 
Church  in  New  York' City,  which  relation 
he  sustained  with  eminent  success  until  his 
retirement,  in  1889.  Besides  miscellaneous 
papers,  he  has  published  Preaching:  its  Ideal 
and  Inner  Life  (Phila. ,  1880);  A  History  of 
the  Baptists  (New  York,  1886). 

Armor.  Of  defensive  armor  among  the 
Hebrews  there  were  the  Coat  of  Mail ,  the 


Helmet ,  Greaves  of  brass  for  the  feet  (1 
Sam.  xvii.  6),  and  two  kinds  of  Shields ,  one 
protecting  the  entire  person,  and  the  other 
smaller,  a  buckler  for  hand-to-hand  fight¬ 
ing.  (1  Kings  x.  16,  17.) 

Arms.  The  chief  offensive  weapons  in 
Bible  times  were  a  sword,  spear,  javelin, 
dart,  bow  and  arrows,  sling,  and  dagger. 
In  David’s  army  there  was  a  company  of 
slingers.  (For  defensive  arms,  see  Armor). 

Arnaud  ( ar-no ),  Henri,  the  celebrated 
pastor,  military  leader,  and  historian  of  the 
Vaudois,  was  b.  in  1641,  at  La  Tour,  in 
Piedmont.  He  is  said  to  have  served  un¬ 
der  William  of  Orange,  and  it  is  probable 
that  he  received  pecuniary  assistance  from 
that  prince  in  his  efforts  to  restore  the  ex¬ 
iled  Vaudois  to  their  native  valleys.  Ow¬ 
ing  to  the  cruelties  of  Victor  Amadeus  of 
Savoy,  from  two  to  three  thousand  of  these 
Vaudois  had  been  forced  to  take  refuge  in 
Switzerland  and  the  states  along  the  banks 
of  the  Rhine;  and  twice  they  ineffectually 
attempted  to  return  to  their  homes.  The 
English  Revolution  of  1688,  and  the  acces¬ 
sion  of  William  of  Orange,  encouraged  Ar¬ 
naud  to  make  another  attempt.  With  900  of 
his  followers  he  embarked  on  the  Lake  of 
Geneva  on  the  night  of  Aug.  16,  1689.  In 
September  they  forced  an  entrance  into  the 
valley  of  San  Martino,  but  the  French 
army  was  so  great  that  they  were  obliged 
to  retire  to  the  lofty  table-land  of  the  Bal- 
sille,  which  they  fortified  with  such  skill  as 
to  be  able  to  withstand  the  fiercest  attacks 
of  the  enemy,  repeatedly  renewed  through 
the  whole  winter.  In  the  spring  they  re¬ 
sisted  an  assault  of  22,000  French,  without 
the  loss  of  a  single  man.  Not  long  after 
this,  when  their  escape  seemed  impos¬ 
sible,  they  learned  that  war  had  broken 
out  between  France  and  Piedmont,  and 
their  King,  who  had  persecuted  and  ex¬ 
pelled  them,  was  now  ready  to  receive 
them  with  open  arms.  The  Vaudois  were 
allowed  to  remain  in  peaceful  possession 
of  their  ancient  homes  but  a  little  while. 
When  the  war  of  the  Spanish  Succession 
broke  out,  Arnaud  and  his  followers  took 
part  in  the  combination  against  France,  and 
rendered  the  allies  effective  service.  When 
.the  war  came  to  a  close,  the  ungrateful 
King  of  Piedmont  once  more  joined  the 
French  monarch  against  his  .own  subjects, 
and  the  Vaudois  were  expelled  from  some 
of  their  valleys, and,  to  the  number  of  3,000, 
found  refuge  in  Wiirtemberg.  Arnaud  re¬ 
ceived  an  invitation  from  William  III.  to 
spend  the  rest  of  his  days  in  ease  and  honor 
in  England,  but  he  chose  rather  to  continue 
the  pastor  of  the  exiles  in  the  village  of 
Schdnberg,  where  he  died  in  1721.  Every 


Am 


(  59  ) 


Arn 


memorial  that  he  left  behind  him  was  long 
cherished  by  his  followers  and  their  poster¬ 
ity.  He  wrote  The  Glorious  Recovery  by  the 
Vaudois,  of  their  Valleys  (1710);  English 
translation  (London,  1827). 

Arnauld  ( ar-no )  Antoine,  one  of  the 
greatest  French  theologians  and  philos¬ 
ophers;  b.  at  Paris,  Feb.  8,  1612;  d.  at 
Brussels,  Aug.  8,  1694.  He  first  studied 
law,  but  changed  for  theology,  and  took  his 
doctor’s  degree  and  became  a  priest  in  1641. 
Two  years  later  he  published  a  work,  De 
la  Fre'quente  Communion,  in  which  he  open¬ 
ed  a  lifelong  conflict  with  the  Jesuits. 
Through  the  efforts  of  the  order  he  was  ex¬ 
pelled  from  the  Sorbonne,  and  deprived  of 
his  doctorate.  The  Peace-edict  of  Clement 
IX.  (1668)  enabled  him  to  hold  an  influential 
position,  and  he  wrote  in  defense  of  Jan¬ 
senism,  against  those  who  contended  that  it 
led  to  Calvinism.  In  1669,  he  began  the 
publication  of  his  Morale  Pratique  des  Jes- 
uites  which  again  aroused  the  hatred  of  the 
Jesuits.  He  left  France  in  1679,  and  in 
1682  settled  in  Brussels.  His  collected 
works  in  forty-five  volumes  were  published 
in  Paris  and  Lausanne  (1775-83).  See  Jan¬ 
senism. 

Arndt  {amt),  Johann,  German  Lutheran; 
b.  at  Ballenstedt,  Anhalt,  Dec.  27,  1555; 
d.  at  Celle,  Hanover,  May  11,  1621;  studied 
theology  at  Helmstedt,  Wittenberg,  Stras- 
burg,  and  Basel;  pastor  at  Badeborn,  1581; 
at  Quedlinburg,  1590;  at  Braunschweig, 
1599;  at  Eisleben,  1608;  at  Celle,  1611. 
His  fame  rests  upon  his  mystical  and  de¬ 
votional  writings,  which  found  their  inspira¬ 
tion  in  Bernard,  Tauler,  and  Thomas  a 
Kempis.  His  books  have  enjoyed  a  re¬ 
markable  popularity.  His  principal  work, 
True  Christianity ,  has  been  translated  into 
most  of  the  languages  of  Europe;  English 
translation  (London,  1712- 14);  new  ed. 
rev.,  by  C.  F.  Schaeffer  (Phila.,  1868). 
Another  of  his  works,  The  Garden  of  Para¬ 
dise  (Leipzig,  1612),  appeared  in  English 
translation  (London,  1716).  Complete  ed. 
of  his  works  (Leipzig,  1734-36),  3  vols. 

Arnobius,  a  Christian  writer  of  the  early 
part  of  the  fourth  century,  a  native  of 
Numidia  in  Africa.  After  his  conversion 
he  wrote  a  treatise  in  seven  volumes,  en¬ 
titled  A dversus  Gentes,  in  which  he  defended 
the  Christians  against  their  enemies.  His 
views  were  tinged  with  Gnosticism  and 
Dualism. 

Arnold  of  Brescia.  See  Arnoldists. 

Arnoldists,  the  followers  of  Arnold  of 
Brescia,  or  Brixia  (d.  a.  d.  1155).  He 


was  a  monk  of  northern  Italy  and  a 
pupil  of  Abelard.  Sympathizing  with  the 
people  of  Lombardy  in  their  efforts  to  se¬ 
cure  the  freedom  of  their  cities,  he  preach¬ 
ed  against  the  power  of  the  bishops  and 
clergy,  which  had  been  secured  through  the 
increase  of  endowments  and  wealth.  The 
Second  Lateran  Council  banished  him  from 
Italy.  For  a  time  he  found  refuge  with 
Abelard,  in  France,  but  was  compelled, 
finally,  to  go  to  Zurich.  With  the  uprising 
of  the  party  who  sought  to  establish  a  re¬ 
public  (in  1143),  Arnold  was  summoned  to 
Italy  as  their  leader.  They  gained  posses¬ 
sion  of  Rome,  and  the  rebellion  continued 
for  nine  years,  when  Hadrian  IV.  came  to 
the  papal  throne  in  1154,  and  at  once  put 
the  Romans  under  interdict.  This  broke 
the  power  of  the  insurrectionists,  and 
Arnold  sought  safety  in  flight.  A  short 
time  after,  he  was  captured  and  tried,  and 
hung  at  Rome. 

Arnold,  Matthew,  the  eldest  son  of 
Thomas  Arnold,  and  a  distinguished  critic 
and  writer;  b.  at  Laleham,  Eng.,  Dec.  24, 
1822;  d.  near  Liverpool,  April  15,  1888. 
He  was  a  graduate  of  Oxford,  and  after 
acting  as  private  secretary  to  Lord  Lans- 
downe,  from  1847  to  1851,  he  held  the  office 
of  inspector  of  schools  until  the  time  of  his 
death.  From  1857  to  1867  he  was  professor 
of  poetry  at  Oxford.  Among  his  writings 
were  several  on  matters  pertaining  to  re¬ 
ligion:  St.  Paul  and  Protestantism:  with 
an  essay  on  Puritanism  and  the  Church  of 
England  (1871);  Literature  and  Dogma 
(1872);  God  and  the  Bible  (1875);  Last  Essays 
on  Church  and  Religion  (1877).  His  position 
was  rationalistic,  and,  in  many  respects 
antagonistic  to  Christian  faith. 

Arnold,  Thomas,  famous  as  the  head¬ 
master  of  Rugby  School,  England,  was  b. 
in  the  Isle  of  Wight,  June  13,  1795.  He  was 
graduated  at  Oxford  with  honors,  and  was 
elected  Fellow  of  Oriel  College,  where  he 
remained  until  1819,  when  he  removed  to 
Laleham,  and  for  nine  years  was  -busy  in 
historical  studies  while  superintending  the 
education  of  a  few  young  men  preparing 
for  college.  While  here  he  preached  oc¬ 
casionally,  and  published  a  volume  of  ser¬ 
mons.  In  1827  he  was  elected  head-master 
of  Rugby,  where  for  fourteen  years  he  did 
a  work  in  training  the  young  that  gave 
him  a  reputation  as  a  teacher  of  preemi¬ 
nent  power.  In  1841  he  was  offered  the 
chair  of  modern  history  at  Oxford.  A  few 
months  after  the  delivery  of  his  first  course 
of  lectures,  while  making  preparations  to 
spend  the  vacation  at  his  favorite  country 
home  at  Fox  How,  in  the  English  Lake 
District,  he  was  taken  suddenly  ill,  and 


Am 


(  60  ) 


Art 


died  on  the  morning  of  June  12,  1842. 
“  The  great  peculiarity  and  charm  of  his 
•nature  seemed  to  lie  in  the  regal  suprem¬ 
acy  of  the  moral  and  the  spiritual  ele¬ 
ment  over  his  whole  being  and  powers. 
His  intellectual  faculties  were  not  such  as 
to  surpass  those  of  many  who  were  his 
contemporaries;  in  scholarship  he  occupied 
a  subordinate  place  to  several  who  filled 
situations  like  his;  and  he  had  not  much  of 
what  is  usually  called  tact,  in  his  dealings 
either  with  the  juvenile  or  the  adult  mind. 
What  gave  him  his  power,  and  secured  for 
him,  so  deeply,  the  respect  and  veneration 
of  his  pupils  and  acquaintances,  was  the 
intensely  religious  character  of  his  whole 
life.  He  seemed  ever  to  act  from  a  severe 
and  lofty  estimate  of  duty.  To  be  just, 
honest,  and  truthful,  he  ever  held  to  be 
the  first  aim  of  his  being.  With  all  this 
there  was  intense  sympathy  with  his  fel¬ 
lows,  the  tenderest  domestic  affections,  the 
most  generous  friendship,  the  most  expan¬ 
sive  benevolence.  But  to  understand  aright 
his  claims  upon  our  respect  and  homage, 
the  history  of  his  life  must  be  read  at  large. 
As  has  been  truly  observed  by  one  who 
seems  to  have  known  him  well,  ‘  His 
Thucydides,  his  history,  his  sermons,  his 
miscellaneous  writings,  are  all  proofs  of 
his  ability  and  goodness.  Yet  the  story 
of  his  life  is  worth  them  all.’  ” — Ency.  Brit. 
His  historical  works  are:  History  of  Rome, 
(1838-43,  unfinished);  History  of  the  Later 
Roman  Commonwealth  (1845);  Lectures  on 
Modern  History  (1842).  See  Stanley:  The 
Life  and  Correspondence  of  Thomas  Arnold 
(1844;  12th  ed.  1881). 

Ar'non  ( noisy ),  the  present  Wady  el 
Mojeb.  It  was  formerly  the  boundary  be¬ 
tween  Moaband  the  Amorites.  (Num.  xxi. 
13,  26;  Deut.  iii.  8.)  The  banks  of  this 
torrent  stream,  which  is  dry  in  summer 
and  full  in  winter,  is  in  many  places  high 
and  precipitous.  It  empties  into  the  Dead 
Sea. 

Arnot,  William,  an  eminent  Scotch 
preacher;  b.  in  Perthshire,  Scotland,  1808; 
d.  in  Edinburgh,  June  3,  1875.  He  was  an 
eloquent  and  earnest  speaker,  and  his  writ¬ 
ings  have  had  a  wide  circulation.  Among 
the  best  known  of  his  books  are:  Illustra¬ 
tions  of  the  Book  of  Proverbs,  and  The  Par¬ 
ables  of  our  Lord.  See  his  Autobigraphy 
and  Memoir  (1877). 

Arphax'ad,  “  the  son  of  Shem  and  ances¬ 
tor  of  Eber.  (Gen.  x.  22,  24;  xi.  10-13.)  Ac¬ 
cording  to  Josephus  he  was  also  progenitor 
of  the  Chaldaeans.  There  has  been  much 
discussion  regarding  the  etymology  of  the 
name  :  The  interpretations,  ‘  the  border 


of  the  Chaldaeans,’  ‘  the  stronghold  of 
the  Chaldaeans,’  are  open  to  objection  be¬ 
cause  of  the  erroneous  conception  of  the 
word,  as  a  union  of  Hebrew  and  Arabic. 
It  is  better  to  interpret  ‘  dispersion,’  and 
to  read  in  the  word  that  the  Hebrew  race, 
whose  remote  ancestor  is  called  Arphaxao 
in  this  chapter  (Gen.  x.),  had  originally  it« 
seat  in  Arrapachitis,  and  from  there  press¬ 
ed  first  to  Mesopotamia,  then  over  the 
Euphrates  to  Canaan  and  Arabia.  It  is 
confirmatory  of  this  view  that  the  progen¬ 
itors  of  the  Hebrews  are  said  to  have  come 
from  Ur  of  the  Chaldees.  (Gen.  xi.  22  sq.)” 
— Spiegel  in  Schaff- Herzog:  Eitcy. 

Arsenian  Schism,  the  name  given  to  a 
breach  of  communion  which  occurred  be¬ 
tween  the  Churches  of  Alexandria  and  Con¬ 
stantinople  in  a.  d.  1265,  through  the  dep¬ 
osition  of  Arsenius,  Patriarch  of  Constan¬ 
tinople,  at  the  bidding  of  the  Emperor, 
Michael  Palaeologus,  who  was  excommuni¬ 
cated  by  Arsenius  for  cruelly  imprisoning 
and  blinding  the  young  John  Lascaris,  only 
ten  years  of  age,  who  was  the  true  heir  to 
the  throne.  On  the  deposition  of  Arsenius 
and  the  appointment  of  Germanus  of 
Adrianople  as  Patriarch  of  Constantinople, 
the  Patriarch  Nicolas  of  Alexandria  de¬ 
clared  that  this  was  an  act  of  schism,  and 
refused  to  hold  communication  with  Ger¬ 
manus.  On  the  death  of  the  Emperor  a 
reconciliation  took  place  between  the  two 
Churches;  but  new  causes  of  difference 
arose,  chiefly  out  of  the  proposals  for 
union  between  the  Roman  and  the  Eastern 
Churches;  and  it  was  only  when  the  gen¬ 
eral  ruin  of  the  latter  by  the  Mahometans 
in  the  fourteenth  century  ensued,  that  the 
Arsenian  schism  was  permanently  brought 
to  an  end. — Benham:  Diet,  of  Religion. 

Artaxerx'es  ( the  great  warrior),  a  name 
given  as  the  honorary  title  of  Persian  kings. 
Two  of  them  are  mentioned  in  the  Bible. 
(1)  Pseudo-Smerdis,  the  Magian,  and  the 
pretended  brother  of  Cambyses,  who  seized 
the  throne  B.  C.  522,  and  was  murdered 
after  a  reign  of  eight  months.  He  it  was 
who  stopped  the  rebuilding  of  the  temple, 
because  of  reports  brought  by  the  enemies 
of  the  Jews.  (Ezra  iv.  7-24.)  (2)  The 

second  Artaxerxes  (Ezra  vii.  7,  and  Neh. 
ii.  1),  is  generally  regarded  as  the  same  as 
Artaxerxes  Longimanus,  son  of  Xerxes, 
who  reigned  b.  C.  457.  He  permitted  Ezra 
to  return  to  Judaea  with  those  of  his  coun¬ 
trymen  who  desired  to  go  with  him,  and, 
fourteen  years  later,  allowed  Nehemiah, 
also,  to  return  to  Jerusalem. 

Artemonites,  a  sect  of  Antitrinitarians, 
in  the  early  part  of  the  third  century, 


Art 


(  61  ) 


Asb 


named  from  its  leader  Artemon,  who  was 
a  disciple  of  Theodotus  of  Byzantium.  He 
was  excommunicated  (202-217). 

Articles  of  Faith,  are  the  points  of  doc¬ 
trine  drawn  up  to  express  the  beliefs  of 
churches  and  congregations.  The  method 
of  their  acceptance  differs.  See  Creed. 

Articles,  The  Thirty  -  nine,  of  the 
Church  of  England,  contain  the  public 
standard  of  religious  belief  adopted  by  that 
body.  They  were  drawn  up  by  Arch¬ 
bishop  Parker,  sanctioned  by  Convocation 
in  1562,  and  published  by  royal  authority 
in  the  following  year.  They  were  modi¬ 
fied  and  changed  in  many  ways  before 
reaching  their  present  statement.  They 
treat,  in  order,  of  the  main  points  of  theo¬ 
logical  doctrine,  and  may  be  classified  thus: 
(1)  Articles  i-v.,  the  doctrine  of  the  Trin¬ 
ity;  (2)  Articles  vi-viii.,  the  rule  of  faith, 
or  sources  of  our  knowledge  of  religious 
matters ;  (3)  Articles  ix-xviii. ,  the  doctrines 
which  concern  the  Christian  as  an  individ¬ 
ual:  i.  e.,  sin,  redemption,  and  their  cog¬ 
nate  notions;  (4)  Articles  xix-xxxix. ,  the 
necessary  relations  of  Christians  as  mem¬ 
bers  of  a  religious  community,  including 
the  general  theory  of  the  Church,  and  the 
doctrines  of  the  sacrament.  The  Church 
of  Ireland  adopted  the  Thirty-nine  Articles 
in  1635.  The  Episcopal  Church  in  Scot¬ 
land  accepted  the  Articles  in  1804,  and,  in 
America,  the  Church  subscribed  to  them  in 
1801,  excluding,  however,  the  Athanasian 
Creed.  See  Schaff:  Creeds  of  Christen¬ 
dom (N.  Y. ,  1881);  vol.  i.,pp.  592  sq. ;  iii., 
pp.  485-522. 

Articles  of  Religion,  Irish.  The  Church 
of  Ireland  accepted  and  used  the  series  of 
Eleven  Articles  drawn  up  in  1559,  until 
1615,  when  a  more  elaborate  code  was 
drawn  up  by  Ussher.  This  was  used  un¬ 
til  1635  when  the  Thirty  -  nine  Articles 
were  adopted. 

Articles,  Lambeth.  The  only  earnest 
effort  made  to  change  the  Thirty  -  nine 
Articles  was  in  1595,  when  Dr.  Whitaker 
of  Cambridge  submitted  a  series  of  articles 
strongly  Calvinistic  in  tone,  to  Archbishop 
Whitgift.  They  were  soon  suppressed,  al¬ 
though  a  second  attempt  was  made  in 
1604  to  introduce  these  Lambeth  Articles , 
so  called  because  drawn  up  at  Lambeth 
Palace. 

A  sa  (physician),  son  of  Abijam  and  third 
king  of  Judah,  (b.  c.  956-916.)  He  reign¬ 
ed  forty-one  years.  He  earnestly  support¬ 
ed  the  worship  of  God,  and  deposed  his 
grandmother  Maachah  for  idolatry.  (1 


Kings  xv.  8-24.)  He  defeated  Terah,  an 
Ethiopian  king  who  invaded  his  territories 
with  an  army  of  a  million  men.  (2  Chron. 
xiv.)  Through  an  alliance  with  Ben-hadad, 
king  of  Syria,  he  was  led  away  from  his 
trust  in  God,  and  when  smitten  with  dis¬ 
ease  “  he  sought  not  to  the  Lord,  but  to 
the  physicians.”  He  died  b.  c.  915. 

A'saph,  a  Levite  and  chief  leader  of 
the  temple  service  (1  Chron.  vi.  39),  and 
the  author  of  twelve  Psalms.  (Psa.  1  and 
lxxiii.  to  lxxxii.  inclusive.)  He  received 
the  title  of  “seer.”  (2  Chron.  xxix.  30.) 
“The  sons  of  Asaph  ”  probably  means  a 
school  of  musicians. 

A'saph,  St.  The  cathedral  of  St.  Asaph 
is  one  of  the  smallest  in  Great  Britain.  It 
is  a  cruciform  building,  178  by  68  feet,  with 
a  tower  93  feet  high,  and  was  erected  in 
1284  on  the  site  of  a  wooden  structure 


CATHEDRAL  OF  ST.  ASAPH. 


founded  before  596.  It  stands  on  the  top 
of  the  hill,  upon  which  the  town  of  St. 
Asaph  is  built,  between  the  rivers  Chvyd 
and  Elwy  in  the  northwest  of  Flintshire, 
Wales.  The  revenue  of  the  bishopric  is 
^4.200. 

Asbury,  Francis,  the  first  bishop  of  the 
Methodist  Episcopal  Church  in  America;  b. 
at  Handsworth,  Staffordshire,  Eng.,  Aug. 
20,  1745.  He  was  converted  in  youth,  and 
at  sixteen  became  a  local  preacher.  In 
1771  John  Wesley  appointed  him  mission¬ 
ary  to  America.  During  the  war  he  met 
with  some  persecution,  but  soon  proved  his 
devotion  to  the  interests  of  the  people,  and 
was  permitted  to  continue  his  evangelistic 
labors.  At  the  close  of  the  war  the  Meth¬ 
odists  organized  an  independent  church, 
and  Asbury  was  elected  bishop,  and  ordain¬ 
ed  by  Dr.  Coke,  Dec.  25,  17S4.  From  this 
time  on  his  success  in  organizing  and  for- 


Asc 


Asp 


(  62  ) 


warding  the  interests  of  his  church  was 
marvelous.  He  endured  severe  and  inces¬ 
sant  toil,  and  proved  himself  worthy  to  be 
enrolled  among  the  great  leaders  of  Chris¬ 
tian  faith.  He  saw  the  Methodist  Church 
grow  from  a  little  band  of  four  preachers 
and  316  members,  to  nearly  700  itinerants, 
2,000  local  preachers,  and  over  214,235 
members.  He  died  in  Spottsylvania,  Va. , 
March  31,  1816.  See  Asbury:  Journals ,  3 
vols.  (N.  Y.,  1858);  Janes:  Life  of  Asbury 
(N.  Y.,  1872). 

Ascension-Day,  a  festival  of  the  church, 
held  forty  days  after  Easter,  or  ten  days 
before  Whit-Sunday,  in  memory  of  Christ’s 
ascension  into  heaven  forty  days  after  his 
resurrection. 

Asceticism,  a  term  ( askesis )  borrowed 
from  the  Greeks,  among  whom  it  signified 
exercise  and  self-restraint  for  the  purpose 
of  gaining  strength  and  skill  in  athletic 
sports.  Among  Christians  it  came  to  sig¬ 
nify  abstinence  from  food,  from  wine,  from 
marriage,  and  from  many  other  things  that 
are  lawful  in  themselves,  for  the  sake  of 
living  a  strict,  and,  in  extreme  cases,  a  very 
austere,  Christian  life.  The  first  large 
class,  or  order,  of  ascetics  (Gr.  asketai) 
among  Christians,  were  the  hermits  of  the 
desert  (Anchoret),  whose  ideas  of  self- 
discipline  embraced  the  abnegation  of  near¬ 
ly  all  the  good  gifts  of  God,  the  rupture  of 
all  natural  ties  which  his  Providence  had 
made  for  them,  and  the  desertion  of  all  so¬ 
cial  duties  which  he  had  imposed  upon 
them.  In  some  cases  they  practiced  absurd 
gymnastic  feats,  such  as  those  of  the  Pillar- 
saints,  under  the  perverted  idea  that  they 
promoted  personal  holiness;  and  in  others 
tortured  themselves  with  mortification  al¬ 
most  suicidal,  as  the  devotees  of  India  do 
at  the  present  day.  The  monastic  commu¬ 
nities  inherited  the  ascetic  principles  of  the 
hermits,  but  dropped  most  of  their  fanat¬ 
ical  excesses.  Under  the  rule  ordained  by 
law-givers  like  St.  Benedict, the  discipline  of 
rigorous  abstinence  was  not  carried  so  far  as 
to  interfere  with  the  bodily  powers  neces¬ 
sary  to  exercise  laborinthe  field  or  the  work¬ 
shop  or  the  writing  cloister  or  the  library. 

Asceticism,  in  its  more  extreme  forms, 
can  hardly  be  said  to  enter  the  practice  of 
Christians  who  live  outside  monastic  com¬ 
munities;  and  in  modern  times  such  ideas 
of  self-discipline  by  means  of  bodily  mor¬ 
tification  have  been  superseded,  to  a  large 
extent,  by  the  idea  of  duty  done  in  the 
world,  and  in  the  work  of  life  to  which  Di¬ 
vine  Providence  has  called  us. — Benham: 
Dictionary  of  Re ligio n. 

Ash'dod,  or  Azo'tus  (Acts  viii.  40), “one 


of  the  five  confederate  cities  of  the  Philis¬ 
tines,  situated  about  thirty  miles  from  the 
southern  frontier  of  Palestine,  three  from 
the  Mediterranean  Sea,  and  nearly  midway 
between  Gaza  and  Joppa.  It  was  assigned 
to  the  tribe  of  Judah  (Josh.  xv.  47),  but 
was  never  subdued  by  the  Israelites;  and 
even  down  to  Nehemiah’s  age  it  preserved 
its  distinctiveness  of  race  and  language. 
(Neh.  xiii.  23,  24.)  But  its  chief  impor¬ 
tance  arose  from  its  position  on  the  high¬ 
road  from  Palestine  to  Egypt:  it  was,  on 
this  account,  besieged  by  Tartan,  the  gen¬ 
eral  of  the  Assyrian  king,  Sargon,  about 
B.  c.  716,  apparently  to  frustrate  the  league 
formed  between  Hezekiah  and  Egypt.  (Isa. 
xx.  1.)  The  effects  of  its  siege  by  Psam- 
metichus  (b.  c.  630)  are  incidentally  refer¬ 
red  to  in  Jer.  xxv.  20.  It  was  destroyed 
by  the  Maccabees  (1  Macc.  v.  68;  x.  84); 
and  lay  in  ruins  until  the  Roman  conquest 
of  Judaea,  when  it  was  restored  by  Gabin- 
ius  (b.  c.  55).  It  is  now  an  insignificant 
village,  with  no  memorials  of  its  ancient 
importance,  but  is  still  called  Esdud.” — 
Smith:  Diet,  of  the  Bible. 

Asher.  See  Tribes  of  Israel. 

Ash'ima,  a  name  of  a  god  whose  wor¬ 
ship  was  introduced  into  Samaria  by  the 
Hamathite  colonists  whom  Shalmaneser 
settled  there.  (2  Kings  xvii.  30.) 

Ash'kelon  (migration), one  of  the  five  cities 
of  the  Philistines,  taken  by  Judah  (Judg.  i. 
18),  ten  miles  north  of  Gaza.  It  was  the 
birthplace  of  Herod  the  Great.  During 
the  crusades  it  was  captured  and  destroyed 
several  times.  Extensive  ruins  bear  wit¬ 
ness  to  its  former  greatness. 

Ash'taroth,  the  plural  form  of  Ashtoreth. 
(Judg.  ii.  13;  1  Sam.  vii.  3.)  See  Astarte. 

Ashtoreth.  See  Astarte. 

Ash-Wednesday,  the  first  day  of  Lent,  is 
supposed  to  have  received  this  name  from 
a  custom  in  the  Church  of  sprinkling  ashes 
on  the  heads  of  penitents  then  received 
into  the  Church. 

Askelon.  See  Ashkelon. 

Asmode'us,  an  evil  demon,  found  in 
later  Jewish  tradition,  about  whom  there 
has  been  much  fanciful  speculation.  He 
is  sometimes  identified  with  Beelzebub. 
The  story  of  his  love  for  Sara,  the  daugh¬ 
ter  of  Raguel,  is  told  in  the  apocryphal 
book  of  Tobit. 

Aspergillum,  the  brush  used  for  sprink- 


Asp 


Ass 


(  63  ) 


ling  holy  water  in  Roman  Catholic 
churches. 

Aspersion,  a  term  used  to  designate  the 
sprinkling  of  water  in  the  administration 
of  baptism. 

Ass,  the  favorite  domestic  animal  of 
the  East.  After  Solomon’s  time  they  do 
not  appear  to  have  been  used  by  the  He¬ 
brews  for  warlike  purposes,  and  the  Mes¬ 
siah  (Zech.  ix.  9),  as  the  Prince  of  Peace, 
is  represented  as  riding  upon  an  ass.  (Matt, 
xxi.  2.) 

Assembly, General,  in  Scotland ,  Ireland , 
and  the  United  States,  denotes  the  highest 
court  of  the  Presbyterian  Church.  It  rep¬ 
resents  both  the  lay  and  the  clerical  ele¬ 
ments  in  the  church,  and  possesses  su¬ 
preme  legislative  and  judicial  authority  in 
all  matters  purely  ecclesiastical. 

Assembly,  Westminster.  See  West¬ 
minster  Assembly  of  Divines. 

Associate  Presbyterian  Church.  See 
Presbyterian  Churches. 

Assumptio  Mosis  (assumption  of  Moses). 
This  apocryphal  book,  which  Origen  says 
is  quoted  by  Jude  in  verse  9,  was  discov¬ 
ered  in  a  fragmentary  condition,  and  edited 
by  Ceriani  in  1861.  See  Apocrypha;  and 
PSEUDEPIGRAPHA  OF  OLD  TESTAMENT. 

Assumption,  a  festival  observed  on  the 
15th  of  August,  both  by  the  Roman  and 
Greek  Churches,  in  honor  of  the  miraculous 
ascent  of  the  Virgin  Mary  into  heaven. 
The  tradition  of  her  ascent  was  first  re¬ 
corded  by  Gregory  of  Tours,  and  the  date 
of  the  festival  was  fixed  early  in  the  eighth 
century. 

Assurance,  in  theology,  is  the  tenet  that 
those  who  are  truly  converted  have,  or  may 
have,  a  firm  persuasion  that  their  sins  are 
pardoned.  See  Watson:  Theo.  Inst.,  ii.  280; 
Wesley:  Works,  v.  19,  sq. ;  Hodge:  Theol., 
iii.  107. 

Assyria.  It  is  now  fully  confirmed  by 
the  excavations  that  the  Assyrians  were  a 
colony  from  the  Babylonians.  This  is  in¬ 
ferred  already  from  Gen.  x.  8-12.  They 
were  Shemites  and  Babylonians;  and  for 
this  the  following  reasons  hold  good:  The 
classification  of  Asshur  as  Shem’s  second 
son  (Gen.  x.  22)  is  corroborated  by  statues 
and  relief  pictures,  which  represent  the 
Assyrians  with  facial  contour  quite  similar 
to  that  of  the  Jews  and  Arabs  of  to-day. — 
Kiepert.  A  second  proof  is  the  Assyrian 


language,  which  is  Shemitic,  though  not 
Aramaic.  The  main  proof  is  the  religion. 
With  the  exception  of  Assur  which,  as  the 
national  deity,  stands  at  the  head,  the  As¬ 
syrian  pantheon  is  the  same  as  the  Baby¬ 
lonian. 

The  name  “Assyria”  first  designated 
the  land  and  kingdom  ;  and  this  is  the 
meaning  of  the  name  Asshur,  wherever  it 
is  mentioned  in  the  Old  Testament.  The 
oldest  capital,  Assur,  stood  about  sixty 
English  miles  from  Mosul,  on  the  right 
bank  of  the  Tigris,  and  its  site  is  now 
marked  by  the  large  hill,  Kileh-Shergat  (or 
Kala-Shergat,  according  to  Rassam  who,  in 
1853,  discovered  the  palace  of  Tiglath- 
pileser  I.).  Another  principal  city  of  As¬ 
syria  was  Calah,  or  Kelach  (according  to 
Delitzsch).  The  oldest  Assyrian  settle¬ 
ment  founded  by  Babylonian  colonists — 
probably  only  a  few  decades  before  2000 
b.  c. — was  designated  with  a  name  of  the 
sacred  language  of  Babylonia,  Ausar, which 
means  “  watered  meadow,”  a  name  which 
the  banks  of  the  Tigris  near  Kileh-Shergat 
fully  merited.  Here  the  first  colonists 
settled,  and  the  god  of  the  city  of  Ausar 
became  the  main  god  of  the  new  settlers, 
and  thus  the  principal  of  the  other  Baby- 
lonio-Assyrian  deities.  In  course  of  time 
Ausar  became  Astir,  and  afterward,  Assilr. 

The  oldest  Assyrian  sovereign  is  Bel- 
kapkapu  (i.  e.,“  Bel  is  strong  ”),  who  prob¬ 
ably  ruled  about  i860  B.  c.  His  son,  Isme- 
Dagan  (i.  e.,  “Dagon  has  heard”)  (about 
1830),  was  followed  by  Samsi-Raman  I. 
(z.  e.,  “  my  sun  is  Raman”)  (about  1806) 
who,  besides  other  large  edifices,  built  the 
temple  of  the  god  Asur.  Passing  over  the 
following  rulers,  we  come  to  Salmanussir 
I.  (about  1330  B.  c.).  This  king,  whose 
name  means  “  Salman,  lead  right,”  or  “  let 
it  prosper,”  enlarged  the  national  sanctu¬ 
ary,  and  founded  the  city  of  Calah.  (Gen. 
x.  11,  seq.)  Under  his  son,  Tukulti-Adar  I. 
(about  1310),  the  power  of  the  young  As¬ 
syrian  state  reached  its  zenith;  for  Tukulti- 
Adar  was  for  a  time  king  also  of  Babylonia. 
Under  his  successors  the  Assyrian  power 
was  weakened,  until  Adar-pal-esara  (z.  e. , 
“  Adar  is  the  son  of  Esara  ”)  (about  1200 
b.  c. )  regained  the  former  independence. 
Passing  over  about  three  centuries,  we 
come  to  Asurdan  II.  (about  930-911),  with 
whom  the  palmy  days  of  Assyria  com¬ 
menced.  He  built  cities,  and  founded 
temples,  and  made  a  canal,  also.  His  son, 
Raman-nirari  II.  (about  911-890),  en¬ 
larged  the  kingdom,  and  commenced  again 
the  never-ceasing  complications  with 
Babylonia.  His  son,  Tukulti-Adar  II. 
(about  890-884),  was  cruel,  and  so  was  his 
son,  Asur-nasir-pal  (z.  e. ,“  Asur  protects 
the  son  ”)  (about  884-860),  who  extended 


Ass 


(64) 


Ass 


the  Assyrian  rule,  and  made  Tyre,  Sidon, 
Byblus,  and  Arad  as  tributary. 

His  son  was  Salmanussir  (Shalmaneser) 

II.  (860-824),  the  contemporary  of  Ahab  and 
Jehu  of  Israel,  and  Ben-hadad and  Hazael  of 
Syria.  From  inscriptions  we  learn  that  Sal¬ 
manussir  defeated  Ben-hadad  (or  Daddu- 
’idri,  as  he  is  called)  at  Karkar,  in  854,  to¬ 
gether  with  about  a  dozen  allied  princes. 
Among  these  was  Ahab  of  Israel.  In  the 
year  849  Ben-hadad  and  his  allies  were 
again  defeated,  and  so,  also,  in  846.  The 
consequence  was  that  the  alliance  was  dis¬ 
solved,  and  Damascus  stood  alone.  In  the 
year  842,  the  eighteenth  regnal  year,  Sal¬ 
manussir  defeated  Ben-hadad’s  successor, 
Hazael,  at  Mount  Senir.  Tyre,  Sidon, 
and  Ja-u-a,  the  son  of  Omri  (z.  e.,  Jehu  of 
Israel ),  bring  tributes  and  presents.  Sal¬ 
manussir  was  followed  by  Samsiramanu 
(824-811):  his  son  was  Raman-nirari  III. 
(811-782),  who  subdued  the  whole  “  west 
land,”  including  Phoenicia,  Philistaea, 
Edom,  and  the  land  of  the  house  of  Omri 
(z.  e .,  Israel).  Salmanussir  III.  (782-772), 
his  son,  was  at  war  with  Armenia,  and 
went  toward  Damascus  in  773.  Asur-dan 

III.  (772-754),  the  next  king,  was  warlike 
like  his  predecessors. 

In  the  ninth  year  of  his  reign,  i.  e. ,  763, 
an  eclipse  of  the  sun  took  place,  of  which 
we  read  in  the  Eponym  Canon,  or  list  of 
the  Assyrian  officials  who  gave  names  to 
the  )mars.  By  astronomical  calculation  it 
has  been  ascertained  that  this  eclipse  took 
place  June  15,  763  b.  c.  ;  and  this  date  forms 
essentially  the  basis  of  Assyrian  and,  at  the 
same  time,  of  Old  Testament  chronology. 
Asur-nirari(754-745)lost  his  throne  to  Phul 
(Poros),  z.  e. ,  Tukultipalesara  II.  (745- 
727).  This  king,  who  is  better  known  as 
Tiglath-pileser,  and  who,  in  731,  made 
himself  king  of  Shumer  and  Akkad  (z.  e. , 
Southern  and  Northern  Babylonia),  was 
the  first  Assyrian  king  who  crossed  over 
the  confines  of  the  kingdoms  of  Israel  and 
Judah.  He  is  mentioned  in  the  Bible  in  2 
Kings  xv.  19,29;  xvi.  7-10;  1  Chron,  v.  6, 26; 
2  Chron.  xxviii.  29.  He  subdued  Damas¬ 
cus,  and  Rezin,  its  king;  he  came  in  contact 
with  Menahem  of  Samaria ,  Azariah  of 
Judah ,and  supported  Ahaz  of  Jiidah  against 
Pekah.  After  killing  the  latter,  Tiglath- 
pileser  interfered  so  effectively  in  the  af¬ 
fairs  of  Israel  that  he  placed  Hoshea,  as 
his  vassal,  on  the  throne  of  Israel.  Sal¬ 
manussir  (Shalmaneser)  IV.  (727-722)  sus¬ 
pected  Hoshea  of  disloyalty,  and  went  up 
against  him  (comp.  2  Kings  xvii.  3-5; 
xviii.  9).  Hoshea  submitted  to  him,  and 
gave  him  tribute,  but  entered  into  a  con¬ 
spiracy  with  So  (or  Seveh),  king  of  Egypt. 
At  this  the  Assyrian  king  went  up  against 
Hoshea,  bound  him  and  put  him  in  prison, 


and  besieged  Samaria,  which  was  only 
taken  by  Sarrukin  (i.  e .,  “he  has  appointed 
the  king,”  or  “  true,  legitimate  king  ”),  or 
Sargon,  in  722,  who  carried  away  Hoshea 
and  a  great  number  of  his  subjects  into 
captivity;  while  foreign  settlers,  from  the 
East,  came  and  took  possession  of  the 
land  of  Israel.  Sargon  (722-705)  defeated 
the  Egyptians  in  the  great  battle  of  Raphia 
(720).  He  took  Ashdod  in  71 1  (comp.  Isa. 
xx.  1),  and  made  the  kingdom  of  Judah 
tributary.  Sargon  built  Dur-Sarrukin,  a 
city  whose  ruins  were  discovered  where 
now  lies  the  modern  Khorsabad.  He  was 
followed  by  his  son,  Sinaherba  (z.  e. ,  “Sin, 
multiply  the  brothers”),  or  Sennacherib 
(705-681).  In  his  third  campaign  he  came 
in  contact  with  Hezekiah,  king  of  Judah 
(comp.  2  Kings  xviii.  13  to  xxx.  37;  Isa. 
xxxvi.  1  to  xxxvii.  38;  2  Chron.  xxxii.  1- 
22).  Sennacherib  was  followed  by  his  son 
Asurahiddina  (z.  e. ,  “  Asur  has  given  a 
brother  ”),  or  Esar-haddon  (681-668),  who 
conquered  all  Egypt,  penetrated  into  Nu¬ 
bia,  and  styled  himself  “King  of  the  kings 
of  Egypt,  Cush.”  He  made  Manasseh, 
king  of  Judah,  tributary. 

He  was  followed  by  his  son  Asur- 
banipal  (z.  e. ,  “  Asur  is  the  father  of  the 
son  ”)  probably  the  same  great  and  noble 
Asnapperwho  is  mentioned  in  Ezra  iv.  10. 
He  ascended  the  throne,  but  signs  of  de¬ 
cay  already  began  to  appear.  A  general 
rising  took  place  under  Samassumukin, 
the  brother  of  Asnapper,  who  succeeded 
in  forming  an  alliance  with  the  Babylonians 
and  Elamites  and  other  nations  against  the 
Assyrian  power.  That  Manasseh,  king  of 
Judah,  seemed  to  have  favored  this  alli¬ 
ance — on  which  account  “  the  captains  of 
the  host  of  the  king  of  Assyria  ”  took  him 
among  the  thorns,  and  bound  him  with 
fetters,  and  carried  him  to  Babylon,  and 
only  released  him  when  he  had  purged 
himself  from  this  suspicion — may  be  in¬ 
ferred  from  . 2  Chron.  xxxiii.  11.  The  re¬ 
volt  was  suppressed,  and  Samassumukin 
burned  himself  (648-647).  In  625  the  As¬ 
syrian  Empire  came  to  an  end,  after  Nine¬ 
veh  (the  Ni-na-a,  or  Ni-nu-a,  of  the  cunei¬ 
form  inscriptions),  which,  no  doubt,  had 
been  founded  at  about  the  same  time  as 
Assur,  was  taken.  Nineveh,  or  Nebi 
Yunus  as  it  is  popularly  called,  with  refer¬ 
ence  to  the  mosque  erected  on  it  to  the 
prophet  Jonah,  is  said  to  have  stood  where 
the  southern  hill,  opposite  Mosul,  on  the 
Tigris,  lies.  When  the  Medes,  in  concert 
with  the  Babylonian  governor,  Nabopo- 
lassar,  had  destroyed  this  fortified  place, 
the  founder  of  which  is  said  to  have  been 
Nimrod  (Gen.  x.  1 1 ),  its  name  soon  van¬ 
ished  from  the  memory  of  the  nations;  and 
when,  two  centuries  later,  Xenophon 


Ass 


(65) 


Ath 


passed  by  the  ruins  of  Nineveh  its  name 
could  hardly  be  told  any  more.  (The  above 
is  condensed  from  the  arts.  “Nineveh” 
and  “  Sanherib  ”  by  Friedrich  Delitzsch  in 
Herzog’s  Real  Ency . ,  2d  ed.,  vols.  x.  and 
xiii.)  B.  Pick. 

Literature.  —  George  Rawlinson  :  The 
Five  Great  Monarchies  of  the  Ancient  East¬ 
ern  World ,  3  vols.  (London,  1879;  N.  Y., 
1880);  A.  H.  Sayce:  The  Ancient  Empires 
of  the  East  (London  and  N.  Y. ,  -1884);  Lect¬ 
ures  on  the  Origin  and  Growth  of  Religion , 
as  Illustrated  by  the  Religion  of  the  Ancient 
Babylonians  (Hibbert  Lectures)  (London, 
1887);  Cunningham  Geikie:  Hours  with  the 
Bible  (N.  Y.,  1881-1884);  Z.  A.  Ragozin: 
The  Story  of  Chaldea  (N.  Y.  and  London, 
1886);  The  Story  of  Assyria  (1887);  The 
Story  of  Media,  Babylon,  and  Persia  (1888); 
E.  Schrader:  The  Cuneiform  Inscriptions , 
and  the  Old  Testa??ient,  2  vols.  (London, 
1885-1888). 

Assyriology  and  the  Bible.  See  Assyria. 

Astar'te  and  Ash'erah.  Astarte  is  the 
Greek  and  Latin  name  “  for  the  principal 
Phoenician  female  divinity  (called  in  He¬ 
brew  Ashtoreth,  and  very  frequently  in 
plural  form,  Ashtaroth),  the  correlative  of 
Baal,  the  principal  male  divinity.  She  is 
called  the  goddess  of  the  Sidonians  (1  Kings 
xi.  5),  but  was  worshipped  also  by  the 
Philistines,  even  in  the  time  of  Abraham, 
as  is  shown  by  the  name  of  the  city  Ash'- 
teroth-Karna'im.  Afterward,  in  the  days 
of  Saul,  we  read  of  a  Philistine  temple  in 
her  honor.  (1  Sam.  xxxi.  10.)  Solomon 
introduced  her  worship  into  Jerusalem 
(1  Kings  xi.  5);  and  the  bamoth ,  or  artificial 
mounds  surmounted  by  altars  (“  high 
places  ”),  he  had  built,  were  not  destroyed 
until  Josiah’s  day.  (2  Kings  xxiii.  13.) 
Originally  she  was  not  a  Phoenician  but  an 
old  Babylonian  goddess  (Istar).” — Wolf 
Baudissin. 

Asherah,  which,  in  the  Authorized  Ver¬ 
sion  is  mistranslated  “  grove,”  was  the 
name  of  a  goddess,  whose  worship  was 
early  introduced  into  Israel.  It  was  car¬ 
ried  on  under  green  trees,  upon  high  hills 
(2  Kings  xvii.  10),  and  in  connection  with 
Baal.  Scholars  are  not  decided  as  to 
whether  Asherah  is  but  another  name  for 
Astarte. 

Asterius,  Bishop  of  Amasia,  in  Pontus; 
d.  about  410.  His  fame  rests  upon  his 
Homilies ,  which  had  a  great  reputation  in 
the  Eastern  Church.  Eleven  of  them  have 
been  preserved,  and  the  fragments  of 
twenty-two  others. 

Astrology  ( the  science  of  the  stars )  was 


studied  under  the  two  departments  of  nat¬ 
ural  and  judicial  astrology.  The  former 
developed  into  the  science  of  astronomy; 
the  latter  ascribed  to  the  stars  a  subtle  and 
mysterious  influence  upon  the  will.  Those 
who  taught  it  pretended  to  trace  this  influ¬ 
ence  in  its  relation  to  the  destinies  of  men. 
The  Chaldean  astrologers  became  world- 
famous,  and  during  the  dark  ages  this  de¬ 
lusion  crept  into  the  Church,  and  it  found 
many  learned  adherents  until  the  Coperni- 
can  system  of  astronomy  was  fully  estab¬ 
lished. 

Asylum.  See  Sanctuary. 

Atar'gatis,  a  Syrian  goddess  not  men¬ 
tioned  in  the  Bible,  but  in  2  Macc.  xii.  26. 
She  is  represented  with  the  body  of  a 
woman  and  the  tail  of  a  fish.  “  She  was 
the  Syrian  form  of  Astarte,  and  the  Greek 
and  Roman  writers  represent  her  as  a  fish- 
goddess,  the  cause  of  the  seas’  fruitful¬ 
ness.  ” — Wolf  Baudissin.  See  Astarte. 

Athali'ah,  a  granddaughter  of  Omri,  and 
daughter  of  Ahab  and  Jezebel.  (2  Kings 
xi.  1.)  She  married  Jehoram,  the  son  of 
Jehoshaphat.  After  the  death  of  her  hus¬ 
band  and  son,  she  seized  the  government 
of  Judah,  and  sought  to  make  her  position 
more  secure  by  murdering  the  entire  royal 
family.  Her  grandson,  Joash,  was  saved 
by  his  aunt,  Jehosheba,  and  six  years  after¬ 
ward  he  was  brought  from  the  place  of  con¬ 
cealment  and  crowned  by  the  high-priest 
Jehoiada,  who,  at  the  same  time,  caused 
Athaliah  to  be  put  to  death. 

Athanasius,  St.  (a.  d.  296-373),  one  of 
the  greatest  of  the  Fathers,  upon  whom  it 
devolved  to  defend  the  doctrine  of  our 
Lord’s  Godhead  against  the  Arians.  He 
was  Patriarch  of  Alexandria  for  nearly 
half  a  century  (a.  d.  326-373),  but  was  four 
times  driven  into  exile,  and  went  through 
much  suffering  at  the  hands  of  the  Arian 
party. 

In  early  life  Athanasius  was  brought  un¬ 
der  the  notice  of  Alexander,  the  Patriarch 
of  Alexandria,  whom  he  eventually  suc¬ 
ceeded;  and  the  first  introduction  of  the 
youth  to  his  venerable  predecessor  is  as¬ 
sociated  with  a  story,  which  Dean  Stanley 
agreed  with  earlier  historians  in  believing 
to  be  true.  Sitting  at  the  window  of  a 
house  which  overlooked  the  beach,  the 
patriarch  saw  some  boys  “playing  at 
church,”  and  observed  that  the  particular 
part  of  Divine  Service  which  they  imitated 
was  the  administration  of  baptism.  By 
direction  of  the  bishop  the  boys  were 
brought  before  him,  in  the  presence  of  the 
clergy  attending  upon  him,  and  he  found, 


Ath 


(66) 


Ath 


on  examining  them,  that  one  of  them, 
named  Athanasius,  had  assumed  the  posi¬ 
tion  of  bishop  among  his  playfellows,  and 
had  christened  some  of  them  who  had  not 
yet  received  baptism.  After  consulting 
with  his  clergy,  the  patriarch  determined 
that  the  baptism  had  been  administered 
with  water  and  the  proper  words,  and  was 
thus  valid,  so  that  the  children  would  not 
need  to  be  baptized  again.  He  thought  it 
expedient,  however,  that  Athanasius  and 
the  boys  who  had  specially  assisted  him 
should  be  given  up  by  their  parents  to  be 
brought  up  as  clergymen;  and  before  long 
Athanasius  was  taken  under  the  bishop’s 
own  care,  becoming  eventually  his  secre¬ 
tary,  and  living  with  him,  St.  Cyril  says, 
as  an  adopted  son. 

About  the  year  318  Athanasius  was  or¬ 
dained  deacon  by  his  master  and  friend 
and  father  in  God,  and  was  at  once,  or 
soon  afterwards,  made  head  of  the  deacons, 
the  archdeacon  of  those  days  having  more 
of  a  collegiate  position  than  a  territorial 
dignitary,  and  being  also  deacon,  or  per¬ 
sonal  minister,  to  the  bishop,  in  Divine 
Service  and  on  other  public  occasions.  It 
was  as  deacon  to  the  bishop,  and  scarcely, 
as  is  sometimes  said,  as  Archdeacon  of 
Alexandria,  that  Athanasius  attended  the 
most  important  Council  of  Nicaea,  in  a.  d. 
325;  and  it  was  at  the  Council  that  his 
growing  reputation  as  a  theologian  ac¬ 
quired  such  dimensions  as  to  make  him 
known  for  ever  throughout  the  world  as 
the  great  defender  of  the  doctrine  that 
Jesus  was,  and  is,  God  Incarnate. 

At  Easter,  in  the  following  year,  nine 
months  after  the  conclusion  of  the  Nicene 
Council,  the  Bishop  and  Patriarch  of  Alex¬ 
andria  died,  calling  for  Athanasius  in  his 
last  hour,  to  nominate  him  as  his  successor, 
and,  when  he  was  told  that  the  young  dea¬ 
con  could  not  be  found,  saying,  “  You  think 
to  escape,  but  it  cannot  be.”  Perhaps  he 
foresaw  something  of  the  work  which  his 
secretary  and  friend  would  have  to  do,  and 
something,  also,  of  the  suffering  which  he 
would  have  to  undergo;  and  perhaps  there 
was  a  tone  of  censure  in  his  words,  for  it 
is  certain  that  when  Athanasius  himself 
was  riper  in  Christian  experience,  he  dis¬ 
approved  of  his  own  conduct  in  endeavor¬ 
ing  to  evade  the  responsibilities  which  were 
about  to  be  laid  upon  him.  Subsequent 
events  proved  that,  notwithstanding  Arian 
misrepresentations,  the  foresight  of  the 
dying  bishop  as  to  the  best  man  to  become 
his  successor  was  also  the  opinion  of  the 
majority  of  the  clergy,  and  the  whole  of 
the  lay  people  of  Alexandria.  The  strug¬ 
gle  of  the  Arians  to  obtain  an  Arian  bishop 
protracted  the  election  for  several  days 
and  nights,  but  the  laity  were  all  the  time 


loudly  calling  for  a  decision  in  favor  of 
the  young  deacon,  and  eventually  the  ob¬ 
structive  minority  was  obliged  to  give  way 
Athanasius  was  duly  elected  to  that  see — 
a  great  position,  which  practically  included 
that  of  archbishop  and  patriarch — on  June 
8,  326,  two  months  after  the  death  of 
Alexander.  It  was  not,  however,  until 
December  that  he  was  consecrated. 

For  a  few  years  the  new  patriarch  ad¬ 
ministered  the  affairs  of  his  church,  free 
from  any  distracting  cares  and  dissensions; 
but  then  began  forty  years  of  such  trouble 
and  suffering  that,  in  the  words  of  Hooker, 
“  the  Arians  never  suffered  Athanasius, 
till  the  last  hour  of  his  life  in  this  world, 
to  enjoy  the  comfort  of  a  peaceable  day.” 
Twenty  years  out  of  the  forty  were,  in  part, 
spent  in  exile. 

This  period  of  his  troubles  began  with 
the  Emperor  Constantine’s  change  of  mind 
in  respect  to  the  Arians,  from  an  alteration 
either  in  his  opinions  or  in  his  policy.  Im¬ 
mediately  after  the  Nicene  Council,  Con¬ 
stantine  had  made  it  penal  to  refuse  sub¬ 
scription  to  its  decisions ;  but  when,  in  A.  d. 
328,  his  good  mother,  St.  Helena,  died,  he 
was  brought  under  the  influence  of  Euse¬ 
bius,  the  Arian  Bishop  of  Nicomedia  (care¬ 
fully  to  be  distinguished  from  Eusebius,  the 
historian,  Bishop  of  Caesarea),  through  his 
sister  Constantia,  and  from  that  time  he 
became  friendly  to  the  Arians.  His  first 
act  in  their  favor  was  to  recall  Arius 
from  exile,  in  a.  d.  330.  He  then  permitted 
Eusebius  to  write  from  the  court  to  Atha¬ 
nasius,  requiring  him  to  admit  the  man, 
who  had  been  declared  heretical  by  the 
Council  of  Nicaea,  to  the  communion  of  the 
Church.  Athanasius  replied  that  it  could 
not  be  right  to  admit  persons  to  commun¬ 
ion  who  had  invented  a  heresy  contrary  to 
the  faith  of  the  Church,  and  condemned 
by  a  great  general  council  of  the  bishops 
of  the  Church,  who  had  been  gathered 
from  all  parts  of  the  world.  The  Em¬ 
peror  himself  then  wrote  to  Athanasius, 
commanding  him  to  admit  to  communion 
all  who  desired  to  re-join  the  Church.  The 
Bishop,  however,  refused  compliance,  and 
Constantine  gave  way.  His  enemies  then 
laid  formal  charges  against  him,  which 
amounted  to  treason,  but  these  were  re¬ 
futed  easily,  and  his  accusers  were  cen¬ 
sured  by  the  Emperor.  Next,  they  charged 
him  with  murder,  and  it  was  in  vain  that 
he  established  his  innocence.  Fresh  accu¬ 
sations  were  brought  against  him,  and  the 
old  ones  brushed  up  again,  and,  among 
others,  one  that  he  had  talked  of  injuring 
Constantine’s  newly  built  city  of  Constan¬ 
tinople  by  hindering  its  supply  of  corn 
from  Alexandria.  This  last  accusation 
was  brought  to  light  suddenly,  while 


Ath 


(67) 


Ath 


Athanasius  was  defending  himself  against 
other  charges  before  the  Emperor,  in  Con¬ 
stantinople  itself.  Constantine  was  en¬ 
raged;  he  had  lately  beheaded  the  philos¬ 
opher,  Sopater,  on  the  mere  suspicion  of  his 
having  done  the  same  thing;  and,  without 
listening  to  protestations  of  innocence,  he 
banished  Athanasius  to  Treves,  an  impe¬ 
rial  city,  in  which  Constantine,  the  eldest 
son  of  the  emperor,  was  then  residing  as 
the  Viceroy  of  France,  Spain,  and  Britain. 
Here  he  remained  an  exile,  though  treated 
with  honor,  for  two  years  and  a  half  (A.  D. 
336-338). 

Constantine  II.  and  his  two  brothers, 
Constantius  and  Constans,  divided  the 
empire  of  their  father  among  them,  and 
Alexandria,  being  in  the  empire  of  the 
East,  fell  under  the  government  of  Con¬ 
stantius,  whose  sympathies  were  on  the 
side  of  the  Arians.  Yet  all  three  em¬ 
perors  agreed  that  Athanasius  should  be 
restored  to  his  see,  and  he  returned  to 
Alexandria  amidst  the  glad  acclamations 
of  his  flock,  in  November,  338.  But  the 
hostility  of  his  opponents  never  grew 
weary.  A  scheme  was  now  set  on  foot 
for  superseding  the  patriarch  by  the  con¬ 
secration  of  a  successor,  and  although  the 
first  attempt  failed,  the  second  was  suc¬ 
cessful;  so  that,  in  the  midst  of  riot,  sacri¬ 
lege,  and  massacre,  an  Arian  of  Cappado¬ 
cia,  named  Gregory,  was  sent  from  the 
Court  of  Constantius  to  be  received  as  the 
Bishop  of  Alexandria.  The  scenes  of  vio¬ 
lence  and  cruelty  were  now  such  that,  with 
the  hope  of  restoring  peace  and  order, 
Athanasius  first  concealed  himself  outside 
the  city,  and  then  sailed  for  Rome  in  the 
spring  of  A.  d.  340.  There  Julius,  the 
Bishop  of  Rome,  summoned  a  Provincial 
Council,  which  acquitted  the  persecuted 
patriarch  of  the  charges  brought  against 
him;  and  two  years  afterwards  the  Em¬ 
perors  Constans  and  Constantius  called  a 
General  Council  to  meet  at  Sardica,  where 
380  bishops,  of  whom  seventy-six  were 
Arians,  met  together  in  a.  d.  343.  The 
Arian  bishops  would  not  sit  as  a  minority, 
and  they  arranged  themselves  as  a  Second 
Council  at  Philippopolis.  But  the  remain¬ 
ing  three  hundred  bishops,  among  whom 
were  three  from  Britain,  carried  on  the  in¬ 
quiry,  and  completely  exculpated  Athana¬ 
sius,  writing  letters  to  the  bishops  and 
laity  within  his  jurisdiction  as  Patriarch, 
in  which  they  exhorted  all  “to  contend 
earnestly  for  the  sound  faith,  and  for  the 
innocence  of  Athanasius.”  Once  more 
the  exiled  patriarch  was  allowed  to  return 
to  Alexandria,  which  he  did  about  the  time 
that  his  supplanter,  Gregory,  died,  A.  D.  345, 
and  the  reception  which  he  met  with  showed 
that  his  popularity  was  notat  alldiminished. 


Soon,  however,  the  Arian  party  regained 
their  ascendency  by  the  accession  of  Con¬ 
stantius  to  the  whole  empire,  on  the  mur¬ 
der  of  his  only  remaining  brother,  Con¬ 
stans.  The  condemnation  of  Athanasius 
was  obtained  by  court  favor  and  court 
threats  in  the  Councils  of  Arles  (a.  d.  353) 
and  Milan  (a.  d.  355);  his  orthodox  defend¬ 
ers  were  sent  into  exile,  and  he  himself 
was  driven  into  the  wilderness  of  the  The- 
baid,  where  he  remained  among  the  her¬ 
mits  for  eight  or  nine  years  (a.  d.  354-362), 
being  superseded  by  the  Arian  bishop, 
George  of  Cappadocia. 

When  he  had  escaped  from  Alexandria, 
it  was  the  intention  of  Athanasius  to  go 
and  appeal  personally  to  Constantius,  but 
the  persecution  spread  throughout  the 
West,  a  price  was  set  upon  his  head,  and 
close  search  was  made  for  him.  He  there¬ 
fore  changed  his  mind,  and  retired  to  the 
Thebaid,  where  he  was  greatly  beloved  by 
the  monks  who  had  gathered  there  under 
the  rule  of  St.  Antony,  his  own  great  friend, 
who  had  recently  died. 

The  accession  of  the  infidel  Emperor 
Julian,  a  nephew  of  Constantine  the  Great, 
was  almost  immediately  followed  by  the 
murder  of  George,  the  Cappadocian  bishop, 
who  had  all  this  while  been  sitting  in  the 
seat  of  Athanasius.  To  show  his  con¬ 
tempt  for  Christianity,  by  minimizing  the 
controversies  which  divided  Arians  and  the 
Orthodox,  Julian  permitted  all  exiled 
bishops  to  return  to  their  sees,  and  among 
them  Athanasius,  who  resumed  his  throne, 
to  the  great  joy  of  Alexandrian  Christians, 
on  Feb.  22,  362.  All  the  time  of  his  ab¬ 
sence  he  had  been  actively  engaged,  by 
correspondence  and  by  messengers,  with 
the  ecclesiastical  affairs  of  his  patriarchate; 
but  important  matters  had  to  be  undertaken 
on  his  return,  and  the  transaction  of  these 
brought  upon  him  the  resentment  of  the 
pagan  part  of  the  population  and  of  the 
emperor,  who,  declaring  that  he  had  never 
intended  him  to  resume  “  what  is  called 
the  episcopal  throne,”  ordered  him  to 
leave  Alexandria  at  once.  Again  he  took 
up  his  home  among  the  monks  of  Lower 
Egypt,  where  he  remained  until  the  death 
of  Julian,  which  occurred  on  June  26,  363. 
He  then  returned  privately  to  Alexandria, 
but  immediately  after  his  arrival  he  receiv¬ 
ed  a  letter  from  the  new  emperor,  Jovian, 
desiring  him  to  resume  his  duties  as  patri¬ 
arch. 

For  a  short  time  after  the  death  of  Jo¬ 
vian  the  troubles  of  Athanasius  returned; 
Valens,  his  successor  in  the  East,  ordering, 
in  a.  d.  365,  that  all  bishops  expelled  from 
their  sees  by  his  Arian  predecessor,  Con¬ 
stantius,  and  recalled  by  Julian,  should 
once  more  be  banished.  There  was  some 


Ath 


(68; 


Ath 


sort  of  promise  to  the  people  of  Alexan¬ 
dria  that  Athanasius  should  be  excepted 
from  this  decree;  but  he  was  warned  that 
his  life  was  in  danger,  and,  leaving  the  city, 
he  concealed  himself  for  four  months  in 
his  father’s  tomb  outside  the  city  walls. 
At  the  end  of  that  time  an  imperial  order 
was  sent  for  his  recall,  and,  his  retreat  hav¬ 
ing  been  discovered,  he  was  carried  back  to 
the  city  by  a  great  multitude,  not  again  to 
be  driven  from  it. 

St.  Athanasius  died  at  the  great  age  of 
seventy-seven,  after  anepiscopate  ofnearly 
forty-seven  years,  on  May  2,  373,  the  day 
on  which  he  is  commemorated  in  the  cal¬ 
endars  of  the  Church.  Notwithstanding 
his  laborious  work  as  the  bishop  of  an  im¬ 
portant  see,  and  the  Archbishop  and  Patri¬ 
arch  of  many  other  bishops,  he  left  behind 


the  doctrines  taught  and  defended  with  so 
much  power  by  Athanasius.  “  The  Cath¬ 
olic  doctrine  of  the  Trinity  has  been  more 
identified  with  his  ‘  immortal  ’  name  than 
with  any  other  in  the  history  of  the  Church 
and  of  Christian  theology.” — Tulloch.  See 
Creeds. 

Atheists,  those  who  profess  to  believe 
that  there  is  no  God;  the  words  atheism 
and  atheist  being  taken  from  a  Greek  word 
which  is  formed  from  the  word  theos 
(God),  made  negative  by  the  prefix  a . 

Athenag'oras,  an  early  Christian  philos¬ 
opher  and  apologist.  Little  is  known  of  his 
life  but  by  tradition.  Two  of  his  works 
are  still  in  existence.  His  Apology ,  ad¬ 
dressed  to  the  Emperors  Marcus  Aurelius 


Modern  city.  Temple  of  Theseus.  Southwestern  part  of  modern  city. 

ATHENS. 


him  a  voluminous  collection  of  letters  and 
treatises,  which  fill  four  folio  volumes. 
Much  of  his  literary  work  was  doubtless 
done  during  the  periods  of  his  exile,  espe¬ 
cially  when  living  in  the  coenobite  establish¬ 
ments  of  St.  Antony,  in  the  Thebaid. 
While  he  lived  he  was  the  great  break¬ 
water  by  which  the  flood  of  Arianism  was 
withstood,  and  after  his  death  his  works 
formed  one  of  those  strong  literary  bul¬ 
warks  by  which  the  faith  delivered  in  the 
Nicene  Creed  has  been  maintained  against 
a  long  series  of  assaults. — Benham:  Did. 
of  Religion.  See  H.  R.  Reynolds:  Athanasius 
(London  1889). 

Athanasian  Creed,  the  name  given  to 
that  summary  of  belief,  respecting  the 
Persons  of  the  Trinity,  which  embodies 


and  Lucius  Aurelius  Commodus,  is  placed 
in  the  period  between  176  and  178.  He 
also  wrote  a  Treatise  on  the  Resurrection. 

Athens, “the  capital  of  Attica,  and  the 
chief  seat  of  Grecian  learning  and  civiliza¬ 
tion  during  the  golden  period  of  the  history 
of  Greece.  An  account  of  this  city  would 
be  out  of  place  in  the  present  work.  St. 
Paul  visited  it  in  his  journey  from  Mace¬ 
donia,  and  appears  to  have  remained  there 
some  time.  (Acts  xvii.  14-34;  comp.  1 
Thess.  iii.  1.)  During  his  residence  he 
delivered  his  memorable  discourse  on  the 
Areopagus  to  the  “  men  of  Athens.”  (Acts 
xvii.  22-31.)  The  Agora,  or  “  market,” 
where  St.  Paul  disputed  daily,  was  situ¬ 
ated  in  the  valley  between  the  Acropolis, 
the  Areopagus,  the  Pnyx,and  the  Museum,. 


Ath 


Ato 


(  69  ) 


being  bounded  by  the  Acropolis  on  the 
N.E.  and  E.,  by  the  Areopagus  on  the  N., 
by  the  Pnyx  on  the  N.W.  and  W.,  and  by 
the  Museum  on  the  S.  The  annexed  plan 
shows  the  position  of  the  Agora.  The  re¬ 
mark  of  the  sacred  historian,  respecting  the 
inquisitive  character  of  the  Athenians 
Jxvii.  21),  is  attested  by  the  unanimous 
voice  of  antiquity.  Demosthenes  rebukes 
his  countrymen  for  their  love  of  constantly 
going  about  in  the  market,  and  asking  one 
another,  What  news?  The  remark  of  St. 
Paul  upon  the  “superstitious”  character 
of  the  Athenians  (xvii.  22)  is,  in  like  man¬ 
ner,  confirmed  by  the  ancient  writers.  Thus 
Pausanias  says  that  the  Athenians  sur¬ 
passed  all  other  states  in  the  attention 
wThich  they  paid  to  the  worship  of  the 
gods;  and  hence  the  city  was  crowded  in 
every  direction  with  temples,  altars,  and 
other  sacred  buildings.  Of  the  Christian 
Church,  founded  by  St.  Paul  at  Athens, 
according  to  ecclesiastical  tradition,  Dio¬ 
nysius  the  Areopagite  was  the  first  bishop.” 
— Smith:  Diet,  of  the  Bible. 

Athos,  a  mountain  at  the  extremity  of 
the  promontory  of  Chalcis,  in  European 
Turkey.  There  are  now  located  upon  the 
sides  of  the  mountain  twenty  monasteries, 
and  a  large  number  of  hermitages,  in 
which  more  than  five  thousand  monks  live. 
They  are  mostly  Russian,  and  of  the  order 
of  St.  Basil.  They  live  in  great  seclusion; 
and  no  female,  even  of  the  lower  animals, 
is  permitted  within  the  bounds  of  their 
property.  Their  libraries  contain  some 
valuable  MSS.  They  pay  yearly  tribute 
to  the  Sultan,  and  are  governed  by  a  body 
consisting  of  one  representative  from  each 
monastery.  It  was  at  Mt.  Athos  that  the 
sect  of  Hesychasts  had  their  origin,  in  the 
fourteenth  century.  See  Hesychasts. 

Atonement.  “Sin  violates  the  ground  of 
union  which  the  personal  creature  has,  by 
nature,  with  the  holy  God.  The  act  of  sin 
is  one  of  separation;  the  act  begets  the 
state  of  sin,  the  state  confirms  and  repeats 
the  act.  The  doctrine  of  the  Atonement 
treats  of  the  mediation  necessary  for  re¬ 
storing  the  union  between  God  and  man, 
which  has  been  lost  by  sin.  The  Atonement, 
therefore,  must  ever  be  the  fundamental 
doctrine  in  every  religion  of  sinful  crea¬ 
tures.  In  the  Christian  religion  it  mani¬ 
festly  occupies  this  central  position;  for  the 
Christian  doctrine  of  the  Atonement  is  but 
the  explanation  of  its  great  historic  fact — 
the  embodiment  in  one  person  of  the  divine 
and  human  natures  in  perfect  agreement. 
In  the  person  of  Christ,  God  and  man  are 
atoned;  he  is  their  atonement.  So  funda¬ 
mental  is  the  doctrine  of  the  Atonement  in 


the  Christian  religion,  that  it  does  not,  like 
many  other  doctrines,  form  a  ground  of 
distinction  among  the  different  bodies  into 
which  the  Christian  world  has  been  divided. 
All  churches  may  be  said  to  be  equally  or¬ 
thodox  on  this  point.  The  Church  of  Rome, 
the  Greek  Church,  the  various  Protestant 
Churches — established  and  dissenting — all 
agree,  taking  their  standards  as  a  criterion, 
in  resting  the  sinner’s  hope  of  salvation  on 
the  mediatorial  work  or  Atonement  of  Jesus 
Christ.  Nevertheless,  there  have  been, 
from  the  very  beginning  of  speculative 
Christian  theology,  and  still  continue 
to  be,  within  the  bosom  of  the  several 
churches,  various  ways  of  conceiving  and 
explaining  the  exact  nature  and  mode  of 
operation  of  this  mediatorial  work.  What 
follows  is  a  brief  sketch  of  the  historical 
development  of  these  speculations. 

Christianity  differs  from  heathenism  in 
the  clear  perception  which  it  has  of  the 
antagonism  sin  has  introduced  between  God 
and  man.  Heathenism  but  vaguely  con¬ 
ceives  of  this  variance,  and  consequently 
has  but  an  ill-defined  notion  of  the  atone¬ 
ment  required;  the  notion  seldom  contain¬ 
ing  more  than  the  idea  of  a  reconciled  union 
of  the  individual  man  with  nature  and  the 
universal  life.  Even  where  its  mythical 
divinities  assume  personality,  it  is  but  an 
ideal  personality,  without  any  concrete 
reality  of  life,  and,  consequently,  without 
any  real  significance  for  the  conscience.  In 
this  state,  the  abject  subjection  of  man  to 
nature  prevents  his  rising  into  that  sphere 
of  conscious  freedom  which  makes  sin  sin¬ 
ful,  and  demands  an  atonement  with  one 
who  is  Lord  both  of  nature  and  man. 

In  Judaism,  man  stands  above  nature,  in 
conscious  relation  to  a  personal  God,  whose 
written  law  exhibits  the  requirements  of 
his  relationship  with  man — requirements 
which  are  never  met,  and  which  only  make 
him  fearfully  conscious  of  the  ever-widen¬ 
ing  breach  between  him  and  his  God.  Thus 
the  law  awakened  the  sense  of  guilt,  and 
the  desire  for  an  atonement;  a  desire  it 
could  never  satisfy.  The  never-ceasing 
demands  of  these  ever-unfulfilled  require¬ 
ments  were  constantly  acknowledged  by  its 
whole  sacrificial  ctiltus ,  which  expressed  the 
hidden  ground  of  Jewish  hope,  and  pro¬ 
phetically  pointed  to  its  future  manifesta¬ 
tion. 

But  whilst  the  holy  Scriptures,  through¬ 
out  the  Old  Testament,  exhibit  the  making 
of  an  atonement  by  vicarious  sacrifice 
(Lev.  xvi.  21;  xvii.  11);  and  the  idea,  both 
of  the  suffering  and  the  deliverance  of 
many  by  the  sins  and  virtues  of  one,  was 
common  to  all  antiquity,  the  idea  of  the 
suffering  and  vicarious  Messiah,  plainly  de¬ 
clared  in  the  writings  of  the  prophets 


Ato 


(  70  ) 


Atr 


(Luke  xxiv.  46;  Isa.  liii;  Psa.  xxii.),  and  not 
entirely  hidden  from  the  more  thoughtful 
and  devout  contemporaries  of  Jesus  (Luke 

ii.  34;  John  i.  29),  was  one  which  was  for¬ 
eign  to  the  Messianic  faith  of  the  great 
body  of  the  people. 

In  the  New  Testament,  Christ  is  every¬ 
where  exhibited  as  one  sent  from  God  for 
the  salvation  of  the  world  (John  iii.  16,  17); 
and  as  the  condition,  on  the  part  of  man, 
of  his  obtaining  this  salvation,  we  read  of 
the  requirement  of  repentance,  faith,  and 
reformation  (Matt.  iv.  17;  v.  3,  11;  vi.  12; 
Mark  xvi.  16;  Luke  xv.  11),  whilst,  on  the 
part  of  God,  as  conditioning  and  mediating 
his  forgiveness  of  sins,  we  have  exhibited 
the  entire  life  of  Christ  upon  earth  con¬ 
ceived  of  as  embracing,  severally,  its  indi¬ 
vidual  features  (Acts  v.  31;  Rom.  iv.  25; 

viii.  34);  but,  more  especially,  his  death  as 
a  ransom  for  our  sins  (Matt.  xx.  28;  xxvi. 
2S),  as  a  vicarious  sacrifice  (1  Peter  i.  19; 
2  Cor.  v.  21),  by  which  we  are  redeemed 
from  the  bondage  of  sin  (1  Tim.  ii.  6;  Gal. 

iii.  13;  2  Peter  ii.  1),  and  obtain  forgiveness 
(Rom.  v.  19;  1  Cor.  xv.  3;  1  John  i.  7),  and 
eternal  life  and  peace  with  God  (John  x.  11 ; 
Col.  i.  20).  Christ  is,  therefore,  the  Medi¬ 
ator  between  God  and  man  (1  Tim.  ii.  5), 
having  made  peace  through  the  the  blood 
of  his  cross  (Col.  i.  20);  the  propitiation 
for  our  sins  (1  John  ii.  2;  iv.  10);  and  our 
high-priest  who  offers  himself  a  sacrifice  to 
reconcile  us  with  God  (Heb.  ii.  17;  v.  1; 

ix.  28).  Moreover,  we  are  also  taught  that 
God  has,  in  Christ,  reconciled  the  world 
with  himself  (Rom.  v.  10;  Col.  i.  22;  2 
Cor.  v.  19).” — Chambers:  Cyclopedia. 

The  doctrine  of  the  Atonement,  while 
held  in  full  accord  with  the  explicit  teach¬ 
ings  of  the  Scriptures,  was  not  systemat¬ 
ically  developed  during  the  early  centuries 
of  the  Christian  Church.  Anselm  w'as  the 
first  to  give  a  scientific  definition  of  the 
doctrines  of  expiation  and  satisfaction  that 
had  been  held,  heretofore,  in  a  general  way. 
So  far  as  the  general  theory  of  vicarious 
satisfaction  is  concerned,  Anselm,  in  his 
Cur  Deus  H01710 ,  gives  the  substance  of  the 
reformed  doctrine  as  it  is  now  incorporated 
in  the  creeds  of  the  Christian  Church.  What 
is  known  as  the  Moral  Influence  Theory  was 
taught  by  Abelard  and  Socinus,  and  in 
recent  times  has  numbered  among  its  ad¬ 
vocates  Maurice,  Jowett,  Bushnell.  The 
Governmental  Theory  of  the  Atonement  was 
introduced  into  the  Church  by  Hugo  Gro- 
tius  (d.  1645),  and  in  this  country  has  been 
ably  taught  by  Jonathan  Edwards,  Jr., 
Smalley,  Emmons,  Park,  and  others.  The 
great  body  of  the  Arminians  have  held 
substantially  this  view.  The  Mystical 
Theory,  which  was  held  by  the  Platonizing 
Fathers,  and  by  Scotus  Erigena  and  his  dis¬ 


ciples  in  the  Middle  Ages,  and  by  Osiander 
and  Schwenkfeld  at  the  Reformation,  has 
found  in  modern  times  its  most  prominent 
advocates  in  Schleiermacher  and  his  dis¬ 
ciples.  See  Anselm  :  Cur  Deus  Homo , 
translated  in  the  Bibliotheca  Sacra ,  vol.  xii; 
also  separately  (Oxford,  1865);  Hugo  Gro- 
tius:  Defensio  Fidei  Catholicce  de  Satis fac- 
tione  Christi  (modern  ed.,  Oxford,  1836); 
F.  D.  Maurice  :  Theological  Essays  (Lon¬ 
don,  1853);  The  Doctrine  of  Sacrifices :  a 
Series  of  Sert?ions  (new  ed.,  1879);  J- 
McLeod  Campbell:  The  Nature  of  the 
Atone?ncnt  (4th  ed.,  London,  1873);  E.  A. 
Park:  Discourses  and  Treatises  on  the  Atone- 
ment  (by  different  writers)  (Boston,  1859); 
Horace  Bushnell:  The  Vicarious  Sacrifice 
(N.  Y.,  1876),  2  vols. ;  A.  A.  Hodge:  The 
Atonement  (Phila. ,  1867,  new  ed.,  1877);  R. 
W.  Dale:  The  Atonement  (London  and 
N.  Y. ,  1876,  8th  ed.,  1881);  John  Miley: 
Atonement  in  Christ  (N.  Y.,  1879).  See 
also,  Watson:  Theological  Institutes;  Charles 
Hodge:  Systematic  Theology  (N.  Y.,  1872); 
Schaff :  Creeds  of  Christendom ,  vols.  ii.  and 
iii. 

Atonement,  Day  of.  The  directions  for 
its  observance  are  found  in  Lev.  xvi.,  xxiii. 
26-32;  Num.  xxix.  7-1 1.  The  day  is  still 
kept,  but  with  less  imposing  ceremonial 
than  in  the  period  before  the  destruction 
of  Jerusalem.  See  Lightfoot:  Temple  Ser¬ 
vice  ;  Ewald:  The  Antiquities  of  Israel , 
Eng.  trans.  (Boston,  1876),  p.  361,  sqq.; 
Oehler  in  Schaff- Herzog,  vol.  i. ,  pp.  166-168. 

Atrium,  “  the  court  attached  to  churches 
in  the  earlier  centuries.  It  was  usually 
placed  before  the  front  of  the  church  and 
surrounded  by  porticoes.  In  the  centre  of 
the  open  area  was  a  fountain,  or,  at  least,  a 
large  vessel,  containing  water  for  ablution. 
This  fountain  was  sometimes  covered  with 
a  roof,  and  surrounded  by  railings.  The 
atrium  was,  in  the  earlier  ages,  considered 
an  important,  almost  indispensable,  adjunct 
to  at  any  rate  the  larger  churches.” — Smith 
and  Cheetham:  Did.  Christian  Antiquities. 
According  to  Eusebius,  the  first  class  of 
penitents  stood  in  this  atrium  to  beg  the 
prayers  of  the  faithful.  The  great  colon¬ 
nade  in  front  of  St.  Peter’s  is  a  magnif¬ 
icent  illustration  of  the  atrium.  The  obe¬ 
lisk  which  stands  in  the  centre  was  erected 
by  Sixtus  V.  in  1586.  It  is  a  solid  mass  of 
red  granite,  without  hieroglyphics,  and 
originally  stood  in  the  circus  of  Nero,  and 
is,  therefore,  now  not  far  from  its  original 
situation.  The  fountains  on  either  side  of 
this  obelisk  (but  one  is  seen  in  the  picture) 
were  designed  by  Carlo  Maderno.  The  water 
is  thrown  to  a  height  of  about  18  feet,  and 
falls  back  into  a  basin  of  Oriental  granite. 


(  71  ) 


ATRIUM  OF  ST.  PETER’S  CHURCH,  ROME, 


Att 


Aug 


(  72  ) 


Atterbury,  Francis  (1662-1731),  a  Bish¬ 
op  of  Rochester  in  the  reign  of  Queen 
Anne.  He  was  a  distinguished  preacher 
in  London  when  made  bishop.  In  1722  he 
was  imprisoned  in  the  Tower  on  the  charge 
of  being  in  correspondence  with  members 
of  the  exiled  Stuart  family.  His  eloquent 
defense  did  not  avail,  and  the  last  nine 
years  of  his  life  were  spent  in  exile  at 
Brussels  and  Paris.  He  was  buried  in 
Westminster  Abbey. 

Attrition,  a  term  used  by  Roman  cas¬ 
uists  to  express  that  sorrow  for  sin  which 
arises  through  fear  of  its  penalties,  or 
through  the  shame  of  exposure. 

Aubigne.  See  Merle  d’Aubigne. 

Auburn  Declaration.  See  Presbyterian 
Church. 

Audaeans,  a  sect  that  flourished  in  the 
early  part  of  the  fourth  century.  Its  found¬ 
er,  Audaeus  or  Audius,  a  Syrian  of  Meso¬ 
potamia,  gained  his  following  by  preaching 
against  the  luxurious  habits  of  the  bishops 
and  clergy.  He  became  the  first  bishop  of 
the  sect,  which  died  out  in  the  fifth  cen¬ 
tury.  The  Audaeans  were  Anthropomor- 
phites. 

Audians.  See  Audaeans. 

Augsburg,  Confession  of.  See  Prot¬ 
estant  Confessions. 

Augsburg,  Interim  of.  See  Interim. 

Augsburg,  The  Peace  of,  was  conclud¬ 
ed  on  Sept.  25,  1555.  By  its  terms  the 
sovereign  could  choose  between  the  Augs¬ 
burg  Confession  and  the  Roman  Church, 
and  his  subjects  were  compelled  to  accept 
his  choice.  The  only  relief  for  the  indi¬ 
vidual  was  to  remove  into  the  territory 
where  the  religion  of  the  sovereign  was  in 
accord  with  his  own. 

Augustine,  or  Austin,  St.,  the  first 
Archbishop  of  Canterbury;  d.  604.  In  596 
he  was  sent  from  Rome  by  Gregory  the 
Great  (590-604)  to  aid  in  the  conversion  of 
the  Anglo-Saxons.  The  conversion  of 
Ethelbert  (597)  opened  the  way  to  the 
Christianization  of  his  people.  Augustine 
was  canonized  for  the  reputed  cure  of  a 
Saxon  of  his  blindness. 

Augustine,  St.  ,(1)  (a.  d.  354-430).  This 
renowned  Father  of  the  Church  was  born 
on  Nov.  13th,  354,  at  Tagaste,  in  Nu- 
midia.  He  was  Bishop  of  Hippo  for 
thirty-five  years,  and  as  one  of  the  four 


great  teachers  of  the  Church,  became 
known  as  “the  Doctor  of  Grace.”  (Doc¬ 
tor.)  His  father,  Patricius,  whom  he 
calls  “  a  poor  freeman  of  Tagaste,”  did  not 
profess  Christianity  at  the  time  of  Augus¬ 
tine’s  birth,  but  was  afterward  converted 
and  baptized.  His  mother,  Monnica,  was 
certainly  a  Christian  at  the  period  of  his 
birth,  and  had  probably  been  baptized  in 
her  infancy.  He  appears  to  have  been  the 
only  child  of  his  mother,  and,  as  was  nat¬ 
ural,  there  was  the  most  tender  affection 
between  them  all  their  lives.  Unfortu¬ 
nately  for  Augustine,  his  mother  did  not 
bring  him  to  baptism  in  his  early  days, 
dreading  that  he  would  fall  into  sin  after 
being  baptized.  “  My  cleansing  was  defer¬ 
red,”  he  says,  in  his  confession,  “  because 
the  defilements  of  sin  would,  after  that 
washing,  bring  greater  and  more  perilous 
guilt.”  Until  he  was  thirty-three  years 
of  age,  and  during  his  youth,  his  mother’s 
good  influence  was  too  weak  to  prevent 
him  from  falling  into  a  self-willed  course 
of  very  vicious  living,  especially  while  he 
was  receiving  his  higher  education  at  Car¬ 
thage,  which  he  called  Babylon.  For  nine 
years  also,  from  the  age  of  nineteen  to 
that  of  twenty-eight,  he  combined  with 
his  reckless  vice  the  heresy  of  Mani- 
■  ch/Eism  ( q .  v.).  About  thirty  he  aban¬ 
doned  both  the  heresy  and  the  habitual 
vice,  and  took  up  with  the  philosophy  of 
the  neo-PLATONiSTS  (q.  v.),  and,  although 
there  was  little  of  Christianity  in  their 
opinions,  he  was  brought  under  better  in¬ 
fluences,  and  especially  was  led  to  the 
study  of  Holy  Scripture. 

Augustine  had  long  been  a  lecturer  in 
the  schools  of  Carthage,  and  about  this 
time  he  returned  to  Tagaste,  his  native 
place,  to  engage  in  the  teaching  of  rhetoric 
there.  He  soon,  however,  returned  to 
Carthage,  and  from  thence  removed  to 
Rome,  still  following  the  same  profession, 
in  A.  d.  383.  Disappointed  of  success  at 
Rome,  he  went  to  Milan,  where  he  was 
joined  by  his  mother,  and  where  a  new 
life  opened  itself  out  before  him;  for  at 
Milan  he  came  in  contact  with  Ambrose, 
the  great  and  popular  bishop  of  that  city, 
under  the  influence  of  whose  preaching 
and  example  Augustine  was  converted  to 
Christianity.  He  was  baptized  by  St.  Am¬ 
brose,  together  with  his  dearly  beloved 
natural  son,  Adeodatus,  on  April  25, 
387,  Augustine  being  then  thirty-three 
years  of  age,  and  his  son  fifteen. 

The  earlier  years  of  his  Christian  life 
were  spent  by  St.  Augustine  in  retirement 
and  study.  Soon  after  his  baptism  he  set 
out,  with  his  mother  and  his  son,  to  return 
to  Africa.  Monnica  died  on  the  way,  at 
Ostia,  and,  in  his  grief,  Augustine  went  to 


rt.ug 


(  73  ) 


Aug 


Rome,  where  he  remained  for  more  than  a 
year,  spending  his  time  in  writing  and 
speaking  against  his  former  associates,  the 
Manichees.  After  this,  he  returned  with 
Adeodatus  to  Tagaste,  where  he  estab¬ 
lished  a  small  monastic  community,  con¬ 
sisting  of  friends  who,  like  himself,  aspired 
after  a  stricter  life  of  personal  holiness  and 
good  works  than  seemed  possible  when 
living  in  the  ordinary  freedom  of  society. 
Thus  three  years  passed  away  in  study 
and  writing,  and  in  prayer,  acts  of  self-dis¬ 
cipline,  and  charitable  works  among  the 
poor;  and  during  that  time  another  great 
sorrow  came  upon  St.  Augustine  in  the 
early  death  of  his  pious  son,  Adeodatus. 

In  a.  D.  390,  when  he  was  more  than 
thirty-five  years  of  age,  his  clerical  life 
began.  He  went  on  a  visit  to  a  friend, 
who  was  an  official  of  the  empire  at  Hippo 
Regius,  a  small  sea-coast  town,  the  ruins 
of  which  still  exist  in  the  east  of  Algeria, 
and  immediately  opposite  the  southern  end 
of  Sardinia.  There  he  became  acquainted 
with  Valerius,  the  Bishop  of  Hippo,  who 
at  once  ordained  him  to  the  priesthood. 
This  epoch  of  his  life  we  have  narrated  in 
his  own  words,  in  a  sermon  which  he 
preached  at  Hippo  many  years  afterwards 
on  “  The  Life  and  Conversation  of  the 
Clergy,”  and  in  which,  with  his  customary 
outspokenness  respecting  himself,  he  thus 
records  the  circumstances  of  his  ordination: 
“  I,  whom  by  the  grace  of  God  ye  thus  see 
as  your  bishop,  came  as  a  young  man  to 
this  city,  as  many  of  you  know.  I  was 
looking  for  a  place  where  to  form  a  monas¬ 
tery  to  live  with  my  brethren.  For  all 
worldly  hopes  I  had  abandoned,  and  what 
I  might  have  been  I  would  not  be;  nor  yet 
sought  I  to  be  what  I  am.  ‘  I  chose  rather 
to  be  cast  down  in  the  house  of  my  God 
than  to  dwell  in  the  tents  of  the  ungodly.’ 
I  separated  me  from  those  who  love  the 
world,  nor  yet  did  I  set  myself  with  those 
who  are  placed  over  the  people.  Nor  in 
the  Feast  of  my  Lord  did  I  ‘  choose  the 
higher  place,’  but  the  lower  and  abject 
one,  and  it  pleased  Him  to  say  to  me,  ‘Go 
up  higher.’  But  so  exceedingly  did  I 
dread  the  episcopate,  that,  because  my 
reputation  had  now  begun  to  be  of  some 
account  among  the  servants  of  God,  I 
would  not  go  to  any  place  where  I  knew 
there  was  no  bishop.  For  I  was  afraid  of 
this,  and  did  what  I  could,  that  in  a  low 
place  I  might  be  saved,  lest  in  a  high  one 
I  should  be  periled.  But,  as  I  said,  the 
servant  must  not  oppose  his  Master.  I 
came  to  this  city  to  see  a  friend  whom  I 
thought  I  might  gain  to  God,  that  he  might 
live  with  us  in  the  monastery;  I  came  as 
being  safe,  the  place  having  a  bishop  al¬ 
ready.  I  was  laid  hold  of,  made  a  presby¬ 


ter,  and  by  this  step  came  to  the  episco¬ 
pacy.” 

It  is  probable,  especially  from  the  eager¬ 
ness  with  which  Bishop  Valerius  enlisted 
the  services  of  St.  Augustine,  that,  even  as 
a  priest  only,  he  occupied  an  important 
position  in  the  Church  of  Hippo.  Per¬ 
haps,  in  an  office  similar  to  that  of  dean,  he 
became  archpresbyter,  or  the  chief  of  the 
priests,  at  Hippo,  as  St.  Athanasius  had 
been  chief  of  the  deacons,  or  archdeacon, 
at  Alexandria.  But,  after  three  or  four 
years,  the  voice  “Go  up  higher”  was 
heard,  and  he  was  consecrated  coadjutor 
to  the  bishop,  the  death  of  Valerius,  a  few 
months  later,  opening  the  way  for  him  to 
become  his  successor  as  actual  Bishop  of 
Hippo.  His  Confessions ,  a  kind  of  spirit¬ 
ual  autobiography,  are  a  rich  mine  of 
material  for  his  personal  history  during 
the  time  of  his  life  as  a  layman,  and  his 
Retractations  are  a  review  of  his  liter¬ 
ary  work,  nearly  to  the  time  of  his  death; 
but  there  is  little  recorded  of  his  life  and 
work  simply  as  bishop  of  his  diocese.  He 
lived  in  a  somewhat  ascetic  manner,  sur¬ 
rounded  by  a  number  of  his  clergy,  who, 
like  himself,  preferred  the  common  life  of 
a  monastic  society  to  any  other  mode  of 
living.  He  gave  up  much  time  to  the  ed¬ 
ucation  of  those  who  were  candidates  for 
the  ministry.  Every  day  he  was  accessi¬ 
ble  in  a  court  which  he  held  for  the  per¬ 
sonal  administration  of  Christian  equity. 
He  was  also  indefatigable  in  preaching  and 
the  ordinary  duties  of  the  episcopal  office. 
But  beyond  this,  there  is  little  detailed 
record  of  St.  Augustine’s  life  as  a  bishop. 
There  is,  however,  a  touching  passage  in 
one  of  his  later  sermons,  in  which,  after 
occupying  his  high  office  for  more  than 
thirty  years,  he  appeals  to  his  people  in  a 
manner  that  he  would  scarcely  have  done 
unless  he  had  been  speaking  heart  to 
heart,  and  appealing  to  those  from  whom 
he  was  sure  of  a  loving  response.  “  I 
have  not  presumption  enough,”  he  says, 
“to  imagine  that  I  have  never  given  any 
of  you  subject  of  complaint  against  me 
during  the  time  I  have  exercised  the  func¬ 
tions  of  the  episcopacy.  If,  then,  over¬ 
whelmed  at  times  with  the  cares  and  duties 
of  my  office,  I  have  not  granted  audience 
to  you  when  you  asked  it,  or  if  I  have  re¬ 
ceived  you  with  an  air  of  coldness  or  ab¬ 
straction;  if  I  have  ever  spoken  to  any 
one  with  severity;  if,  by  anything  what¬ 
ever  in  my  answers,  I  have  wounded  the 
feelings  of  the  afflicted  who  implored  my 
succor;  if,  occupied  with  other  thoughts, 
I  have  neglected  or  deferred  assisting  the 
poor,  or  shown,  by  any  displeasure  in  my 
countenance,  that  I  deemed  them  too  im¬ 
portunate  in  their  solicitations;  lastly,  if 


Aug 


(  74  ) 


Aur 


I  have  betrayed  too  much  acuteness  of 
feeling  with  respect  to  the  false  suspicions 
that  some,  have  entertained  against  me; 
and  if,  through  the  weakness  of  human 
nature,  I  have  conceived  unjust  opinions 
of  others:  in  return,  pardon  me,  oh  my 
people,  to  whom  I  confess  all  my  faults — 
pardon  me  for  them,  I  conjure  you,  and  so 
also  shall  you  obtain  the  pardon  of  your 
sins.” 

But  St.  Augustine  was  much  more  than 
Bishop  of  Hippo.  In  his  time  the  great 
schism  of  the  Donatists  was  rending  into 
fractions  the  Christianity  of  North  Africa, 
setting  up  altar  against  altar,  church 
against  church  (Donatists).  In  his  efforts 
to  defend  the  unity  of  the  Church,  he  was 
so  successful  that,  whereas  at  the  beginning 
of  his  episcopate  the  schismatics  were  split 
up  into  innumerable  parties — united  in 
nothing  but  opposition  to  the  Church,  and 
having  as  many  as  four  hundred  bishops 
in  Africa — at  its  close  a  large  number  of 
Donatist  bishops  had  passed  over  to  the 
Church  at  the  head  of  their  flocks,  and  the 
schism  had  almost  disappeared.  With 
equal  vigor  and  equal  success  St.  Augus¬ 
tine  combated  the  errors  of  Pelagianism 
(< q .  v.)  which,  however,  did  not,  at  any  time, 
form  the  basis  of  an  organized  sect.  The 
chief  of  these  errors  was  the  denial  of  orig¬ 
inal  sin,  and  the  assertion  that  man  can,  of 
his  own  will,  work  out  his  salvation  with¬ 
out  the  assistance  of  God’s  grace.  Against 
Pelagianism  St.  Augustine  preached  and 
wrote  for  twenty  years  of  his  life;  and, 
while  he  contributed  largely  to  its  extinc¬ 
tion  at  that  time,  his  works  remained  for 
all  subsequent  ages  as  an  efficient  antidote 
to  its  subtle  revivals. 

It  was  in  the  midst  of  St.  Augustine’s 
episcopate  that  the  Roman  Empire  began 
to  fall  finally  to  pieces.  Rome  was  taken 
and  sacked  by  the  Goths  under  Alaric,  in 
A.  D.  410,  when  Christians  grew  sad  and 
desponding,  as  if  the  end  of  the  world  were 
near;  while  pagans  attacked  their  faith  as 
if  Christianity  were  the  cause  of  all  the 
disasters  that  had  occurred  since  the  world 
had  come  under  its  influence.  It  was  at 
this  crisis  that  St.  Augustine  brought  for¬ 
ward  his  learned  and  beautiful  work  on 
The  City  of  God ,  in  which  he  undertook  to 
defend  the  workings  of  God’s  providence, 
to  show  the  solidity  of  the  “  city  which 
hath  foundations,”  and  the  instability  of 
paganism.  But  as  the  great  Father’s  life 
drew  toward  its  close,  it  was  overclouded 
by  the  ruin  which  drew  near  to  his  own 
diocese.  Genseric,  the  King  of  the  Vandals, 
advanced  from  Spain  into  North  Africa, 
and  by  the  treachery  of  Count  Boniface, 
and  by  alliance  with  the  Moors,  succeeded 
in  devastating  the  Roman  province.  Boni¬ 


face  repented  of  his  treachery,  and  endeav¬ 
ored  to  rid  the  province  of  the  wild  foe 
whom  he  had  brought  into  it,  but  he  was 
defeated  time  after  time,  and  was  at  last 
shut  up  in  the  city  of  Hippo,  which  was 
closely  besieged.  The  aged  bishop  fore¬ 
saw  what  the  result  would  be,  and,  though 
he  supported  his  people  with  encourage¬ 
ment  and  consolation,  he  yet  prayed  that 
he  might  be  spared  the  sight  of  their  de¬ 
struction.  His  prayer  was  heard,  and  he 
passed  away  on  Aug.  28,  430,  in  the  third 
month  of  the  siege.  In  the  following  year 
the  city  was  taken,  but  the  Vandals  re¬ 
spected  the  body  of  the  saint,  and  also  his 
library.  The  body  was  taken  to  St. 
Stephen’s,  in  Sardinia,  when  Augustine’s 
successor  fled  thither  from  persecution  in 
A.  d.  505.  It  was  afterward  removed 
thence  to  Pavia,  about  A.  D.  713.  There 
it  was  discovered  in  a.  d.  1695,  and  was  at 
last  returned  to  the  city  of  his  rule  on  Oct. 
23,  1842.  He  is  commemorated  in  the  cal¬ 
endars  of  the  Church  on  Aug.  28,  the  day 
of  his  death,  and  no  ecclesiastical  writer 
ever  won  greater  veneration  by  his  works. 

These  works  fill  twelve  folio  volumes, 
and  form  a  most  rich  treasure  of  scriptural 
exposition  as  well  as  of  theological  argu¬ 
ment.  Many  of  them  have  been  translated 
into  English,  and  among  those  so  trans¬ 
lated  which  are  not  controversial,  may 
be  mentioned  his  Commentaries  on  the 
Psal??is,  and  Homilies  on  St.  John ;  The 
City  of  God,  a  large  number  of  his  letters, 
many  of  his  sermons,  a  series  of  Practical 
Treatises,  and  his  Confessions. — Benham: 
Diet,  of  Religion.  The  wor£s  of  Augustine 
referred  to  in  this  article,  with  many 
others,  were  published  by  the  Christian 
Literature  Co.  (N.  Y. ,  1886-88),  8  vols; 
revised  and  enlarged  from  Edinburgh  edi¬ 
tion. 

Augustinian  Friars,  commonly  called 
“  Austin  Friars.”  See  Friars. 

Augustinians,  a  name  assumed  by  the 
Jansenists  to  emphasize  their  profession 
of  holding  and  teaching  the  doctrine  of 
St.  Augustine  on  the  subject  of  Divine 
grace. 

Auricular  Confession,  the  confession  of 
sin  at  the  ear  (Latin  auris )  of  the  priest, 
must  have  been  an  early  practice,  since  it 
is  said  to  have  been  forbidden  in  the  fourth 
century  by  Nectarius,  Archbishop  of  Con¬ 
stantinople.  It  was  enjoined  by  the  Coun¬ 
cil  of  Lateran  in  1215,  and  by  the  Council 
of  Trent  in  1551.  It  is  made  obligatory, 
at  least  once  a  year,  upon  all  Catholics,  un¬ 
der  pain  of  excommunication,  and,  conse¬ 
quently,  the  loss  of  Christian  burial. 


Aus 


Baa 


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Australia.  The  Episcopalians  are  the 
most  numerous  body  among  the  religious 
sects  represented  on  the  continent,  but 
there  is  no  Established  Church;  and  state 
aid  to  religion  is  almost  entirely  abolished. 
The  Roman  Catholics  rank  next  to  the 
Episcopalians  in  numbers,  but  both  the 
Wesleyans  and  Presbyterians  have  a  large 
number  of  communicants. 

Austria  “  has  always  remained  strongly 
attached  to  the  Roman  Catholic  Church. 
Her  sovereigns,  however,  have  in  general 
resisted  the  temporal  pretensions  of  the 
popes,  and  reserved  to  themselves  certain 
important  rights,  such  as  the  imposing  of 
taxes  on  church  property,  the  nomination 
of  bishops  and  archbishops,  and  the  option 
of  restricting,  or  even  prohibiting,  the  cir¬ 
culation  of  Papal  bulls.  About  two-thirds 
of  the  people,  or  nearly  24,000,000,  profess 
the  Roman  Catholic  religion.  If,  however, 
we  deduct  the  kingdom  of  Hungary  and 
Galicia,  where  less  than  one-half  of  the 
people  are  Roman  Catholics,  the  pro¬ 
portion  in  the  rest  of  the  country  is  much 
increased.  In  some  parts  the  proportion 
to  the  entire  population  is  as  high  as  90  to 
98  per  cent.  The  Greek  Catholics  number, 
in  Austria  proper,  2,342,168,  almost  all  in 
Galicia,  and  in  Hungary  1,599,628.  The 
Eastern  Greek  Church  numbers  461,511 
adherents  in  Austria,  and  2,589,319  in  Hun¬ 
gary.  Of  the  Protestant  denominations, 
the  Lutherans  are  more  numerous  in  the 
western  half  of  the  empire,  the  Calvinists 
in  the  eastern.  The  numbers  are,  in 
Austria  proper,  Lutherans,  252,327,  and 
Calvinists,  111,935;  in  Hungary,  Luther¬ 
ans,  1,365,835,  Calvinists,  2,143,178.  The 
principal  other  religions  are,  the  Jew¬ 
ish,  1,375,861  (nearly  one-half  of  them  in 
Galicia);  Armenian,  10,133;  Unitarian, 
55»°79  (nearly  all  in  Transylvania).  The 
Catholic  Church,  including  the  Greek  and 
Armenian  Catholics,  has  eleven  arch¬ 
bishops,  twenty -four  suffragan  bishops, 
two  vicariate  bishops,  and  one  military 
bishop  in  Austria  proper,  and  five  arch¬ 
bishops,  and  twenty  -  three  bishops  in 
Hungary.  Altogether  there  are  about  34- 
goo  ecclesiastics,  and  950  convents,  with 
8,500  monks  and  5,700  nuns.  The  Oriental 
Greek  Church  has,  in  Austria  proper, 
three  bishops  (one  in  Buckowina,  and  two 
in  Dalmatia),  and  in  Hungary,  the  patriarch 
of  Karlowitz,  the  archbishop  of  Herr- 
mannstadt,  and  eight  bishops,  with,  in  all, 
4,000  priests  and  forty  convents,  with  300 
monks.” — Ency.  Britannica. 

Authorized  Version  of  the  Bible.  See  Bible. 

Auto-da-Fe  ( act  of  faith),  “  a  public 


solemnity  of  the  Inquisition  in  Spain  and 
Portugal,  at  which  the  sentences  of  the 
court  were  read;  those  who  were  declared 
innocent  were  formally  absolved,  and  the 
condemned  were  handed  over  to  the  secu¬ 
lar  power  for  punishment.  The  day  chos¬ 
en  was  usually  some  Sunday  between 
Trinity  and  Advent.  The  first  auto-da-fe 
was  held  by  Torquemada  at  Seville,  in 
1481 ;  the  last  was  probably  that  mentioned 
by  Llorente,  the  historian  of  the  Inqui¬ 
sition,  as  having  been  solemnized  in  Mex¬ 
ico  in  1815.” — Ency.  Brit.  See  Inquisition. 

Ave  Maria,  or  Hail  Mary,  the  words 
with  which  the  angel  Gabriel  saluted  the 
Virgin.  (Luke  i.  28.)  It  is  also  the  name 
of  a  form  of  prayer  authorized  by  the 
Roman  Church.  See  Angelus. 

Avignon,  situated  on  the  Rhone,  in  the 
southern  part  of  France.  From  1305  to 
1377  it  was  the  residence  of  the  popes. 
(See  Popes.)  The  ruins  of  the  old  “  Pal¬ 
ace  of  the  Popes  ”  are  still  imposing. 

Avis,  the  Order  of,  an  association  of 
knights  founded  in  1145  by  King  Alfonso  I. 
of  Portugal,  to  fight  against  the  Moors  who 
held  the  southern  part  of  the  country.  In 
1789  it  became  a  military  order,  and  the 
ecclesiastical  vows  were  abolished. 

Awakening  is  a  term  descriptive  of  the 
work  of  the  Spirit  in  the  quickened  feeling 
and  conviction  of  sin  and  need  that  is  often 
the  beginning  of  conversion.  It  is  also  ap¬ 
plied  to  revivals  of  religion  in  which  large 
numbers  are  awakened.  The  revivals 
which  followed  the  preaching  of  Whitefield 
and  others  in  the  last  century  are  com¬ 
monly  spoken  of  as  the  Great  Awakening. 

Aza'zel  is  a  transliteration  of  the  Hebrew 
word,  translated  in  the  authorized  version 
(Lev.  xvi.  8,  sq.)  scapegoat.  There  has  been 
much  discussion  regarding  the  meaning  of 
the  term.  Some  take  it  to  be  the  name  of 
a  region,  “  the  desert,”  others  of  a  person 
to  whom  the  goat  was  sent.  The  latter 
opinion  is  favored  by  the  best  scholars, 
and  they  hold  that  reference  is  made  to 
Satan.  The  goat  that  was  sent  away  typified 
the  removing  of  the  guilt  of  the  people. 

Azymites,  an  epithet  applied  by  the 
members  of  the  Greek  Church  to  those  of 
the  Roman,  because  they  used  unleavened 
bread  in  the  Lord’s  Supper. 

B. 

Baader,  Benedict  Franz  Xaver,  b.  in 
Munich,  March  27,  1765;  d.  there  May  23, 
1841.'  In  early  life  he  became  eminent  as 
a  mining  engineer,  but,  from  1826  until  his 


Baa 


(  76) 


Bac 


death,  was  professor  of  philosophy  and 
speculative  theology  in  the  University  of 
Munich.  “  He  was  an  original  thinker  of 
great  suggestiveness;  and,  though  a  Ro¬ 
man  Catholic,  he  maintained  a  very  inde¬ 
pendent  position  with  respect  to  the  papacy, 
which  he  considered  a  very  equivocal  in¬ 
stitution,  not  essential  to  the  Church.” — 
Schaff-Herzog.  His  collected  works  were 
published  at  Leipzig  (1850-60),  16  vols.  • 

Baal,  and  Bel,  different  forms  of  the 
name  of  the  chief  male  divinity  of  the  Phoe¬ 
nicians  and  Canaanites.  The  name  means 
“  lord,”  or  “  possessor.”  By  many  schol¬ 
ars  Baal  is  supposed  to  represent  the  sun, 
as  the  chief  female  divinity,  Astarte,  rep¬ 
resented  the  moon.  Others  think  they  rep¬ 
resent  Jupiter  and  Venus.  The  worship  of 
Baal  was  known  to  the  Hebrews  while 
they  were  in  the  wilderness,  and  Ahab, 
influenced  by  Jezebel,  introduced  this  idol¬ 
atrous  worship,  and  it  did  not  entirely 
cease  until  after  the  exile.  The  name  often 
appears  in  compounds,  as  (1)  Ba'al-Be- 
RITH  ( lord  of  the  covenant ),  worshiped  by 
the  Shechemites  (Judg.  viii.  33  ;  ix.  4)  ; 

(2)  Ba'al-pe'or  (lord of  the  opening ),  allud¬ 
ing  to  the  character  of  the  rites  of  worship 
(Num.  xxv.  3;  Deut.  iv.  3;  Josh.  xxii.  17); 

(3)  (Ba'al-zebub  ( lord  of  the  fly),  the  form 
of  Baal  worshiped  at  Ekron  (2  Kings  i. 
2-6,  16).  Sacrifices  of  children  were  made 
to  Baal  as  a  destructive  god  (Jer.  xix.  5; 
xxxii.  35),  and  his  priests  were  numerous. 

Ba'albec,  an  ancient  city  of  Syria,  cele¬ 
brated  for  the  magnificence  of  its  ruins.  It 
was  called  by  the  Greeks  Heliopolis ,  “  city 
of  the  sun.”  Here  Baal,  the  sun-god,  was 
worshiped.  At  one  period,  its  wealth, 
gained  through  its  commercial  relations, 
was  very  great.  It  was  sacked  by  the 
Arabs  in  748,  and  by  Tamerlane  about 
1400,  and  frequent  earthquakes  completed 
its  ruin.  At  present  it  is  an  unsightly  vil¬ 
lage.  Its  principal  ruins  are  the  Great 
Temple,  the  Temple  of  the  Sun,  and  the 
Circular  Temple,  which,  down  to  the  pres¬ 
ent  century,  was  used  as  a  Greek  church. 
In  the  early  Christian  centuries  Baalbec 
was  the  seat  of  pagan  worship,  and  its  im¬ 
moralities  were  often  described  by  Chris¬ 
tian  writers. 

Baanites.  See  Paulicians. 

Ba'asha  (valor),  son  of  Ahijah,  and  third 
king  of  Israel.  He  reached  the  throne  by 
the  slaughter  of  Nadab  and  all  his  family 
(1  Kings  xv.  27),  and  undesignedly ,  by  this 
act,  fulfilled  Ahijah’s  prophecy.  (1  Kings 
xiv.  10.)  Brave  and  warlike,  but  treach¬ 
erous,  he  ruled  for  twenty -four  years 


(b.  C.  955-932),  and  was  buried  at  Tirzah. 
His  family  perished  as  predicted.  (1  Kings 
xvi.  3-1 1.) 

Babel,  Tower  of.  The  “  tower  of  Ba¬ 
bel  ”  is  mentioned  only  once  in  Scripture 
(Gen.  xi.  4,  5),  and  then  as  incomplete.  It 
was  built  of  bricks,  and  the  “  slime  ”  used 
for  mortar  was  probably  bitumen.  While 
many  places  have  been  suggested,  its  loca¬ 
tion  is  unknown.  Local  tradition  identifies 
it  with  the  modern  Birs  Nii?irud,  the  ruin¬ 
ed  remains  of  the  “  Temple  of  the  Seven 
Lights  of  the  Earth,”  at  Borsippa,  a  sub¬ 
urb  of  Babylon,  which  was  dedicated  to 
Nebo. 

Bab'ylon,  the  metropolis  of  the  Babylo¬ 
nian  empire.  It  was  built  on  both  sides  of 
the  river  Euphrates  in  the  form  of  a  square, 
and  enclosed  within  a  double  row  of  high 
walls.  According  to  Herodotus,  it  includ¬ 
ed  an  area  of  about  200  square  miles. 
Probably  nine-tenths  of  this  great  space 
consisted  of  gardens,  parks,  and  fields. 
The  height  of  the  walls  was  about  335  feet. 
The  most  remarkable  edifice  in  Babylon 
was  the  temple  of  Bel,  completed  by  Neb¬ 
uchadnezzar.  It  was  during  the  reign  of 
this  monarch  that  Babylon  attained  the 
height  of  its  glory  and  magnificence.  It 
suffered  greatly  when  taken  by  Cyrus,  and 
two  sieges  in  the  reign  of  Darius  Hystas-' 
pis,  and  one  in  the  reign  of  Xerxes,  had 
brought  about  a  ruinous  condition,  when  it 
was  captured  by  Alexander  the  Great.  Its 
overthrow  was  often  predicted.  (Isa.  xiii. 
4-22;  Jer.  xxv.  12;  1.  2,  3;  li;  Hab.  i.  5-10.) 
See  Assyria. 

Babylonia.  See  Assyria. 

Babylonian  Captivity.  See  Captivity. 

Baccanarists.  At  the  time  the  Jesuits 
were  temporarily  suppressed  in  1773, 
Nicolas  Baccanari  attempted  to  revive  the 
order  under  the  title  of  Clerks  of  the  Faith 
of  Jesus.  The  Baccanarists  never  prosper¬ 
ed,  though  favored  by  Pope  Pius  VI.,  and 
when  the  Jesuits  were  reestablished  in 
1814,  they  were  absorbed  into  them.  See 
Jesuits. 

Backus,  Aziel,  D.  D.,  Congregational¬ 
ism  b.  at  Norwich,  Conn.,  Nov.  5,  1765.  He 
was  graduated  at  Yale  in  1787,  and,  enter¬ 
ing  the  ministry,  became  the  successor  of 
Dr.  Bellamy  at  Bethlehem,  Conn.  In 
connection  with  these  duties  he  had  charge 
of  a  classical  school  until  1812,  when  he  was 
elected  President  of  Hamilton  College. 
After  a  successful  administration  of  the 
college  for  five  years,  he  died,  Dec.  9,  1817. 


Bac 


(  77  ) 


Bai 


Bacon,  Francis,  b.  in  London,  Jan.  22, 
1561;  d.  at  Highgate,  April  9,  1626.  After 
graduating  at  Cambridge,  he  was,  for  a 
time,  in  the  diplomatic  service.  In  1580 
he  entered  upon  the  profession  of  law,  and 
in  1607  he  was  appointed  solicitor-general, 
from  which  jurisdiction  he  rose  to  be  Lord- 
Chancellor.  He  was  accused  and  con¬ 
demned  before  the  Parliament  of  1621  of 
taking  bribes,  and  spent  the  remainder  of 
his  life  in  retirement.  His  studies  in  phil¬ 
osophy  revolutionized  that  science.  He 
contended  that  the  only  correct  way  to  in¬ 
terpret  nature  was  by  the  induction  of 
facts.  “  It  is  curious  and  significant  that 
in  the  domain  of  the  moral  and  metaphys¬ 
ical  sciences  his  influence  has  been,  perhaps, 
more  powerful,  and  his  authority  has  been 
more  frequently  appealed  to  than  in  that  of 
the  physical.  This  is  due,  not  so  much  to 
his  expressed  opinion  that  the  inductive 
method  was  applicable  to  all  the  sciences, 
as  to  the  generally  practical,  or,  one  may 
say,  positive  spirit  of  his  system.  Theo¬ 
logical  questions,  which  had  tortured  the 
minds  of  generations,  are  by  him  relegated 
from  the  province  of  reason  to  that  of 
faith.  Even  reason  must  be  restrained 
from  striving  after  ultimate  truth;  it  is  one 
of  the  errors  of  the  human  intellect  that  it 
will  not  rest  in  general  principles,  but 
must  push  its  investigations  deeper.  Ex¬ 
perience  and  observation  are  the  only 
remedies  against  prejudice  and  error. 
Into  questions  of  metaphysics,  as  common¬ 
ly  understood,  Bacon  can  hardly  be  said  to 
have  entered,  but  a  long  line  of  think¬ 
ers  have  drawn  inspiration  from  him.” — 
Ency.  Britannica ,  vol.  iii. ,  p.  217.  See 
his  Works ,  edited  by  Spedding,  Ellis  & 
Heath  (London,  1857-59),  7  vols. ;  (2d 
ed.,  1870).  Popular  ed.  (N.  Y.,  1877), 
2  vols.  Bacon’s  Essays ,  with  Annotations 
by  Archbishop  Whately  (London  1856; 
Boston,  1863). 

Bacon,  Leonard,  D.  D.,  Congregational- 
ist;  b.  in  Detroit,  Mich.,  Feb.  19,  1802;  d.  in 
New  Haven,  Dec.  24,  1881.  After  gradu¬ 
ating  at  Yale  College  in  1820,  he  studied 
theology  at  Andover,  and  was  installed  as 
pastor  of  the  First  Congregational  Church 
in  New  Haven,  in  1825.  He  continued  this 
service  until  1866,  when  he  became  pastor 
emerittis.  From  1866  to  1871  he  was  in¬ 
structor  in  Revealed  Theology  in  the  Yale 
Theological  Seminary,  and  Lecturer  on 
Church  Polity  from  1871  until  his  death. 
Dr.  Bacon  was  one  of  the  founders  of  the 
Independent  and  the  New  Englander ,  and 
for  many  years  was  editorially  connected 
with  those  publications.  He  was  an  able 
and  prolific  writer,  and  took  a  prominent 
part  in  the  anti-slavery  discussions  of  his 


time.  Among  American  Congregational- 
ists  he  was  a  recognized  leader. 

He  published  the  Life  and  Select  Works 
of  Richard  Baxter  (1830) ;  Thirteen  Histor¬ 
ical  Discourses  on  the  Completion  of  Two 
Hundred  Years  from  the  B eginning  of  the 
First  Church  in  New  Haven  ( 1839);  Essays 
on  Slavery  (1846);  Genesis  of  the  New  Eng¬ 
land  Churches  (1874). 

Bacon,  Roger,  an  English  monk,  whose 
marvelous  discoveries  in  several  sciences 
added  much  to  the  then  scanty  knowledge 
of  nature;  b.  in  Somersetshire,  in  1214; 
d.  at  Oxford,  1294.  His  great  knowledge 
and  inventive  genius  aroused  the  jealousy 
and  hate  of  his  brother  monks,  and  he  suf¬ 
fered  persecution  and  imprisonment.  He 
finally  recovered  his  freedom,  and,  after 
his  return  to  Oxford,  wrote  a  compendium 
of  theology.  While  a  devout  Catholic,  he 
lamented  the  corruptions  that  existed  in 
the  Church,  and  earnestly  advocated  the 
study  of  the  Bible  as  the  highest  authority 
in  matters  of  religion, 

Badgers’  Skins  “are  mentioned  in  the 
authorized  version  (e.  g. ,  Exod.  xxvi.  14; 
Ezek.  xvi.  10)  as  one  of  the  coverings  of 
the  tabernacle,  and  as  the  sandals  of  a  fine 
lady;  but  the  word,  from  its  analogy  to 
the  Arabic  for  seal,  is  now  usually  so 
translated.  The  badger  is  very  rare  in 
Arabia,  if,  indeed,  it  be  known.” — Schaff- 
Herzog:  Ency. 

Baillie,  Robert,  D.  D.,  one  of  the  most 
eminent  of  all  the  Scotch  Presbyterian 
clergy  during  the  time  of  the  civil  war; 
b.  at  Glasgow,  in  1599;  d.  there  in  1662.  He 
was  an  active  leader  in  the  ecclesiastical 
controversies  of  the  days  in  which  he 
lived.  He  was  one  of  the  five  Scotch  clergy¬ 
men  chosen  in  1643  as  delegates  to  the 
Westminster  Assembly  of  Divines,  and  sat 
in  that  famous  body  for  three  years.  His 
Letters  and  Journals  are  a  valuable  con¬ 
tribution  to  our  knowledge  of  the  times. 

Baird,  Charles  Washington,  D.  D., 
Presbyterian;  b.  at  Princeton,  N.  J. ,  Aug. 
28,  1828;  was  graduated  at  the  University 
of  the  City  of  New  York,  1848,  and  at  Un¬ 
ion  Theological  Seminary,  1852;  became 
pastor  at  Rye,  N.  Y.,  in  1861,  where  he 
remained  until  his  death,  Feb.  10,  1887. 
His  best-known  work  is  a  History  of  the 
Huguenot  Emigration  to  America  (New 
York,  1885),  2  vols. 

Baird,  Henry  Martyn,  Ph.  D.,  LL.  D. 
(Princeton,  1867,  1882),  D.  D.  (Rutgers, 
1877),  Presbyterian  ;  b.  in  Philadelphia, 
Jan.  17,  1832;  was  graduated  at  the  Univer- 


Bai 


(  78  ) 


Bal 


sity  of  the  City  of  New  York,  1850,  and 
at  Princeton  Theological  Seminary,  1856. 
In  1859  he  became  professor  of  the  Greek 
language  and  literature  in  the  University 
of  the  City  of  New  York.  He  is  the  author 
of  a  History  of  the  Rise  of  the  Huguenots  of 
France  (New  York,  1879),  2  vols.;  The 
Huguenots  and  Henry  of  Navarre  (1886), 
2  vols. 

Baird,  Robert,  D.  D.,  Presbyterian 
(father  of  the  two  preceding);  b.  in  Fayette 
County,  Pa.,  Oct.  6,  1798;  d.  at  Yonkers, 
N.  Y.,  March  15,  1863.  He  studied  at 
the  Theological  Seminary  at  Princeton, 
and  was  ordained  in  1828.  He  was  an  ear¬ 
nest  advocate  of  evangelical  Protestantism 
and  temperance;  and,  after  residing  in 
Europe  from  1835  to  1843,  where  he  labored 
to  carry  the  gospel  into  Roman  Catholic 
countries,  he  became,  on  his  return,  the  cor¬ 
responding  secretary  of  the  Foreign  Evan¬ 
gelical  Society  and  the  American  and  For¬ 
eign  Christian  Union.  He  wrote  a  History 
of  the  Temperance  Societies  in  the  United 
States  ( 1836) ,  and  Religion  in  A ?nerica  ( 1 842), 
which  was  translated  into  several  European 
languages.  See  his  Life ,  by  his  son,  H. 
M.  Baird  (N.  Y.,  1866). 

Bajus  (ba-yus),  the  Latinized  name  of  Mi¬ 
chael  de  Bay,  b.  1513;  d.  at  Louvain.  Sept. 
15,  1589.  He  was  graduated  at  the  Univer¬ 
sity  of  Louvain  in  1550,  and  was  connected 
with  that  institution  during  his  entire  life. 
An  ardent  student  of  St.  Augustine  he  con¬ 
tended  against  the  semi-Pelagian  views 
that  had  become  prevalent  in  the  Roman 
Catholic  Church  during  the  Middle  Ages. 
His  views  upon  the  doctrines  of  sin  and 
grace  brought  him  into  conflict  with  his 
colleagues  in  the  university,  and  the  Fran¬ 
ciscans.  They  were  condemned  by  the 
University  of  Paris  (1560),  and  by  the  Pope 
(1567),  though  without  mentioning  the 
name  of  Bajus.  Having  submitted,  he  was 
honored  with  influential  positions.  His 
Augustinian  views,  and  those  upon  the 
episcopal  authority  and  papal  infallibility, 
were  very  liberal,  and  spread  rapidly 
through  the  Netherlands  and  Northern 
France.  His  theories  laid  the  foundations 
of  Jansenism  ( q .  v.). 

Baker,  Daniel,  b.  at  Midway,  Ga. ,  Aug. 
17,  1791;  d.  at  Austin,  Texas,  Dec.  10, 
1857.  After  graduating  at  the  Theo¬ 
logical  Seminary  at  Princeton  in  1818, 
he  was  pastor  of  a  church  in  Washington 
from  1822  to  1828;  he  then  began  his  re¬ 
markable  career  as  a  revivalistic  preacher. 
He  finally  settled  at  Austin,  Texas,  where 
he  founded  the  college  of  which  he  became 
the  first  president.  A  series  of  his  Revival 


Sermons ,  with  an  introduction  by  his  son, 
has  had  a  wide  circulation. 

Balaam  (devour er)  “  was  a  Jehovah 
prophet  who  lived  in  Pethor,  a  city  of 
Northern  Mesopotamia,  not  far  from  the 
Euphrates.  The  interesting  episode  in  his 
life  is  related  at  length  in  Num.  xxii.  5; 
xxiv.  25;  reference  is  made  to  him  in  Num. 
xxxi.  8,  16;  2  Pet.  ii.  15,  16;  Jude  11;  Rev.  ii. 
14.  The  story  is  briefly  this:  Balak,  king  of 
the  Moabites,  finding  himself  unable  to  op¬ 
pose  Israel  in  battle,  called  upon  Balaam, 
who  had  a  great  reputation  in  the  East  as  a 
sorcerer  and  prophet,  and  who,  withal,  was 
a  worshiper  of  the  God  of  the  Israelites, 
to  curse  them:  thinking  that  the  curse  of 
a  fellow-worshiper  would  be  more  effica¬ 
cious  than  that  of  a  heathen.  On  receiving 
the  invitation,  Balaam  consulted- Jehovah, 
and,  being  refused  permission,  he  declined 
to  go.  A  second  and  more  imposing  depu¬ 
tation  of  Moab  and  Midian,  with  promises 
of  wealth  and  dignity,  excited  the  cupidity 
of  Balaam,  who  again  consulted  Jehovah, 
and  this  time  was  granted  permission  to 
go,  with  the  distinct  understanding  that  he 
was  to  say  the  words,  and  none  other,  that 
Jehovah  put  into  his  mouth.  He  gladly 
went,  dreaming  of  future  glory,  apparently 
not  perceiving  that  the  condition  of  the  di¬ 
vine  permission  rendered  such  dreaming 
vain.  On  the  journey  the  angel  of  Jeho¬ 
vah  opposed  his  path,  and  it  was  then  the 
ass  spake,  showing  herself  to  be  a  more 
willing  servant  of  Jehovah  than  her  mas¬ 
ter.  Balaam  and  Balak  met,  and  the  for¬ 
mer  told  the  king  very  plainly  that  he  had 
no  power  to  say  anything  except  what  God 
put  into  his  mouth.  Balak  was  both  sur¬ 
prised  and  increasingly  indignant  to  hear 
the  famous  prophet,  whom  he  had  been  at 
so  much  pains  to  bring  to  curse  Israel, 
bless  them  in. exalted  and  inspired  words. 
Never  did  the  divine  afflatus  act  so  grandly. 
For  the  first  two  times  Balaam  kept  the 
form  of  the  heathen  auguries;  but  the  last 
time,  perceiving  how  the  divine  mind 
worked,  he  abandoned  incantations  and 
lonely  watchings,  and  yielded  himself  up 
unto  Jehovah,  and  in  a  strain  of  eloquence 
never  excelled,  he  described  the  future  of 
Israel.  Balak  quite  naturally  dismissed 
him  in  anger,  and  the  dishonored,  ruined 
prophet  went  back  to  Pethor,  but,  on  his 
way,  stopped  among  the  Midianites,  and 
out  of  sheer  desperation,  desiring  to  regain 
popularity,  counseled  the  seduction  of 
the  Israelites  unto  the  worship  of  Baal- 
peor  by  means  of  the  Moabite  and  Midian- 
ite  women,  shrewdly  judging  that  idolatry 
would  quickest  destroy  them.  (See  Baal.) 
Thus  Num.  xxiv.  25,  and  xxxi.  8,  are  rec¬ 
onciled.  In  the  war  which  ensued,  Baalam 


Bal 


Bam 


(  79  ) 


was  killed;  and  thus  the  curtain  drops  upon 
a  strange  life,  but  one  of  great  instructive¬ 
ness.  Balaam  is  used  in  the  New  Testa¬ 
ment  as  the  type  of  those  who  love  the 
wages  of  unrighteousness,  and  tempt  unto 
sin.  Very  aptly  Hengstenberg  compares 
him  to  Simon  Magus.  (Acts  viii.  9,  24. )  That 
there  are  difficulties  connected  with  the 
narrative  is  no  reason  for  rejecting  it.  It 
is  too  strange  not  to  be  true,  and  too  fit¬ 
ting  to  the  time  to  be  the  product  of  any 
other  age.  Balaam  was  a  bad  man,  though 
a  true  prophet.  He  had  no  sincere  convic¬ 
tions  of  the  superiority  of  Jehovah.  He 
followed  him  because  it  suited  his  inter¬ 
ests.  Thus  ‘  a  man  may  be  full  of  the 
knowledge  of  God,  and  yet  utterly  desti¬ 
tute  of  the  grace  of  God.’” — Volck  in 
Schaff-Herzog:  Ency .,  vol.  i.,  p.  193. 

Baldacchino,  the  Italian  name  for  a 
canopy,  or  what  used  in  England  to  be 
called  a  “  Cloth  of  Estate,”  such  as  was 
set  over  the  sovereign’s  throne  or  the  seats 
of  dignitaries,  such  as  bishops  and  judges 
and  nobles,  and  their  ladies,  when  keeping 
their  state  in  their  halls  or  at  the  head  of 
their  tables.  It  was  also  carried  in  pro¬ 
cession  over  the  person  to  be  honored, 
as  also  over  the  coffin  at  a  state  funeral; 
and  in  a  similar  manner  it  was  reproduced 
in  the  form  of  a  solid  structure  of  marble 
over  the  tomb. 

But  the  name  baldacchino  has  been  spe¬ 
cially  given  to  the  canopy,  generally  sup¬ 
ported  by  pillars,  but  sometimes  sus¬ 
pended  from  above,  placed  over  the  altar 
in  a  Roman  Catholic  church,  not  so  much 
to  protect  it  as  to  impart  to  it  additional 
grace  and  dignity.  It  is  generally  square 
in  form,  covered  with  silk  or  other  rich 
material,  fringed  at  the  margin.  It  is  sup¬ 
posed  to  be  copied  from  a  structure  erected 
by  the  early  Christians  over  tombs  and 
altars,  and,  from  its  resemblance  to  the 
bowl  of  a  cup,  called  in  Latin,  Ciborium , 
and  in  Greek,  Kiborion.  The  largest  and 
finest  baldacchino  known  is  that  at  St. 
Peter’s,  Rome,  reaching  an  elevation,  in¬ 
cluding  the  cross,  of  126^  feet. — Benham. 

Bale,  John,  b.  at  Cove,  Suffolk,  Nov.  21, 
1495;  d.  at  Canterbury,  Nov.,  1563.  He 
was  educated  at  Cambridge  and  the  Car¬ 
melite  monastery  of  Norwich.  Having 
adopted  Protestant  opinions  about  1530, 
he  was  imprisoned  at  Greenwich,-  under 
charge  of  heresy.  He  gained  protection 
through  Cromwell,  but  after  his  execution 
he  was  compelled  to  flee  into  Holland, 
where  he  remained  until  the  accession  of 
Edward  VI.  He  was  made  Bishop  of  Os- 
sory  in  1552,  but,  at  the  death  of  Edward, 
his  ardent  advocacy  of  the  Reformation 


again  brought  him  under  persecution,  and 
during  Queen  Mary’s  reign  he  found  a 
refuge  at  Basle.  With  the  accession  of 
Elizabeth,  he  returned  to  England,  and 
was  appointed  a  prebend  of  Canterbury, 
where  he  died.  Bale  was  a  learned  man, 
but  fierce,  and  often  coarse,  in  his  contro¬ 
versial  attacks.  His  principal  work  is  II- 
lustrium  Mcijoris  Britannia  Scriptortim 
Summarium  (1548).  He  wrote  a  series 
of  plays,  founded  on  the  life  of  Christ, 
which  were  published  by  the  Camden  So¬ 
ciety  (1838). 

Ball,  John,  b.  near  Woodstock,  in  Ox¬ 
fordshire,  Oct.,  1585;  d.  Oct.  20,  1640. 
Educated  at  Oxford,  he  was  ordained  in 
1610,  and  became  minister  at  Whitmore, 
where  he  spent  his  life.  He  was  a  zealous 
Puritan,  and  one  of  the  founders  of  Pres¬ 
byterianism  in  England.  His  chief  literary 
work,  A  Treatise  of  the  Covenant  of  Grace, 
was  published  after  his  death.  In  this 
book  he  brought  out  the  view  of  the  cove¬ 
nants  which  was  expressed  in  the  West¬ 
minster  Confession. 

Ballou,  Hosea,(i)  b.  at  Richmond,  N.  H. , 
April  30,  1771;  d.  at  Boston,  June  7,  1852. 
The  son  of  a  Baptist  minister,  he  strug¬ 
gled  with  adverse  circumstances  in  secur¬ 
ing  an  education.  He  began  to  preach  in 
1792,  but  very  soon  accepted  Unitarian 
and  Universalist  views,  and  from  1794  to 
1817  advocated  them  in  different  places. 
In  1817  he  accepted  the  pastorate  of  the 
Second  Universalist  Society  at  Boston, 
and  in  1819  founded  the  Universalist  Mag¬ 
azine,  and  in  1831  the  Universalist  Ex¬ 
positor.  He  was  a  prolific  writer  on  the  doc¬ 
trines  held  by  the  denomination  of  which 
he  was  an  influential  leader.  (2)  Hosea 
Ballou,  Jr.,  nephew  of  above;  b.  at  Hali¬ 
fax,  Vt. ,  Oct.  18,  1796;  d.  at  Somerville, 
Mass.,  May  27,  1861.  He  was  engaged  in 
pastoral  service  until  1853,  when  he  be¬ 
came  president  of  Tufts  College,  at  Med¬ 
ford,  Mass.  He  was  the  editor,  for  many 
years,  of  the  Universalist  Expositor  and 
Universalist  Quarterly. 

Balsamon,  Theodore  (d.  1204),  an  ec- 
clesiast,  and  writer  of  the  Greek  Church. 
He  was  librarian  of  the  Cathedral  of  St. 
Sophia,  Constantinople.  His  works  con¬ 
sist  of  Commentaries  on  the  Canon  Law, 
and  oppose  the  claims  of  the  papacy. 

Bambino,  an  Italian  word,  which  means, 
literally,  a  little  boy.  It  is  the  special 
designation  of  a  small  figure  of  the  Holy 
Child  Jesus,  which  is  publicly  exhibited 
in  Roman  Catholic  churches  at  Christmas 
time. 


4 


Bam 


Bap 


(  80  ) 


Bampton  Lectures,  a  series  of  eight 
lectures,  or  sermons,  delivered  annually  at 
Oxford.  They  were  founded  by  John 
Bampton,  Canon  of  Salisbury  (b.  1689;  d. 
1751),  “  to  confirm  and  establish  the  Chris¬ 
tian  faith,  and  to  confute  all  heretics  and 
schismatics.”  The  lectures  began  in  1780. 

Bancroft,  Richard  (1544-1610),  edu¬ 
cated  at  Cambridge;  Bishop  of  London, 
1597;  Archbishop  of  Canterbury,  1604. 
He  was  a  strenuous  advocate  of  the  di¬ 
vine  right  of  episcopal  authority,  and  bit¬ 
terly  opposed  Puritanism.  He  was  one  of 
the  chief  commissioners  on  behalf  of  the 
Church  of  England  in  the  famous  Hamp¬ 
ton  Court  Conference  under  James  I. 

Bangorian  Controversy.  See  Hoadly, 
Bishop  of  Bangor. 

Bangs,  Nathan,  D.  D.,  a  distinguished 
Methodist  preacher  and  writer  ;  b.  at 
Stratford,  Conn.,  May  2,  1778;  d.  in  New 
York  City,  May  3,  1862.  He  was  for 
many  years  at  the  head  of  the  Methodist 
Book  Concern;  editor  of  the  Christian 
Advocate ,  of  the  Methodist  Quarterly  Review, 
and  president  of  the  Wesleyan  University 
(1841).  Few  men  in  his  time  had  greater 
influence  in  the  councils  of  his  denomina¬ 
tion.  He  wrote  a  History  of  the  M.  E. 
Church  fro?n  1776  to  1840  (New  York,  1839 
-1842),  4  vols.  See  his  Life  by  Abel 
Stevens  (New  York,  1863). 

Banns,  the  public  notice  in  church  of  a 
marriage  to  be  contracted.  This  custom 
is  traced  back,  in  England  and  France,  to 
the  twelfth  and  thirteenth  centuries.  It 
seems  to  have  been  of  very  early  origin, 
as  it  is  frequently  mentioned  by  Tertul- 
lian.  Banns  are  not  published  in  the 
United  States,  except  in  Roman  Catholic 
churches. 

Baptism  <(Pedobaptist  View),  one  of 
the  two  Sacraments  ordained  by  Christ, 
and  that  rite  whereby  admission  is  given 
to  Christianity. 

(1)  Origin. — It  is,  though  not  demon¬ 
strably  certain,  very  highly  probable  that 
the  admission  to  Judaism,  by  baptism,  of 
Proselytes  of  Righteousness  (the  highest 
class  of  proselytes),  which  certainly  existed 
after  our  Lord’s  time,  existed  during  and 
before  his  time  and  that  of  John  the 
Baptist.  Dr.  John  Lightfoot  (on  Matt,  iii.) 
and  Prideaux  assume  it  at  once;  and  it  is 
urged  that,  if  it  is  not  free  from  doubt,  a 
very  strong  argument  may  be  founded  on 
the  way  in  which  the  subject  is  handled  in 
the  earlier  chapters  of  St.  Matthew  and  St. 
Luke,  as  if  the  idea  of  baptism  was  per¬ 


fectly  familiar  to  the  Jews;  and  it  agrees 
with  analogy  that  the  rite  should  be  found¬ 
ed  on,  and  developed  out  of,  one  already 
known.  References  to  authorities  may  be 
found  in  Smith’s  Dictionary  of  Christian 
Antiquities ,  under  “Baptism,”  1. ,  170.  This 
proselyte  baptism  was  by  immersion  of 
the  whole  body  in  water,  and  its  deriva¬ 
tive,  that  of  John,  would  probably  be  so, 
also:  “They  were  baptized  of  him  in 
Jordan.”  (Matt.  iii.  6.)  Our  Lord  also 
came  up  “  out  of  the  water.” 

'  Thus,  then,  John’s  baptism  prepared  the 
way  for  that  of  the  Greater  than  he,  who 
was  to  come  after  him,  and  even  this 
Greater,  “  to  fulfill  all  righteousness,” 
deigned  to  receive  it  at  his  hands.  The 
disciples  of  our  Lord  also  baptized,  but  it 
was  not  with  full  Christian  baptism,  for 
that,  in  the  name  of  the  Holy  Trinity,  was 
not  instituted  by  Him  till  just  before  His 
ascension.  (Matt,  xxviii.  19.)  Probably 
their  baptism,  like  John’s,  was  a  baptism 
merely  of  repentance. 

(2)  Progress. — The  full  form  of  baptism, 
instituted  by  the  glorified  Savior,  became 
instantly  the  only  authorized  form,  and  all 
seeming  exceptions  in  the  New  Testament 
can  be  shown  to  be  not  really  such, 
chiefly  by  these  considerations:  That  the 
phrase  “in  the  Name  of  Jesus  Christ” 
(Acts  ii.  38  ;  viii.  16  ;  xix.  4),  follows  in¬ 
stantly  on  a  mention  of  the  preaching  of 
that  Name,  so  that  it  is  most  natural  that 
the  speaker  or  narrator  (not  speaking,  as 
no  early  writer  in  such  cases  speaks,  with 
strict  theological  accuracy)  should  con¬ 
tinue  the  use  of  the  same  form  of  lan¬ 
guage;  also,  that  the  preposition  answering 
to  the  English  “  in  ”  is  not  always  the 
same;  also,  that  in  no  case  is  the  expres¬ 
sion  strictly  “  in  the  Name  of  the  Son.” 
Some  very  few  real  exceptions  there  after¬ 
ward  were,  but  formal  decisions  were  al¬ 
ways  in  favor  of  the  orthodox  way. 

Adult  baptism,  in  the  first  days  of  Chris¬ 
tianity,  was,  of  course,  the  rule,  and  in¬ 
fant  baptism  only  know  n  when  whole 
households  were  converted  at  once.  Of 
this,  instances  can  be  given  where  children 
can  hardly  have  failed  to  make  part;  and 
that  infant  baptism  was  our  Lord’s  inten¬ 
tion,  the  two  texts,  Mark  x.  14  and  John 
iii.  5,  when  taken  together,  are,  in  the 
opinion  of  the  great  majority  of  Christians, 
enough  to  show.  As  Christianity  grew, 
and  children  were  born  of  Christian  par¬ 
ents,  these  were,  in  many  cases,  baptized 
in  their  infancy  (Iren.:  Agt.  Heresies ,  11.  39; 
Tert.:  De  Bapt . ,  18;  Iren.:  Ho?n.  on  St. 
Luke ,  14);  but  not  in  all,  for  an  exaggerated 
opinion  of  sin  after  baptism,  and  probably, 
in  some  cases,  even  the  mere  fact  that  the 
parents  themselves  had  been  baptized  as 


Bap 


Bap 


(  81  ) 


adults,  led  often  to  the  deferring  of  bap¬ 
tism,  as  in  the  cases  of  St.  Augustine  and 
the  Emperor  Constantine.  About  the  fifth 
and  sixth  centuries  infant  baptism  became 
the  rule,  and  has  so  remained  ever  since; 
but  there  have  always  been  bodies  of 
Christians,  larger  or  smaller,  who  have 
denied  the  necessity  of  infant  baptism,  and, 
as  is  well  known,  such  exist  at  the  present 
time.  (Baptists.) 

(3)  Matter,  Mode,  and  Manner.  —  The 
essentials  of  baptism  are:  first,  water,  and, 
secondly,  the  recitation  of  the  formula, 
“  In  the  Name  of  the  Father,  of  the  Son, 
and  of  the  Holy  Ghost;”  and  it  is,  of 
course,  further  necessary  that  the  water 
should  actually  touch  the  person  of  him 
who  is  to  be  baptized,  but  the  quantity  of 
water  which  obtains  this  contact  is  not  es¬ 
sential;  and,  therefore,  three  ways  of  ad¬ 
ministering  baptism, all  equally  valid,  have 
existed,  corresponding  to  the  three  ways 
in  which  this  necessary  contact  may  be 
procured.  These  are:  dipping  in  the  water 
(Immersion),  pouring  the  water  on  (Affu¬ 
sion),  sprinkling  the  water  (Aspersion). 
Immersion  was,  there  is  no  doubt,  the  first 
rule  of  the  Church.  All  early  descriptions 
of  baptism,  as  Tertullian’s  De  Baptismo , 
use  such  words  as  going  down,  and  plung¬ 
ing  in  the  water;  but,  at  the  same  time,  it 
is  also  clear  that  Affusion  was  known,  and 
used  where  necessary,  as  where  the  Philip¬ 
pian  jailer  was  baptized,  “he  and  all  his 
straightway,”  in  the  middle  of  the  night, 
St.  Paul  being  still  a  prisoner,  and  cer- 
"inly  not  able  to  take  them  out  to  the 
River  Gangites.  In  the  Western  Church, 
however,  Affusion  gradually  took  the  place 
of  Immersion,  and  as  early  as  the  thir¬ 
teenth  century  had  become  the  custom 
which  it  now  is,  taking  the  form  of  Asper¬ 
sion. —  Benham  :  Diet,  of  Religion.  See, 
for  full  presentation  of  the  Pedobaptist 
view,  James  W.  Dale :  Classic,  Judaic , 
Johannic,  Christie,  and  Patristic  Baptism 
(Phila.,  1874),  4  vols. ;  G.  D.  Armstrong: 
The  Sacraments  of  the  New  Testament  (New 
York,  1880). 

Baptism  (The  Baptist  View).  See 
Baptists. 

Baptism  for  the  Dead.  See  Dead, 
Baptism  for  the. 

Baptism  with  the  Holy  Ghost  and  Fire, 
a  figurative  expression  used  in  Matt.  iii. 
11 ;  Luke  iii.  16,  and  fulfilled  on  the  day  of 
Pentecost,  and  often  in  the  history  of  the 
Church. 

Baptistery,  the  building  set  apart  in 
or  near  a  church  for  the  administration  of 


baptism.  They  came  into  use  during  the 
fourth  century.  It  was  the  custom  to  ad¬ 
minister  baptism  three  times  a  year,  at 
Epiphany,  Easter,  and  Whitsuntide,  and 
as  the  number  of  candidates  was  large, 
and  as  the  presence  of  the  bishop  was  re¬ 
quired  to  confirm  the  baptism  and  the  bap¬ 
tized,  the  baptisteries  were  generally  an¬ 
nexed  to  cathedral  churches.  They  were 
circular,  or  six  or  eight  sided,  with  a  large 
reservoir  in  the  centre,  reached  by  three 
steps,  and  having  depth  sufficient  f®r  im¬ 
mersion  by  kneeling  or  stooping.  The 
dome  covering  the  reservoir  was  support¬ 
ed  on  columns  of  marble,  and  was  deco¬ 
rated  with  paintings  illustrating  the  rite  of 
baptism  and  other  Gospel  subjects.  When 
infant  baptism  became  the  rule,  the  sacra¬ 
ment  was  administered  in  all  the  churches 
throughout  the  year.  No  baptisteries  were 
built  after  the  ninth  century,  and  the  bap¬ 
tismal  basin  was  changed  into  the  baptis¬ 
mal  font. 

Baptists,  The,  claim  that  their  distinct¬ 
ive  principles  and  practices  date  back  to 
the  Apostolic  times,  and  have  existed  ever 
since,  although  sometimes  in  separate 
churches  bearing  other  names;  and  that 
some  of  those  principles  and  practices 
found  a  home  in  the  Latin  and  Greek 
churches  for  thirteen  centuries,  the  Greek 
Church  retaining  them  down  to  this  day,  as 
her  70,000,000  of  communicants  have  all 
been  immersed,  and  the  Latin  Church  hav¬ 
ing  dipped  its  members  for  thirteen  hun¬ 
dred  years.  The  Montanists  of  the  third 
century  had  no  controversy  with  the  Cath¬ 
olics  on  the  subject  of  immersion,  for  they 
practiced  that  ordinance  in  common.  Ter- 
tullian,  the  great  Montanist  leader,  taught 
that:  “  There  is  no  difference  whether  one 
is  washed  in  the  sea  or  in  a  pool,  in  a  river  or 
in  a  fountain,  in  a  lake  or  in  a  canal;  nor  is 
there  any  difference  between  those  whom 
John  dipped  in  the  Jordan,  and  those  whom 
Peter  dipped  in  the  Tiber.”  The  prime 
idea  of  the  Montanists  was  that  of  the  Bap¬ 
tists,  namely:  that  the  churches  -should 
consist  of  purely  regenerate  persons  only, 
and  they  were  called  “Anabaptists,”  not 
because  they  rebaptized  those  who  had 
been  christened  in  infancy,  for  infant  bap¬ 
tism  was  not  known  at  that  time,  but  be¬ 
cause  they  insisted  on  the  reimmersion 
of  those  who  had  “  lapsed  ’’from  the  faith 
in  persecution,  but  had  returned  to  the 
faith. 

The  Novatians  of  the  same  century  were 
called  “  Anabaptists  ”  because  they  held 
that  the  Catholics  were  corrupt,  and  hence 
they  not  only  reimmersed  the  “lapsed,’* 
but  also  all  who  came  to  them  from  the 
Catholics.  Various  other  sects  of  the 


Bap 


(82) 


Bap 


following  centuries  held  what  are  now 
peculiarly  Baptist  principles,  and  the 
Christian  world  erected  baptisteries  every¬ 
where,  on  a  similar  scale  to  that  at  Pisa, 
in  which  the  members  of  the  churches 
were  uniformly  plunged,  for  immersion 
was  the  general  custom.  The  Cathari  (or 
pure)  of  the  eleventh  and  two  following 
centuries,  were  not  Baptists  in  all  things, 
but  they  were  distinctly  so  in  many  things, 
especially  the  Petrobrusians  and  a  large 
class  of  the  Waldensians.  Peter  of  Bruis 
rejected  the  baptism  of  immersed  infants, 
and  insisted  on  the  immersion  only  of  be¬ 
lievers,  as  early  as  1104,  and  the  followers 
of  Henry,  his  disciple,  were  organized  into 
what  would  now  pass  for  Baptist  churches, 
all  through  the  Swiss  valleys.  These 
spread  in  every  direction,  in  Northern 
France,  and  in  Switzerland,  and  in  Italy, 
with  Upper  and  Lower  Germany  and  Hol¬ 
land.  The  Swiss,  the  Bohemian,  and  the 
Netherland  Baptists  became  very  strong, 
and  suffered  severely,  furnishing  several 
hundred  thousand  martyrs. 

The  great  body  of  men,  on  both  sides, 
who  entered  into  the  Peasants’  War,  were 
Catholics  and  Lutherans,  but  some  few 
were  Baptists.  The  disgraceful  scenes  of 
Munster  were  perpetrated  by  but  few  Bap¬ 
tists,  until  Rothmann,  a  powerful  Lutheran 
pastor  of  Munster,  in  1532,  avowed  him¬ 
self  an  “  Anabaptist.”  From  that  time  on, 
one  vagary  after  another  converted  this 
mingled  mass  of  madmen  into  the  most 
furious  rabble,  but  Dr.  Keller,  the  present 
librarian  of  Munster,  has  largely  redeemed 
the  honest  Baptists  of  that  day  from  the 
disgraceful  aspersions  cast  upon  them,  in 
his  recent  remarkable  publications.  No 
one  now  living  has  pushed  his  investiga¬ 
tions  so  far  on  this  subject,  or  with  such 
honorable  results.  There  is  much  evidence 
that  the  Baptists  of  England  and  Wales  date 
back  to  very  early  times.  Collier  speaks 
of  many  infants  who  were  left  unbaptized 
in  the  middle  of  the  twelfth  century;  Rob¬ 
inson  speaks  of  a  Baptist  church  at  Ches¬ 
terton  in  1459,  and  Fox  records  the  burning 
of  nineteen  “  Anabaptists  ”  in  England,  in 
1535.  But  the  earliest  reliable  account 
that  we  have  of  an  organized  Baptist 
church  there,  is  one  in  London,  1612-14, 
and  from  that  time  onward  their  church- 
history  in  Great  Britain  is  clearly  traceable, 
and  after  1641  very  full. 

The  growth  of  Baptists  in  America  has 
been  remarkable,  since  the  days  of  Roger 
Williams  ( q .  v. ),  the  founder  of  Rhode  Isl¬ 
and.  Williams  took  his  Bachelor’s  degree 
at  Oxford,  in  1627,  and  was  ordained  in  the 
Church  of  England  by  John  Williams,  then 
Bishop  of  Lincoln,  and  afterward  Archbish¬ 
op  of  York.  Laud  soon  drove  Roger  out 


of  the  country,  and  in  1631  he  landed  in 
Boston,  Mass.,  where  he  discarded  Epis¬ 
copacy  and  became  a  Separatist.  He  then 
settled  in  Salem,  where  he  embraced  the 
views  of  Baptists,  in  rejecting  all  union 
between  the  Church  and  the  State,  for 
which  views  he  was  banished  from  the  col¬ 
ony.  He  soon  established  the  city  of 
Providence,  and,  in  the  spring  of  1639,  Eze¬ 
kiel  Holliman,  who  had  been  a  member  of 
his  church  in  Salem,  immersed  him.  Will¬ 
iams  had  been  ordained  first  as  an  Episco¬ 
pal  and  then  as  a  Congregational  minis¬ 
ter,  and  after  this  he  immersed  Holliman 
and  ten  others.  These  twelve  formed  the 
first  Baptist  church  in  America,  where 
their  churches  now  have  over  3,000,000  of 
communicants. 

The  great  body  of  these  churches  are 
Calvinistic,  in  a  higher  or  lower  degree, 
and  hold  the  general  views  of  evangelical 
denominations.  Yet  the  features  which 
distinguish  them  from  their  Pedobaptist 
brethren  are  radical,  reaching  to  the  foun¬ 
dations  of  church  life.  Their  primary 
teaching  is,  that  the  Holy  Scriptures  form 
the  only  absolute  standard  of  faith;  there¬ 
fore  that  no  merely  ecclesiastical  custom 
or  tradition  is  of  any  authority  over  the 
conscience.  They  deny  all  controlling  au¬ 
thority  to  the  creeds,  the  catechisms,  and 
the  decretals  of  churches.  Before  any  per¬ 
son  can  be  baptized  into  the  fellowship  of 
a  Baptist  church,  regeneration  must  be 
wrought  on  the  soul  by  the  direct  power  of 
the  Holy  Spirit.  That  is  to  say,  the  Spir^ 
of  God  must  make  the  candidate  a  fit  sub¬ 
ject  for  baptism  before  that  ordinance  can 
be  administered,  because  the  church  must 
be  made  up  only  of  persons  wrho  profess 
conversion  according  to  the  teaching  of 
Christ:  “  Except  a  man  be  born  again,  he 
cannot  see  the  kingdom  of  God.”  They 
repudiate  the  doctrine  of  baptismal  regen¬ 
eration  in  every' form,  by  refusing  baptism 
to  all  who  are  not  already  regenerated,  and 
by  demanding  regeneration  as  the  prime 
qualification  for  baptism.  This  is  the  rea¬ 
son  why  they  reject  infant  baptism.  It  sa¬ 
vors  of  baptismal  regeneration,  while  it  is 
powerless  to  work  any  spiritual  change  in 
the  child,  and  hence  it  is  a  meaningless 
ceremony,  the  Scriptures  being  silent  on 
the  subject.  They  hold  that  our  Lord  in 
his  commission  (Matt,  xxviii.  19,  20)  asso¬ 
ciated  teaching  with  baptism,  and  limited 
the  rite' to  the  taught  (Acts  ii.  41;  viii.  12), 
as  is  shown  by  the  practice  of  the  Apostles. 

The  Baptists  also  believe  that  the  burial 
of  the  believer’s  body  in  water  constitutes 
the  act  of  baptism,  as  Paul  teaches  in  the 
sixth  chapter  of  the  Epistle  to  the  Romans, 
where  he  insists  on  “  burial  in  baptism,” 
so  that  the  subject  is  hidden,  covered  in 


Bap 


Bap 


(83) 


water,  as  a  dead  man  is  concealed  in  a 
grave.  They  also  restrict  themselves  to 
the  literal  and  metaphorical  meaning  of  the 
Greek  word  baptizein ,  denying  that  it  ever 
means  to  pour  or  sprinkle,  and  so  declar¬ 
ing  that,  in  consequence,  immersion  only  is 
baptism. 

The  entire  independency  of  individual 
churches  is  another  principle  of  the  Bap¬ 
tists,  which  they  sacredly  conserve.  Each 
church  elects  its  own  pastor  and  deacons, 
and  administers  all  its  internal  affairs,  in 
complete  independence  of  other  churches. 
All  its  members  have  the  right  to  vote  in 
the  primary  assembly,  and  the  decision  of 
the  majority  is  final,  as  in  other  popular  or 
democratic  franchises.  The  churches  form 
Associations  and  call  Councils,  but  these 
-  bodies  are  of  a  purely  fraternal  and  mis¬ 
sionary  character.  They  may  give  advice 
when  the  churches  askfor  it,  but  they  have 
no  authority  whatever  over  the  churches, 
in  any  respect. 

Absolute  soul  liberty,  or  freedom  of  con¬ 
science  has  always  been  demanded  and 
maintained  by  the  Baptists.  Consequently, 
in  the  Providence  Plantations  the  first  pro¬ 
vision  which  was  made,  was,  that  the  mag¬ 
istrates  should  interfere  “  only  in  civil 
things .”  Every  man  should  have  “  full  lib¬ 
erty  in  religious  concernments.”  The  Bap¬ 
tists  believe  that  civil  liberty  is  of  God’s 
appointment,  and  that  the  government  must 
be  sustained  in  the  maintenance  of  all  civil 
rights.  But  they  deny  that  the  magistrate 
has  any  power  whatever  to  interfere  in  re¬ 
ligious  matters;  these  concern  the  relations 
between  God  and  the  individual,  and  no 
other  power  must  intermeddle  in  the  slight¬ 
est  degree.  For  insisting  upon  this  right, 
the  Baptists  were  whipped,  imprisoned, 
fined,  and  banished,  by  the  Congregation- 
alists  of  New  England  and  the  Episcopa¬ 
lians  in  Virginia,  in  colonial  times,  princi¬ 
pally;  but  they  finally  succeeded  in  shaking 
off  the  yoke,  and  in  establishing  the  individ¬ 
ual  right  to  worship  God  under  the  dic¬ 
tates  of  conscience  only.  When  the  United 
States  had  secured  their  independence,  the 
new  Constitution  provided  (Art.  VI.)  that 
Congress  should  not  impose  religious  tests 
on  those  who  held  “  office  or  public  trusts 
under  the  United  States,”  but  left  it  at  lib¬ 
erty  to  impose  such  tests  in  other  cases. 
This  alarmed  the  Baptists,,  who  to  a  man 
had  supported  the  Revolution,  and  they 
called  a  Convention,  in  Richmond,  Va. ,  to 
protest.  This  body  met  on  Aug.  8,  1798, 
and  sent  a  powerful  address  to  President 
Washington  on  the  subject.  He  thanked 
them  for  their  thorough  patriotism,  and 
Madison,  with  the  approval  of  Washington, 
moved,  in  Congress,  that  the  Constitution 
be  so  amended  as  to  provide  that  “  Con¬ 


gress  shall  make  no  law  respecting  an  es¬ 
tablishment  of  religion,  or  prohibiting  the 
free  exercise  thereof.”  This  change  was 
adopted  by  the  States  and  is  a  part  of  Art. 
I.  in  our  Constitution,  and  no  Baptist  is 
now  persecuted  in  the  United  States. 

American  Baptists  have  taken  a  leading 
part  in  the  great  modern  movement  for 
Foreign  Missions.  As  early  as  May,  1814, 
the  Denomination  formed  the  Baptist  Mis¬ 
sionary  Convention,  now  the  Missionary 
Union.  It  has  under  its  care,  in  Europe, 
Asia,  and  Africa,  279  missionaries,  2,079 
native  preachers,  1,316  churches,  and  134,- 
413  members.  In  1889  its  treasurer  re¬ 
ported  that  the  Union  had  expended  for 
missions  during  the  year,  $398,145.86. 
The  Southern  Baptist  Convention  also  has 
missionaries  in  China,  Africa,  Brazil,  Mex¬ 
ico,  Cuba,  and  Italy,  who  are  doing  a  great 
work,  and  the  Canadian  Baptists  are  alive 
to  the  same  holy  toil. 

All  kinds  of  educational  interests  are 
fostered  by  the  American  Baptists.  In  the 
United  States,  they  have  seven  Theolog¬ 
ical  Seminaries,  thirty-four  Universities 
and  Colleges,  besides  thirty-two  Semi¬ 
naries  for  female  education  exclusively, 
forty  -  two  academies  for  co-education, 
and  seventeen  institutions  for  the  colored 
race  and  Indians.  The  Canadian  Baptists 
have  three  colleges,  one  theological  sem¬ 
inary,  and  several  academies.  The  de¬ 
nomination  is  increasing  at  a  rapid  rate  in 
the  Republic. 

Authorities  in  Baptist  History  are  found 
in  [the  best  and  most  comprehensive  work 
is  Armitage’s  History  of  the  Baptists ,  New 
York,  1887. — Editor.]  Van  Bracht:  Thea- 
trum  Marty  rum  ;  Corvinus  de  Miserabili 
Monasteriensum  A  nabaptistarum  Obsidione; 
Van  Dale:  Historia  Baptismorum ;  Ottii: 
Annales  Anabaptistica  ;  Racine:  Source  et 
fondement  des  Anab.;  Burrage:  Anabaptists 
of  Switzerland ;  Backus:  History  of  New 
England  Baptists;  Benedict:  History  of 
Baptists  in  America;  Bogne  and  Bennet: 
History  of  Dissenters;  Crosby:  History  of 
English  Baptists;  J.  Davis:  History  of 
Welsh  Baptists;  Duncan:  History  of  the 
Early  Baptists;  Ivimey:  History  of  the 
English  Baptists;  Jones:  Church  History; 
Mann  :  Lectures  on  Non-conformity ; 

Murch:  History  of  Baptists  hi  England; 
Orchard:  History  of  Foreign  Baptists;  Rip- 
pon:  Baptist  Annual  Register;  Thomas: 
History  of  the  Welsh  Baptists;  Underhill: 
Martyrology  ;  Cramp  :  Baptist  History  ; 
Douglas:  History  of  the  Baptist  Churches  ; 
Cathcart:  Baptist  Encyclopedia;  and  Robin- 
son:  Researches.  Thos.  Armitage. 

Baptists,  Various  Bodies  of.  See  Free- 
Will  Baptists;  Separatists  or  Free- 


Bar 


(84) 


Bar 


Communion  Baptists;  Anti-Mission  Bap¬ 
tists;  Seventh-Day  Baptists;  Six-Prin¬ 
ciple  Baptists;  Tunkers,  The;  Wine- 

BRENNIANS;  DlSCIPLES  J  GENERAL  BAP¬ 
TISTS. 

Barbara,  St.,  suffered  martyrdom  under 
Maximus  (306).  After  her  conversion  she 
sought  to  convert  her  father,  but  he  repu¬ 
diated  her;  and,  having  been  put  to  the 
torture  and  still  refusing  to  deny  Christ, 
she  was  sentenced  to  death,  and  decapitated 
by  the  hands  of  her  father.  Scarcely  was 
the  deed  done  when  he  was  struck  by 
lightning.  Hence,  St.  Barbara  is  to  this 
day  prayed  to  in  storms.  Her  day  falls  on 
Dec.  4. 

Barclay,  Robert,  a  distinguished  mem¬ 
ber  of  the  Society  of  Friends;  b.  at  Gor- 
donstown,  Scotland,  Dec.  23,  1648;  d.  at 
Ury,  Oct.  3,  1690.  After  completing  his 
education  in  Paris,  he  returned  to  Scot¬ 
land,  and,  following  the  example  of  his 
father,  Colonel  Barclay,  of  Ury,  he  united 
with  the  Society  of  Friends.  With  great 
earnestness  of  purpose  he  devoted  his 
time  and  strength  to  disseminating  the 
doctrines  of  the  Friends,  in  the  face  of 
persecution  and  frequent  imprisonment. 
His  most  important  work  was  An  Apology 
for  the  True  Christian  Divinity ,  in  which 
a  systematic  presentation  is  made  of  the 
spiritual  mysticism  upon  which  the  views 
of  the  Friends  are  based. 

Bar-cocheba  [son  of  the  star),  a  famous 
Jewish  leader  in  an  insurrection  against 
the  Emperor  Hadrian  (a.  d.  131-135).  He 
assumed  the  name  of  Bar-cocheba,  because 
of  his  assertion  that  the  ancient  Jewish 
prophecy  was  to  be  fulfilled  in  him,  “There 
shall  come  a  star  out  of  Jacob.”  (Num. 
xxiv.  17.)  He  gathered  many  followers, 
defeated  the  Roman  general,  and  took  Je¬ 
rusalem.  He  was  proclaimed  king  of  Je¬ 
rusalem,  and  coins  were  struck  in  his 
honor:  but  he  was  at  last  defeated  by 
Julius  Severus,  who  cruelly  massacred 
many  rabbis  who  were  accused  of  incit¬ 
ing  the  rebellion  (135).  The  final  disper¬ 
sion  of  the  Jews  dates  from  this  peri¬ 
od.  Bar-cocheba,  it  is  said,  put  to  death 
all  Christians  who  would  not  join  his 
army. 

Bardesanes,  a  celebrated  Gnostic,  who 
flourished  during  the  reign  of  Marcus  Au¬ 
relius.  He  was  a  professing  Christian, 
notwithstanding  his  peculiar  views.  He 
held  that  evil  arises  from  matter,  and  that 
the  body  of  Christ  was  only  phenomenal, 
not  real.  He  wrote  many  hymns,  frag¬ 
ments  of  which  are  still  extant. 


Barefooted  Monks  and  Nuns.  See  Dis- 

CALCEATI. 

Barlaam  (d.  1348),  Abbot  of  St.  Salvador, 
Constantinople  (1327).  While  connected 
with  the  Greek  Church,  he  instigated  a 
violent  attack  upon  the  Hesychast,  or 
Quietist,  party  among  the  monks  of  Mount 
Athos,  charging  them  with  heresy.  They 
made  so  able  a  defense  that  Barlaam  left 
the  city  and  fled  to  Rome.  Here  he  joined 
the  Roman  Church,  and  wrote  as  bitterly 
against  the  Greek  Church  as  he  had  for¬ 
merly  against  the  Latin. 

Barlaamites,  so  named  from  Barlaam. 
They  were  the  opponents  of  the  fanatical 
Hesychasts,  or  Quietists,  of  that  age. 

Bar'nabas,  “  a  name  signifying  son  of 
prophecy,  or  exhortation  (or,  but  not  so  prob¬ 
ably,  consolation,  as  A.  V.),  given  by  the 
apostles  (Acts  iv.  36)  to  Joseph  (or  Joses), 
a  Levite  of  the  island  of  Cyprus,  who  was 
only  a  disciple  of  Christ.  In  Acts  ix.  27, 
we  find  him  introducing  the  newly  con¬ 
verted  Saul  to  the  apostles  at  Jerusalem, 
in  a  way  which  seems  to  imply  previous 
acquaintance  between  the  two.  On  tidings 
coming  to  the  church  at  Jerusalem  that 
men  of  Cyprus  and  Cyrene  had  been 
preaching  to  Gentiles  at  Antioch,  Barna¬ 
bas  was  sent  thither  (Acts  xi.  19-26),  and 
went  to  Tarsus  to  seek  Saul,  as  one  spe¬ 
cially  raised  up  to  preach  to  the  Gentiles. 
(Acts  xxvi.  17.)  Having  brought  Saul  to 
Antioch,  he  was  sent  with  him  to  Jerusa¬ 
lem,  with  relief  for  the  brethren  in  Judaea. 
(Acts  xi.  30.)  On  their  return  to  Antioch 
they  (Acts  xiii.  2)  were  ordained  by  the 
Church  for  the  missionary  work,  and  sent 
forth  (a.  d.  45).  From  this  time  Barnabas 
and  Paul  enjoy  the  title  and  dignity  of 
apostles.  Their  first  missionary  journey 
is  related  in  Acts  xiii. ;  xiv. :  it  was  confined 
to  Cyprus  and  Asia  Minor.  Some  time 
after  their  return  to  Antioch  (a.  d.  47  or 
48),  they  were  sent  (a.  d.  50),  with  some 
others,  to  Jerusalem,  to  determine  with 
the  apostles  and  elders  the  difficult  ques¬ 
tion  respecting  the  necessity  of  circum¬ 
cision  for  the  Gentile  converts.  (Acts  xv.  1 
ff. )  On  that  occasion  Paul  and  Barnabas 
were  recognized  as  the  apostles  of  the  un¬ 
circumcision.  After  another  stay  in  Anti¬ 
och,  on  their  return,  a  variance  took  place 
between  Barnabas  and  Paul  on  the  ques¬ 
tion  of  taking  with  them,  on  a  second  mis¬ 
sionary  journey,  John  Mark,  sister’s  son 
to  Barnabas.  (Acts  xv.  36  ff.)  ‘  The  con¬ 
tention  was  so  sharp  that  they  parted 
asunder,’  and  Barnabas  took  Mark,  and 
sailed  to  Cyprus,  his  native  island.  Here 
the  Scripture  notices  of  him  cease.  As  to 


Bar 


(  85  ) 


Bar 


his  further  labors  and  death,  traditions 
differ.  Some  say  he  went  to  Milan,  and 
became  first  bishop  of  the  church  there. 
There  is  extant  an  apocryphal  work,  prob¬ 
ably  of  the  fifth  century,  Acta  et  Passio 
Barnabce  in  Cypro;  and  a  still  later  enco¬ 
mium  of  Barnabas,  by  a  Cyprian  monk, 
Alexander.  We  have  an  Epistle  in  twenty- 
one  chapters  called  by  the  name  of  Barna¬ 
bas.  Its  authenticity  has  been  defended 
by  some  great  writers;  but  it  is  very  gen¬ 
erally  given  up  now,  and  the  Epistle  is  be¬ 
lieved  to  have  been  written  early  in  the 
second  century.” — Smith:  Diet,  of  the  Bible. 

Barnabas,  Epistle  of.  See  above. 

Barnabites,  a  religious  order  founded 
for  charitable  purposes  at  Milan,  in  1530. 
Its  first  name  was  the  Regular  Clerks  of 
St.  Paul,  but  they  were  afterward  called 
Barnabites,  because  they  assembled  in  the 
Church  of  St.  Barnabas.  To  the  ordinary 
monastic  vows  of  poverty,  chastity,  and 
obedience,  this  orde.'  added  a  fourth — 
never  to  seek  any  kind  of  ecclesiastical 
preferment.  During  the  lifetime  of  its 
founders,  the  order  was  confined  to  Milan, 
but  it  eventually  spread  into  Italy,  Ger¬ 
many,  and  France.  They  have  now  about 
twenty  houses  on  the  Continent. 

Barnes,  Albert,  Presbyterian  ;  b.  at 
Rome,  N.  Y.,  Dec.  1,  1798  ;  d.  in  Phila¬ 
delphia,  Pa.,  Dec.  24,  1870.  Graduating 
at  Hamilton  College  in  1820,  and  at  the 
Princeton  Theological  Seminary  in  1824, 
he  became  pastor  of  the  Presbyterian 
Church  at  Morristown,  N.  J.,  in  1825.  He 
remained  here  until  called  to  the  First 
Presbyterian  Church  in  Philadelphia,  in 
1830,  where  he  labored  until  1867,  when  he 
resigned,  and  was  elected  pastor  emeritus. 
Unremitting  in  his  pastoral  and  pulpit 
duties,  he  found  time  for  study  and  re¬ 
search  that  bore  fruit  in  a  series  of  com¬ 
mentaries  upon  the  entire  New  Testament, 
of  which  more  than  a  million  copies  have 
been  sold.  His  advocacy  of  the  teachings 
of  the  New  School  branch  of  the  Presby¬ 
terian  Church,  especially  the  doctrine  of 
unlimited  atonement ,  made  him  prominent 
in  the  discussions  that  led  to  a  division  in 
the  denomination,  which  he  was,  happily, 
permitted  to  see  healed  before  his  death. 

Barrow,  Isaac,  an  eminent  English  math¬ 
ematician  and  theologian;  b.  in  London, 
1630;  d.  there,  May  4,  1677.  A  graduate 
of  Cambridge  University,  he  was  ap¬ 
pointed  professor  of  mathematics  in  1663, 
but  resigned  in  1669,  in  favor  of  his  pupil, 
the  celebrated  Newton.  He  was  appointed 
master  of  Trinity  College,  Cambridge,  in 


1672,  and  in  1675  he  became  vice-chancellor 
of  the  university.  His  fame  rests  upon 
his  sermons,  “which  are  very  remarkable 
as  specimens  of  clear,  exhaustive,  and 
vigorous  discussion.”  The  best  edition 
of  his  works  was  published  at  Cambridge, 
(1859),  9  vols.  His  biography,  by  Dr. 
Whewell,  is  in  vol.  ix. 

Barrowe,  Henry,  was  of  a  good  family, 
and  gained  admittance  to  the  bar  in  1576. 
He  was  converted,  and  met  John  Green¬ 
wood,  with  whom  he  became  interested  in 
church  reform.  He  visited  Greenwood  in 
prison,  and  was  himself  arrested,  and,  after 
several  examinations,  confined  the  remain¬ 
der  of  his  life  in  the  Fleet  Prison.  In 
connection  with  Greenwood,  he  wrote  sev¬ 
eral  books  and  tracts.  The  most  impor¬ 
tant  work  from  his  own  pen  was  entitled,  A 
Brief  Discovery  of  the  False  Church  (Lon¬ 
don,  1590).  With  Greenwood,  he  stood 
trial  at  the  Old  Bailey,  March  23,  1593. 
They  were  condemned,  and  suffered  a 
martyr’s  death,  by  hanging,  April  6,  1593. 
See  H.  M.  Dexter:  Congregationalis?n  as 
Seen  in  its  Literature  (N.  Y. ,  1880),  pp. 
211-245. 

Barth,  Christian  Gottlob,  b.  in  Stutt¬ 
gart,  July  31,  1799;  d.  at  Calw,  Nov.  12, 
1862.  From  1817-21  he  was  a  student  of 
theology  at  Tubingen,  and  pastor  at  Mott- 
lingen  from  1824-1838.  He  then  retired 
to  Calw,  where  he  founded  the  missionary 
society  of  Wiirtemberg.  This  society 
came  into  active  cooperation  with  mission¬ 
ary  organizations  all  over  the  world.  He 
was  very  successful  as  a  writer  of  books 
on  practical  Christianity,  and  composed 
some  excellent  German  missionary  hymns. 

Bartholomew  ( son  of  Talmai ),  one  of  the 
twelve  apostles,  identified  with  the  same 
person  elsewhere  called  Nathaniel.  The 
only  reference  to  his  history  is  that  found 
in  his  conversion  (John  i.  45-51),  and  his 
presence  with  the  other  disciples  when 
the  risen  Lord  appeared  to  them  at  the 
Lake  of  Tiberias.  (John  xxi.  2.) 

Bartholomew’s  Day,  The  Massacre  of 
St.  This  terrible  tragedy  occurred  in 
1572.  The  principalProtestants  of  France, 
under  an  oath  of  safety,  were  in  Paris  to 
celebrate  the  marriage  of  the  king  of  Na¬ 
varre  with  the  sister  of  the  French  King. 
Instigated  by  his  mother,  Catherine  de 
Medici,  the  king  (Charles  IX.)  ordered  the 
massacre,  which  began  about  3  o’clock  on 
the  morning  of  Aug.  24.  Admiral  Coligny 
was  one  of  the  first  victims.  More  than 
five  thousand  Protestants  were  murdered 
in  cold  blood,  in  the  city  of  Paris  alone, 


Bar 


Bas 


(  86) 


and  about  thirty  thousand  in  all  were 
killed.  The  news  was  received  at  Rome 
with  joy,  and  a  medal  was  struck,  having  a 
picture  of  the  pope  on  one  side,  and  on  the 
other  a  rude  representation  of  the  massa¬ 
cre.  See  H.  M.  Baird:  Rise  of  the  Huguenots 
ofRrance( N.  Y.,1879);  Henry  White:  The 
Massacre  of  Saint  Bartholomew  (  N.  Y. ,  1 868). 

Barton,  Elizabeth,  the  “Maid  of  Kent,” 
was  a  servant  girl  in  the  village  of  Alding¬ 
ton,  in  Kent.  Of  a  nervous  temperament 
and  subject  to  epilepsy,  her  mind  was 
deeply  affected  by  the  stories  that  came  to 
her  ears  of  the  efforts  which  were  being 
made  by  the  king,  Henry  VIII.,  to  obtain  a 
divorce  from  Queen  Catherine.  She 
claimed  to  have  visions  in  regard  to  the 
wrong  of  this  action,  and  declared  that  it 
had  been  revealed  to  her  that  if  the  divorce 
took  place,  the  king  would  be  a  dead  man 
within  seven  months.  The  agents  of  the 
pope  and  influential  friends  of  Queen  Cath¬ 
erine  did  all  they  could  to  increase  the  ex¬ 
citement  caused  by  the  prophetess,  who 
was  known  now  as  “the  holy  maid  of 
Kent.”  The  anger  of  the  king  was  aroused. 
In  1553  Elizabeth,  with  several  of  her 
prominent  supporters,  were  examined  be¬ 
fore  Parliament,  and  sentenced  to  be  exe¬ 
cuted.  She  was  beheaded  at  Tyburn, 
April  21.  1534. 

Baruch.  See  Apocrypha  and  Pseude- 

PIGRAPHA. 

Baruli,  a  sect  of  the  Albanenses  of  the 
twelfth  century.  They  held  that  the  Son 
of  God  did  not  assume  a  body  of  flesh  and 
blood,  but  a  kind  of  celestial  body  of  im¬ 
material  substance.  They  held  also  the 
curious  opinion  that  all  souls  were  created 
before  the  creation  of  the  world,  and  all  fell 
into  sin  soon  afterwards. 

Bascom,  Henry  B.,  one  of  the  bishops 
of  the  M.  E.  Church,  South;  b.  in  Hancock, 
N.  Y. ,  May  27,  1796;  d.  at  Louisville,  Ky., 
Sept.  8,  1850.  He  early  attracted  attention 
as  a  pulpit  orator,  and  in  1823  was  elected 
chaplain  of  Congress.  In  1827  he  became 
President  of  Madison  College,  Pa.;  and  in 
1829,  agent  of  the  American  Colonization 
Society.  In  1832  he  accepted  the  profes¬ 
sorship  of  morals  in  Augusta  College,  Pa., 
which  he  resigned  (1842)  to  become  Pres¬ 
ident  of  Transylvania  University.  He 
edited  the  Quarterly  Review  of  the  M.  E. 
Church,  South,  from  1846  to  1850,  when 
he  was  elected  bishop.  At  one  time  he 
was  probably  the  most  popular  pulpit 
orator  in  the  United  States. 

Basel,  Confession  of,  a  Calvinistic  con¬ 


fession  adopted  by  the  Protestants  of  Basel 
in  1534.  It  was  first  prepared  by  CEcolam- 
padius,  not  long  before  his  death,  and  elab¬ 
orated  by  Myconius  before  it  was  submit¬ 
ted  to  the  people. 

Basel,  The  Council  of  (1431-1443),  was 
summoned  by  Martin  V.  The  three  sub¬ 
jects  that  were  assigned  to  the  council  were, 
“  The  reunion  of  the  Greek  and  Latin 
churches,  the  reconciliation  of  the  Bohemi¬ 
ans,  and  the  reform  of  the  church,  accord¬ 
ing  to  the  resolutions  come  to  at  Con¬ 
stance.”  The  proceedings  of  the  council 
alarmed  the  authorities  at  Rome,  and  Eu- 
genius  IV.,  the  successor  of  Martin  V. , 
made  two  attempts  to  break  it  up.  The 
council  would  not  yield.  They  passed  vari¬ 
ous  enactments  that  sought  to  curb  the 
power  of  the  Pope  and  the  Roman  curia. 
The  discussion  that  arose,  as  to  the  place 
where  the  subject  of  the  reunion  with  the 
Greek  Church  should  be  considered,  was 
made  the  occasion  by  Eugenius  of  assem¬ 
bling  another  council,  which  met  first  at 
Ferrara,  and  then  at  Florence.  (See  Flor¬ 
ence,  Council  of.)  The  rest  of  the  pro¬ 
ceedings  of  the  Council  of  Basel  is  the 
record  of  its  struggles  with  the  Pope. 
They  deposed  Eugenius,  and,  in  answer  to 
his  excommunication,  elected  a  new  Pope, 
Amadeus,  Duke  of  Saxony,  who  assumed 
the  name  of  Felix  V.  This  schism  was  not 
healed  until  the  death  of  Eugenius,  when 
a  compromise  was  effected,  and  Felix  re¬ 
signed  the  pontificate  in  favor  of  Nicholas 
V. ,  who  confirmed  the  acts  and  decrees  of 
the  Council  of  Basel. 

Ba'shan,  ‘  ‘a  district  on  the  east  of  Jordan. 
It  is  not,  like  Argob  and  other  districts  of 
Palestine,  distinguished  by  one  constant 
designation,  but  is  sometimes  spoken  of  as 
the  ‘  land  of  Bashan  ’  (1  Chron.  v.  11;  and 
comp.  Num.  xxi.  33;  xxxii.  33),  and  some¬ 
times  as  ‘all  Bashan’  (Deut.  iii.  10,  13; 
Josh.  xii.  5;  xiii.  12,  30),  but  most  com¬ 
monly  without  any  addition.  It  was  taken 
by  the  children  of  Israel  after  their  con¬ 
quest  of  the  land  of  Sihon,‘,.from  Arnon  to 
Jabbok.  They  ‘  turned  ’  from  their  road 
over  Jordan  and  ‘  went  up  by  the  way  of 
Bashan  ’  to  Edrei  on  the  western  edge  of 
the  Lejah.  Here  they  encountered  Og, 
King  of  Bashan,  who  ‘came  out’  prob¬ 
ably  from  the  natural  fastnesses  of  Argob, 
only  to  meet  the  entire  destruction  of  him¬ 
self,  his  sons,  and  all  his  people.  (Num. 
xxi.  33-35;  Deut.  iii.  1-3.)  The  limits  of 
Bashan  are  very  strictly  defined.  It  ex¬ 
tended  from  the  ‘  border  of  Gilead  ’  on 
the  south,  to  Mount  Hermon  on  the  north 
(Deut.  iii.  3,  10,  14;  Josh.  xii.  5;  1  Chron.  v. 
23);  and  from  the  Arabah,  or  Jordan  valley, 


Bas 


Bat 


( 87) 


on  the  west  to  Salchah  ( Sulkhad )  and  the 
border  of  the  Geshurites,  and  the  Maacha- 
thites  on  the  east.  (Josh.  xii.  3-5;  Deut.  iii. 
10.)  This  important  district  was  bestowed 
on  the  half  tribe  of  Manasseh  (Josh.  xiii. 
29-31),  together  with  ‘  half  Gilead.’  It  is 
just  named  in  the  list  of  Solomon’s  com¬ 
missariat  districts.  (1  Kings  iv.  13.)  And 
here,  with  the  exception  of  one  more  pass¬ 
ing  glimpse,  closes  the  history  of  Bashan, 
as  far  as  the  Bible  is  concerned.  It  van¬ 
ishes  from  our  view  until  we  meet  with  it 
as  being  devastated  by  Hazael  in  the  reign 
of  Jehu.  (2  Kings  x.  33.)  After  the  cap¬ 
tivity  Bashan  is  mentioned  as  divided  into 
four  provinces  —  Gaulanitis,  Auranitis, 
Trachonitis,  and  Batanaea,  or  Ard-el-Bath- 
anyeh ,  which  lies  on  the  east  of  the  Lejah 
and  the  north  of  the  range  of  Jebel  Hauran , 
or  ed  Druze.” — Smith:  Diet,  of  the  Bible. 
It  was  a  singularly  fertile  country.  The 
existing  ruins  are  probably,  in  many  cases, 
the  work  of  the  earliest  known  inhabitants 
of  the  land,  the  Amorites  or  Rephaim. 
Many  interesting  inscriptions  have  been 
found  in  this  region. 

Basil,  Bishop  of  Ancyra,  was  originally 
a  physician.  He  was  a  leader  in  the  semi- 
Arian  party,  but  was  deposed  from  his  see 
in  347  by  the  Council  of  Sardica.  He  held 
possession,  however,  through  the  favor  of 
the  Arian  Emperor,  Constantius.  Again 
deposed  (360),  he  died  in  exile. 

Basil,  St.,  surnamed  The  Great;  b.  at 
Caesarea,  in  Cappadocia,  about  330;  d. 
there,  in  379.  Sprung  from  an  illustrious 
family  in  the  life  of  the  early  church,  he 
studied  at  Constantinople  and  Athens, 
where  he  formed  the  friendship  which  in 
after  years  bound  him  so  closely  to  Greg¬ 
ory  Nazianzen.  After  teaching  for  a  time 
in  Caesarea,  he  entered  upon  a  monastic 
life  in  Pontus,  where  he  became  the  head 
of  a  convent  near  Arnesi,  where  his  mother 
and  his  sister  Macrina  joined  him  in  devo¬ 
tion  to  religious  and  charitable  service. 
It  was  here  that  he  instituted  the  form  of 
common  for  hermit  life,  which  was  finally 
developed  fully  under  the  Benedictine  rule, 
which  combines  industry  for  the  general 
good  with  strict  devotion.  It  was  not  un¬ 
til  he  was  about  thirty-six  years  of  age 
that  Basil  was  ordained  to  the  priesthood. 
From  this  time  forward  he  became  promi¬ 
nent  in  the  theological  controversies  of  his 
age.  For  a  long  time  he  had  sympathized 
with  the  middle  party,  the  Homoiousians, 
who  stood  between  Arianism  and  Ortho¬ 
doxy.  His  friendship  for  Eustathius, Bishop 
of  Sebaste,  brought  him  under  the  ban  of 
censure  in  many  directions.  After  Eusta¬ 
thius  openly  avowed  his  adherence  with 


the  semi-Arian  party,  and  denied  the  divin¬ 
ity  of  the  Holy  Spirit,  Basil  withdrew  all 
further  relations  with  him  and  the  semi- 
Arians,  and  devoted  himself  to  the  effort 
of  drawing  over  the  middle  party  to  the 
Orthodox  side.  After  the  death  of  Euse¬ 
bius,  he  was  elected  bishop  of  Caesarea. 
When  the  Emperor  Valens,  in  a  visit  to 
Asia  Minor,  enforced  Arianism  upon  the 
churches,  he  left  the  church  in  Cappadocia 
unmolested  —  a  marked  tribute  to  the 
efforts  which  Basil  had  made  in  the  inter¬ 
ests  of  unity.  Another  object  that  deeply 
engaged  his  attention  was  the  reconciliation 
of  the  Eastern  and  Western  churches.  One 
of  his  principal  works  was  upon  the  doc¬ 
trine  of  the  procession  of  the  Holy  Ghost. 
He  was  a  great  preacher,  and  prepared 
homilies  on  the  Psalms  and  Isaiah,  some 
of  which  are  still  in  existence,  with  other 
works.  See  Life ,  by  R.  F.  Smith  (London, 
1881). 

Basilians,  an  order  of  monks  and  nuns 
organized  by  Basil  the  Great.  At  the  death 
of  their  founder  they  are  said  to  have 
numbered  upwards  of  90,000.  There  are 
now  about  fifty  houses,  with  one  thousand 
members.  One  of  the  houses  is  at  Toronto, 
Canada. 

Basilica,  the  name  given  anciently  to 
large  rectangular  halls,  used  for  secular 
purposes,  and  afterward  applied  to  Chris¬ 
tian  church  edifices  that  were  built  on  the 
same  general  plan.  The  oldest  and  most 
famous  of  the  basilicas  were  erected  at 
Rome. 

Basili'des,  one  of  the  most  celebrated  of 
the  Gnostics,  flourished  probably  about  130 
A.  D.  Scholars  have  found  in  his  works 
the  earliest  testimony  to  the  Gospel  of 
John,  from  his  quotation  of  the  passages, 
“  The  true  light,  which  enlighteneth  every 
man,  was  coming  into  the  world,”  and 
“  My  hour  is  not  yet  come.”  See  Gnos¬ 
ticism. 

Bath.  In  Eastern  countries  bathing  is 
a  necessity  as  well  as  luxury.  It  was  com¬ 
manded  by  the  Mosaic  law  in  certain  cases 
of  Levitical  uncleanness  (Lev.  xiv.  8;  xv. 
5;  xvii.  6;  Deut.  xxiii.  11),  and  was  also 
practiced  in  connection  with  the  religion  of 
the  Egyptians  and  the  Mohammedans.  The 
high-priest,  on  the  day  of  atonement,  before 
each  act  of  expiation,  was  obliged  to  bathe 
(Lev.  xvi.  4,  24),  and  also  at  his  own  con¬ 
secration  (viii.  6).  The  Jews  bathed  in 
running  water  or  in  pools  in  the  courtyard 
of  their  houses.  Mention  is  made  in  the 
New  Testament  of  the  Jerusalem  baths, 
Bethesda  and  Siloam.  (John  v.  2;  ix.  7.) 


Bat 


(88) 


Bau 


In  later  times  there  was  a  public  bath  in 
every  considerable  town.  The  Talmud 
gives  minute  directions  in  regard  to  their 
use  and  construction.  In  connection  with 
the  public  baths  that  abounded  in  Roman 
cities,  voices  were  raised  among  Christian 
teachers  against  the  shameless  conduct  of 
some  who  frequented  them,  but  there  was 
no  formal  prohibition  of  their  use.  After 
the  time  of  Constantine,  baths  were  built 
near  the  church,  partly  for  the  use  of  the 
clergy  and  ecclesiastical  purposes. 

Bath.  See  Measures. 

Bath'kol  ( daughter  of  the  voice ,  i.  e. ,  echo), 
“  a  Talmudic  term  for  a  supposed  divine 
revelation.  The  true  idea  of  it  is  that  it 
was  the  echo  of  a  heavenly  voice.  Instances 
of  it  are  given  in  the  Talmud.  The  Bath- 
kol  was  (i)  the  first  result  of  reflection 
upon  the  prophecies  of  the  Old  Testament, 
grown  up  upon  the  soil  of  the  Old  Testa¬ 
ment,  causing  a  sense  of  desertion  by  the 
Lord,  and  a  deep  longing  for  the  return  of 
the  Shekinah.  (2)  It  was  designed  to  pre¬ 
pare  the  people  for  the  remarkable  voices 
during  the  last  times  of  the  second  temple, 
which,  equally  with  the  miracles  of  Jesus 
and  his  apostles,  pointed  out  the  Messiah 
and  his  kingdom,  until  the  obdurate  and 
devoted  city,  immediately  before  its  cap¬ 
ture  and  destruction,  was  dumbfounded  by 
the  cry  which  issued  from  the  temple:  ‘  Let 
us  go  hence.’  ” — Pressel  in  Schaff- Herzog: 
Ency.,  vol.  i.,p.  223. 

Baur  (frowr),  Ferdinand  Christian, 
founder  of  the  New  Testament  and  histor¬ 
ical  criticism  which  bears  his  name;  b.  at 
Schmiden,  near  Stuttgart,  Germany,  June 
21,  1792;  d.  at  Tubingen,  Dec.  2,  i860. 
He  was  educated  first  in  the  seminary  at 
Blaubeuren,  and  entered  the  University  of 
Tubingen  in  1809.  In  1817  he  was  called 
to  a  professorship  at  Blaubeuren,  and  as 
the  result  of  his  studies  he  published  his 
Symbolism  and  Mythology:  or  the  Nature  Re¬ 
ligion  of  Antiquity  (Stuttgart,  1824-25),  2 
vols.  His  reputation  was  already  great, 
when  he  accepted  a  call  in  1826  to  the  pro¬ 
fessorship  of  church  history  at  Tubingen. 
“  He  soon  gathered  a  large  audience 
around  his  chair,  and  filled  them  with  ad¬ 
miration  by  his  genius,  learning,  and  en¬ 
thusiasm  as  a  teacher.  A  Hegelian  him¬ 
self,  he  applied  Hegel’s  method  of  dialec¬ 
tical  development,  by  mediation  between 
two  opposites,  to  church  history  and  the 
growth  of  the  New  Testament,  and  thus 
founded  the  famous  ‘  Tubingen  School  ’ 
of  theology,  which  revolutionized  the 
church  history  of  the  apostolic  and  post- 
apcstolic  times.  He  must  be  ranked  along¬ 


side  of  Neander  and  Gieseler  as  a  church 
historian  of  the  first  rank,  independent, 
original,  profound,  and  scholarly.  He  had 
a  rare  talent  for  critical  combination,  and 
the  grasp  of  a  giant  in  handling  historical 
problems.  He  was,  however,  deficient  in 
well-balanced  judgment;  and  so,  while  tire¬ 
less  in  his  investigations  and  bold  in  his 
theories,  he  overvalued  tendencies  and  un¬ 
dervalued  persons  and  facts.  He  ruth¬ 
lessly  attacked  the  optimistic  opinion  of 
the  Apostolic  Church,  and  attempted  to 
show  that,  so  far  from  being  peaceful, 
quiet,  loving,  and  united,  it  was  torn  by 
opposing  factions — the  friends  of  Peter  and 
those  of  Paul.  He  thus  resolved  its  rich 
spiritual  life  of  faith  and  love  into  a  pure¬ 
ly  speculative  process  of  conflicting  ten¬ 
dencies,  a  keen  rivalry  between  the  Petrine 
and  Pauline  parties,  and  supposed  that 
the  war  stopped  by  a  compromise  in  the 
ancient  Catholic  Church.  According  to  his 
theory,  he  regarded  the  Acts  as  a  docu¬ 
ment  of  this  compromise,  in  which  the 
points  of  opposition  are  obscured;  and, 
further,  he  unhesitatingly  rejected  all 
those  Epistles  of  the  New  Testament  in 
which  he  could  not  find  traces  of  such  a  (sup¬ 
posed)  conflict.  It  must  be  acknowledged 
that  by  his  keen,  critical  analysis  he  fully 
brought  to  light  the  profound  intellectual 
fermentation  of  the  primitive  church,  but 
failed  to  describe  the  exact  state  of  the 
case,  because  he  eliminated  the  supernat¬ 
ural  and  miraculous  elements.  Yet,  as  an 
earnest  and  honest  skeptic,  he  had  to  con¬ 
fess  at  last  a  psychological  miracle  in  the 
conversion  of  Paul,  and  to  bow  before  the 
greater  miracle  of  the  resurrection  of 
Christ,  without  which  the  former  is  an  in¬ 
explicable  enigma.  His  critical  researches 
and  speculations  gave  a  powerful  stimulus 
to  New  Testament  historical  studies,  and 
resulted  in  vastly  increased  knowledge. 
The  studies  of  those  times  by  a  critical 
and  impartial  method  dates  from  Baur. 
But  while  he  acknowledged  only  four 
Epistles  of  Paul  (Romans,  the  two  Corin¬ 
thians,  Galatians),  and  the  Revelation  to 
be  genuine  products  of  the  apostolic  age, his 
followers  have  been  compelled,  by  the  use 
against  them  of  their  own  weapons,  to 
yield  point  after  point;  so  that  now  they 
grant  the  authority  and  genuineness  of  ten 
of  Paul’s  Epistles,  and  take  their  stand 
only  at  the  twenty  called  Pastoral  Epistles.  ” 
— Schaff-Herzog:  Ency.,s.v.  The  literary 
activity  of  Baur  carrried  him  into  the  field 
of  historical  theology,  and  he  prepared 
works  on  the  doctrine  of  the  Atonement 
(1838),  and  of  the  Trinity  and  Incarnation 
(1841-43),  3  vols.,  and  a  History  of  Doctrine 
(1847).  For  his  views  regarding  primitive 
Christianity  see  his  Church  History  of  the 


Bau 


Bax 


(  89  ) 


First  Three  Centuries  (English  translation, 
London  1878-79),  2  vols.,  and  Paul  (Eng¬ 
lish  translation  1873-75). 

Bautain  (bo-tan),  Louis  Eugene  Marie, 
Roman  Catholic,  philosopher  and  theolo¬ 
gian;  b.  at  Paris,  Feb.  17,  1796;  d.  at  Vir- 
oflay,  near  Versailles,  Oct.  15,  1867.  In 
1816  he  was  called  to  the  chair  of  philoso¬ 
phy  in  the  University  of  Strasburg,  which 
he  resigned,  and  took  orders  in  1828,  but 
still  continued  to  lecture  in  the  University. 
In  1849  he  became  vicar  of  the  diocese  of 
Paris,  and  in  1853  professor  of  moral  the¬ 
ology  in  the  theological  faculty.  He  held 
the  views  of  Anselm  and  his  successors, 
regarding  the  relation  of  reason  and  faith. 
He  published  a  large  number  of  philo¬ 
sophical  works,  but  is  best  known  by  his 
Art  of  Extempore  Speaking  (1856;  Eng. 
trans.  1858),  which  has  had  a  very  large 
circulation. 

Bavaria  was  early  entered  by  missiona¬ 
ries  from  Italy,  but  it  was  not  fully  Chris¬ 
tianized  until  the  middle  of  the  eighth  cen¬ 
tury.  The  Reformation  at  first  made  good 
progress  in  this  country,  but  after  the 
Diet  of  Worms  the  active  hostility  of 
Duke  William  checked  it.  Those  who 
went  to  hear  the  reformers  preach  were 
arrested  and  severely  punished.  From 
1549  until  the  close  of  the  eighteenth  cen¬ 
tury  the  Jesuits  controlled  affairs,  but 
about  the  opening  of  this  century  they 
were  expelled  by  the  Elector  Maximilian 
Joseph  II.  With  this  gaining  of  new  ter¬ 
ritory  a  more  liberal  policy  was  adopted, 
and  by  the  constitution  of  1818,  Protes¬ 
tants  were  put  on  an  equal  footing  with 
Roman  Catholics.  Of  the  5,022,390  inhab¬ 
itants  in  1875,  3,573,142  were  Roman  Cath¬ 
olics,  1,392,120  Protestants,  51,335  Jews. 
There  are  595  monastic  institutions  in  the 
kingdom — 500  for  nuns,  with  5,031  sisters, 
and  ninety-five  for  monks,  with  1,233 
brethren.  The  Protestant  Church  is  gov¬ 
erned  by  consistories,  under  a  supreme 
consistory  at  Munich.  It  has  a  theological 
seminary  at  Erlangen,  and  there  are  1,036 
parishes.  . 

Baxter,  Richard,  one  of  the  most  emi¬ 
nent  Non-conformist  divines;  b.  at  Rowton, 
in  Shropshire,  Nov.  12,  1615;  d.  in  Lon¬ 
don,  Dec.  8,  1691.  Of  a  good  family,  he 
did  not  pursue  a  university  course,  but 
was  under  the  care  of  excellent  instructors. 
A  brief  tarry  in  London,  in  which  he  had 
a  taste  of  court  life,  was  followed  by  the 
determination  to  return  home  and  study 
theology.  He  was  appointed  master  of 
the  Free  Grammar  School,  Dudley,  where 
he  was  ordained  and  licensed  to  preach. 


Not  long  after,  he  became  assistant  minis¬ 
ter  at  Bridgnorth.  The  qualities  of 
faithfulness  and  zeal  that  marked  his  en¬ 
tire  life  were  soon  widely  recognized.  A 
careful  study  of  the  subject  led  him  to  re¬ 
ject  Episcopacy  in  many  of  its  forms,  and 
from  this  time  forward  he  laid  little  stress 
upon  church  polity,  except  as  organization 
was  necessary  to  advance  the  interests  of 
religion.  The  attention  of  the  Long  Par¬ 
liament  was  called  to  the  sad  spiritual  des¬ 
titution  of  many  places  in  the  kingdom, 
because  of  the  utter  inefficiency  of  the 
clergy  who  held  the  livings.  The  town  of 
Kidderminster  attracted  the  special  atten¬ 
tion  of  the  committee  having  the  matter 
in  charge.  The  vicar  of  the  parish  agreed 
to  pay  about  one-third  of  his  income  of 
two  hundred  pounds  to  the  person  who 
might  be  chosen  as  minister  of  the  place. 
Baxter,  then  twenty-six  years  of  age,  was 
unanimously  elected,  and  entered  upon 
the  ministry  that  wrought  so  marvelous 
a  change  that  the  town,  noted  for  its  wick¬ 
edness,  became  famous  for  the  sobriety 
and  religious  life  of  its  people.  For  nine¬ 
teen  years,  with  brief  interruptions,  caused 
by  the  civil  war,  Baxter  labored  at  Kid¬ 
derminster  in  the  spirit  of  devotion  he  in¬ 
culcated  in  his  well-known  book,  The  Re¬ 
formed  Pastor.  For  a  time,  after  the  battle 
of  Naseby,  he  acted  as  chaplain  in  the 
army,  where  he  preached  with  faithfulness 
views  that  were  not  altogether  palatable  to 
Cromwell.  For  two  years,  after  the  Res¬ 
toration,  Baxter  labored  in  London,  but  the 
Ejectment  Act  (1662)  made  it  impossible 
for  him  to  continue  his  services  within  the 
Established  Church.  He  declined  the  of¬ 
fered  bishopric  of  Hereford,  and  retired 
to  Acton,  in  Middlesex.  But  his  life  for 
many  years  was  embittered  and  its  labors 
hampered  by  persecution.  Again  and  again 
he  was  seized  and  imprisoned  under  the 
most  trivial  charges.  It  was  in  1685  that 
he  was  brought  before  the  brutal  Jeffreys, 
on  the  charge  that  his  Paraphrase  of  the 
New  Testa??ient  was  a  seditious  book.  He 
was  sentenced  to  pay  a  heavy  fine,  and  re¬ 
mained  in  prison  for  two  years.  The  In¬ 
dulgence  of  1687  set  him  free,  and  from 
this  time  until  his  death  in  1691,  his  life 
was  spent  in  peace,  among  friends  who 
loved  and  honored  him.  From  the  Eject¬ 
ment  of  1662,  although  suffering  greatly 
from  physical  disabilities,  he  labored  in¬ 
cessantly  with  his  pen.  No  less  than  168 
different  works  are  credited  to  him.  Some 
of  them  are  elaborate  theological  treatises 
that  exhibit  profound  and  varied  knowl¬ 
edge;  but  the  works  by  which  he  is  best 
known,  and  that  have  exerted  the  widest  in¬ 
fluence,  are  of  a  devotional  and  practical 
character.  Among  these  may  be  men- 


Bay 


(  90  ) 


Bea 


tioned:  The  Reformed  Pastor ,  the  fruit  of 
his  experiences  at  Kidderminster;  Reasons 
for  the  Christian  Religion ;  The  Poor  Man’s 
Family  Book ,  and  the  best  known  of  his 
works,  The  Saint's  Everlasting  Rest,  and 
The  Call  to  the  Unconverted.  As  pastor, 
preacher,  debater,  and  author,  Baxter 
showed  the  strength  and  diversity  of  his 
remarkable  gifts  of  head  and  heart.  His 
sympathies  were  so  large,  and  his  views 
of  theology  and  ecclesiastical  polity  so 
broad  and  practical,  that  no  sect  in  his  day 
could  claim  his  allegiance.  No  man,  how¬ 
ever,  ever  exerted  a  more  powerful  influ¬ 
ence  in  the  interests  of  Non-conformity 
than  Richard  Baxter,  or  did  more  in  his 
generation  to  advance  pure  and  undefiled 
religion.  Dr.  Barrow  said  of  him  that 
“  his  practical  writings  were  never 
mended,  and  his  controversial  ones  seldom 
confuted;”  and  Bishop  Wilkens  affirmed 
that  “if  he  had  lived  in  the  primitive  time 
he  had  been  one  of  the  fathers  of  the 
Church.”  The  most  valuable  source  of 
information  regarding  Baxter  is  found  in 
his  autobiography,  down  to  1684,  and  the 
continuation  of  his  life  as  given  by  Dr. 
Calamy. 

Bayle  {bat),  Pierre  (b.  1647;  d.  1706),  a 
celebrated  French  Protestant  writer;  edu¬ 
cated  at  the  University  of  Toulouse;  pro¬ 
fessor  of  philosophy  at  Sedan,  and  after¬ 
ward  at  ^Rotterdam.  The  work  by  which 
he  is  best  known  is  his  Critical  and  Philo¬ 
sophical  Dictionary ,  published  in  1695.  It 
is  a  book  of  great  learning,  but  skeptical 
in  its  tendencies,  and  marred  by  coarse¬ 
ness. 

Bayley,  James  Roosevelt,  D.  D.,  b.  in 
New  York  City,  Aug.  23,  1814;  d.  in  Bal¬ 
timore,  Oct.  3,  1877.  He  was  graduated  at 
Trinity  College,  Hartford,  Conn.,  and  en¬ 
tered  the  ministry  of  the  Episcopal  Church. 
He  soon  withdrew,  and  became  a  Roman 
Catholic,  and  spent  some  time  in  the 
study  of  theology  in  Paris  and  Rome.  He 
was  ordained  as  a  priest  in  1842,  and  after 
his  return  to  America  was  appointed  pro¬ 
fessor  of  belles-lettres  in  St.  John’s  Col¬ 
lege,  Fordham,  of  which  institution  he 
was  president  for  one  year.  In  1853  he 
was  made  Bishop  of  Newark,  N.  J. ,  and 
in  1872  appointed  Archbishop  of  Baltimore 
and  Primate  of  America.  His  aunt,  Mother 
Seaton,  was  the  founder  of  the  order  of 
the  Sisters  of  Charity  in  the  United  States. 

Bdell'ium  is  mentioned  but  twice  in  the 
Bible:  (1)  in  Gen.  ii.  12,  as  a  product  of  the 
land  of  Havilah;  (2)  in  Num.  xi.  7,  when  it 
is  used  to  describe  the  manna.  It  is  a 
highly  transparent  and  odorous  gum, 


which  exudes  from  a  sort  of  palm  which 
grows  in  Arabia  and  adjacent  countries. 
The  best  authorities  consider  this  the  most 
satisfactory  explanation  of  a  word  that  has 
caused  some  controversy,  because  many 
rabbins  have  defined  it  as  meaning  cl  pearl. 

Beadle,  Bedell  ( one  who  proclaims). 
There  are  ecclesiastical  beadles  and  secu¬ 
lar  beadles,  parochial  beadles  and  com¬ 
panies’  beadles;  there  are  also  university 

bedells. 

Generally  speaking,  the  beadle  is  a  sum¬ 
moning  officer,  the  word  having  the  same 
root  as  the  verb  to  bid { Bedes);  and  around 
this  have  grown  other  ministerial  duties 
very  various.  Thus,  a  parish  beadle  may 
assist  the  churchwarden  in  seating  the 
people  in  church,  or  in  keeping  order,  and 
a  company’s  beadle  may  carry  about  all 
sorts  of  messages  for  his  company. 

Beads.  See  Rosary. 

Beard,  Richard,  D.  D.,  Cumberland 
Presbyterian;  b.  in  Sumner  County,  Tenn. , 
Nov.  27,  1799;  d.  at  Lebanon,  Tenn. ,  Nov. 
6,  1880.  He  began  his  public  ministry  in 
1820.  He  afterward  became  a  teacher  in 
Cumberland  College,  Princeton,  Ky. ,  and 
then  in  Sharon  College,  Sharon,  Miss.  He 
was  president  of  Cumberland  College  from 
1842  to  1854,  and  then  accepted  the  profes¬ 
sorship  of  systematic  theology  in  Cumber¬ 
land  University,  Lebanon,  Tenn.  He  was 
for  many  years  one  of  the  most  eminent 
leaders  in  the  Cumberland  Presbyterian 
Church,  and  was  frequently  made  modera¬ 
tor  of  the  General  Assembly.  He  publish¬ 
ed  Lectures  on  Theology  (Nashville,  1870),  3 
vols. ;  and  Why  ai?i  la  Cumberland  Presby¬ 
terian  ?  (Nashville,  1874.) 

Beatific  Vision,  a  term  used  by  theolog¬ 
ical  writers  to  express  the  open  and  unhin¬ 
dered  vision  of  God  enjoyed  by  the  blessed 
dead.  Many  Protestants,  especially  Luther¬ 
ans  and  Calvinists,  put  the  vision  after 
the  judgment.  This  is  the  opinion  of  the 
Greek  Church. 

% 

Beatification,  a  preliminary  step  to  can¬ 
onization.  The  person  receiving  this  de¬ 
gree  is  granted  certain  religious  honor, 
until  it  is  decided  whether  he  is  a  saint  or 
not.  The  ceremony  can  be  performed  in 
no  other  place  but  the  basilica  of  the  Vati¬ 
can.  See  Canonization. 

Beausobre  (bo-sobr),  Isaac  de.  an  eminent 
writer  among  the  French  Protestants;  b. 
at  Niort,  March  8,  1659;  d.  at  Berlin,  June 
5,  1738.  Forsaking  the  profession  of  law 
for  which  he  had  been  trained,  he  studied 


Bee 


Bee 


(  91  ) 


theology,  and  became  minister  at  Chatillon- 
sur-Indre,  in  Touraine,  in  1685.  His 
loyalty  to  the  Huguenot  faith  compelled 
him  to  seek  refuge  first  at  Rotterdam  and 
then  at  Dessau,  where  he  became  chaplain 
to  the  Princess  of  Anhalt.  From  1695  till 
his  death  he  was  French  pastor  in  Berlin. 
His  fame  rests  upon  a  learned  history  of 
Manicheism  (Amsterdam,  1718),  and  a  his¬ 
tory  of  the  Reformation  (1 51 7-1 530).  He 
carried  on  active  controversies  with  the 
Lutherans  and  Roman  Catholics. 

Becket,  Thomas  a,  “  Archbishop  of  Can¬ 
terbury,  was  the  son  of  a  merchant,  and 
was  born  in  London  in  1119.  The  story 
which  makes  his  mother  a  Saracen  is  charm¬ 
ingly  romantic,  but  there  are  doubts  if  it 
has  any  historical  basis.  He  studied 
theology  at  Oxford  and  Paris,  and  after¬ 
ward  law  at  Bologna,  and  at  Auxerre,  in 
Burgundy.  Having  been  recommended  to 
Henry  II.  by  Theobald,  Archbishop  of  Can¬ 
terbury,  who  had  had  experience  of  his 
abilities,  he  was  promoted  to  the  office  of 
high  chancellor,  and  thus  (according  to 
Thierry)  resuscitated  the  hopes  of  the  Eng¬ 
lish  as  the  first  native  Englishman,  since 
the  Conquest,  who  had  filled  any  high 
office.  His  duties  as  high  chancellor  were 
numerous  and  burdensome,  but  he  dis¬ 
charged  them  vigorously.  He  was  magnif¬ 
icently  liberal  in  his  hospitality.  Henry 
himself  did  not  live  in  a  more  sumptuous 
manner.  As  yet,  Becket  seems  to  have 
regarded  himself  as  a  mere  layman,  though, 
in  point  of  fact,  he  was  a  deacon:  but  in 
1162,  when  he  was  created  Archbishop  of 
Canterbury  (an  office  which,  as  it  then  in¬ 
volved  the  abbacy  of  the  cathedral  monas¬ 
tery,  had  never  but  twice  before  been  held 
by  any  but  a  monk  or  canon-regular),  a  re¬ 
markable  change  became  manifest  in  his 
whole  deportment.  He  resigned  the  chan¬ 
cellorship,  threw  aside  suddenly  his  luxu¬ 
rious  and  courtly  habits,  assumed  an  austere 
religious  character,  exhibited  his  liberality 
only  in  his  ‘charities,’  and  soon  appeared 
as  a  zealous  champion  of  the  Church  against 
all  aggressions  by  the  king  and  the  nobility. 
Several  noblemen  and  laymen  were  excom¬ 
municated  for  their  alienation  of  church 
property.  Henry  II.,  who,  like  all  the 
Norman  kings,  endeavored  to  keep  the 
clergy  in  subordination  to  the  state,  con¬ 
voked  the  nobility  with  the  clergy  to  a 
council,  in  1164,  at  Clarendon  (near  Salis¬ 
bury),  where  the  so-called  ‘  constitutions  ’ 
(or  laws  relative  to  the  respective  powers 
of  church  and  state)  were  adopted.  To 
these  the  primate,  at  first,  declared  he 
would  never  consent  ;  but  afterwards, 
through  the  efforts  of  the  nobles,  some  of 
the  bishops,  and,  finally,  of  the  pope  him¬ 


self,  he  was  induced  to  give  his  unwilling 
approbation.  Henry  now  began  to  per¬ 
ceive  that  Becket’s  notions  and  his  were 
utterly  antagonistic,  and  clearly  exhibited 
his  hostility  to  the  prelate,  whereupon 
Becket  tried  to  leave  the  country.  For 
this  offence  the  king  charged  him  with 
breach  of  allegiance,  in  a  parliament  sum¬ 
moned  at  Northampton  in  1164,  confiscated 
his  goods,  and  sequestered  the  revenues  of 
his  see.  A  claim  was  also  made  on  him 
for  not  less  than  44,000  marks,  as  the  bal¬ 
ance  due  by  him  to  the  crown  when  he 
ceased  to  be  chancellor.  Becket  appealed 
to  the  pope,  and  next  day,  leaving  North¬ 
ampton  in  disguise,  fled  to  France,  where 
he  spent  two  years  in  retirement  at  Pon- 
tigny,  in  Burgundy.  The  French  monarch 
and  the  pope,  however,  now  took  up  his 
cause.  Becket  went  to  Rome,  pleaded  per¬ 
sonally  before  his  holiness,  who  reinstated 
him  in  the  see  of  Canterbury.  Becket  now 
returned  to  France,  whence  he  wrote  angry 
letters  to  the  English  bishops,  threatening 
them  with  excommunication.  Several 
efforts  were  made  to  reconcile  Henry  and 
Becket,  which,  however,  proved  futile;  but 
at  length,  in  1170,  a  formal  agreement  was 
come  to  at  Fretville,  on  the  borders  of 
Touraine.  The  result  was  that  he  return¬ 
ed  to  England,  entering  Canterbury  amid 
the  rejoicings  of  the  people,  who  were  un¬ 
questionably  proud  of  Becket  and  regarded 
him — whether  wisely  or  not  is  another 
question — as  a  shield  from  the  oppressions 
of  the  nobility;  but  he  soon  manifested  all 
his  former  boldness  of  opposition  to  royal 
authority.  At  last,  it  is  said,  the  king, 
while  in  Normandy,  expressed  impatience 
that  none  of  his  followers  would  rid  him  of 
an  insolent  priest.  The  fatal  suggestion 
was  immediately  understood,  and  carried 
into  effect  by  four  barons,  who  departed  by 
separate  ways  for  England.  On  the  even¬ 
ing  of  the  29th  Dec.,  1170,  they  entered 
the  cathedral,  and,  having  failed  in  an  at¬ 
tempt  to  drag  him  out  of  the  church,  there 
slew  Becket  before  the  altar  of  St.  Benedict, 
in  the  north  transept.  Henry  was  com¬ 
pelled  to  make  heavy  concessions  to  avoid 
the  ban  of  excommunication.  The  mur¬ 
derers,  having  repaired  to  Rome  as  peni¬ 
tents,  were  sent  on  a  pilgrimage  to  Pales¬ 
tine;  and,  two  years  after  his  death,  Becket 
was  canonized  by  pope  Alexander  III.,  and 
the  anniversary  of  his  death  was  set  apart 
as  the  yearly  festival  of  St.  Thomas  of 
Canterbury.  In  1220  his  bones  were 
raised  from  the  grave  in  the  crypt  where 
they  had  been  hastily  buried  two  days  after 
his  murder,  and  were,  by  order  of  King 
Henry  III.,  deposited  in  a  splendid  shrine, 
which  for  three  centuries  continued  to  be 
the  object  of  one  of  the  great  pilgrimages 


Bed 


('  92  ) 


Bee 


of  Christendom,  and  still  lives  in  English 
literature  in  connection  with  Chaucer’s 
Canterbury  7'ales.  At  the  reformation 
Henry  VIII.  despoiled  the  shrine,  erased 
his  name  from  the  calendar,  and  caused  his 
bones  to  be  burnt  and  scattered  to  the 
winds.  It  is  extremely  difficult  to  estimate 
properly  the  character  of  Becket.  We  do 
not  know  what  his  ultimate  aims  were, 
whether,  as  some  suppose,  they  were  pa¬ 
triotic,  i.  e.  Saxon ,  as  opposed  to  Norman , 
or,  as  others  believe,  purely  sacerdotal. 
At  all  events,  the  means  he  used  for  the 
attainment  of  them  was  a  despotic  and  irre¬ 
sponsible  ecclesiasticism.  He  admitted 
nothing  done  by  churchmen  to  be  secular, 
or  within  the  jurisdiction  of  civil  courts, 
not  even  murder  or  larceny.  Fortunately 
the  Plantagenets  were  as  dogged  believers 
in  their  own  powers  and  privileges  as 
Becket  in  those  of  the  Church:  and  by  their 
obstinate  good  sense  England  was  kept 
wholesomely  jealous  of  the  pretensions  of 
Rome.” — Chambers:  Cyclopedia .  See  Dr. 
Giles:  Vita  ct  Epistolce  S.  T homes  Cantua- 
riensis;  Canon  Morris:  Life  of  St.  Tho?nas 
Becket ;  Canon  Robertson:  Life  of  Becket ; 
Canon  Stanley  :  Historical  Memorials  of 
Canterbury;  Freeman:  Historical  Essays; 
Hook:  Lives  of  the  Archbishops  of  Canter¬ 
bury;  Froude:  Life  and  Times  of  Thot}ias 
Becket  (1S78). 

Bede,  or  Beda,  The  Venerable,  “the 
father  of  English  history;”  b.  674;  d.  735. 
When  but  seven  years  of  age  he  was  placed 
under  the  care  of  instructors  in  the  monas¬ 
tery  of  Wearmouth,  and  from  here  (682) 
was  transferred  to  Jarrow,  where  he  spent 
a  laborious  and  useful  life.  His  literary 
industry  was  remarkable.  Forty  treatises 
are  from  his  pen.  A  large  portion  treat  of 
biblical  subjects,  and  the  lives  of  saints 
and  martyrs;  but  astronomy,  medicine, 
grammar,  and  arithmetic  are  among  the 
subjects  that  engaged  his  attention.  His 
chief  work  is  the  Ecclesiastical  History  of 
the  English  Nation.  This  furnishes  the 
best  knowledge  we  have  of  the  history  of 
England  up  to  the  time  of  his  death.  The 
great  scholar  and  teacher  is  represented 
to  us  as  a  man  of  singular  beauty  of  char¬ 
acter,  devout,  humble,  trustful. 

Bedell,  William,  an  eminent  and  beloved 
prelate  of  the  English  Church;  b.  at  Black 
Motley,  Essex,  Eng.,  in  1570;  d.  Feb.  7, 
1642.  He  was  educated  at  Cambridge, 
and  after  serving  for  five  years  the  parish 
of  Bury  St.  Edmunds,  he  became,  in  1604, 
the  chaplain  of  Sir  Henry  Wotton,  at 
Venice.  On  his  return  home,  he  again 
served  at  Bury.  In  1615  he  was  presented 
with  the  living  of  Horningsheath,  in  Suf¬ 


folk,  where  he  remained  twelve  years. 
From  here  (1627)  he  was  called  to  be  pro¬ 
vost  of  Trinity  College,  Dublin,  and  two 
years  afterward  was  elected  Bishop  of 
Kilmore  and  Ardagh.  He  earnestly  sought 
to  reform  many  crying  abuses  that  pre¬ 
vailed  in  his  diocese,  and  displayed  so 
loving  and  noble  a  spirit  in  the  work  that 
even  his  enemies  were  compelled  to  admit 
his  virtues.  The  translation  of  the  Old 
Testament  into  Irish  was  accomplished 
under  his  direction.  When  the  rebellion 
of  1641  broke  out,  his  house  was  the  only 
one  in  the  county  of  Cavan  that  was  spared. 
Refusing  to  dismiss  his  flock,  he  was 
finally  seized  and  imprisoned  in  the  Castle 
of  Cloughboughter.  From  here  he  was 
taken  to  the  house  of  a  Protestant  clergy¬ 
man,  where  he  continued  to  minister  offi¬ 
cially  until  his  death,  which  occurred 
within  a  short  time. 

Beecher,  Henry  Ward;  b.  at  Litchfield, 
Conn.,  June  24,  1813;  d.  in  Brooklyn, 
N.  Y.,  March  8,  1887.  After  graduating 
at  Amherst  College  in  1834,  he  studied 
theology  at  Lane  Seminary,  Cincinnati,  of 
which  his  father  was  then  president.  He 
was  pastor  of  the  Presbyterian  Church  at 
Lawrenceburg,  Ind.  (1837),  and  then  at  In¬ 
dianapolis  from  1839  to  1847,  when  he  ac¬ 
cepted  a  call  to  Plymouth  Cong.  Church, 
Brooklyn,  N.  Y.  His  fame  as  a  pulpit 
orator  and  platform  speaker  was  world¬ 
wide.  He  was  foremost  in  urging  forward 
the  philanthropic  reforms  of  his  generation. 
His  death  called  forth  the  testimony  on 
every  side  that  no  voice  had  ever  spoken 
with  more  marvelous  range  of  power,  and 
influence  for  humanity  and  the  country  in 
its  hour  of  peril.  From  1861  to  1863  he 
was  the  editor  of  the  Independent ,  and  of 
the  Christian  Union  from  1870  to  1880. 
His  sermons  were  regularly  published 
from  1859  until  his  death.  The  following, 
books,  of  which  he  was  the  author,  have 
had  a  large  sale :  Lectures  to  Young  Men 
(New  York,  1850);  Star  Papers  (1855); 
Norwood:  a  novel  (1867);  Lecture  Room 
Talks  (1870);  Life  of  Christ  (vol.  i.,  1871); 
Yale  Lectures  on  Preaching  (1872-1874),  3 
vols. ;  Evolution  and  Religion  (1885).  See 
his  biography  by  Lyman  Abbott  (N.  Y., 
1883,  new  ed.  1887),  and  by  W.  C.  Beecher 
and  S.  Scoville  (N.  Y.,  1888). 

Beecher,  Lyman,  father  of  the  preced¬ 
ing;  b.  at  New  Haven,  Oct.  12,  1775;  d.  in 
Brooklyn,  Jan.  10,  1863;  was  graduated  at 
Yale  in  1797 ,  studied  theology  under  Dr. 
Dwight,  and  was  ordained  pastor  at  East 
Hampton,  L.  I.,  Sept.  5,  1799.  In  1810  he 
accepted  the  pastorate  of  the  Cong.  Church, 
Litchfield,  and  thence  he  removed,  in  1S26, 


Bee 


(  93  ) 


Bel 


to  Boston.  In  1832  he  was  chosen  presi¬ 
dent  and  professor  of  theology  of  Lane 
Theological  Seminary,  Cincinnati.  In  ad¬ 
vanced  life  (1852)  he  returned  to  Boston, 
but  spent  his  last  years  in  Brooklyn.  Dr. 
Beecher  was  a  preacher  of  remarkable 
power  and  original  thought.  He  took  an 
active  part  in  the  theological  discussions 
of  his  times.  His  Six  Sermons  on  Intem¬ 
perance  exerted  a  world-wide  influence; 
and  as  an  evangelistic  preacher  and  pastor 
his  labors  were  followed  by  revivals,  in 
which  many  souls  were  converted.  See 
his  Autobiography ,  edited  by  his  son  Charles 
(N.  Y.,  1864-1865),  2  vols. 

Beelzebub.  The  name  of  the  supreme 
god  among  the  Syro-Phoenician  peoples 
was  Baal,  i.  e.,  lord,  or  owner;  and  by  ad¬ 
ding  to  it  zebub ,  insect,  the  proper  name 
Baal-zebub  was  formed;  the  god  of  Ekron, 
according  to  2  Kings  i.  2;  the  fly-god;  the 
averter  of  insects.  Beelzebub  was  so  named 
from  his  supposed  power  of  driving  away 
noxious  flies.  In  the  New  Testament  the 
word  is  applied  to  Satan,  the  ruler  or  prince 
of  the  demons  (Matt.  x.  25;  xii.  24,  27; 
Mark  iii.  22;  Luke  xi.  15,  18,  19).  The 
best  Greek  MSS.  read  Beelzebul  in  the 
gospels — an  orthography  followed  by  the 
latest  critical  editions. 

Bee'roth  ( the  wells),  one  of  the  four  cities 
of  the  Hivites,  who  deluded  Joshua  into  a 
treaty  of  peace  with  them.  (Josh.  ix.  17.) 
It  is  identified  with  the  modern  el  Birch, 
which  is  about  ten  miles  north  of  Jerusalem, 
on  the  great  road  to  Ndblus.  According  to 
tradition  it  was  at  this  point  in  the  journey 
that  Mary  discovered  that  the  child  Jesus 
was  not  “  in  the  company.”  (Luke  ii.  44.) 


Be'er-she'ba  ( well  of  seven,  or  of  the  oath), 

a  city  on  the  southern  border  of  Canaan. 
Here  Abraham  lived  (Gen.  xxi.  33),  and 
Isaac  (xxvi.  33).  After  the  conquest  it 
formed  a  part  of  Judah.  It  was  a  seat  of 
idolatrous  worship.  (Amos  v.  5;  viii.  14.) 
It  was  a  fortified  town  under  the  Romans, 
but  fell  into  decay.  It  still  retains  the 
name  of  Bir-es-seba,  and  there  are  two  large 
wells,  surrounded  by  troughs,  still  used 
for  watering  flocks  and  herds,  as  in  the 
days  of  the  patriarchs. 

Beghards  and  Beguines.  Toward  the  end 
of  the  twelfth  century,  companies  of  wom¬ 
en  in  several  of  the  towns  of  the  Nether¬ 
lands  banded  together,  under  a  simple  rule, 
for  the  purpose  of  taking  care  of  the  sick, 
and  for  other  charitable  objects.  They 
were  generally  widows  and  maidens  of 
high  rank.  Some  years  later,  companies 
of  men  were  formed  in  a  similar  way,  and 
under  similar  rule.  They  took  no  vows, 
and  were  at  liberty  to  leave  the  company 
when  they  liked.  In  the  fourteenth  century 
they  were  in  close  alliance  with  the 
“Brethren  of  the  Free  Spirit”  (<7.  v.). 
Clement  V.  sought,  through  the  Inquisition, 
to  destroy  them.  John  XXII.  protected 
the  Beguines, but  persecuted  the  Beghards, 
who  were  finally  absorbed  in  the  Tertiarii 
of  the  Franciscans  in  the  seventeenth  cen¬ 
tury.  Small  communities  of  the  Beguines 
still  exist  in  the  Netherlands. 

Bel.  See  Baal. 

Bel  and  Dagon.  See  Apocrypha. 

Belgic  Confession,  a  confession  of  faith 
prepared  by  Guido  de  Bres  of  Brabant, 
and  others,  about  1561.  It  was 
written  in  French,  and  based  on 
Calvinistic  doctrines.  See  Prot¬ 
estant  Confessions. 


Belgium.  Almost  the  entire 
population  of  Belgium  is  Roman 
Catholic,  there  being  probably 
less  than  15,000  Protestants  and 
3,000  Jews.  Full  liberty  in  the 
exercise  of  religious  worship  is 
granted  to  all,  and  the  state  does 
not  interfere  in  any  way  with 
matters  of  religion.  The  Prot¬ 
estant  Evangelical  Church  is 
under  a  synod  composed  of  the 
clergymen  of  the  body,  and  a  rep¬ 
resentative  from  each  of  the 
churches.  It  sits  in  Brussels 
once  a  year,  when  each  member 
is  required  to  be  present,  or  to 
delegate  his  powers  to  another 
member.  The  Anglican  Church 


One  of  the  seven  wells  at  Beer-sheba,  with  watering-troughs  for 

camels  about  it. 


Bel 


Bern 


(  94  ) 


has  eight  pastors  and  as  many  chapels  in 
Belgium — three  in  Brussels,  and  one  in 
each  of  the  towns  of  Antwerp,  Bruges, 
Ghent,  Ostend,  and  Spa. 

Belknap,  Jeremy,  b.  at  Boston,  June  4, 
1744,  where  he  d.,  June  20,  1798.  After 
graduating  at  Harvard  he  became  pas¬ 
tor  of  the  Congregational  Church  of  Dover, 
N.  H.,  1767,  where  he  remained  until  1787, 
when  he  removed  to  Boston.  He  was  one 
of  the  founders  of  the  Massachusetts  His¬ 
torical  Society,  and  the  author  of  a  His¬ 
tory  of  New  Hampshire  (1784-1792),  and 
American  Biography ,  2  vols.,  (1794-1798). 

Bell,  Book,  and  Candle,  Cursing  by, 
the  popular  way  of  expressing  the  cere¬ 
monies  with  which  excommunication  was 
pronounced.  The  “  book”  was  that  from 
which  the  sentence  or  form  of  excommuni¬ 
cation  was  read;  the  “candle”  was  kept 
lighted  during  the  time  that  it  was  being 
read,  and  then  cast  upon  the  ground  and 
extinguished,  to  symbolize  the  expulsion 
of  the  sinner’s  light,  or  “  candlestick,” 
from  the  Church  of  God  until  he  should 
repent;  and  the  “  bell  ”  was  rung,  or  some¬ 
times  the  whole  peal  of  bells,  with  a  dis¬ 
cordant  clangor,  as  an  advertisement  to 
those  outside  the  church  of  what  was  go¬ 
ing  on  within. 

Similar  ceremonies  were  also  used  at 
exorcism,  and  thus  the  same  phrase  came 
to  be  used  for  it.  See  Exorcism. 

Bellamy,  Joseph,  b.  in  Cheshire,  Conn., 
Feb.  20,  1719;  d.  at  Bethlehem,  Conn., 
March  6,  1790.  He  was  graduated  at  Yale 
when  but  sixteen  years  of  age,  and,  in  part, 
received  his  theological  training  from 
Jonathan  Edwards.  He  commenced  preach¬ 
ing  at  about  eighteen  years  of  age,  and  in 
his  twenty-first  year  was  ordained  as  pas¬ 
tor  of  the  Congregational  Church  in  Beth¬ 
lehem,  where  he  spent  the  rest  of  his  life. 
He  was  a  man  of  commanding  presence, 
and  great  power  in  the  pulpit.  While 
naturally  somewhat  overbearing  in  tem¬ 
per,  he  won  and  commanded  universal 
esteem.  He  is  said  to  have  been  the  first 
American  pastor  who  established  a  theo¬ 
logical  training  school  for  young  ministers 
in  his  own  house.  As  a  teacher  he  was 
very  successful,  and  was  both  admired  and 
beloved  by  his  pupils.  He  received  the 
degree  of  D.  D.  from  the  University  of 
Aberdeen  in  1768.  His  writings  on  theo¬ 
logical  subjects  were  widely  read  in  their 
day,  but  he  was  more  successful  as  a 
preacher  and  teacher  than  as  an  author. 

Bellarmine,  Robert,  an  eminent  Roman 
Catholic  controversialist  and  Jesuit;  b.  at 


Montepulciano,  in  Tuscany,  Oct.  4,  1542; 
d.  in  Rome,  Sept.  17,  1621.  He  became 
rector  of  the  Collegium  Romanum  in  1592; 
cardinal  in  1599,  and  Archbishop  of  Capua 
in  1602.  His  principal  work,  Disputaliones 
de  Controversiis  Fidei  adversus  hujus  Tem- 
poris  Hereticos ,  is  still  considered  one  of 
the  strongest  statements  of  the  Roman 
faith. 

Bellows,  Henry  Whitney,  D.  D.,  a  dis¬ 
tinguished  Unitarian  clergyman;  b.  in  Wal¬ 
pole,  N.  H. ,  June  10,  1814;  d.  in  New  York, 
Jan.  30,  1882.  A  graduate  of  Harvard  Col¬ 
lege,  1832,  and  of  the  Divinity  School, 
1837,  he  became  pastor  of  the  Unitarian 
Society,  now  known  as  All  Souls’  Unita¬ 
rian  Church,  New  York,  in  1838,  where  he 
labored  until  his  death.  Dr.  Bellows  was 
a  man  of  catholic  sympathies  and  broad 
culture,  and,  in  various  ways,  exerted  a 
great  influence  for  good  in  the  life  of  the 
city.  His  position  as  one  of  the  organ¬ 
izers  and  president  of  the  U.  S.  Sanitary 
Commission  (1861-66),  brought  him  promi¬ 
nently  before  the  public.  Among  his  pub¬ 
lished  works  are:  Festatetnents  of  Christian 
Doctrine  (Boston,  1859);  ar*d  Old  World  in 
its  New  Face :  Impressions  of  Europe  in 
1867-68  (N.  Y.,  1868). 

Bells.  Small,  closed  bells  ( tintinnabula ) 
were  used  by  the  Hebrews  (Exod.  xxviii. 
33),  the  Romans,  and  the  Greeks  for  vari¬ 
ous  purposes.  The  invention  of  church 
bells  is  generally  ascribed  to  Paulinus, 
Bishop  of  Nola,  a  city  of  Campania,  who 
died  in  431.  They  were  introduced  into 
France  as  early  as  550,  and  in  the  seventh 
century  Bede  mentions  them  in  England. 

Belshazzar,  the  eldest  son  of  Nabonidus, 
who  usurped  the  Babylonian  throne.  His 
mother  was  a  daughter  of  Nebuchadnezzar. 
Some  of  the  difficulties  between  the  histo¬ 
rians  and  the  book  of  Daniel  are  explained 
by  inscriptions  that  have  been  discovered 
that  go  to  show  that  Belshazzar  was  asso¬ 
ciated  upon  the  throne  with  his  father.  The 
verification  of  the  Bible  history  by  the  cu¬ 
neiform  inscriptions  is  given  in  Rawlinson’s 
Great  Monarchies. 

Bema,  the  part  of  a  church  raised  above 
the  rest,  shut  off  by  railings  or  screens, 
and  reserved  for  the  higher  clergy.  Some¬ 
times  the  apse  was  large  enough  to  fur¬ 
nish  sufficient  room  for  the  bema,  but  if 
not,  a  space  in  front  of  the  apse  was  often 
included. 

Beman,  Nathaniel  S.  S.,  D.  D.,  Pres¬ 
byterian;  b.  in  1785;  d.  at  Troy,  N.  Y. , 
1871.  A  graduate  of  Middlebury  College, 


Ben 


(  95  ) 


Ben 


he  was  for  a  time  engaged  in  missionary 
work  in  Georgia.  In  1822  he  became  pas¬ 
tor  of  the  First  Presbyterian  Church,  in 
Troy,  N.  Y.,  where  he  labored  more  than 
forty  years.  He  was  a  leader  of  the  New 
School  Presbyterian  Church,  and  was  elect¬ 
ed  Moderator  of  the  General  Assembly  in 
1831,  and  in  1837.  A  volume  of  his  ser¬ 
mons  and  addresses  was  published,  and 
also  Four  Sermons  on  the  Atonement. 

Bena'iah  ( whom  Jehovah  hath  built  up), 
son  of  Jehoiada,  and  captainof  David’s  body¬ 
guard.  (2  Sam.  viii.  18.)  He  was  distin¬ 
guished  for  his  bravery.  (2  Sam.  xxiii. 
20-23.)  Loyal  in  his  adherence  to  Solo¬ 
mon,  he  executed  the  death-sentence  upon 
Adonijah  and  Joab,  and  was  appointed  the 
successor  of  Joab.  (1  Kings  ii.  29-35.) 
There  are  a  number  of  other  men  of  this 
name  mentioned  in  the  Bible. 

Benedicite,  the  Canticle  at  Morning 
Prayer  alternative  to  the  Te  Deum\  so 
called,  like  all  other  canticles,  and  the 
whole  Psalter,  from  its  first  word  in  Latin. 
In  its  origin  it  is  a  part,  not  the  whole,  of 
the  song  which,  in  the  Greek  and  Latin 
translations  of  the  Bible,  Shadrach,  Me- 
shach,  and  Abednego  sang  in  the  furnace 
of  fire.  (Dan.  iii.)  In  the  original  He¬ 
brew  this  song  does  not  exist,  and  there¬ 
fore  in  modern  English  Bibles  it  is  placed, 
with  other  like  books  and  parts  of  books, 
in  that  section  of  the  Bible  known  as  the 
Apocrypha;  the  reference  for'  the  Bene¬ 
dicite  to  our  English  Apocrypha  is  Song  of 
the  Three  Holy  Children  (vv.  35-66). — 
Benham. 

Benedict  of  Aniane;  b.  in  Languedoc,  750; 
d.  at  Suda,  Feb.  12,  821.  Educated  in  the 
court  of  Charlemagne,  he  early  renounced 
the  world,  and  entered  the  monastery  of 
St.  Sequanus,  in  Laugres.  In  the  face 
of  persecution  he  sought  to  purify  the  or¬ 
der  with  which  he  had  connected  himself. 
In  779  he  founded  a  new  monastery  in 
Languedoc,  on  the  River  Aniane.  His 
influence  was  widely  felt,  and  he  became 
an  adviser  of  Charlemagne.  In  order  to 
be  near  the  court,  he  was  called  to  found 
the  monastery  of  Juda,  near  Aix-la-Cha- 
pelle,  and  as  superintendent  of  all  the 
monasteries  of  the  kingdom,  he  introduced 
many  reforms,  and  gained  for  them  a 
strong  position  in  the  state. 

Benedict,  St.,  founder  of  the  Benedict¬ 
ine  order;  b.  at  Nursia,  in  Umbria,  about 
the  year  480;  d.  March  21,  543,  at  Monte 
Cassino.  While  pursuing  his  studies  as  a 
lad  at  Rome,  shocked  by  the  vice  and  cor¬ 
ruption  about  him,  he  fled  from  the  city, 


and  found  refuge  in  a  secluded  grotto, 
near  Subiaco,  some  forty  miles  away.  For 
the  story  of  his  life  we  are  dependent 
upon  the  biography  of  Gregory  the  Great, 
in  which,  after  the  mediaeval  fashion,  ex¬ 
aggerated  traditions  distort  the  picture. 
There  is  no  room  to  doubt  that  Benedict 
led  a  life  of  remarkable  religious  austerity 
and  devotion,  and  great  personal  purity. 
After  about  three  years  spent  in  seclusion, 
a  convent  of  monks  near  by  chose  him  as 
their  head.  The  severity  of  his  rule  led 
to  bitter  opposition,  and,  after  an  attempt 
had  been  made  to  poison  him,  he  withdrew 
again  to  the  refuge  of  his  grotto.  The 
fame  of  his  piety  spread  rapidly,  and  the 
number  of  his  followers  became  so  great 
that  twelve  cloisters  were  built  in  the 
neighborhood. 

In  many  ways  Benedict  suffered  through 
those  jealous  of  his  fame,  and  temptations 
were  put  in  his  way  to  draw  him  from  the 
path  of  purity.  After  spending  thirty 
years  in  this  lonely  valley  of  the  Anio,  he 
made  his  home  at  Monte  Cassino,  near  the 
source  of  the  Liris.  He  destroyed  an  an¬ 
cient  temple  of  Apollo,  and  built  two  or¬ 
atories,  which  were  the  nucleus  of  the 
great  monastery  which  became  the  nursery 
of  the  order  that  has  made  the  name  and 
fame  of  its  founder  world-wide.  Benedict 
labored  here  for  fourteen  years.  A  be¬ 
loved  sister  also  established  a  nunnery  at 
Monte  Cassino.  By  the  rules  of  the  order 
they  were  permitted  to  see  each  other 
once  a  year.  After  one  of  these  meetings, 
marked  by  prolonged  spiritual  exercises, 
Benedict,  three  days  later,  saw  in  a  vision 
the  soul  of  his  sister  entering  heaven,  and 
in  a  little  time  the  hour  of  his  own  release 
came,  and  he  was  buried  by  her  side. 

Benedict  is  the  name  of  one  schismatic 
and  fourteen  regular  popes.  See  Popes. 

Benedictines,  the  name  given  to  the  fol¬ 
lowers  of  St.  Benedict,  who  submitted  to 
the  monastic  rule  which  he  instituted. 
This  rule  will  be  generally  described  in  the 
article  on  Monasticism.  It  is  sufficient  to 
say  here  that  its  two  main  principles  were 
labor  and  obedience.  “  It  was  the  distinc¬ 
tion  of  Benedict  that  he  not  merely  organ¬ 
ized  the  monks  into  communities,  but  based 
their  community  life,  in  a  great  degree,  on 
manual  labor,  in  contrast  to  the  merely 
meditative  seclusion  which  had  hitherto 
been  in  vogue  both  in  the  East  and  the 
West.  Probably  not  even  the  founder 
himself  foresaw  all  the  prospective  advan¬ 
tages  of  his  law,  which  was  destined,  not 
merely  to  make  many  a  wilderness  and 
solitary  place  to  rejoice  with  fidelity,  but 
to  expand,  moreover,  into  a  noble  intellect- 


Ben 


Ben 


(  96  ) 


ual  fruitfulness,  which  has  been  the  glory 
of  the  Benedictine  order.  The  law  of 
obedience  was  absolute,  but  was  tempered 
by  the  necessity,  on  the  part  of  the  superior, 
of  consulting  all  the  monks,  assembled  in  a 
council  or  chapter,  upon  all  important 
business.  The  abbot,  or  superior,  was 
also  elected  by  all  the  monks,  whose  liberty 
of  choice  was  unrestricted.  No  right  of 
endowment  properly  subsisted  within  the 
monastery;  and  the  vow  of  stability,  once 
undertaken  after  the  expiry  of  the  year  of 
novitiate,  could  never  be  recalled.  Food 
and  clothing  were  of  the  simplest  kind,  and 
all  duly  regulated;  and  the  intervals  of 
labor  were  relieved  by  a  continually  recur¬ 
ring  round  of  religious  service  from  prime 
to  even-song.  The  Benedictine  rule  spread 
almost  universally  in  the  West,  not  in 
rivalry  of  any  other  rule,  but  as  the  more 
full  and  complete  development  of  the  mo¬ 
nastic  system.” — Ency .  Britannica.  At  one 
time  there  are  said  to  have  been  37,000  Ben¬ 
edictine  monasteries.  They  numbered 
among  their  branches  the  powerful  order 
of  the  Cistercians  and  that  of  Clugny.  In 
England  most  of  the  richest  abbeys  belong¬ 
ed  to  this  order. 

Benediction.  The  practice  of  benedic¬ 
tion  passed  from  the  Jewish  to  the  Chris¬ 
tian  Church.  In  the  Roman  Church  it  is 
considered  a  holy  action,  by  which  God’s 
grace  is  implored  in  behalf  of  some  person 
or  thing,  and  is  attended  by  certain  gest¬ 
ures  and  signs  of  the  hands.  Innumer¬ 
able  formulas  are  prescribed.  In  the 
Protestant  churches  the  act  of  benediction 
has  no  significance  like  that  in  the  Roman 
and  Greek  Churches. 

Benefice.  (1)  “  In  feuaal  law  originally 
a  fee  or  an  estate  in  lands  granted  for  life 
only,  and  held  ex  tnero  beneficio  (on  the 
mere  good  pleasure)  of  the  donor.  (2)  An 
ecclesiastical  living;  a  church  office  en¬ 
dowed  with  a  revenue  for  its  proper  ful¬ 
filment;  the  revenue  itself.  The  following 
terms  of  canon  law  are  frequently  found 
associated  with  this  word,  which  is  of  his¬ 
torical  importance:  A  benefice  involving 
no  other  obligation  than  service  in  the 
public  offices  of  the  church  is  sifnple;  if  the 
cure  of  souls  is  attached  to  it,  double;  if 
with  a  certain  rank  attached,  dignitary  or 
major;  the  two  former,  without  rank, 
minor.  Thus,  a  chantry  was  a  simple  bene¬ 
fice;  a  prebend  gives  the  right  to  only  a 
part  of  the  income  of  a  canonry  attached 
to  a  collegiate  or  cathedral  church;  while 
the  benefice  is  perpetual,  and  has  a  charge, 
though  there  are  some  (called  manual , 
from  their  being  in  the  hands  of  the  one 
conferring  them)  revocable.  The  benefice 


is  said  to  be  regular  if  held  by  one  quali¬ 
fied  to  fulfil  the  duties  of  the  office;  secular 
if  held  by  a  layman;  and  in  commendam 
when  in  the  charge  of  one  commended  by 
the  proper  authorities  until  one  duly  quali¬ 
fied  to  fulfil  its  duties  is  appointed.  In  the 
last-named  case  the  discharge  of  the  office 
is  provided  for  at  the  expense  of  the  hold¬ 
er.  A  benefice  is  received  by  election — for 
example,  by  a  chapter — or  is  conferred  by 
the  proper  ecclesiastical  superior  ;  these 
nominations,  in  the  Roman  Catholic 
Church,  regularly  need  confirmation  from 
the  pope.  His  action  may  cause  a  benefice 
to  be  reserved  or  affected  (i.  e. ,  reserved  to 
persons  possessed  of  certain  qualifications) 
or  the  collation  (i.  e.,  the  presentation  of 
the  benefice)  is  made  alternative — that  is, 
to  the  pope  and  regular  patron  or  superior, 
according  to  the  months  in  which  the  bene¬ 
fice  falls  vacant,  by  definite  system.” — 
Century  Dictionary ,  s.  v. 

Benefit  of  Clergy.  See  Clergy,  Bene¬ 
fit  of. 

Benevolence,  Beneficence.  The  first  has 
reference  to  the  desire  of  the  heart  to  do 
good  to  others,  and  the  latter  to  practical 
efforts  in  their  behalf.  The  one  is  uni¬ 
versal  in  its  sympathy,  the  other  is  guided 
in  its  activities  by  various  circumstances. 
The  rule  of  life  should  be  to  do  good  to  all 
men  as  we  have  opportunity.  (Gal.  vi.  10.) 

Beng'el,  Johann  Albricht,  an  eminent 
Biblical  commentator  and  critic;  b.  at  Win- 
nenden,  in  Wiirtemberg,  June  24,  1687;  d. 
at  Stuttgart,  Nov.  2,  1751.  He  studied  the¬ 
ology  at  Tubingen,  and  after  service  there 
as  theological  tutor,  from  1708  to  1713, 
he  was  appointed  principal  of  the  prepar¬ 
atory  school  of  theology  at  Denkendorf, 
where  he  remained  for  twenty-eight  years. 
This  was  the  period  in  which  he  prepared 
the  critical  works  on  the  New  Testament 
which  are  so  widely  known.  His  Gnomon 
Novi  Test  amentia  which  appeared  in  1742, 
“  remains  unto  this  day  a  treasure-house 
of  exposition,  delivered  in  sentences  whose 
point,  clearness,  brevity,  and  wondrous 
depth  of  meaning,  render  them  not  only 
worthy  of  patient  study,  but  a  part  of  the 
mental  stores  of  the  attentive  student.  It 
was  the  fruit  of  twenty  years  of  labor, 
and  it  has  been  said  of  it  that  it  ‘  condenses 
more  matter  into  a  line  than  can  be  ex¬ 
tracted  from  the  pages  of  other  writers.’  ” 
The  principles  of  interpretation  as  stated 
by  himself,  were,  “to  put  nothing  into 
the  Scriptures,  but  to  draw  everything 
from  them,  and  suffer  nothing  to  remain 
hidden  that  is  really  in  them.”  Bengel 
was  appointed  prelate  of  Herbrechtingen 


Ben 


(  97  ) 


Ber 


in  1741,  and  consistorial  counselor  and 
prelate  of  Alpirsbach,  with  residence  at 
Stuttgart,  in  1749.  His  official  power  was 
used  in  the  interests  of  religious  liberty, 
and  his  later  years  were  crowned  with  re¬ 
spect  and  usefulness.  A  Memoir  of  his  Life 
and  Writings ,  by  J.  C.  F.  Burk,  was  trans¬ 
lated  into  English  (London,  1837). 

Ben  -  ha'dad  ( son ,  i.  e.,  worshiper  of 
Hadad ),  the  name  of  three  Syrian  kings. 
(1)  The  son  of  Tabrimon,  who  came  to  the 
relief  of  Asa,  king  of  Judah,  against  Baa- 
sha,  king  of  Israel.  (1  Kings  xvi.  18.)  (2) 
A  son  of  the  preceding,  who  made  war 
against  Ahab  and  Jehoram.  He  was  once  de¬ 
feated,  but  escaped  by  stratagem.  (1  Kings 
xx.)  Besieging  Jehoram  in  Samaria,  the 
Syrian  host,  by  divine  intervention,  were 
dispersed.  (2  Kings  vi.  8;  vii.  20.)  He 
consulted  Elijah  when  sick,  and  was  assas¬ 
sinated  by  Hazael.  (2  Kings  vi.  to  viii.)  (3) 
The  son  of  Hazael,  who  suffered  defeat, 
and  was  compelled  to  relinquish  all  of  the 
land  his  father  had  gained  in  conquest.  (2 
Kings  xiii.  25;  Amos  i.  4.) 

Benjamin.  See  Tribes. 

Benno,  Bishop  of  Meissen;  b.  near  Gos- 
lar,  Hanover,  1010;  d.  at  Meissen,  Sax¬ 
ony,  June  16,  1106.  He  was  the  author  of 
two  works  still  extant,  on  Teaching  and  on 
the  Sunday  Gospels.  He  was  twice  impris¬ 
oned  by  Henry  IV.  on  suspicion  of  disloy¬ 
alty.  His  canonization  in  1523  was  much 
ridiculed  by  Luther,  who  brought  forward 
some  instances  of  his  defective  character. 
He  is  buried  at  Munich,  and  is  accepted  as 
the  patron  saint  of  Bavaria. 

Benson,  Rt.  Hon.  and  Most  Rev.  Ed¬ 
ward  White,  D.  D.  (Cambridge,  1867), 
D.  C.  L.  (Oxford,  1884),  Lord  Archbishop 
of  Canterbury  and  Primate  of  All  England, 
and  Metropolitan;  b.  near  Birmingham, 
July  14,  1829;  graduated  at  Cambridge, 
1852;  assistant  master  at  Rugby,  1853; 
first  head-master  of  Wellington  College, 
1859;  Bishop  of  Truro,  1877;  transferred  to 
Canterbury  and  enthroned,  1882.  He  has 
published  several  volumes  of  sermons: 
The  Cathedral :  its  Necessary  Place  in  the 
Life  and  Work  of  the  Church  (1879);  The 
Seven  Gifts  (1885). 

Benson,  Joseph,  b.  at  Melmerby,  in 
Cumberland,  England,  Jan.  25,  1748;  d.  in 
London,  Feb.  16,  1821.  He  was  one  of  the 
most  eminent  of  the  early  Methodist  min¬ 
isters  of  Great  Britain.  Well  educated, 
and  an  earnest  student  during  all  his  public 
life,  he  filled  the  most  important  stations 
in  the  Wesleyan  connection.  He  was  very 


popular  as  a  preacher,  and  prepared  A 
Commentary  on  the  Holy  Scriptures ,  that  had 
a  large  circulation. 

Bentley,  Richard,  a  distinguished  schol¬ 
ar;  b.  at  Oulton,  Yorkshire,  Jan.  27,  1662; 
d.  at  Cambridge,  July  14,  1742.  A  gradu¬ 
ate  of  Cambridge,  he  was  appointed  to  the 
Boyle  lectureship  in  1692;  master  of  Trin¬ 
ity  College,  Cambridge,  in  1699;  and  re- 
gius  professor  of  divinity  in  1717.  He  ed¬ 
ited  many  classics,  but  his  fame,  to  a  large 
extent,  rests  upon  the  Dissertation  on  the 
Epistles  of  Phalaris.  His  Boyle  lectures 
and  Remarks  upon  a  late  Discourse  of  Free 
Thinking ,  1713,  were  masterly  attacks 

against  atheism.  A  man  of  severe  and  ac¬ 
rimonious  temper,  he  aroused  bitter  en¬ 
mities,  but  his  bold  and  earnest  efforts 
brought  about  many  reforms  in  the  college 
of  which  he  was  long  the  head.  Bunsen 
says  of  Bentley  that  he  “  was  the  founder 
of  historical  philology.”  See  Works  of 
Richard  Bentley ,  edited  by  the  Rev.  Alexan¬ 
der  Dyce,  3  vols.  (London  1836). 

Bereans,  a  sect  founded  by  John  Barclay 
(1734-1798).  They  claimed  to  imitate  the 
aacient  Bereans  (Acts  xvii.  11),  and  found 
their  only  rule  of  conduct  in  the  Script¬ 
ures.  A  few  congregations  still  exist  in 
Scotland. 

Berenga'rius,  an  eminent  theologian  of 
the  Middle  Ages;  b.  at  Tours  in  998;  d.  on 
the  island  of  St.  Cosme,  1088.  Educated 
under  Bishop  Fulbert  of  Chartres,  in  1031 
he  was  appointed  director  of  the  cathedral 
school  at  Tours,  and  in  1040  was  made 
archdeacon  of  Angers.  It  was  not  far 
from  this  time  that  accusations  were  made 
against  him  of  holding  heretical  views  re¬ 
garding  the  Lord’s  Supper.  The  contro¬ 
versy  in  which  he  engaged  turned  upon 
the  questions — (1)  “  Whether  the  words 
*  This  is  My  Body,’  and  ‘  This  is  My 
Blood,’  mean  that  the  consecrated  bread 
and  wine  actually  become  changed  into  the 
body  and  blood  of  Christ,  in  such  a  sense 
that  the  bread  and  wine  no  longer  exist 
(transubstantiation)  ;  or  (2)  whether  the 
words  are  used  in  a  symbolic  sense  only, 
and  so  do  not  mean  that  the  body  and 
blood  of  Christ  are  really  present  at  all  in 
the  consecrated  bread  and  wine;  or  (3) 
whether  the  words  mean  that  the  body  and 
blood  of  Christ  are  truly  present  in  asso¬ 
ciation  with  the  consecrated  elements,  but 
present  in  a  mysterious  manner  which  can¬ 
not  be  explained.  The  last  of  these  state¬ 
ments  was  that  which  was  actually  main¬ 
tained  by  Berengarius.  The  second  was 
that  which  he  was  accused  of  maintaining; 
and  the  first  was  that  which  was  maintain- 


Ber 


Ber 


(  98  ) 


ed  by  his  opponents.” — Benham:  Did.  of 
Religion.  Berengarius  entered  upon  a  cor¬ 
respondence  with  Lanfranc,  which  brought 
his  views  to  the  attention  of  Pope  Leo  IX. , 
and  at  two  different  synods  in  1050  he  was 
condemned  without  a  hearing.  He  was 
released  from  prison  through  the  interven¬ 
tion  of  powerful  friends,  and  at  the  Coun¬ 
cil  of  Tours  (1054)  he  gained  the  assistance 
of  Hildebrand,  who  satisfied  the  Council 
that  Berengarius  did  not  deny  the  real 
presence  of  Christ  in  the  sacramental  ele¬ 
ments.  At  the  Synod  of  Rome,  in  1059, 
under  fear  of  death,  he  subscribed  to  the 
strongest  statement  of  the  doctrine  of 
transubstantiation.  This  act  caused  him 
keen  remorse,  and  he  made  the  best 
amends  he  could  by  asserting  his  former 
views  more  strenuously  than  ever.  In 
1078  he  was  summoned  to  Rome,  and  dur¬ 
ing  the  progress  of  a  synod  in  the  follow¬ 
ing  year,  under  the  stern  command  of  Hil¬ 
debrand,  now  Pope  Gregory  VII.,  he  again 
made  a  recantation.  With  bitter  tears  he 
soon  recalled  this  forced  expression  of  er¬ 
ror,  but  he  no  longer  attempted  to  promul¬ 
gate  his  views  in  public,  but  retired  to  the 
solitude  of  the  island  of  St.  Como,  near 
Tours,  where  he  spent  the  rest  of  his  life. 

Berengarians,  the  followers  of  Beren¬ 
garius.  No  sect  was  ever  formed  under 
his  name;  but  those  in  the  Middle  Ages 
who  denied  the  real  presence  of  the  body 
and  blood  of  Christ  in  the  Eucharist  were 
called  Berengarians. 

Berkeley,  George,  bishop  of  the  Church 
of  England  ;  b.  at  Dysert  Castle,  county 
of  Kilkenny,  Ireland,  March  12,  1685;  d. 
at  Oxford,  England,  Jan.  14,  1753.  He 
was  educated  at  Trinity  College,  Dublin, 
where  he  gained  a  fellowship  in  1707.  In 
1724  he  was  preferred  to  the  deanery  of 
Derry,  but,  having  become  deeply  interest¬ 
ed  in  missionary  work  for  North  America, 
he  still  hoped  to  carry  out  his  plans  in  this 
direction.  Disappointed  in  founding,  at 
Bermuda,  a  college  for  the  training  of  mis¬ 
sionaries,  he  came  to  America  in  1729,  and 
made  his  home  at  Newport,  Rhode  Island. 
He  did  not  receive  the  aid  which  had  been 
promised  him,  and  after  three  years  of  labor 
he  returned  to  England,  and  in  1730  was 
made  bishop  of  Cloyne,  Ireland.  “  He  is 
chiefly  remembered  as  the  author  of  what 
is  called  the  Ideal  Philosophy,  which  is 
founded  upon  the  doctrine  of  Locke,  that 
it  is  not  things  we  know,  but  the  ideas  of 
things.  This  system  was  further  developed 
by  Berkeley,  who  held  that  the  ideas  are 
themselves  the  things  and  the  only  things 
that  seem  real.  However  paradoxical  this 
may  seem,  and  regarded,  as  it  is,  by  many 


as  skeptical,  it  was  intended  by  Berkeley  to 
meet  the  prevailing  skepticism  of  his  day. 
He  defended  his  theory  in  several  works, 
chiefly  in  The  Principles  of  Human  Knowl¬ 
edge  (1710),  Three  Dialogues  Between  Hylas 
and  Philonous  (1713),  and  The  Minute  Phil¬ 
osopher  (1732).  He  was  also  the  author  of 
The  Theory  of  Vision  (1709),  in  which  he 
showed  that  many  of  the  properties  of 
bodies  are  known  to  us,  not  by  sight,  but 
by  other  faculties,  and  thence  by  associa¬ 
tion  and  reasoning.  In  his  later  years  he 
published  a  work  called  Siris:  or,  A  Chain 
of  Philosophical  Refections  and  Inquiries , 
beginning  with  a  discussion  on  the  virtues 
of  tar  water,  and  ending  with  the  doctrine  of 
the  Holy  Trinity.  He  was  a  man  of  remark¬ 
ably  beautiful  and  benevolent  character, 
and  his  style  is  a  model  for  philosophical 
disquisition.”  —  Cassell:  Ency.  See  his 
complete  works  (ed.  by  R.  C.  Fraser,  Ox¬ 
ford,  1871),  4  vols.,  with  biography. 

Bern,  The  Disputation  of,  was  famous 
among  the  many  gatherings  held  during 
the  Reformation,  to  decide  whether  Prot¬ 
estantism  or  Romanism  should  be  the  ac¬ 
knowledged  religion  of  the  country.  Bern 
had  for  some  time  been  halting  between 
two  opinions,  but  at  last  the  lords  and 
chief  citizens  determined  to  hold  a  confer¬ 
ence,  to  choose  once  for  all  between  the 
Pope  and  Luther.  They  sent  invitations  to 
the  bishops,  and  desired  all  the  cantons 
and  free  towns  of  the  Helvetic  Confeder¬ 
acy  to  send  deputies;  indeed,  so  anxious 
were  they  to  thoroughly  sift  the  matter, 
that  they  invited  the  ablest  champions  on 
both  sides,  promising  them  freedom  of  de¬ 
bate.  The  assemblage  amounted  to  about 
350  persons.  The  place  chosen  for  the 
conference  was  the  Church  of  the  Corde¬ 
liers;  the  Popish  deputies  sat  at  one  table 
and  the  Protestants  at  the  other,  and  be¬ 
tween  them  sat  the  secretaries,  who  were 
bound  by  an  oath  to  make  a  true  and  unbi¬ 
ased  report  of  the  proceedings.  The  meet¬ 
ing  lasted  for  twenty  days,  from  Jan.  6, 
1528,  to  Jan.  27.  It  sat  on  Sundays  as 
well  as  week-days,  except  on  Jan.  22d,  the 
fete  of  St.  Vincent,  the  patron  saint  of 
Bern.  Then  it  was  seen  that  the  Protes¬ 
tants  had  gained  the  day;  the  Bernese  had 
been  accustomed  to  observe  the  day  with 
much  solemnity,  but  now  the  bells  called 
in  vain  to  service:  neither  priest  nor  wor¬ 
shiper  appeared.  Then  the  canons  and 
ecclesiastics  were  assembled  and  asked  if 
they  wished  to  subscribe  to  the  Reformed 
theses,  to  which  they  replied  with  hearty 
consent,  and  forthwith  signed  the  articles. 
Eck  and  other  champions  of  Rome  had  de¬ 
clined  to  be  present,  thus  leaving  the  field 
open  to  the  Protestants,  who  were  repre- 


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sented  by  Zwingli,  Kolb,  Haller,  Capito 
and  (Ecolampadius.  On  Feb.  7,  1528,  the 
Reformation  Edict  was  published,  consist¬ 
ing  of  thirteen  articles.  Mass  was  abol¬ 
ished,  and  the  altars  were  pulled  down, 
images  were  removed,  and  the  Reforma¬ 
tion  may  be  said  to  have  won  a  complete 
and  easy  victory. — Benham:  Did.  of  Re¬ 
ligion. 

Bernard,  St.,  the  most  distinguished 
representative  of  monasticism  in  the 
Middle  Ages  ;  b.  at  Fontaines,  near  Di¬ 
jon,  in  1091;  d.  at  Clairvaux,  Aug.  20, 
1153.  Sprung  from  a  noble  family,  the 
influence  of  a  pious  mother,  in  connection 
with  his  natural  disposition,  early  drew 
him  to  the  life  of  the  cloister.  He  was  but 
twenty-two  years  old  when  he  entered  the 
monastery  of  Citeaux  (1113),  and  at  once 
gave  evidence  of  the  persuasive  power  of 
eloquence  that  ever  after  marked  his  ca¬ 
reer.  At  the  time  he  joined  the  monas¬ 
tery,  it  was  in  charge  of  Stephen  Harding, 
an  Englishman,  who  soon  discovered  that 
the  young  monk  was  a  man  of  extraordi¬ 
nary  promise.  Giving  himself  with  singu¬ 
lar  devotion  to  religious  duties,  in  medita¬ 
tion  and  fasting,  he  gladly  performed  the 
most  menial  duties.  In  thus  “  losing  his 
life,”  his  example  became  a  pattern  for  oth¬ 
ers,  and  the  fame  of  the  monastery  soon 
filled  its  walls  to  overflowing,  and  new  col¬ 
onies  were  sent  forth.  Bernard  was  placed 
at  the  head  of  a  company  ( 1 1 1 5 )  that,  in  a 
wild,  secluded  valley  of  Langres,  laid  the 
foundations  of  the  abbey  of  Clairvaux. 
Under  the  pressure  of  labor,  hardship,  and 
fastings,  Bernard  fell  ill,  but  regained  his 
strength  under  the  care  of  his  friend,  Wil¬ 
liam  of  Champeaux. 

With  health  restored,  his  influence  as  a 
preacher,  writer,  and  ecclesiastical  leader 
was  recognized  throughout  the  bounds  of 
Christendom.  When,  after  the  death  of 
Pope  Honorius  II.,  in  1130,  the  Roman 
Church  was  distracted  by  the  claims  of 
rival  popes,  Bernard  favored  Innocent  II. 
His  influence  proved  irresistible,  and  the 
struggle  at  its  close  found  him  the  recog¬ 
nized  ecclesiastical  leader  of  his  age.  It  was 
at  this  time  that  he  entered  upon  his  mem¬ 
orable  theological  conflict  with  Abelard. 
At  their  first  meeting,  Abelard  refused  to 
proceed  with  his  defense,  and  appealed  to 
Rome.  Bernard  forwarded  to  the  Pope  a 
letter  of  indictment  against  his  opponent, 
and  Abelard  was  silenced.  A  partial  recon¬ 
ciliation  was  afterward  effected  between 
the  two  great  leaders  by  Peter  the  Vener¬ 
able,  Abbot  of  Cluny. 

The  connection  of  Bernard  with  the 
Crusades  forms  the  saddest  chapter  in  his 
history,  but  is  a  remarkable  illustration  of 


the  influence  his  words  and  counsel  exert¬ 
ed.  The  fall  of  Edessa  in  1144  aroused  an 
intense  desire  throughout  the  Roman  em¬ 
pire  to  rescue  the  Holy  Land  from  the  in¬ 
fidels.  St.  Bernard  was  urged  by  the  Pope 
to  preach  the  new  crusade.  Passing  through 
Germany  and  France,  his  eloquence  kin¬ 
dled  a  flame  of  enthusiasm  that  soon  gath¬ 
ered  a  vast  army.  History  records  the 
utter  failure  of  the  crusade.  The  suffering 
and  ruin  that  was  so  wide-spread  found 
vent  in  the  abuse  of  the  great  preacher. 
Accepting  these  assaults  in  a  spirit  of  hu¬ 
mility,  Bernard  was  distressed  in  mind 
and  broken  in  body.  Faithful  in  the  dis¬ 
charge  of  his  duties  to  the  last,  amid  the 
sorrow  of  his  devoted  followers,  he  re¬ 
joiced  when  the  hour  of  his  departure 
came.  Luther  says,  “  If  there  ever  lived 
on  the  earth  a  God-fearing  and  holy  monk, 
it  was  St.  Bernard  of  Clairvaux.”  The  best 
edition  of  his  works  is  that  of  Mabillon 
(Paris,  1690;  reprinted  in  1854;  4  vols. 
English  trans.  by  S.  J.  Eales,  London, 
1889).  In  the  church  universal  the  name  of 
St.  Bernard  is  best  known  as  the  author  of 
several  hymns,  the  most  famous  of  which 
is,  “O  Sacred  Head,  now  Wounded,”  which 
was  translated  into  German  by  Gerhardt. 

Bernard  of  Cluny,  b.  about  the  middle  of 
the  twelfth  century,  at  Morlaix,  in  Brit¬ 
tany;  d.  at  Cluny.  He  wrote  a  Latin 
poem,  “  De  Contemptu  Mundi.”  Through 
the  translations  of  Dr.  Trench  and  Rev.  J. 
M.  Neale,  extracts  from  the  poem  have 
passed  into  general  use  in  the  hymn-books 
of  all  denominations.  The  most  popular 
of  the  hymns  are:  “  Brief  Life  is  Here  our 
Portion  ”;  “  For  Thee,  O  dear,  dear  Coun¬ 
try!  ”  and  “  Jerusalem,  the  Golden.” 
Nothing  is  known  of  the  life  of  Bernard. 

Bernard  of  Mentone  (923-1008),  the 
founder  of  the  hospitals  for  travelers 
across  the  Alpine  passes,  known  as  “  The 
Great  St.  Bernard  ”  and  “  The  Little  St. 
Bernard.”  For  nine  centuries  the  two 
hospices,  built  through  his  efforts,  have 
been  the  home  of  Augustinian  monks, who 
have  ministered  to  the  wants  of,  and  often 
rescued  from  death,  distressed  travelers. 
It  was  while  Archdeacon  of  Aosta,  and 
engaged  in  missionary  work  among  the 
mountaineers,  that  his  attention  was  called 
to  the  need  of  the  hospitals  which  he 
founded,  and  which  have  accomplished  so 
much  good. 

Bernardine  of  Siena,  St.,  b.  at  Massa, 
1380;  d.  at  Aquila,  May  30,  1444.  At  the 
age  of  twenty-two  he  became  a  Franciscan, 
and  during  the  plague  which  ravaged 
Siena  in  1400  he  showed  rare  devotion 


Ber 


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(  ioo  ) 


Bet 


and  courage.  He  was  the  most  celebrated 
preacher  of  his  time,  and  by  his  eloquence 
many  were  converted  to  a  life  of  sobriety 
and  virtue.  He  refused  several  bishoprics. 
It  is  said  that  he  founded  no  less  than  300 
monasteries. 

Bernardines,  a  second  name  for  the  Cis¬ 
tercian  order  of  monks.  See  Cistercians. 

Berni'ce,  or  Berenice  ( victorious ),  the 
eldest  daughter  of  Herod  Agrippa  I.  (Acts 
xxv.  13,  23;  xxvi.  30.)  She  was  first  mar¬ 
ried  to  her  uncle  Herod,  the  king  of  Chal- 
cis;  and  after  his  death  lived  in  a  connec¬ 
tion  with  her  brother  Agrippa  that  gave 
rise  to  much  scandal.  She  finally  became 
the  mistress  of  Vespasian,  and  then  of  his 
son  Titus. 

Berquin  ( ber-kan ),  Louis  de,  b.  at  Passy 
about  1490;  d.  in  Paris,  April  17,  1529. 
After  close  investigation  he  became  a  con¬ 
vert  to  the  doctrines  of  Luther.  He  was 
twice  imprisoned  on  a  charge  of  heresy, 
but,  through  the  intercession  of  the  king, 
was  released  the  second  time.  Having 
openly  attacked  the  Sorbonne,  he  was  sen¬ 
tenced  to  have  his  tongue  pierced  with  a 
hot  iron,  and  remain  in  prison  the  rest  of 
his  life.  He  appealed  to  the  king,  but  this 
so  enraged  his  judges  that  they  then  con¬ 
demned  him  to  be  burned  alive.  The  sen¬ 
tence  was  executed  in  Paris,  April  17, 
1529.  He  was  the  first  Protestant  martyr 
in  France.  See  Baird:  Rise  of  the  Hugue¬ 
nots ,  I.,  128  sqq. 

Berthold,  founder  of  the  Carmelites.  See 
Carmelites. 

Beryl.  This  precious  stone  was  the  first 
in  the  fourth  row  in  the  high-priest’s  breast¬ 
plate  (Ex.  xxviii.  20),  and  eighth  in  the 
foundation  of  the  holy  Jerusalem.  (Rev. 
xxi.  20.)  It  is  supposed  to  be  allied  to 
the  emerald,  and  to  have  been  the  same  as 
aqua-marina. 

Beth-ab'ara  ( house  of  the  ford),  a  place 
upon  the  Jordan  where  John  baptized  our 
Lord.  (John  i.  28.)  Following  the  most  an¬ 
cient  manuscripts,  the  Revised  Version 
reads  “  Bethany,”  an  obscure  village  in 
Peraea,  not  to  be  confounded  with  Bethany 
on  the  Mount  of  Olives. 

Beth'any  (house  of  misery),  a  village  on 
the  eastern  slope  of  Mount  Olivet,  about 
two  miles  from  Jerusalem.  It  was  the 
home  of  Mary  and  Martha  (Matt.  xxi.  17; 
Mark  xi.  11,  12;  John  xi),  and  also  of  Si¬ 
mon  the  Leper  (Mark  xiv.  3);  and  near  here 
our  Lord  ascended.  (Luke  xxiv.  50.)  The 


little  Arab  village,  composed  of  forty  rude 
stone  houses,  is  now  called  el  Aziriyeh, 
“  place  of  Lazarus.” 

Beth'el  (house  of  God),  a  place  about 
twelve  miles  north  of  Jerusalem.  It  was 
visited  by  Abraham  (Gen.  xii.  8);  here  la- 
cob  had  his  vision  of  the  ladder  (Gen. 
xxviii.  11-19);  Samuel  judged  there  (1  Sam. 
vii.  16),  and  Jeroboam  made  it  the  chief 
seat  of  the  calf-worship.  (1  Kings  xii.  28-33; 
xiii.  1.)  After  the  captivity  it  was  again 
settled  by  Benjamites.  (Neh.  xi.  31.)  It 
is  not  mentioned  in  the  New  Testament. 
It  is  now  called  Beitin ,  and  a  village  of 
about  twenty-five  Moslem  hovels  is  scatter¬ 
ed  over  the  site  of  ruins  that  cover  some 
four  acres. 

Bethes'da  (house  of  mercy),  a  pool  in  Jeru¬ 
salem  near  the  sheep-gate.  (John  v.  2.) 
Tradition  identifies  it  with  the  modern  Bir - 
ket-Israil,  a  reservoir  choked  with  rubbish, 
360  feet  long,  120  wide,  and  80  feet  deep. 
Robinson  identified  it  with  the  intermittent 
Pool  of  the  Virgin,  outside  the  city,  in  the 
Valley  of  the  Kedron. 

Beth-ho'ron  (house  of  the  hollow),  the  name 
of  two  places,  the  “  Upper  ”  and  “  Nether” 
Beth-horon  (Josh.  xvi.  3,  5),  situated  about 
three  miles  apart,  on  opposite  sides  of  a  ra¬ 
vine  on  the  way  from  Jerusalem  to  the  sea- 
coast.  It  was  through  this  ravine  that  the 
Amorites  fled  after  the  battle  of  Gibeon. 
(Josh.  x.  1-11.) 

Beth'lehem  (house  of  bread),  “  a  town  in 
the  ‘  hill  country,’  about  six  miles  south  of 
Jerusalem,  situated  on  a  narrow  ridge  run¬ 
ning  eastward,  which  breaks  down  in  ab¬ 
rupt  terraced  slopes  to  the  deep  valleys 
below.  The  town  is  one  of  the  oldest  in 
Palestine.  It  was  Rachel’s  burial-place 
(still  marked  by  a  white  mosque  near  the 
town),  and  called  Ephrath  (Gen.  xxxv. 
19);  the  home  of  Naomi,  Boaz,  and  Ruth 
(Ruth  i.  19);  birthplace  of  David  (1  Sam. 
xvii.  12);  burial-place  of  Joab’s  family  (2 
Sam.  ii.  32);  taken  by  the  Philistines,  and 
had  a  noted  well  (2  Sam.  xxiii.  14,  15);  for¬ 
tified  by  Rehoboam  (2  Chron.  xi.  6);  fore¬ 
told  as  the  birthplace  of  Christ  (Mic.  v.  2); 
the  birthplace  of  Jesus  (Matt.  ii.  1);  was 
visited  by  the  shepherds  (Luke  ii.  15-17), 
and  by  the  magi.  (Matt,  ii.)  It  has  existed 
as  a  town  for  over  4,000  years.  It  was  a 
small  place  until  after  the  time  of  Christ; 
was  improved,  and  its  walls  rebuilt  by  Jus¬ 
tinian;  had  a  famous  church  in  a.  d.  600; 
was  destroyed  by  the  Arabs,  rebuilt  by  the 
Franks,  again  twice  destroyed,  a.  d.  1244 
and  in  1489;  rebuilt  within  the  last  two 
centuries;  now  has  about  5,000  inhab- 


Bet 


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Bet 


itants,  nearly  all  nominally  Christians, 
mostly  of  the  Greek  Church.  It  is  now 
called  Beit-Lahm\  is  surrounded  by  nicely 
kept  terraces  covered  with  vines,  olive  and 
fig  trees.  The  Church  of  the  Nativity,  the 
oldest  in  Christendom,  built  in  a.  d.  330  by 
the  Empress  Helena,  stands  over  the  grot¬ 
to  reputed  to  be  the  place  of  our  Lord’s 
birth,  and  is  the  joint  property  of  the 
Greeks,  Latins,  and  Armenians,  who  have 
separate  convents  adjoining  it.  The  ‘plain 
of  the  Shepherds  ’  is  about  a  mile  from  the 
town.  The  so-called  David’s  well  is  point¬ 
ed  out  near  the  city.  A  massive  column 
stands  upon  the  reputed  spot  where  monk¬ 
ish  legends  say  20,000  martyred  innocents 


es.  In  the  northernmost  of  these  is  a  mar¬ 
ble  slab,  on  which  a  silver  star  marks  the 
supposed  spot  of  the  Nativity.  The  tra¬ 
dition  that  Jesus  was  born  in  this  cave 
is  very  old,  and  is  first  mentioned  by 
Justin  Martyr  (about  A.  D.  140),  who 
was  a  native  of  Palestine.” — Schaff:  Bibit 
Dictionary. 

Bethlehemites,  (1)  a  Roman  Catholic  or¬ 
der  founded  in  1659,  in  Guatemala,  by 
Peter  of  Bethencourt,  a  Franciscan.  Their 
special  work  was  to  care  for  the  sick  in 
hospitals,  and  teach  in  schools.  There  are 
a  few  houses  of  the  order  in  Central  Amer¬ 
ica,  but  none  elsewhere.  (2)  A  name  given 


BETHLEHEM. 


were  slain.  The  claim  of  these  places  as 
the  true  localities  where  the  biblical  events 
occurred  rests  wholly  upon  traditions  cov¬ 
ered  with  the  accumulated  rubbish  of  su¬ 
perstition,  which  render  the  identifications 
of  small  value.  The  chapel  beneath  the 
church,  however,  was  the  study  of  Jerome, 
where  he  spent  thirty  years  on  his  great 
work,  the  Latin  version  of  the  Bible,  called 
the  Vulgate ,  and  which  is  still  the  standard 
version  in  the  Roman  Church.  The  ‘  holy 
crypt,’  the  reputed  birthplace  of  our  Lord, 
is  a  cave  in  the  solid  rock,  twenty  feet  be¬ 
neath  the  great  choir  of  the  church.  At 
‘the  entrance  of  along  winding  passage,  cut 
out  of  the  limestone  rock,  is  an  irregular¬ 
shaped  chapel,  containing  two  small  recess- 


the  Hussites  from  the  name  of  the  chapel 
in  Prague  where  Huss  preached. 

Beth'phage  ( house  of  figs),  a  place  near 
Bethany;  probably  west  of  it.  Here  the 
colt  was  found  which  Christ  used  in  his 
triumphal  entrance  to  Jerusalem.  (Matt, 
xi.  1.) 

Bethsa'ida  ( house  of  fishing),  a  city  of 
Galilee,  near  Capernaum.  (John  xii.  21; 
Matt.  xi.  21.)  It  has  been  the  opinion  of 
many  scholars  that  there  were  two  towns 
of  this  name,  one  in  Galilee,  on  the  west 
side  of  the  lake,  and  the  other  in  Gaulanitis, 
on  the  east  bank  of  the  Jordan.  Dr.  W. 
M.  Thomson,  sustained  by  eminent  au- 


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thorities,  holds  that  there  was  but  one 
Bethsaida,  which  was  built  on  both  sides 
of  the  Jordan,  where  its  waters  flow  into  the 
Lake  of  Galilee.  SeeSchaff:  Through  Bible 
Lands ;  Thomson:  The  Land  and  the  Book. 

Beth-she'an  (house  of  quiet),  a  city  situat¬ 
ed  on  the  road  from  Jerusalem,  about  five 
miles  from  the  Jordan.  The  dead  body  of 
Saul  was  fastened  to  its  walls,  (i  Sam. 
xxxi.  io. )  It  was  called  Scythopolis  after 
the  captivity,  and  became  a  chief  city  of 
Decapolis.  Its  site  is  marked  by  exten¬ 
sive  ruins.  It  is  now  known  as  Beizan. 

Beth-she'mesh  ( house  of  the  sun)  a  city 
of  Judah  which  belonged  to  the  priests. 
(Josh.  xxi.  16.)  Here  the  ark  was  returned, 
(i  Sam.  vi.  12-18.)  It  is  about  fourteen 
miles  west  of  Jerusalem,  and  is  now  a  heap 
of  ruins  near  'Ain  Shetns. 

Bethu'lia  ( virgin  of  Jehovah ),  the  place 
in  which  the  prominent  events  recorded  in 
the  apocryphal  Book  of  Judith  took  place. 
It  has  never  been  identified. 

Bethune,  George  W.,  D.  D.,  b.  in  New 
York  City,  March  18,  1805;  d.  at  Florence, 
Italy,  April  27,  1862.  He  was  a  graduate 
of  Dickinson  College, Carlisle,  Penn.,  1823, 
and  studied  theology  at  Princeton  Theo¬ 
logical  Seminary.  After  receiving  license  to 
preach,  in  1826,  he  spent  a  year  in  mission¬ 
ary  labor  among  the  colored  people  and  the 
sailors  at  Savannah,  Gal  His  ministerial 
life  was  spent  in  connection  with  the  Re¬ 
formed  (Dutch)  denomination:  Rhinebeck, 
1827-30;  Utica,  1830-34;  First  Church, 
Philadelphia,  1834-37;  Third  Church,  in  the 
same  city,  which  he  helped  to  organize, 
1837-49;  Central  Church,  Brooklyn,  1849- 
50;  Churchonthe  Heights,  Brooklyn,  1850- 
59:  Associate  minister  of  the  Twenty-first 
Street  Church,  New  York,  1859-60.  He 
was  a  ripe  scholar,  an  eloquent  preacher, 
a  beloved  pastor,  and  a  great  lover  of  na¬ 
ture.  He  wrote  well  on  a  variety  of  sub¬ 
jects.  See  his  Life  by  A.  R.Van  Nest  (New 
York,  1867). 

Beveridge,  William,  a  very  learned  and 
devout  English  bishop;  b.  at  Barrow,  in 
1637;  d.  at  Westminster,  March  5,  1708. 
Educated  at  Cambridge,  he  became  Arch¬ 
deacon  of  Colchester  in  1681,  and  Bishop 
of  St.  Asaph  in  1704.  He  wrote  regarding 
church  history  and  the  canon  law.  His 
complete  works  were  published  in  12  vols. 
(Oxford,  1S44-1848).  He  has  been  called 
“  the  great  reviver  and  restorer  of  primi¬ 
tive  piety,”  because  of  his  personal  exam¬ 
ple,  and  zeal  in  the  discharge  of  his  minis¬ 
terial  duties. 


Be'za,  Theodore,  or,  more  correctly, 
De  Beze;  b.  at  Vezelai,  in  Burgundy,  July 
24,  1519;  d.  in  Geneva,  Oct.  15,  1605.  The 
child  of  influential  and  pious  parents,  he 
was  adopted  in  infancy  by  an  uncle,  in 
whose  home  in  Paris  he  was  educated  with 
great  care.  When  but  ten  years  of  age  he 
was  put  in  charge  of  Melchior  Wolmar, 
and  was  under  his  instruction  at  Orleans 
and  Bourges  for  seven  years.  Wolmar 
was  a  Protestant,  and  instilled  into  the 
mind  of  his  pupil  the  principles  of  the 
Reformed  faith,  and  trained  him  in  the 
critical  study  of  the  Bible.  When  Wolmar 
returned  to  Germany  (1535),  Beza  con¬ 
tinued  the  study  of  law  at  Orleans,  until 
he  received  his  license,  when  he  made  his 
home  in  Paris.  This  period  of  his  life  was 
one  that  he  lived  deeply  to  regret,  although 
the  extent  to  which  he  yielded  to  the  al¬ 
lurements  of  the  temptations  around  him 
have,  no  doubt,  been  often  very  much  ex¬ 
aggerated.  A  severe  illness  led  to  sincere 
repentance,  and  the  beginning  of  a  new 
life.  He  retired  to  Geneva  (1548),  married 
the  woman  with  whom  he  had  formerly 
lived,  and  united  with  the  Reformed 
Church.  It  was  here  that  he  came  into 
close  relations  of  friendship  with  Calvin. 
The  following  year  he  became  teacher  of 
Greek  at  Lausanne,  where  he  remained 
for  ten  years.  It  was  here  that  he  began 
the  work  upon  which  his  fame  rests:  the 
Translation  of  the  New  Testament ,  with 
Comments.  In  1558  he  removed  to  Geneva, 
where  he  taught  Greek,  and  aided  Calvin 
in  many  directions.  After  the  death  of 
Calvin,  in  1564,  he  was  appointed  his  suc¬ 
cessor  as  teacher  of  theology.  He  showed 
great  executive  ability,  and  managed  the 
affairs  of  the  Reformed  Church  with  con¬ 
summate  skill.  His  pen  was  busy  almost 
to  the  last.  He  resigned  all  official  posi¬ 
tions  five  years,  before  his  death,  which 
occurred  at  the  advanced  age  of  eighty-six. 

Bezpopoftschins,  a  division  of  Russian 
Dissenters  which  does  not  retain  the  office 
of  priest.  It  comprehends  many  sects. 

Bezslovestni,  a  curious  sect  of  Russian 
Dissenters,  formed  in  the  last  century, 
whose  members,  after  their  conversion, 
renounced  the  use  of  speech,  and  so  ac¬ 
quired  their  distinctive  name,  which  means 
“  The  Dumb.”  Cruel  forms  of  torture 
were  used  by  Pestal,  Governor-general  of 
Siberia  during  the  reign  of  Catherine  II., 
with  the  object  of  obtaining  information 
as  to  their  tenets,  but  without  success. 

Bible.  That  the  volume  which  we  call 
the  Bible  is  the  inspired  revelation  of  God 
appears  from  a  chain  of  evidence  begin- 


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ning  with  very  early  times.  The  history 
of  the  LXX. ,  the  Greek  translation  of  the 
Old  Testament  (see  below),  proves  the  ex¬ 
istence  of  the  Old  Testament  long  before 
the  Christian  era;  in  the  second  prologue 
to  Ecclesiasticus,  about  b.  c.  230,  “  the 
Law  and  the  Prophets  and  the  rest  of  the 
Books  ”  are  spoken  of,  which  virtually 
represents  our  Lord’s  own  division.  (Luke 
xxiv.  44.)  And  that  these  books,  then, 
afterwards,  and  now  existing,  came  from 
most  primitive  ages  as  the  productions  of 
those  whose  names  they  bear,  may  rest 
upon  the  testimony  of  Philo,  the  Jewish 
philosopher,  in  the  first  half,  and  Josephus, 
the  Jewish  historian,  in  the  second  half,  of 
the  first  century,  to  the  extreme  and  jeal¬ 
ous  care  with  which  the  Jews  preserved 
their  sacred  writings — writings  described 
by  Josephus  in  agreement  with  all  later 
catalogues  of  the  Old  Testament. 

Of  these  later  catalogues,  the  first  extant 
is  that  in  the  works  of  Melito,  Bishop  of 
Sardis  (a.  d.  180),  another  is  by  Origen,  a 
few  years  later,  and  there  are  eight  others 
in  the  works  of  the  Fathers,  down  to  St. 
Augustine  in  the  fifth  century.  Then  came 
the  catalogues  set  forth  by  the  councils, 
adding  the  New  Testament;  that  of  Lao- 
dicea  (363),  gives  all  our  books  except  the 
Revelation  of  St.  John;  while  that  of  Car¬ 
thage  (397),  adds  the  Revelation,  and  in¬ 
serts  also  some  of  the  Apocryphal  books. 

The  word  Bible ,  in  Greek  and  Latin 
Biblia ,  is  a  plural  noun  turned  into  a 
singular,  being  the  Greek  “  books.”  St. 
Chrysostom,  in  the  fourth  century,  first 
uses  it  in  his  Homilies  (the  earlier  titles  of 
the  “  Bible  ”  being  such  as  answer  to  our 
expressions,  “  the  Holy  Scriptures,”  or 
“  Sacred  Writings  ”);  and  through  the 
Latin  translation  into  ancient,  middle,  and 
modern  English,  it  passed  as  the  familiar 
name  by  which  we  know  the  volume  of 
sacred  books  of  our  Christian  religion. 
With  most  of  the  reformed  churches  it  is 
divided  into  the  three  great  sections  of  the 
Old  Testament,  the  Apocrypha,  and  the 
New  Testament. 

I.  —  The  Original  Hebrew  Old  Testament . 
— The  thirty-nine  books,  whose  names  stand 
at  the  beginning  of  our  Bibles,  in  “  The 
Names  and  Order  of  all  the  Books,” 
formed,  of  course,  and  form  now,  the  He¬ 
brew  Bible ;  but  they  were  differently  ar¬ 
ranged  into  the  three  sections  of  which 
our  Lord  speaks  (Luke  xxiv.  44),  as  “  the 
Law,  the  Prophets,  and  the  Psalms;”  (1) 
the  Lazo  being  the  five  Books  of  Moses; 
(2)  the  Prophets ,  not  only  those  books 
which  we  call  by  that  name,  but  the  his¬ 
torical  ones  also,  which  were  placed  in 
this  category  in  consequence  of  the  belief 
that  the  prophets  were  the  historians;  (3) 


the  Psalms ,  the  book  of  that  name  and  the 
other  poetical  ones.  This  is  but  a  rough 
classification,  and  not  at  all  times  strictly 
accurate,  but  such  was  the  principle. 

The  books  are  of  most  various  dates, 
from  Job,  or  rather  part  of  Job,  down  to 
Malachi  the  prophet.  With  regard  to  the 
former,  the  exact  date  is  uncertain,  but  it 
is  thought  by  some  that  Moses  edited  what 
already  existed,  and  added  the  historical 
beginning  and  end;  the  date  usually  given 
to  Moses  is  about  b.  c.  1490.  From  about 
this  time,  then,  the  five  Books  of  Moses 
and  that  of  Job  are  dated;  and  the  Book 
of  Malachi  from  about  b.  c.  420.  Over 
more  than  a  thousand  years,  therefore, 
the  Books  of  the  Old  Testament  range; 
and,  as  during  this  time  the  work  of  collec¬ 
tion  was  gradually  going  on,  more  than 
one  assemblage  of  books  is,  as  might  be 
expected,  known.  Thus  about  b.  c.  1420, 
“the  Book  of  the  Law  of  God”  (Josh, 
xxiv.  26)  was,  as  tradition  has  uniformly 
maintained,  what  is  now  known  as  the 
Pentateuch.  About  b.  C.  710  Isaiah  (xxxiv. 
16)  mentions  “  the  Book  of  the  Lord;” 
and  about  b.  c.  520  Zechariah’s  mention 
(vii.  7)  of  “  the  former  prophets  ”  is  prob¬ 
ably  an  allusion,  though  not  quite  so  clear 
a  one,  to  an  earlier  compilation  of  prophets 
and  historians.  And  at  the  end  of  the 
fifth  century  before  Christ,  that  is,  rather 
more  than  a  hundred  years  after  the  last 
date,  the  latest'collection  and  redaction  was 
made  by  Ezra  and  Nehemiah,  the  two  Jew¬ 
ish  restorers,  and  the  standard  copy  thus 
produced  laid  up  in  the  Temple.  This 
was  lost  at  the  taking  of  Jerusalem  by  the 
Romans  (a.  d.  70),  just  as  the  sacred  auto¬ 
graphs  had  been  lost  when  Nebuchadnez¬ 
zar  of  Babylon  took  the  city  (b.  c.  588). 

Far  later  even  than  A.  d.  70  are  the  earli¬ 
est  Hebrew  copies  which  now  exist.  The 
MS.  Bible  in  the  Cambridge  University 
Library  is  said  to  date  from  A.  d.  856 
(Smith:  Dictionary  of  the  Bible ,  under  Old 
Testament),  and  other  copies  of  different 
books  on  the  Continent  from  843,  897,  916; 
the  MSS.  of  the  Samaritan  Pentateuch,  a 
recension  in  Samaritan  characters,  made 
about  b.  c.  400,  date  from  the  tenth  cen¬ 
tury.  The  printed  editions  began  in  1477, 
with  the  Psalter,  at  Bologna;  other  sepa¬ 
rate  portions  followed,  and  before  the  end 
of  the  century  the  whole  Bible  was  printed 
at  Soncino,  near  Cremona;  a  copy  of  this 
edition  is  at  Exeter  College.  The  great 
Complutensian  Polyglot  (the  Bible  in  He¬ 
brew,  Chaldee,  Greek,  and  Latin),  succeed¬ 
ed  in  1522,  at  Complutense,  now  Alcala; 
and  many  other  editions  more  or  less  im¬ 
portant,  among  which  the  other  Polyglots 
may  be  mentioned:  the  Antwerp  Polyglot, 
1569-1572,  containing  (besides  the  above 


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(  104  ) 


Bib 


languages)  the  Syriac  version;  the  Paris, 
1628-1645,  containing  also  Samaritan  and 
Arabic;  the  London,  1657  (edited  by  Bishop 
Watson,  of  Chester);  the  Leipsic,  1750, 
containing  the  German  version;  and  the 
Second  London,  1816, ‘published  by  the  Bag- 
sters.  All  modern  Hebrew  Bibles,  how¬ 
ever,  are  based  on  Van  der  Hooght’s  edi¬ 
tion,  Amsterdam,  1705. 

The  Greek  Old  Testament. — Some  por¬ 
tions  of  the  Old  Testament  (the  history  of 
the  Exodus,  the  settlement  in  Canaan,  the 
Law  of  Moses,  strictly  so  called),  may  have 
been  translated  into  Greek  very  shortly 
after  the  final  redaction  by  Ezra;  and  there 
is  a  quotation  of  Aristobulus,  a  Jewish 
priest  of  about  b.  c.  160,  by  Clement  of 
Alexandria  ( Stromata ,  or  Miscellanies,  i. 
22),  to  the  effect  that  Plato  the  philosopher 
(b.  c.  428-347)  had  studied  them.  But  the 
whole  of  the  Old  Testament  was  first  trans¬ 
lated  in  the  reign  of  Ptolemy  II.,  Philadel- 
phus,  King  of  Egypt  (b.  c.  288-247).  This 
king  was  the  founder  of  the  famous  mu¬ 
seum  and  library  of  Alexandria,  and  under 
the  care  of  Demetrius  Phalereus,  the  orator, 
who  was  his  librarian,  the  Old  Testament 
was  translated  by  learned  Jews  of  Alexan¬ 
dria.  This  is  all  that  is  really  known  of 
the  history  of  the  translation;  the  legends 
that  seventy  translators  were  sent  from 
Jerusalem  by  the  high  -  priest,  that  they 
were  shut  up  in  seventy  cells  on  the  island 
of  Pharos,  and  each,  by  the  help  of  the  Holy 
Ghost,  finished  a  version  in  seventy  days, 
which  seventy,  by  the  same  Divine  power, 
minutely  agreed — these  are  discredited  by 
the  simple  evidence  of  the  version  itself, 
that  the  translators  were  not  quite  perfect¬ 
ly  acquainted  with  Hebrew;  one  portion, 
however,  of  these  traditions  is  embodied  in 
the  name  of  the  version,  “  the  Septuagint,” 
or,  in  short,  LXX. 

One  of  the  oldest  MSS.  of  the  Septuagint 
known,  the  Codex  Cottonianus,  of  the 
fourth  century,  was  almost  destroyed  by 
fire  in  1731;  what  remains  is  in  the  British 
Museum.  There  is  also  the  Codex  Alex- 
andrinus,  which  is  almost  complete  in  both 
Testaments,  and  dates  from  the  fifth  cen¬ 
tury;  but  at  the  Vatican  is  a  Greek  Bible 
somewhat  less  complete,  of  the  same  age 
as  the  Cottonian,  another  at  Paris,  and 
another  at  Milan,  more  fragmentary  still, 
and  about  two  centuries  younger.  The 
Psalter  was  printed  at.  Milan,  in  14S1,  and 
at  Venice,  14S6  and  1496,  but  the  first  com¬ 
plete  LXX.  was  in  the  Complutensian 
Polyglot  already  mentioned,  1517.  The 
text  of  this  was  an  eclectic  one;  but  re¬ 
prints  of  both  the  Alexandrian  and  Vatican 
MSS. ,  which  differ  slightly  from  each  other 
(the  latter  being  generally  nearest  the 
Hebrew),  have  often  been  made;  thus  the 


latter  is  taken  by  Bishop  Walton  in  his 
Polyglot,  1697;  by  Holmes  and  Parsons, 
Oxford,  1798;  by  Dean  Gaisford’s  small 
edition,  Oxford,  1848  ;  also  by  Messrs. 
Bagster’s  reprints;  while  the  former  is  rep¬ 
resented  by  Grabe,  Oxford,  1707  ;  Breit- 
inger,  Zurich,  1730;  and  Mr.  Field  in  1859, 
who  also  arranged  the  version  according  to 
the  Hebrew,  by  separating  the  Apocryphal 
Books,  and  altering,  where  necessary,  the 
arrangement  of  chapters. 

Three  other  versions,  by  Aquila,  Theo- 
dotion,  and  Symmachus,  date  from  the  sec¬ 
ond  century;  they  are  not  extant  except  in 
fragments;  their  characteristics  are — of  Aq- 
uila’s,  great  and  unintelligible  literalness; 
of  Theodotion’s,  very  considerable  igno¬ 
rance  of  Hebrew,  far  more  than  the  slight 
and  partial  ignorance  of  the  LXX. ;  of  Sym¬ 
machus’,  the  reverse  of  the  first,  too  great 
paraphrase.  Theodotion’s  requires  further 
notice,  from  the  curious  fact  that  his  Daniel 
was,  for  unknown  reasons,  very  early  sub¬ 
stituted  for  that  of  the  LXX.  It  so  remain¬ 
ed  universally  till  1772,  when  the  latter 
was  first  published  at  Rome,  from  the 
Codex  Chigianus  of  the  tenth  century,  and 
very  commonly  so  afterward.  Gaisford 
(1848)  gives  both.  Yet  three  more  ver¬ 
sions,  though  only  partial  ones,  existed, 
but  are  now  extant  only  in  very  scattered 
fragments;  being  anonymous  they  are  only 
known  as  the  Fifth,  Sixth,  and  Seventh  ver¬ 
sions.  All  the  seven,  together  with  the 
original  Hebrew,  and  the  same  in  Greek 
letters,  formed  the  great  Hexapla  of  Origen 
(a.  d.  185-254),  arranged  in  parallel  col¬ 
umns,  and  having  its  title  from  the  num¬ 
ber  of  columns  which  went  throughout. 
This  work  was  kept  at  Caesarea,  but  was 
destroyed  when  the  Saracens  took  the 
town  in  653.  The  central  column  only, 
being  the  LXX.  itself,  with  Origen’s  anno¬ 
tations,  was  preserved  in  a  copy  made  by 
Eusebius;  but  numerous  fragments  were 
embedded  as  quotations  in  different  works 
of  the  Fathers  and  others,  and  all  these 
have  been  brought  together  successively 
by  Morin  (1587),  Drusius  (1622),  Montfau- 
con  (1714),  and  Mr.  Field  (1875),  whose 
preface  is  now  the  best,  as  well  as  the  lat¬ 
est,  authority  on  the  whole  subject. 

The  Latin  Old  7'estament. — The  earliest 
Latin  versions,  not  only  of  the  Old  Testa¬ 
ment  but  of  the  whole  Bible,  did  not  come, 
as  might  have  been  expected,  from  the 
Roman  Church,  which,  in  the  first  days  of 
Christianity,  was  Greek-speaking,  but  from 
that  of  Africa,  which  from  the  beginning 
seems  to  have  used  Latin.  One  version, 
which  is  not  otherwise  known,  is  quoted 
by  very  early  writers  of  our  own  Church, 
as  by  Fastidius,  a  devotional  writer  of  the 
fifth  century,  said  to  have  been  Bishop  of 


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(  105  ) 


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London;  and  even  before  this,  as  early  as 
Tertullian  (A.  D.  150-220),  there  seems  to 
have  been  more  than  one  version,  or,  more 
properly,  several  recensions  of  the  same 
text,  such  as  the  African,  British,  Gallican, 
and  one,  the  best  known,  called  the  Old 
Italic.  Of  this  last,  the  chief  part  (of  the 
Old  Testament)  which  now  remains  is  the 
Psalter,  which  was  long  used  in  divine  ser¬ 
vice,  and  with  us  till  the  Norman  conquest. 
These  early  versions  were  from  the  LXX. ; 
as  the  preface  to  our  English  Bible  says: 
“  They  were  not  out  of  the  Hebrew  fount¬ 
ain,  but  out  of  the  Greek  stream;  therefore 
the  Greek  not  being  altogether  clear,  the 
Latin  derived  from  it  must  needs  be  mud¬ 
dy.  This  moved  St.  Jerome  to  undertake 
the  translating  of  the  Old  Testament  out  of 
the  very  fountains  themselves.”  He  be¬ 
gan  with  the  Psalter,  of  which  he  left  three 
distinct  versions,  all  extant;  (1)  the  Roman, 
being  the  Old  Italic  slightly  corrected;  (2) 
the  Gallican,  a  fresh  version  from  the  LXX; 
(3)  the  Hebrew,  direct  from  the  original: 
he  then  proceeded  with  the  rest  of  the 
Bible,  and  finished  it  during  the  last  twen¬ 
ty  years  of  the  fourth  century.  His  version 
by  degrees  superseded  the  Old  Italic,  and, 
revised  by  order  of  Charlemagne  (a.  d. 
802),  and  again  by  Pope  Clement  VIII.  in 
1593,  is  the  present  authorized  version  of 
the  Roman  Catholic  Church.  The  name, 
Vulgate,  by  which  this  Bible  is  known,  was 
originally  applied  by  Jerome  himself  to  the 
Old  Italic,  and  afterwards  gradually  trans¬ 
ferred  to  his  own  work.  The  existing 
MSS.  are  very  many;  some  of  the  earliest 
date  from  the  sixth  centurjr;  one  of  this 
age,  the  Codex  Amiatinus,  is  at  Florence; 
one  in  the  British  Museum,  known  as  Char¬ 
lemagne’s  Bible,  is  beautifully  illuminated, 
and  another  of  the  same  kind  at  Durham 
Cathedral  is  known  by  the  name  of  Bishop 
Pudsey,  or  de  Brisac  (1153-1197).  The 
Vulgate,  on  the  invention  of  printing,  was 
the  very  first  book  to  come  from  the  press, 
about  1450;  after  the  edition  was  supposed 
to  be  lost,  a  copy  of  it  was  found,  in  the 
seventh  century,  in  the  library  of  Cardinal 
Giulio  Mazarin,  at  Paris,  and  it  is  therefore 
called  the  Mazarin  Bible.  About  twenty 
copies  are  now  known,  mostly  in  England. 

In  the  sixteenth  century  other  transla¬ 
tions  were  made;  in  1527  by  Sanctes  Pa- 
quinus  (d.  1536)  ;  in  1535  by  Sebastian 
Munster  (d.  1552);  in  1572,  by  Benedict 
Arias  Montanus  (d.  1598);  in  1579,  by 

Emanuel  Tremellius  (d.  1580),  to  which  his 
son-in-law,  Francis  Junius  (d.  1602),  added 
a  translation  of  the  Apocrypha;  this  name 
has  led  a  writer  in  Smith’s  Dictionary  of  the 
Bible  into  a  strange  blunder  (ii.  466);  “  the 
margin  of  the  A.  V.  (Tob.  xi.  18),  gives  Ju¬ 
nius  as  the  equivalent  of  Nabas.” 


II. —  The  Original  Greek  New  Testa¬ 
ment. — The  New  Testament  was  all  orig¬ 
inally  written  in  Greek  (for  the  theories 
that  St.  Matthew’s  gospel  was  a  transla¬ 
tion  from  Hebrew,  and  St.  Mark’s  from 
Latin,  are  now  given  up,  the  latter  by  all 
scholars,  the  former  by  nearly  all)  within 
the  last  half  of  the  first  century;  the  orig¬ 
inal  autographs  are  long  since  lost,  it  is  im¬ 
possible  to  say  when  or  how,  and  the  ear¬ 
liest  MSS.  which  exist  date  from  the  fourth 
and  fifth  centuries.  The  principal  ones  (of 
which  some  have  already  been  mentioned) 
are:  (1)  The  Sinaitic  MS.,  discovered  by 
Tischendorf  in  1859,  and  now  at  St.  Peters¬ 
burg,  of  the  latter  part  of  the  fourth  cen¬ 
tury;  (2)  the  Alexandrine,  brought  to 
England  in  1625,  and  placed  in  the  British 
Museum,  1753,  of  the  early  portion  of  the 
fifth  century;  (3)  the  Vatican,  in  that  Li¬ 
brary  since  1450,  of  the  early  part  of  the 
fourth  century,  and  so  the  oldest  known; 
(4)  Ephraem,  at  Paris,  of  the  fifth  century; 
and  (5)  Bezae,  at  Cambridge  since  1581,  of 
the  sixth  century.  Of  these,  the  only  one 
where  the  New  Testament  is  quite  com¬ 
plete,  is  the  first;  the  second  is  very  nearly 
so;  the  third  somewhat  more  deficient;  the 
fourth  is  only  large  fragments;  and  the  fifth 
the  Gospels  and  Acts.  Little  more  than  a 
brief  list  can  be  given  of  some  of  the  more 
important  printed  editions,  of  which  the 
first  (though  some  of  the  early  chapters  of 
St.  John  had  been  printed  sooner),  was,  as 
of  the  Old  Testament,  that  of  the  Com- 
plutensian  Polyglot  of  Cardinal  Francis 
Ximenes  deCisueros,  which  was  published 
in  1514,  before  the  rest:  to  Ximenes  suc¬ 
ceeded  Erasmus,  who  published  in  his  life¬ 
time  five  editions,  1516,  1519,  1522,  1527, 
1535.  Theodore  Beza,  and  the  printers 
Stephens  and  Elzevir,  were  the  editors  of 
the  next  hundred  years,  and  Dr.  Scriv¬ 
ener  thinks  that  Beza’s  last  edition,  1598, 
is  the  text  which  our  Authorized  Version 
most  nearly  represents.  But  not  all  of  the 
five  great  MSS.  were  yet  known:  those 
which  were  known  do  not  appear  to  have 
been  used,  and  Ximenes  and  Erasmus 
formed  their  text  from  very  few,  and  those 
late  and  unimportant  ones.  Stephens  was 
the  first  to  collate  any  number,  though 
even  he  used  them  carelessly  ;  and  the 
Polyglot  of  Bishop  Walton  of  Chester, 
1657,  was  the  first  real,  preparation  for  the 
formation  of  a  correct  text  by  criticism. 
Bishop  Fell  of  Oxford,  1675,  in  some  meas¬ 
ure,  though  slightly,  carried  on  the  work; 
but  Dr.  John  Mill,  Canon  of  Canterbury, 
1707,  “  found  the  edifice  of  wood  and  left 
it  marble  ”  (Scrivener):  such  was  his  in¬ 
dustry,  zeal,  and  sagacity,  that  he  is  uni¬ 
versally  allowed  to  be  the  parent  of  all 
the  work  that  has  been  done.  Bentley’s 


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great  plans  came  to  nothing,  and  for 
the  next  century  almost  all  original  re¬ 
search  was  made  in  Germany.  Bengel, 
Wetstein,  Griesbach,  Scholz,  Lachmann, 
successively  did  their  work  upon  the  New 
Testament,  which  was  crowned,  in  1872,  by 
Tischendorf’s  final  and  eighth  edition  of 
his  revised  text.  Meanwhile,  of  later 
years,  in  England,  the  three  texts  of  Dr. 
Tregelles,  Dean  Alford, -and  Bishop  Words¬ 
worth  have  been  published,  and  in  1881 
the  great  edition  of  Professors  Westcott 
and  Hort  came  forth,  which  is  the  last  at¬ 
tempt  to  settle  the  words  actually  written 
by  the  inspired  writers. 

These,  the  words  actually  written,  can¬ 
not,  it  is  almost  universally  allowed,  be 
those  of  the  common  or  received  text;  and 
the  problem  before  critics,  unless  Westcott 
and  Hort,  as  some  think,  have  solved  it,  is 
to  ascertain  these  as  nearly  as  possible 
from  the  three  chief  sources,  namely  MSS. , 
Versions,  and  Quotations.  Of  these  three 
only  one  has  yet  been  mentioned,  and  but 
a  small  portion  of  that;  but  there  exist, 
roughly  speaking,  about  2,000  MSS.,  more 
or  less  complete,  of  which  rather  less  than 
a  tenth  are  “  uncial,”  the  others  being 
“  cursive  ”  (the  modern  words  answering 
to  these  would-be  “  point-hand  ”  and  “run¬ 
ning-hand  ”),  the  uncial  being,  as  a  rule,  the 
earliest.  The  Versions  of  chief  critical 
value  are  the  Latin,  Syriac,  Gothic,  Egyp¬ 
tian,  Ethiopic,  and  Armenian;  and  the 
Quotations  referred  to  are  those  made  by 
the  early  Fathers  of  the  Church.  These 
three  sources  of  evidence  come  in  the  or¬ 
der  of  their  value;  for  in  the  second  it  can¬ 
not,  of  course,  be  always  certain  what 
Greek  reading  is  represented  by  any  trans¬ 
lation,  nor  in  the  third  whether  a  quotation 
is  meant  to  be  a  verbatim  one.  Again,  in 
applying  the  evidences  there  will  be  differ¬ 
ences;  for  some  critics,  as  Dean  Alford 
and  others,  attach  paramount  importance 
to  the  early  runcials,  those  already  men¬ 
tioned  by  name  and  some  few  others,  and 
to  their  descent  from  and  relation  to  each 
other;  while  some,  of  whom  Dean  Burgon 
in  his  celebrated  Quarterly  Reviezu  papers, 
and  in  a  less  degree  Mr.  Maclellan,  in  his 
English  New  Testament,  are  examples,  give 
great  weight  in  all  cases  to  the  later  cur¬ 
sives,  whose  influence  formed  our  received 
text,  and  to  the  possibility,  which,  no  doubt, 
always  exists,  that  some  may  be  copies 
from  an  earlier  uncial  than  any  we  now  pos¬ 
sess.  To  strike  the  balance  is  the  great 
difficulty  of  criticism;  and  it  must  not  be 
forgotten  that  Tischendorf,  one  of  the 
greatest  of  critics,  in  many  cases  returned 
in  his  later  editions  to  the  received  read¬ 
ings.  • 

There  are  also  “Graeco-Latin”  MSS., 


i.  e.,  of  the  two  languages  side  by  side. 
The  best  known  is  Codex  Bezae,  whose 
Latin  is  simply  its  translation  of  its  own 
Greek;  others  have,  some  the  Old  Italic, 
some  the  Vulgate.  Lastly,  Theodore  Beza, 
in  1556,  made  a  very  elegant  version  of  the 
New  Testament,  which  went  through 
many  editions,  and  has  been  reprinted  by 
the  Bagsters;  and  Emanuel  Tremellius,  in 
1569,  made  a  version  from  the  Syriac. 

III.  — Other  Early  Versions  of  the  Bible. 
— To  these  very  little  space  can  be  given; 
those  whose  names  have  been  already 
mentioned  are:  (1)  The  Syriac,  in  which 
language  and  its  dialects  there  are  known 
six  more  or  less  different  and  perfect 
versions;  the  best  known,  the  Peshito 
(meaning  Simple),  is  of  the  third  century, 
and  was  published  as  early  as  1555,  by  Al¬ 
bert  Wiedmanstadt,  Chancellor  to  the  Em¬ 
peror  Ferdinand  I.;  (2)  the  Egyptian,  di¬ 
viding  into  three  in  different  dialects,  of 
the  fourth  or  fifth  century;  (3)  the  Goth¬ 
ic,  made  by  Bishop  Ulfilas,  about  A.  d.  360; 
(4)  the  Ethiopic,  whose  date  is  unknown 
(Christianity  came  to  .Ethiopia  in  the 
fourth  century);  this  version  only  exists 
in  late  MSS.;  (5)  the  Armenian  made  in 
the  fifth  century.  Others  are  (6)  the  Ara¬ 
bic,  of  the  tenth  century;  (7)  the  Chaldee 
of  the  Old  Testament  only,  called  the  Tar- 
gum,  a  word  of  unknown  meaning;  this  is 
intermixed  with  Jewish  comment,  para¬ 
phrase,  and  explanation,  and  is  of  very  va¬ 
rious  and  uncertain  dates;  (8)  the  Samari¬ 
tan,  in  a  debased  Hebrew  dialect,  of  per¬ 
haps  the  seventh  century — not  to  be  con¬ 
fused  with  the  “  Samaritan  Pentateuch;” 
(9)  the  Slavonic,  of  doubtful  age,  perhaps, 
partly,  even  mediaeval. 

IV.  —  The  English  Bible. 

(1)  Prittiitive  Versions. — Of  these  there 
is  a  trace,  but  a  very  slight  one,  in  a 
sermon  of  St.  Chrysostom,  about  the  end 
of  the  fourth  century;  the  Scriptures  are 
read,  he  says,  even  in  the  British  Isles, 
and  the  same  faith  is  learnt  as  at  Constan¬ 
tinople,  though  in  another  tongue. 

(2)  Ancient  English,  or  Saxon  and 
Norman  Versions. — No  complete  Anglo- 
Saxon  version  of  the  Bible  now  exists,  or 
probably  ever  existed;  the  Venerable  Bede 
(672 — 735),  Eadfrith,  Bishop  of  Lindisfarne 
(d.  721),  and  King  Alfred  the  Great,  trans¬ 
lated  great  part  of  it,  but  these  versions 
are  now  lost.  Elfric,  Archbishop  of  Can¬ 
terbury  (d.  1005),  translated  the  Hepta¬ 
teuch  (Moses,  with  Joshua  and  Judges), 
parts  of  Kings,  Esther,  Job,  Judith,  two 
Books  of  Maccabees,  with  the  apocryphal 
gospel  of  Nicodemus;  of  these,  the  Hep¬ 
tateuch,  Job,  Judith,  and  Nicodemus,  were 
published,  1699,  by  Edward  Th waites  (d. 
1711),  Fellow  of  Queen’s  College,  Oxford, 


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Regius  Professor  of  Greek,  also  Professor 
of  Moral  Philosophy.  The  Anglo-Saxon 
translation  of  the  Gospels  appears  to  be 
ascribed  to  HHfric  without  sufficient  au¬ 
thority.  There  remain  six  such  MSS.  at 
Cambridge,  Oxford,  and  the  British  Mu¬ 
seum,  of  which  the  oldest  is  at  Corpus 
Christi  College,  Cambridge;  but  they  dif¬ 
fer  from  one  another,  and  their  relations, 
either  common  or  mutual,  are  not  as  yet 
clear.  A  text  representing  them  was  pub¬ 
lished  by  Archbishop  Parker,  and  John 
Foxe,  1571;  by  Thomas  Marshall,  Rector 
of  Lincoln  College  (d.  1685),  1665;  by  Mr. 
Benjamin  Thorpe,  the  eminent  Anglo-Sax¬ 
on  scholar,  1842,  and  by  Professor  Bos- 
worth,  1865.  Besides  these  are  twroglosses, or 
Latin  with  interlinear  Anglo-Saxon,  known 
as  the  Lindisfarne  and  Rushworth  Gospels; 
the  former,  in  the  British  Museum,  is  of 
the  tenth  century,  the  latter,  in  the  Bod¬ 
leian  Library,  of  the  ninth;  both  have  been 
published  by  the  Surtees  Society.  There 
were  also  metrical  versions,  more  or  less 
paraphrastic,  which  have  no  strict  right  to 
be  on  the  present  list — such  as  the  narra¬ 
tive  poems  by  Caedmon,  a  monk  of  Whitby, 
in  the  seventh  century,  published  in  1655, 
and  by  Mr.  Thorpe  in  1832;  and  the  ver¬ 
sion  of  the  Psalms  by  Aldhelm,  Bishop  of 
Sherborne  (d.  709),  published  by  Sir  John 
Spelman,  1640,  by  Mr.  Thorpe,  1835,  and 
the  Rev.  Joseph  Stevenson,  1843.  Later, 
when  the  language  began  to  change,  there 
seems  to  have  been  a  version  of  the  Bible 
in  Norman-English,  of  which  fragments  re¬ 
main;  and,  as  in  Saxon-English,  there  were 
also  metrical  paraphrases.  The  chief  of 
these  are  the  “  Ormulum”  and  the  “South- 
ear,”  both  in  the  Bodleian  Library.  The 
former,  of  the  eleventh  century,  contains 
the  New  Testament  narrative  only;  the 
latter,  of  about  the  twelfth  century,  that 
of  both  Testaments. 

(3)  Mediaeval  jE?iglish  Versions. — These 
begin  with  the  Psalters  of  William  Shore- 
ham,  Vicar  of  Chart  Sutton,  near  Staple- 
hurst,  and  of  Richard  Rolle,  chantry  priest 
of  Hampole  (now  Hamphall),  near  Don¬ 
caster,  which  were  produced  about  the 
same  time,  the  first  half  of  the  fourteenth 
century.  The  former  exists  only  in  one 
MS.  in  the  British  Museum;  the  latter  is 
more  common,  and  was  printed  as  late  as 
1536.  Of  entire  translations  of  the  Bible, 
it  has  been  asserted  more  than  once  that 
Wycliffe’s  was  not  the  first.  Foxe,  quot¬ 
ing  from  a  tract  of  the  early  fifteenth  cen¬ 
tury,  speaks  of  “a  Bible  in  English  of 
Northern  speech,  which  seemed  to  be  200 
years  old;”  Sir  Thomas  More,  1532,  says 
that  there  was  a  translation  in  English  “  by 
virtuous  and  well-learned  men  long  before 
Wycliffe’s  days.”  This  testimony  is  very 


vague,  and  it  is  at  any  rate  certain  that 
Wycliffe  knew  nothing  of  any  predecessor. 
Foxe’s  Bible  may  have  been  one  of  the 
Saxon,  or  i  perhaps  more  probably)  Norman 
versions;  More’s,  either  this  or  an  early 
copy  of  Wycliffe,  for  since  he  speaks  of 
“long  before,”  he  cannot,  prima  facie ,  re¬ 
fer  to  the  version  of  John  Trevisa,  for  the 
former  existence  of  which  there  is  reaily 
evidence  of  a  certain  kind,  summed  up  by 
Mr.  J.  H.  Cooke,  F.  S.  A.,  in  Notes  and 
Queries ,  4th  s.,  x.  261.  John  Trevisa, 
whom  Allibone  styles  “a  Cornish  divine,” 
Fellow  of  Queen’s  College,  Oxford,  and 
Canon  of  Westbury-on-Trym  (where,  curi¬ 
ously  enough,  Wycliffe  was  also  Canon) 
was  vicar  of  Berkeley,  and  chaplain  to  the 
Lords  Berkeley,  from  1350  to  1412.  Among 
his  other  works  he  translated  Higden’s 
Polychronicon;  and  Caxton,  in  the  version 
based  on  this,  which  he  printed,  1482,  is  the 
first  to  mention  his  translation  of  the  Bible; 
the  mention  was  repeated  by  Bale,  Holins- 
hed,  and  others,  and  in  the  preface  to  our 
Authorized  Version.  There  remains  at 
Berkeley  Castle  a  draft  letter  from  the  first 
Earl  of  Berkeley  to  James,  Duke  of  York, 
afterward  James  II.,  asking  his  acceptance 
of  “  a  booke,  wh.  is  an  ancient  collection  in 
manuscript  of  some  part  of  the  Bible,” 
which  “  has  been  carefully  preserved  near 
400  years, ’’and  the  Berkeley  librarian  of  the 
beginning  of  this  century  records  that  the 
“  booke  ”  is  now  in  the  Vatican.  Mr.  Cooke, 
however,  says  that  such  search  as  has  been 
made  there,  has  not  disclosed  it;  and  all 
that  is  really  known  of  Trevisa’s  labors  in 
this  kind  are  some  fragments  of  the  text  of 
the  Apocalypse,  painted  by  him  in  Latin 
and  Norman-French  on  the  roof  of  Ber¬ 
keley  Chapel. 

In  default,  therefore,  of  this,  the  earliest 
version  must  be  considered  to  be  the  Wyc¬ 
liffe  Bible ,  which  work  was  begun  by  John 
Wycliffe  (Rector  of  Lutterworth),  about 
1360,  in  his  commentaries,  first  on  the 
Revelation,  then  on  the  Gospels,  transla¬ 
tions  being  added  to  both  works.  Shortly 
afterward  he  translated  the  rest  of  the  New 
Testament,  and  put  the  whole  together  in 
a  volume  (1380).  The  Old  Testament  was 
begun  by  Nicholas  Hereford  (D.  D., 
Queen’s  College,  Oxford,  Chancellor  and 
Treasurer  of  Hereford),  but  not  finished, 
as  the  translator,  being  tried,  1382,  for 
heresy,  was  excommunicated,  and  left  Eng¬ 
land  to  appeal  at  Rome;  it  was  completed 
by  Wycliffe  himself,  and  thus  a  complete 
English  Bible  was  for  the  first  time  pro¬ 
duced.  Like  all  other  translations  hitherto 
made,  however,  it  was  from  the  Vulgate, 
and  from  not  very  good  MSS.  of  that;  and, 
a  few  years  after  Wycliffe’s  death  in  1384, 
a  revision  was  made  by  John  Purvey,  after- 


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ward  vicar  of  West  Hythe.  Of  both  these 
versions  there  are  many  MSS.  still  extant; 
but  they  were  not  printed  in  mediaeval 
times,  and  there  were,  indeed,  much  un¬ 
certainty  and  confusion  in  the  whole  his¬ 
tory,  till  the  admirable  edition  of  the  Rev. 
Josiah  Forshall  and  Sir  Frederick  Madden 
appeared  (4  vols.  4to. ,  1850),  giving  a  list 
of  170  existing  MSS.  The  edition  contains 
the  two  versions  in  parallel  columns,  and 
was  the  first  printing  of  the  Old  Testament 
in  this  version,  except  that  Wycliffe’s 
“Song  of  Solomon”  had  been  printed  in 
Dr.  Adam  Clarke’s  Commentary ,  1810—25. 
Wycliffe’s  New  Testament  was  published 
by  Mr.  Lea  Wilson  in  1848,  and  Purvey’s 
(which  was  then  supposed  to  be  Wycliffe’s), 
by  the  Rev.  John  Lewis  in  1731,  by  the 
Rev.  Henry  Baker  in  1810,  and  in  Bagster’s 
English  Hexapla,  1841. 

Of  the  long  opposition,  partly  political, 
partly  ecclesiastical,  to  those  Protestant 
doctrines  of  which  Wycliffe  was  one  of  the 
earliest  preachers,  and,  consequently,  to  the 
Bible  in  the  vulgar  tongue,  this  is  not  the 
place  to  speak.  The  translation  was  form¬ 
ally  condemned  in  Convocation  by  Arch¬ 
bishop  Thomas  Arundel,  1408;  but  the  ver¬ 
sion  survived,  and  the  number  of  still 
extant  MSS.  is  enough  to  show  the  wide 
circulation  which  it  had. 

(4)  Modern  English  Versions.  — John 
Foxe’s  witness  to  the  circulation  of  the 
Wycliffite  versions  at  the  beginning  of  the 
sixteenth  century  is  well  known:  some,  he 
says,  “  gave  a  load  of  hay  for  a  few  chap¬ 
ters  of  St.  Paul.”  This  earnest  desire  fora 
vernacular  Bible,  translated  from  the  Greek 
Testament  of  Erasmus,  was  much  increas¬ 
ed  by  Luther’s  German  version,  and  Wil¬ 
liam  Tyndale  at  last  undertook  the  work. 
He  began  with  the  New  Testament;  but 
finding  the  work  impossible  in  England, 
since  Bishop  Cuthbert  Tunstall  of  London 
(afterward  of  Durham)  obstinately  refused 
his  sanction,  he  settled  at  Hamburg,  in 
1524,  where  he  seems  to  have  published  St. 
Matthew  and  St.  Mark  separately.  Next, 
in  1525,  the  whole  New  Testament  came 
out  at  Cologne  and  Worms,  in  two  editions, 
4to  and  8vo,  and  early  in  1526  was  brought 
to  England,  where  great  but  useless 
efforts  were  made  to  stamp  it  out.  Burn¬ 
ing  the  copies  was  of  no  use;  it  only  put 
money  into  the  translator’s  pocket;  even 
an  Act  of  Parliament  afterward  passed  (35 
Henry  VIII.)  was  no  use.  Six  more  edi¬ 
tions  came  out  abroad,  one  after  the  other, 
some,  unknown  to  Tyndale,  revised  by  his 
secretary,  George  Joye  (Fellow  of  Peter- 
house,  Cambridge,  d.  1553).  Tyndale  then 
proceeded  to  the  Old  Testament,  publish¬ 
ing  the  Pentateuch  in  1530,  and  the  Book 
of  Jonah  in  1534;  other  fragmentary  trans¬ 


lations  were  attached  to  the  New  Testa¬ 
ment  of  1534,  being  such  of  the  Epistles  in 
the  Sarum  Missal  as  were  taken  from  the 
Old  Testament.  Tyndale,  however,  was 
executed  on  a  charge  of  heresy,  1536,  leav¬ 
ing  more  of  his  Old  Testament  in  MS.  as 
far  as  the  end  of  II.  Chronicles.  This  was 
afterward  used,  as  will  be  seen,  by  Rog¬ 
ers  and  Matthews. 

Tyndale’s  actual  work  was  so  effectually 
destroyed  that  very  few  copies  remain;  of 
the  4to  New  Testament  in  the  first  edition 
one  fragment,  St.  Matthew  to  xxii.  12,  was 
discovered  in  1836,  and  is  now  in  the  Brit¬ 
ish  Museum;  of  the  8vo  first  edition  a  per¬ 
fect  copy,  except  the  title,  is  in  the  Baptist 
College  at  Bristol  (from  this  the  Bagsters 
reprinted  in  their  Hexapla ),  and  an  imper¬ 
fect  one  is  at  St.  Paul’s;  of  some  of  the 
other  editions  there  are  copies  at  Cam¬ 
bridge  University  Library  and  the  British 
Museum.  In  the  latter,  also,  there  are  cop¬ 
ies  of  the  Pentateuch;  and  one  of  the  Book 
of  Jonah  was  discovered  in  1861,  bound  in 
a  volume  of  tracts,  by  the  present  Bishop 
of  Bath  and  Wells. 

But  Tyndale’s  end  was  attained:  even 
before  his  death  one  complete  translation, 
the  first  ever  printed,  came  forth,  and 
another  was  preparing,  for  which  the  royal 
license  had  been  granted.  In  1535  came 

(5)  Coverdale' s  Bible ,  translated  by 
Miles  Coverdale,  afterward  Bishop  of 
Exeter,  probably  under  the  auspices  of 
Thomas  Cromwell.  How  far  this  was  from 
the  original  is  not  clear;  the  title  of  the 
first  issue  had  the  words  “  out  of  Douche 
(German)  and  Latyn,”  i.  e.  (roughly  speak¬ 
ing),  Luther  and  the  Vulgate;  and  though 
these  words  were  afterward  struck  out, 
there  is  little,  if  any,  positive  evidence  to 
show  that  they  do  not  represent  the  fact, 
though  there  is,  on  the  other  hand.no  doubt 
that  Coverdale  knew  some  Hebrew.  Other 
editions  were  published  in  1537,  1550,  1553, 
and  in  1538  three  editions  of  the  New  Tes¬ 
tament,  with  the  Vulgate — to  which  it  was 
more  closely  adapted  by  a  revision — in 
parallel  columns.  This  Bible  was  reprinted 
in  1838  by  Bagster,  and  in  the  preface  is  a 
list  of  twenty-one  existing  copies. 

(6)  Matthews'  and  Taverner' s  Bibles. — 
What  of  Tyndale’s  Old  Testament  had  re¬ 
mained  unpublished  had  come  into  the 
hands  of  his  friend,  John  Rogers,  Canon 
of  St.  Paul’s,  afterward  the  first  Protestant 
martyr  under  Queen  Mary;  and  he,  in  1537, 
published  a  Bible  made  up  of  Tyndale  to 
the  end  of  the  Second  Book  of  Chronicles, 
the  rest  of  the  Old  Testament  and  Apocry¬ 
pha  (except  the  Prayer  of  Manasses,  by  him¬ 
self)  by  Coverdale,  and  Tyndale’s  New 
Testament  of  1535.  John  Rogers’s  initials 
occur  throughout  the  book,  and  Foxe’s  testi- 


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mony  (inaccurate  as  Foxe  sometimes  is) 
may  prove  their  meaning;  but  the  question 
concerning  Thomas  Matthews,  under  whose 
name  the  book  appeared,  is  not  so  easy. 
It  has  usually  been  said  that  he  was  no  one 
but  Rogers,  and  Rogers  at  his  trial  is  de¬ 
scribed  with  such  an  alias:  Professor  West- 
cott,  however  ( History  of  the  Bible ,  p.  88), 
is  of  a  different  opinion.  Other  editions  of 
Matthews’  Bible  were  published  in  1549  and 
1551;  copies  remain  in  the  chief  public 
libraries.  It  was  revised  in  1539  by  Richard 
Taverner  (Barrister  -  at  -  Law  and  High 
Sheriff  of  Oxfordshire),  but  his  revision  had 
but  very  little  circulation,  and  was  but  once 
reprinted. 

(7)  CromzvelF s  and  Cranmer' s  Bibles. — 
Next  came  the  first  “  Authorized  Version.” 
As  has  been  said,  steps  toward  this  were 
taken  even  before  the  death  of  Tyndale,  by 
a  petition  from  Convocation  to  Henry  VIII. 
to  license  a  translation.  The  license  is  not 
found,  but  there  is  no  doubt  that  it  was 
granted,  and  Archbishop  Cranmer,  with 
the  help  of  others,  among  whom  was 
Stephen  Gardiner,  Bishop  of  Winchester, 
began  the  translation.  This  work,  however, 
was  never  perfected;  and  in  1538  Thomas 
Cromwell  commissioned  Coverdale  to  pre¬ 
pare  another  Bible.  This  was  to  have  been 
published  at  Paris,  with  the  leave  of  the 
King  of  France;  the  Inquisition,  however, 
interfered,  and  it  became  necessary  to  re¬ 
move  the  work  to  England,  where  the 
Great  Bible,  as  it  was  called,  came  forth  in 
1539.  There  is  no  proof  (Westcott,  p.  100) 
that  Cranmer  was  engaged  in  it,  or  even 
knew  of  it:  but  to  the  second  edition,  1540, 
he  wrote  a  preface,  and  it  is  very  probable 
that  his  translations  of  1536  were  used  in 
the  revisions  which  took  place  in  the  suc¬ 
cessive  editions  of  1541  and  after.  Copies 
remain  in  considerable  numbers,  and  one 
part  at  any  rate  is  perfectly  familiar,  for 
the  Prayer-book  Psalms  are  from  this  ver¬ 
sion,  immediately,  as  is  said  by  Dr.  Archi¬ 
bald  Stephens  {Book  of  Common  Prayer  with 
Arotes,  iii. ,  1799),  from  the  fourth  edition 
of  1541. 

About  1550  Sir  John  Cheke  (M.  A.,  St. 
John’s  College,  Cambridge,  Regius  Pro¬ 
fessor  of  Greek)  translated  St.  Matthew 
and  a  few  verses  of  St.  Mark;  his  MS.  re¬ 
mains  at  Corpus  Christi  College,  Cam¬ 
bridge,  and  was  first  published  in  1843  by 
the  Rev.  James  Goodwin,  M.  A.,  Fellow 
and  Tutor  of  that  college. 

(8)  Geneva  Bible.  —  During  the  check 
given  to  the  work  of  reformation  by  the 
reign  of  Queen  Mary,  the  Protestant  ex¬ 
iles  at  Geneva  entered  on  another  version. 
Of  this,  the  New  Testament  was  first  pub¬ 
lished  in  1557,  being  Tyndale’s  translation 
revised  on  Beza’s  Latin  by  William  Whit- 


tingham  (brother-in-law  of  Calvin),  after¬ 
ward,  though  a  layman,  Dean  of  Durham: 
this  is  the  text  given  in  Bagster’s  Hexapla. 
The  whole  Bible  was  published  in  1560, 
when  the  New  Testament  was  again  re¬ 
vised;  yet  a  further  revision  of  it,  pro¬ 
fessedly  based  on  Beza’s  Latin,  was  made 
in  1576  by  Lawrence  Tomson,  secretary  to 
Sir  Francis  Walsingham,  which  was  some¬ 
times  substituted  in  editions  of  this  Bible. 
This  Bible  was,  for  many  reasons,  the  most 
“  popular  ”  one  that  had  appeared;  it  was 
the  first  of  less  than  folio  size,  the  first  in 
ordinary  Roman  type,  the  first  divided  into 
verses  (see  below),  and  thus  it  was  printed 
in  as  many  as  eighty  editions,  and  as  late 
as  1617,  and  copies  are  constantly  met 
with.  That  item,  so  common  in  second¬ 
hand  booksellers’  catalogues,  “  the  cele¬ 
brated  Breeches  Bible,”  is  nothing  but  a 
copy  of  one  of  several  editions  where  Gen. 
iii.  7  reads,  “  And  they  sewed  fig  leaves 
together,  and  made  themselves  breeches.” 
Wycliffe,  however,  had  used  the  word  be¬ 
fore  ;  Coverdale  had“apurns,”as  he  spells  it. 

(9)  The  Bishops'  Bible. — The  last-men¬ 
tioned  being  the  production  of  the  Puritan 
party.  Archbishop  Parker  resolved  on  a 
new  translation;  this  was  begun  in  1563, 
and  published  in  1568.  The  name  was 
given  by  the  Puritans;  but  it  so  happened 
that,  out  of  the  fifteen  translators,  all  but 
three  were  then  or  afterward  bishops. 
This  version  was  rather  an  unhappy  one; 
the  Geneva,  Puritan  though  it  was,  had 
made  many  improvements,  which  were  not 
sufficiently  regarded  ;  and,  being  very 
large  and  costly,  the  Bishops’  Bible  never 
became  popular. 

(10)  Rheims  and  Douay  Bible.  — Next  in 
order  of  time  came  the  Roman  Catholic 
translation,  into  which  the  Romanists  were 
at  last  fairly  driven.  The  New  Testament 
was  published  at  Rheims,  1582,  the  Old  at 
Douay,  1610,  both,  of  course,  from  the 
Vulgate,  this  being  the  authorized  original 
of  the  Roman  Catholic  Church;  but  there 
is  clear  evidence  that  in  the  New  Testa¬ 
ment  the  Greek  text  was  not  neglected, 
and  the  version  is  of  considerable  value  to 
scholars.  It  has  been  much  revised, 
chiefly  in  1750  and  1791,  and  is  now  much 
nearer  our  own  version  than  it  used  to  be. 

(11)  Present  Authorized  and  Revised  Ver¬ 
sions. — The  first  motion  for  that  Authorized 
Version  which  we  now  have  came  from  Dr. 
Reynolds,  the  spokesman  of  the  Puritan 
party  at  the  Hampton  Court  Conference, 
1604.  King  James  I.  took  the  matter  up 
with  the  greatest  interest,  and  named  (no 
doubt  on  the  presentation  of  the  Univer¬ 
sities  and  others)  fifty-four  learned  men  to 
undertake  the  work.  Only  forty-seven  of 
them,  however,  are  now  known. 


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The  “  hard,  heavy,  and  holy  task,”  as 
Fuller  calls  it,  was  carried  on  simultane¬ 
ously  at  Westminster,  Oxford,  and  Cam¬ 
bridge  for  three  or  four  years,  and  the  re¬ 
sult  of  it  published  in  1611;  but  it  did  not 
at  once  supersede  former  translations;  the 
Bishops’  Bible,  indeed,  was  not  printed,  as 
a  whole,  after  1606;  but  the  New  Testament 
appeared  as  late  as  1618,  and  the  Geneva 
Bible  in  the  year  1617. 

Thus,  then,  we  obtained  our  present 
Bible;  but  it  must  not  be  supposed  that 
the  copies  in  common  use  are  verbati?n  et 
literatim  reprints;  for,  in  these  respects,  a 
silent  and  not  publicly  authorized  emenda¬ 
tion  has  been  gradually  going  on — some 
aspects  of  which  will  be  hereafter  men¬ 
tioned — principally  through  the  editions  of 
1616,  1638,  1701,  edited  by  Bishop  Lloyd, 
of  Worcester;  1762,  by  Dr.  Paris;  1769,  by 
Dr.  Blayney;  and  lastly,  the  classical  edi¬ 
tion  of  1873,  by  Dr.  Scrivener.  So  that  for 
an  exact  representation  of  the  “author¬ 
ized”  standard,  the  Oxford  fac- simile  of 
1833  must  be  turned  to. 

The  causes  which  led  to  the  revision  of 
the  Authorized  Version  may  be  easily  gath¬ 
ered  from  our  section  on  the  original 
Greek,  and  the  revisers’  preface  to  the 
New  Testament  will  explain  them  in  full. 
The  revision  was  begun  in  1870,  by  a  com¬ 
mittee  of  fifty-three  scholars  and  divines, 
nominated  by  the  Southern  Convocation, 
the  Northern  declining  to  cooperate;  of 
these,  twenty-seven  were  engaged  on  the 
Old  Testament,  and  twenty-six  on  the 
New.  The  assistance  of  American  scholars 
was  also  invited  and  received,  and  the 
work  began  on  the  22d  June,  1870,  and 
ended  on  the  nth  November,  1880,  as  far 
as  the  New  Testament  was  concerned:  it 
was  published  in  1881.  The  Old  was  pre¬ 
sented  to  Convocation  on  the  last  day  of 
April,  1885,  and  published  on  the  19th  of 
May  following.  Both  works  were  followed 
by  an  appendix,  containing  renderings  pre¬ 
ferred  by  the  American  committee;  in  edi¬ 
tions  published  in  America  these  are  in¬ 
serted  in  the  text. 

Two  editions  of  the  original  Greek  have 
since  been  published,  intended  to  show  the 
Greek  form  of  the  alterations  introduced 
by  the  revisers:  one  at  Oxford,  by  Arch¬ 
deacon  Palmer,  in  which  the  readings 
which  they  have  adopted  have  been  placed 
in  the  text,  those  of  the  received  editions 
at  the  bottom  of  the  page;  the  other  at 
Cambridge,  by  Dr.  Scrivener,  where  the 
reverse  plan  has  been  followed,  the  body 
of  the  text  being  Beza’s,  of  1598,  with  the 
readings  of  such  other  old  printed  editions 
as  the  translators  of  1611  used,  while  at 
the  bottom  of  the  page  are  given  those 
preferred  by  the  revisers.  The  latter  is 


certainly  the  more  scholarly  plan,  since 
the  revisers  did  not  undertake  to  construct 
a  Greek  text,  and  Archdeacon  Palmer’s, 
therefore,  is  an  altogether  new  one,  which 
cannot  represent  their  work,  except  so  far 
as  the  alterations  actually  made  are  con¬ 
cerned;  they  must,  almost  certainly,  have 
made  many  minor  changes,  not,  indeed, 
affecting  the  English  rendering,  but  by  no 
means  unimportant  in  the  study  of  the 
Greek. 

(12)  Private  Translations  were  made  of 
the  whole  Bible  by  Anthony  Purver,  a 
Quaker,  1764;  David  Macrae,  1799;  Dr. 
John  Bellamy,  1818:  none  of  these  are  of 
any  value,  though  Macrae’s  went  to  three 
editions;  and,  more  lately,  by  Mr.  Samuel 
Sharpe.  Of  the  New  Testament  alone 
there  have  been  private  versions  by  many 
writers,  as  Dean  Alford,  Mr.  Highton,  and 
lastly,  by  Mr.  Maclellan,  with  analysis, 
notes,  and  so  forth.  Of  this  last,  though 
it  is  believed  to  be  finished,  only  the  Gos¬ 
pels  are  yet  published. 

(13)  Versions  in  other  Modern  Languages. 
— (a)  German,  of  course,  claims  preced¬ 
ence,  in  which  tongue  Luther’s  was  the 
first  complete  version,  though  many  de¬ 
tached  books  had  before  been  translated. 
Luther’s  New  Testament  was  published  in 
1522,  the  Old  Testament,  at  intervals,  with¬ 
in  the  next  ten  years,  and  the  whole  Bible 
in  1534;  another,  called  the  Zurich  Bible, 
is  by  Luther  and  other  scholars,  of  whom 
Ulric  Zwingli  was  one:  this  came  out  in 
1529;  a  third,  the  Worms  Bible,  of  much 
the  same  composition,  appeared  also  in  that 
year,  (h)  The  earliest  French  Bibles,  of 
the  thirteenth  and  fourteenth  centuries, 
appear, like  our  own  Anglo-Saxon  ones,  to 
have  been  paraphrastic  in  their  nature.  A 
New  Testament  was  published  in  1478, 
and  a  complete  Bible  in  1487;  in  1530  and 
1535,  two  others  by  Jacques  Lefevre,  the 
first  French  reformer,  and  Robert  Olive- 
tan,  which  were  revised  in  1707  and  1744; 
there  are  also  more  modern  versions  by 
Louis  Segond  and  others,  (e)  Malerni’s 
Italian  Bible  was  printed  at  Venice  in  1471, 
and  Bruccioli’s  at  the  same  place  in  1532; 
Diodati’s,  1607;  Scio’s,  and  others  fol¬ 
lowed.  ( d )  In  Valencian  Spanish  the  Bible 
was  published  in  1478,  but  in  classical 
Spanish  the  New  Testament  was  the  first  to 
appear  in  1543,  succeeded  by  Pinel’s  Bible, 
1553;  De  Reyna’s,  1569;  De  Valera’s,  1602; 
while  ( e )  no  Portuguese  translations  ap¬ 
peared  till  the  New  Testament  in  1712, and 
the  whole  Bible  in  1748. 

V. — We  return  now  to  the  Authorized 
Version  and  its  predecessors,  to  consider 
their  prefaces,  notes,  and  other  helps; 
also  their  sectional  divisions  of  different 
kinds.  All  the  different  translations  have 


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their  own  prefaces ,  and  it  is  a  great  pity 
that  that  of  our  present  Bible  is  so  little 
known;  printers  have  thought  proper  to 
leave  it  out,  instead  of  the  fulsome  dedica¬ 
tion,  which  we  could  far  better  have 
spared,  to  James  I.,  “the  Sun  in  his 
strength,”  and  to  Queen  Elizabeth’s  mem¬ 
ory,  “  the  bright  occidental  star."  The 
general  drift  of  these  prefaces  is  usually 
much  the  same,  pointing  out  the  right  use 
of  Scripture,  justifying  the  translation  and 
translators,  describing  their  work  and  what 
like  work  went  before,  and  explaining, 
either  there  or  in  special  prologues,  the 
contents  of  each  book.  Wycliffe, besides  his 
own  prologue  (though  this  is  properly  Pur- 
vey’s),  added  a  translation  of  St.  Jerome’s; 
he  gives,  also,  marginal  or  textual  notes. 
Tyndale  has  his  prologues  to  separate 
books,  and  somewhat  polemical  notes; 
Coverdale,  chapter-headings  placed  to¬ 
gether;  Matthews,  a  marginal  commentary, 
which  Taverner  somewhat  abridged;  the 
Geneva  Bible  has  “arguments”  to  each 
book,  as  well  as  chapter-headings  and  mar¬ 
ginal  notes;  these  last  are,  in  many  cases, 
dogmatic,  as  also,  though  less  often,  are 
those  in  the  Bishops’  Bible.  But  all  this 
apparatus  was  swept  away  at  the  last  revis¬ 
ion  by  King  James’s  special  desire,  and 
what  remains  is  the  noble  preface  by  Miles 
Smith,  Bishop  of  Gloucester  (d.  1624),  the 
headings  of  chapter  and  column,  and  the 
marginal  references  with  dates,  and  a  few 
explanatory  notes. 

The  Chapter-headings  have  remained  un¬ 
altered  since  1611,  except  in  twelve  cases, 
of  which  the  only  important  one  is  that 
of  the  149th  Psalm.  Here  the  original 
reading  was,  “  that  power  which  He  hath 
given  to  the  Church  to  rule  the  conscience  of 
men;"  where  Dr.  Paris,  1762,  struck  out 
the  last  six  words,  Dr.  Blayney,  1769,  put 
“  His  saints  ”  for  “  the  Church;”  before 
then,  indeed,  a  i2mo  of  the  Stationers’ 
Company,  1647,  had  left  out  the  whole 
clause,  but  here,  as  in  many  other  cases, 
the  headings  are  shortened.  Blayney’s 
reading,  however,  took  no  root,  though 
it  is  found  in  a  King’s  Printers’  copy  for 
the  Bible  Society,  1825,  and  a  Cambridge 
one  for  the  S.  P.  C.  K.,  1838;  the  common 
reading  is  Paris’s.  Blayney,  in  fact,  made 
an  entirely  new  set  of  headings,  though 
they  Avere  never  accepted;  Scott,  in  his 
commentary,  did  the  same. 

The  Column- headings ,  which  are  short 
portions  of  those  of  the  chapters,  vary  in 
different  editions,  of  necessity  in  different¬ 
sized  ones,  and  even  in  those  of  the  same 
size  they  differ. 

The  Marginal  References  are  of  very  va¬ 
rying  value,  some  giving  real  illustrations 
of  the  text,  some  mere  verbal  coincidences, 


while  some  are  altogether  mistaken;  they 
came  atr  first  from  the  Vulgate,  and  have 
been  very  freely  added  to  by  different  com¬ 
mentators  and  editors,  especially  by  Paris 
and  Blayney.  The  Dates  in  the  Margin  are 
from  the  Annales  Veteris  et  Novi  Testamen- 
torum  of  Archbishop  Ussher,  of  Armagh 
(1650-54),  and  were  first  inserted  by  Bish¬ 
op  Lloyd,  1701;  he  also  added,  from  the 
Essay  on  Jewish  Weights  and  Measures  of 
Bishop  Cumberland  of  Peterborough, 
1685,  the  tables  on  those  subjects  and  the 
others  which  were  found  in  old  Bibles,  but 
are  not  now  usually  printed;  they  are  in 
D’Oyly  and  Mant’s  edition,  but  probably 
in  few  later.  The  Marginal  Notes  which 
remain  in  our  present  Bibles  are  those 
giving  (1)  a  more  literal  translation,  as 
Gen.  i.  5;  Matt.  xiv.  22;  or  (2)  another 
translation  altogether,  as  Gen.  iv.  13;  Matt, 
iii.  8;  or  (3)  a  variation  of  a  proper  name, 
as  Gen.  xxii.  23  (these  are  often  very  tri¬ 
fling,  being  mere  differences  of  spelling  in 
the  Hebrew  and  Greek  and  Latin  forms); 
or  (4)  an  explanation  of  one,  as  Gen.  v.  29; 
Matt.  i.  21;  or,  lastly  (5),  an  explanation, 
historical  or  otherwise,  as  Judges  xi.  29; 
Matt,  xviii.  24.  Those  referring  to  differ¬ 
ences  of  reading  are  very  few;  instances 
are  Gen.  x.  4;  Acts  xxv.  6;  but  in  the  Re¬ 
vised  New  Testament,  1881,  they  are 
greatly  increased  in  number. 

The  division  into  our  modern  chapters 
was  introduced  into  the  Vulgate  about  the 
middle  of  the  thirteenth  century  by  Cardi¬ 
nal  Hugh  de  St.  Cher  (d.  1263),  for  the 
purposes  of  his  Concordance — the  first  ever 
put  together;  these  chapters  he  subdivided 
into  smaller  sections  by  the  letters  A ,  B,  C, 
etc.,  in  the  margin.  The  chapter-division 
at  once  took  root  everywhere;  the  other, 
though  used  by  Coverdale  in  his  Bible, 
1 535  (in  Bagster’s  reprint  the  letters  come 
at  intervals  of  from  twenty  to  thirty  lines), 
was  after  a  time  superseded  by  the  mod¬ 
ern  verse  division.  This  was  introduced 
first  into  the  Hebrew  Bible  about  1445, 
and  extended  to  the  New  Testament  in 
1528,  by  Sanctes  Paquinus,  in  his  .Latin 
version.  These  verses  were,  however,  of 
somewhat  greater  length  than  those  now 
known,  and  Robert  Stephens,  the  printer, 
brought  them  into  the  modern  shape  in 
1548  and  1551;  the  Geneva  Bible,  1560, 
was  the  first  English  one  completely  ar¬ 
ranged  with  chapter  and  verse  as  they  are 
at  present  seen.  The  paragraph  divisions 
of  the  Authorized  Version,  that  is,  the  sec¬ 
tions  marked  ^[,  are  of  no  value  whatever, 
proceeding  as  they  do  on  no  principle  of 
any  kind;  but  a  division  of  the  kind  now 
known  as  the  “  paragraph  division  ”  was 
first  used  by  John  Reeves,  King’s  Printer, 
about  1800;  in  England  it  attracted  little 


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attention  at  first,  though  the  University  of 
Oxford  reprinted  Reeves’s  edition  about 
1830;  but  in  America  two  similar  editions 
were  published  in  1834  by  the  Rev.  Dr. 
Coit,  and  in  1836  by  James  Nourse;  and  in 
1838  the  Religious  Tract  Society  reprinted 
Dr.  Coit’s  Bible  somewhat  further  revised. 
The  “Church  Service  ”  system  of  publi¬ 
cation,  too,  which  appears  to  have  begun 
about  this  time,  and  is  now  so  well  known, 
doubtless  had  a  good  deal  to  do  with  mak¬ 
ing  the  division  familiar;  lastly,  Dr.  Scriv¬ 
ener’s  edition  is  arranged  on  this  plan:  in 
1881  it  was  adopted  in  the  Revised  New 
Testament,  and  now  it  appears  in  the  Re¬ 
vised  Old  Testament;  thus  our  children, 
or  at  any  rate  our  grandchildren,  will  per¬ 
haps  know  nothing  else  in  their  new  Bi¬ 
bles,  the  chapters  and  verses  being  only 
printed  in  the  margin. 

The  words  found  in  Italics  in  our  present 
Bibles,  and  partly  retained  by  our  modern 
Revisers,  are  those  not  directly  represent¬ 
ed  in  the  original  languages,  but  yet  neces¬ 
sary  to  the  English  sense.  The  plan  is 
believed  to  have  been  first  employed  by 
Sebastian  Munster  in  his  Latin  version, 
1534,  and  was  borrowed  from  him  in  the 
Authorized  Bible  of  1539.  Thence,  through 
the  Geneva  and  the  Bishops’  Bible,  it  de¬ 
scended  to  the  Revisers  of  1611.  By  them, 
however,  it  was  very  uncertainly  and  in¬ 
consistently  used;  and  though  some  revis¬ 
ion  of  it  was  attempted  in  the  same  cen¬ 
tury,  and  in  the  next  by  Paris  and  Blayney, 
it  was  first  thoroughly  and  critically  set¬ 
tled  by  Dr.  Scrivener  in  1873. — Benham: 
Did.  of  Religion.  See  Horne’s  Introduc¬ 
tion ,  14th  ed.,  by  Ayer  and  Tregelles  (Lon¬ 
don,  1877),  4  vols. ;  T.  W.  Chambers:  A 
Co??ipanion  to  the  Revised  Old  Testament 
(New  York,  1885);  Schaff:  Companion  to  the 
Greek  Testament  and  English  Version  (New 
York,  1883;  3d  ed.,  1888);  Mobert:  Hand¬ 
book  of  the  English  Versions  of  the  Bible 
(New  York,  1883);  Westcott:  History  of  the 
Canon  (1855,  5th  ed. ,  1881). 

Bible  Christians.  This  denomination  was 
organized  in  the  west  of  England,  by  W. 
O’Bryan,  in  1816.  Mr.  O’Bryan  had  for¬ 
merly  been  a  “  local  preacher  ”  in  connec¬ 
tion  with  the  Wesleyan  Methodists.  They 
assumed  the  name  of  “  Bible  Christians,” 
because  they  laid  special  stress  upon  the 
use  of  the  Bible  by  their  preachers,  in 
preaching,  pastoral  visitation,  and  private 
study.  In  1838  the  membership  was  9,839. 
For  some  years  the  conference  consisted 
of  preachers  only,  but  lay  delegates  were 
finally  admitted.  Mr.  O’Bryan  for  a  long 
time  held  the  position  of  general  superin¬ 
tendent,  but  opposition  arose  to  his  claims 
of  authority,  and  he  withdrew  from  the 


connection.  In  1831  missionaries  were  sent 
to  Canada,  and  afterward  to  Australia. 
The  work  in  America  was  organized  into  a 
separate  conference  in  1854.  In  1882  there 
were  ten  districts  in  this  conference,  two 
of  which  are  in  the  United  States — one  in 
Ohio,  and  one  in  Wisconsin.  The  number 
of  preachers  is  eighty-one,  with  7,531  mem¬ 
bers.  The  Australian  conference  had  thirty- 
one  ministers,  and  2,306  members.  The 
entire  membership  of  the  denomination,  in 
1882,  was  over  34,000,  with  299  ministers. 
The  “  Bible  Christians”  are  Methodist  in 
doctrine.  They  have  no  connection  with  a 
small  sect  bearing  the  same  name,  who 
have  a  few  churches  in  the  eastern  part  of 
the  United  States. 

Bible  for  the  Poor.  See  Biblia  Pauperum. 

Bible  Societies.  Various  societies  in 
Great  Britain,  founded  in  the  seventeenth 
century,  had  made  the  circulation  of  the 
Bible  a  part  of  their  work,  but  the  first 
organization  that  made  this  their  sole  aim 
was  the  British  and  Foreign  Bible  Society. 
This  society  was  founded  in  1804,  and  had 
distributed  within  eighty  years  more  than 
one  hundred  million  copies  of  the  Bible, in 
whole  or  part,  and  aided  in  printing  the 
Scriptures  in  more  than  240  languages  or 
dialects.  On  the  continent  of  Europe,  in 
Germany,  the  Canstein  Bible  Institute  was 
founded  in  1710,  and  other  organizations 
have  engaged  in  the  work;  but  the  most 
prosperous  has  been  the  Berlin  Bible  So¬ 
ciety ,  founded  in  1806,  and  absorbed  into 
the  Prussian  Bible  Society  in  1814.  In  the 
early  part  of  the  present  century,  Bible 
distribution  was  actively  prosecuted  in 
every  part  of  Switzerland,  and  in  Holland 
the  United  Netherlands  Bible  Society  was 
founded  in  1815.  The  movement  was  be¬ 
gun  in  France  in  1792,  but  was  checked  by 
the  Revolution.  In  1818  the  Protestant 
Bible  Society  of  Paris  was  established.  The 
Danish  Bible  Society  was  founded  in  1814, 
and  that  of  Iceland  in  1815.  In  1813  the 
Evangelical  Bible  Society  in  Russia  was 
established,  but  suppressed  in  1826.  In 
1863  another  was  privately  formed,  which 
has  the  imperial  sanction.  Bible  societies 
were  formed  in  Malta  (1817),  Corfu  (1819), 
Calcutta  (1811),  Bombay  (1813),  Madras 
(1820),  and  other  places  in  Asia.  All  of 
these  organizations  were  aided  by  the 
British  and  Foreign  Bible  Society.  All  of 
the  Scotch  organizations  united  in  1861, 
and  formed  the  National  Bible  Society  of 
Scotland. 

The  American  Bible  Society ,  formed  in 
1816,  was  the  union  of  many  existing  soci¬ 
eties.  Next  to  the  British  it  is  the  most 
important  in  the  extent  of  its  work.  Its 


Bib 


(  ii3  ) 


Bid 


annual  receipts  from  all  sources  are  not  far 
from  half  a  million  of  dollars,  and  each 
year  it  issues  a  million  and  a  half  copies  of 
the  Bible,  in  whole  or  part.  At  the  Bible 
House  it  publishes  the  Scriptures  in  one 
hundred  foreign  languages,  and  the  New 
Testament  in  as  many  more;  and  it  has 
stereotyped  the  whole  Bible  in  raised  let¬ 
ters,  for  the  use  of  the  blind.  Two  discus¬ 
sions  of  special  interest  have  occurred  in 
the  history  of  the  Society.  In  1833,  Dr. 
Judson  and  his  coadjutors,  in  preparing 
their  Burmese  translation  of  the  New 
Testament,  at  the  expense  of  the  society, 
rendered  the  Greek  words  baptismos ,  bcip- 
tizo,  by  immersion  and  to  immerse.  This  led 
to  the  adoption  of  a  rule  that  all  transla¬ 
tions  must  conform  to  the  common  English 
Bible,  and  the  controversy  resulted  in  the 
formation  of  the  American  and  Foreign 
Bible  Society.  (See  below).  In  1851  a  com¬ 
mittee  that  had  been  appointed  to  collate 
the  edition  of  the  Bible  in  common  use 
with  the  original  edition  of  1611,  and  also 
to  make  such  changes  in  the  use  of  Italic 
words,  capital  letters,  and  the  article  a  or 
an ,  and  some  chapter-headings  that  would 
make  the  version  more  correct,  made  a  re¬ 
port  that  was  accepted,  and  for  several 
years  the  new  edition  was  circulated  with¬ 
out  objection.  In  1856  opposition  to  these 
alterations  arose,  and,  as  there  was  no 
authority  to  make  them,  they  were  given 
up,  and  all  editions  conformed  to  the  ver¬ 
sion  used  when  the  Bible  Society  was 
formed.  It  is  to  be  hoped  that  public 
opinion  will  soon  be  strong  enough  to 
bring  about  a  change  in  the  constitution  of 
the  Society,  by  which  it  can  publish  the 
Revised  Version. 

The  A?nerican  and  Foreign  Bible  Soci¬ 
ety  was  organized  in  1836  by  those  Bap¬ 
tists  who  felt  aggrieved  by  the  action  of 
the  American  Bible  Society,  as  noted 
above,  in  connection  with  the  Burmese 
translation  of  the  New  Testament.  They 
declared  that  translations  should  “  con¬ 
form  as  nearly  as  possible  to  the  original 
text,”  but  in  the  distribution  of  the  Script¬ 
ures  in  the  English  language  the  commonly 
received  version  was  to  be  used.  This 
was  not  entirely  satisfactory,  and  in  1850 
the  American  Bible  Union  was  organized  by 
Baptists  who  desired  that  an  English  ver¬ 
sion  of  the  Scriptures  should  be  circulated, 
which  would  “  conform  as  nearly  as  pos¬ 
sible  to  the  original  text.”  Since  1883  both  of 
the  last-named  societies  havegiven  the  pub¬ 
lication  of  their  versions  into  the  hands  of 
the  American  Baptist  Publication  Society. 

Bible  Text  and  Versions.  See  Bible. 

Biblia  Pauperum,  i.  e.,  “  The  Bible  of 


the  Poor,”  a  title  given  to  a  book,  printed 
before  the  invention  of  movable  types,  con¬ 
taining  forty  engravings  on  wood  blocks  of 
scenes  in  the  life  of  our  Lord,  with  explan¬ 
atory  inscriptions.  They  were  chiefly  used 
by  the  itinerant  preaching  friars.  The 
stained-glass  windows  in  Lambeth  Chapel 
are  copied  from  some  of  these  blocks,  and 
recently  a  fac-simile  edition  has  been  pub¬ 
lished. — Benham.  1 

Biblical  Theology  has  for  its  purpose  to 
set  forth  the  doctrinal  and  ethical  contents 
of  the  Bible  in  their  historical  develop¬ 
ment.  Standard  works  on  this  subject  are 
found  in  Oehler:  Old  Testament  Theology , 
translated  by  Day  (New  York,  1883);  and 
in  Weiss  on  the  Nezv  Testa7nent  (Edinburgh, 
1882-83),  2  vols. 

Bibliomancy,  a  kind  of  fortune-telling  by 
means  of  the  Bible,  which  was  invented 
by  the  Puritans.  Texts  of  Scripture  are 
selected  at  random,  and,  by  more  or  less 
manipulation  of  these,  persons  are  made 
to  imagine  that  they  obtain  knowledge  of 
future  events,  or  of  secrets,  or  guidance  in 
respect  to  their  conduct  in  matters  of  pres¬ 
ent  concern.  Bunyan  and  Wesley  are  both 
said  to  have  believed  in  this  superstition, 
and  even  nowadays  it  would  not  be  diffi¬ 
cult  to  find  some  advocates  for  it. — Ben¬ 
ham. 

Bickersteth,  Edward,  b.  in  Westmore¬ 
land,  Eng.,  March  19,  1786;  d.  at  Watton, 
Feb.  28,  1850.  From  1830  he  was  rec¬ 
tor  of  Watton,  and  in  his  time  a  leader  of 
the  Evangelistic  Party.  A  collected  edi¬ 
tion  of  his  works  appeared  in  1853  (Lon¬ 
don),  16  vols.  He  edited  the  Christian 
Family  Library,  50  vols. ,  and  was  one  of 
the  founders  of  the  Evangelical  Alliance. 
See  Memoir  by  T.  H.  Birks  (London,  1855). 

Bidding  of  Prayers.  In  the  Roman 
Church,  previous  to  the  Reformation,  this 
custom  was  called  Bidding  the  Beads.  The 
priest  named  the  subjects  for  which  the 
prayers  of  the  congregation  were  asked, 
and  then  the  people  said  their  beads  in  si¬ 
lence.  A  form  of  Bidding  Prayer  is  still 
in  use  in  the  Church  of  England,  before 
University  sermons,  and  sometimes  before 
the  morning  sermons  in  cathedrals,  and  in 
the  Chapels  Royal.  It  consists  of  an  ex¬ 
hortation  to  intercessory  prayer  for  the 
Royal  Family,  Ministers,  etc. ,  ending  with 
the  Lord’s  Prayer,  in  which  minister  and 
congregation  join. 

Biddle,  John,  the  founder  of  English 
Unitarianism;  b.  in  1615  at  Wotton-under- 
Edge,  Gloucestershire ;  d.  in  a  London  jail. 


Bil 


(  114  ) 


Bir 


Sept.  22,  1662.  After  graduating  at  Oxford 
he  became  master  of  the  free  school  at 
Gloucester,  in  1641.  While  in  the  success¬ 
ful  discharge  of  these  duties  he  published 
a  pamphlet,  for  private  circulation,  con¬ 
taining  views  regarding  the  personality  of 
the  Holy  Spirit.  That  led  to  his  trial  and 
imprisonment  for  heresy.  While  in  jail  he 
published,  in  1648,  a  Confession  of  Faith 
Concerning  the  Holy  Trinity ,  and  Testimo¬ 
nies.  Both  of  these  tracts  were  suppressed 
by  the  Government.  The  Act  of  Oblivion 
(1655)  set  him  free,  and  he  gathered  con¬ 
gregations  that  were  first  called  Biddel- 
lians,  then  Socinians,  and,  finally,  assumed 
for  themselves  the  name  of  Unitarians.  He 
was  again  arrested  in  1655,  and  only  es¬ 
caped  by  the  intervention  of  Cromwell, 
who  sent  him  to  the  Scilly  Islands.  He 
returned  three  years  afterward,  and  was 
at  liberty  until  the  Restoration,  when  he 
was  again  fined  and  imprisoned,  and  died 
in  jail.  His  personal  character  won  the 
esteem  of  all  who  knew  him. 

Bilney,  Thomas,  the  first  Protestant  burn¬ 
ed  for  heresy,  when  Henry  VIII.  revived 
the  old  statutes  against  heretics;  b.  at  East 
Bilney  (?),  1495(7);  educated  at  Cambridge ; 
after  receiving  holy  orders,  his  study  of 
the  Bible  led  him  to  preach  against  saint- 
worship  and  pilgrimages.  He  was  sum¬ 
moned  before  Cardinal  Wolsey,  in  1527,  and 
made  a  recantation;  but  after  the  lapse  of 
about  two  years  he  again  preached  against 
what  he  deemed  the  errors  of  the  Church, 
and  was  apprehended  and  condemned  as  a 
heretic,  and  burned  at  Norwich,  Aug.  31, 
1531- 

Bilson,  Thomas,  Church  of  England;  b. 
at  Winchester,  1547;  d.  in  London,  June 
18,  1616.  Educated  at  Oxford,  he  became 
Bishop  of  Winchester,  1597.  His  most 
celebrated  work  was  written  at  the  com¬ 
mand  of  Oueen  Elizabeth,  on  Christian 
Subjection  and.  Unchristian  Rebellion  (1585). 
He  was  a  member  of  the  Hampton  Court 
Conference,  and  was  appointed  final  re¬ 
viser  of  the  Authorized  Version,  and  pre¬ 
pared  the  chapter  headings. 

Bingham,  Joseph,  Church  of  England; 
b.  at  Wakefield,  Sept.  1C68;  d.  at  Head- 
bourn-Worthy,  near  Winchester,  Aug.  17, 
1723.  Educated  at  Oxford,  he  became  fel¬ 
low  of  University  College,  in  1689.  In  a 
sermon  upon  the  Trinity  he  broached  views 
that  resulted  in  accusations  of  heresy,  and 
he  resigned  his  fellowship  and  became 
vicar  of  Headbourn-Worthy.  Here  he  pre¬ 
pared  his  great  work,  Origines  Ecclesias¬ 
tics  :  or  Antiquities  of  the  Christian  Church 
(London,  1708-22),  10  vols.,  the  most  ex¬ 


haustive  and  the  greatest  work  in  its  de¬ 
partment  yet  published.  Best  ed.  of  all 
his  works,  Oxford,  1855,  10  vols. 

Binney,  Thomas,  one  of  the  leading  Non¬ 
conformist  ministers  of  England;  b.  at 
Newcastle-on-Tyne,  April,  1798;  d.  at  Clap¬ 
ton,  London,  Feb.  24,  1874.  He  was  edu¬ 
cated  at  the  theological  seminary  at  Wy- 
mondley,  Herts.  In  1824  he  became  pastor 
of  a  Congregational  Church  at  Newport, 
on  the  Isle  of  Wight.  While  here  he  wrote 
the  well-known  hymn,  “Eternal  Light! 
Eternal  Light!  ”  In  1829  he  entered  upon 
his  eminently  useful  pastorate  of  the  King’s 
Weigh- House  Chapel,  London.  His  in¬ 
fluence  over  young  men  was  especially 
marked,  and  he  was  a  recognized  leader  in 
the  philanthropic  and  religious  move¬ 
ments  of  his  time.  He  published  sev¬ 
eral  volumes  of  sermons  and  lectures. 
See  his  Memorial ,  edited  by  Stoughton 
(London,  1874). 

Birgitta,  a  Swedish  saint;  b.  at  Finstad, 
near  Upsala,  1302;  d.  at  Rome,  July  23, 
1373.  She  was  related  to  the  royal  family 
of  Sweden,  and  married  a  wealthy  noble¬ 
man,  by  whom  she  bore  eight  children. 
After  the  death  of  her  husband,  who  had 
fully  sympathized  with  her  religious  dis¬ 
position,  she  retired  into  a  monastery, 
where  she  soon  gained  great  influence,  and 
was  looked  upon  by  some  as  a  prophetess, 
and  by  others  as  a  sorceress.  It  was  her 
desire  to  found  an  order;  and,  declaring 
that  the  rules  that  should  govern  it  had 
been  revealed  to  her  by  the  Lord,  she 
visited  Rome  to  secure  the  Pope’s  sanction. 
While  in  Rome  she  was  revered  on  every 
hand  as  a  prophetess,  and  sent  letters  of 
advice  and  admonition  to  kings  and  princes. 
In  1367  the  rules  of  her  order  wrere  con¬ 
firmed  by  Urban  V.,  and  in  1370  they  were 
established  under  the  name  of  Birgittines 
or  Brigittines.  The  same  year  Birgitta 
made  a  pilgrimage  to  Jerusalem,  and,  soon 
after  her  return,  died  at  Rome.  She  was 
canonized  in  1391.  Her  celebrated  Revela¬ 
tions  was  translated  into  English  (London, 

1873)- 

Birgittines,  or  Brigittines.  This  order, 
founded  on  the  rules  of  St.  Birgitta,  com¬ 
prised  both  monks  and  nuns  who  lived  in 
the  same  monastery ,  but  entirely  separated. 
The  first  monastery  was  situated  on  the 
shores  of  Lake  Wettern  in  Sweden.  The 
rules  of  silence  were  severe,  and  promi¬ 
nence  was  given  to  the  study  of  the  Bible 
and  devotional  reading.  The  order  at  one 
time  numbered  seventy-four  establish¬ 
ments,  but  since  the  Reformation  it  has  al¬ 
most  disappeared. 


Bis 


(  115  ) 


Bla 


Bishop  (from  the  Greek  word  episcopos ; 
an  overseer).  As  a  distinctive  term  for 
one  particular  class  of  ministers  the  word 
“  bishop”  or  “  episcopos  ”  is  not  found  in 
the  New  Testament.  It  there  has  the  same 
meaning  as  “elder, " presbuteros  (cf.  Acts  xx. 
17,  28;  Tit.  i.  5  sq.),  and  those  to  whom  it 
was  applied  occupied  the  same  position. 
( Phil.  i.  1 ;  1  Tim.  iii.  1-8. )  At  a  very  early 
period  a  distinction,  however,  was  made  be¬ 
tween  presbyter  and  bishop.  The  superior¬ 
ity  of  the  bishop  is  fully  recognized  by 
Ignatius,  although  both  Irenaeus  ( Adv . 
Haer.  iii.  2,3,)  and  Jerome  ( Epist .  c.  I.,  ad. 
evangelum )  state  that  the  two  offices  were 
identical.  Those  who  hold  that  bishops 
are  the  direct  successors  of  the  apostles, 
find  a  Scripture  warrant  for  this  office, 
distinct  in  its  functions.  In  the  Church  of 
Rome  the  pope  claims  the  right  of  the  ap¬ 
pointment  of  all  bishops,  and  they  report 
to  him  personally  at  stated  intervals.  In 
the  Church  of  England  there  are  thirty- 
four  bishops,  twenty  -  four  of  whom  are 
peers  of  the  realm,  and  sit  and  vote  in  the 
House  of  Lords.  Two  of  the  bishops, 
Canterbury  and  York,  bear  the  title  of 
archbishop.  The  bishops  are  nominated 
by  the  Crown,  but  are  elected  formally  by 
the  deans  and  chapters  of  the  dioceses. 
They  alone  can  administer  the  rite  of  con¬ 
firmation,  and  ordain  candidates  for  the 
ministry.  In  the  Church  of  Russia  the 
synod  of  bishops  recommends  two  persons 
to  the  sovereign,  for  him  to  select  one  of 
them  as  bishop.  The  sovereign  may 
nominate  of  his  own  choice  a  person  whom 
the  synod  is  obliged  to  elect.  In  the 
Greek  Church  the  patriarchs  have  the 
right  to  confirm  the  election  of  bishops 
within  the  limits  of  their  patriarchate.  In 
the  Lutheran  Church  the  general  superin¬ 
tendents  are  called  bishops,  but  the  govern¬ 
ing  power  rests  with  the  consistories.  In 
Sweden  and  Denmark  the  episcopal  office 
is  retained,  but  without  the  jure  divino 
theory.  The  episcopate  in  the  Methodist 
Episcopal  Church,  the  Moravian  Church, 
and  the  United  Brethren,  does  not  denote 
a  difference  in  order,  but  of  convenience  in 
administration.  In  the  Protestant  Epis¬ 
copal  Church,  in  the  United  States,  the 
bishops  are  chosen  by  the  diocese  over 
which  they  are  to  preside,  and  they  ex¬ 
ercise  functions  similar  to  prelates  in  the 
Church  of  England. 

Bishopric,  the  district  over  which  the 
jurisdiction  of  a  bishop  extends. 

Bishop’s  Bible.  See  Bible. 

Bishop’s  Book,  a  work  published  in  the 
reign  of  Henry  VIII.  (1537),  entitled  The 


Institution  of  a  Christian  Man.  It  was 
drawn  up  under  the  direction  of  Cranmer, 
for  the  purpose  of  giving  instruction  to  the 
people  in  the  elements  of  Christian  faith. 
The  book  contains  an  exposition  of  the 
Apostle’s  Creed,  the  Seven  Sacraments, 
the  Ten  Commandments,  the  Lord’s  Pray¬ 
er,  the  Ave  Maria,  and  the  doctrines  of 
justification  and  purgatory. 

Bissell,  Edwin  Cone,  D.  D.  (Amherst, 
1874),  Congregationalist;  b.  at  Schoharie, 
N.  Y. ,  March  2,  1832;  graduated  at  Am¬ 
herst  College,  Mass.,  1855,  and  Union 
Theological  Seminary,  1S59;  in  the  pastor¬ 
ate,  1859-1873;  missionary  of  the  A.  B.  C. 
F.  M.  in  Austria,  1873-1878;  since  1881 
professor  of  Hebrew  in  the  Hartford  Theo¬ 
logical  Seminary.  He  is  the  author  of: 
The  Historic  Origin  of  the  Bible  (New  York, 
1 873);  The  Apocrypha  of  the  Old  Testament 
(vol.  xv.  of  the  Old  Testament  in  the 
American  Lange  series,  1880);  The  Penta¬ 
teuch,  its  Origin  and  Structure:  an  Exam¬ 
ination  of  Recent  Theories  (1885);  Biblical 

Antiquities  (Philadelphia,  1888). 

1 

Bithyn'ia,  the  northwest  province  of 
Asia  Minor,  conquered  by  the  Romans, 
b.  c.  75.  It  is  a  mountainous  region.  Paul 
was  not  permitted  to  labor  here  (Acts  xvi. 
7),  but  there  were  many  Christians  in  the 
province  (1  Peter  i.  1),  as  Pliny  testifies. 
Nicomedia  and  Nicaea  were  its  chief  cities, 
and  in  the  latter  was  held  the  famous  Coun¬ 
cil  of  A.  D.  325. 

Blackfriars,  a  name  given  to  monks  of 
the  Dominican  order,  on  account  of  the 
color  of  their  garments. 

Blaikie  (blay-key),  William  Garden, 
D.  D.  (Edinburgh,  1864),  LL.  D.  (Aber¬ 
deen,  1872),  Free  Church  of  Scotland;  b. 
at  Aberdeen,  Feb.  5,  1820;  was  graduated 
at  Aberdeen,  1837;  in  the  ministry  of  the 
Established  Church  of  Scotland,  Drum- 
blade,  1842;  of  the  Free  Church  at  Pilrig, 
Edinburgh;  appointed  professor  of  apolo¬ 
getics  and  pastoral  theology  in  New  Col¬ 
lege,  Edinburgh,  1868.  Among  his  pub¬ 
lished  works  are:  Better  Days  for  Working 
People  (1863);  Heads  and  Hands  in  the 
World  of  Labor  (1865);  Counsel  and  Cheer 
for  the  Battle  of  Life  (1867);  For  the  Work 
of  the  Ministry  (1873);  Personal  Life  of 
David  Livingstone  (1880);  Preachers  of  Scot¬ 
land  from  the  Sixth  to  the  Nineteenth  Cen¬ 
tury  (1888). 

Blair,  Hugh,  D.  D.,  Church  of  Scotland; 
b.  in  Edinburgh,  April  7,  1718;  d.  there, 
Dec.  27,  1800.  A  graduate  of  the  Univer¬ 
sity  of  Edinburgh,  he  was  first  a  preacher 


Bla 


(  n6  ) 


Blu 


in  that  city  from  1743,  and,  from  1760  to 
1783,  professor  of  rhetoric  in  the  Univer¬ 
sity.  His  fame  rests  upon  his  published 
Sermons  (Edinburgh,  1777-1801),  5  vols., 
and  his  Rhetoric  (London,  1783),  2  vols. 

Blaise,  St.,  Bishop  of  Sebaste,  in  Cap¬ 
padocia;  beheaded  in  the  Diocletian  perse¬ 
cution,  after  suffering  torture  by  having 
his  flesh  torn  with  the  iron  combs  used  by 
wool-combers  (316).  He  is  the  patron 
saint  of  wool-combers,  and  his  name  and 
day  are  still  popular  in  parts  of  England, 
where  woolen  manufactures  are  carried 
on. 

Blandi'na,  a  slave  girl,  and  one  of  the 
forty-eight  martyrs  of  Lyons.  Her  mar¬ 
tyrdom  is  described  by  Eusebius  (vi.,  ed. 
Bohn,  pp.  159  sq.). 

Blasius.  See  Blaise,  St. 

Blasphemy.  This  word  from  the  Greek 
blasphemia ,  to  speak  evil  against  a  per¬ 
son,  refers  especially  to  any  indignity  of¬ 
fered  to  the  Deity.  Under  the  Mosaic 
law  any  one  who  took  the  name  of  God  in 
vain  was  punished  with  death  by  stoning. 
(Lev.  xxiv.  16.)  The  refusal  to  honor 
Christ  was  considered  blasphemy  by  the 
New  Testament  writers.  (Matt,  xxvii.  39; 
Mark  xv.  29;  Acts  xviii.  6;  xxvi.  11.)  In 
England,  Scotland,  and  in  several  of  the 
commonwealths  of  the  United  States,  pro¬ 
fane  cursing  and  swearing  is  made  punish¬ 
able  by  fine  or  imprisonment,  or  both.  It 
is  matter  for  regret  that  the  law  is  but  sel¬ 
dom  enforced. 

Blasphemy  against  the  Holy  Ghost 
(Matt.  xii.  31;  Mark  iii.  29;  Luke  xii.  10) 
is  the  unpardonable  sin.  It  denotes  a  con¬ 
dition  of  impenitence  that  has  been  so  will¬ 
ful  and  constant  against  the  influences  of 
the  Holy  Spirit,  that  the  soul  has  become 
incapable  of  repentance. 

Blayney,  Benjamin,  Church  of  England; 
b.  in  1728;  d.  at  Oxford,  Sept.  20,  1S01. 
He  was  educated  at  Oxford,  where  he  be¬ 
came  Regius  Professor  of  Hebrew  (1787), 
and  rector  of  Poulshot,  Wiltshire.  He 
revised,  for  the  Clarendon  Press,  the 
Authorized  Version  (1769),  and  published  a 
learned  dissertation  on  Daniel s  Seventy 
Weeks  (1775),  and  an  edition  of  the  Hebrew 
Samarita  Pentateuch  (1790). 

Bleek  ( blake ),  Friedrich,  German  theo¬ 
logian;  b.  at  Ahrensbok,  July  4,  1793;  d. 
at  Bonn,  Feb.  27,  1859.  He  studied  at 
Kiel  and  Berlin;  lectured  in  the  latter  city 
on  biblical  exegesis  in  1818,  and  became 


professor  there  in  1823,  and  at  Bonn  in 
1829.  He  was  the  author  of  an  able  de¬ 
fense  of  the  genuineness  of  the  Gospel  of 
John,  and  wrote  a  Commentary  on  Hebrews 
(1828-40),  3  vols. ;  and  An  Introduction  to  the. 
Old  Testament  (1869,  2  vols.;  Eng.  trans., 
1875).  The  more  recent  editions  of  this 
work,  edited  by  Willhausen  and  Mangold, 
by  the  tenor  of  their  notes  misrepresent 
the  position  of  Bleek,  who  was  a  conserv¬ 
ative  critic. 

Blood,  Avenger  of.  According  to  the 
Mosaic  law  a  willful  murderer  forfeited  his 
life  at  the  hands  of  the  next  of  kin  to  the 
one  whose  blood  had  been  shed.  Such  a 
crime  was  committed  against  God  as  well 
as  society,  and  its  defilement  could  only  be 
removed  by  the  blood  of  the  murderer. 
(Num.  xxxv.  31-33.)  Failure  to  avenge 
was  criminal,  and  if  the  one  whose  natural 
duty  it  was  did  not  do  it,  some  one  must 
take  his  place.  Flight  into  a  city  of  refuge 
could  not  save  a  willful  murderer.  See  Cit¬ 
ies  of  Refuge. 

Blood,  Eating  of.  In  the  early  Christian 
Church,  the  directions  which  were  given 
the  patriarchs  (Gen.  ix.  4,  6),  and  the  Jews 
(Lev.  vii.  26,  27;  xvii.  12,  13;  Deut.  xii. 
23,  24),  respecting  the  use  of  blood  was 
made  binding  upon  all  Christians,  whether 
Jews  or  Gentiles.  (Acts  xv.  20,  29;  xvi. 
25.)  This  regulation  was  obeyed  for  a 
long  time,  and  is  recognized  in  canons  of 
councils  as  late  as  691. 

Blood-baptism.  In  the  early  Church, 
when  catechumens  were  martyred  before 
receiving  baptism,  they  were  said,  in  their 
death,  to  have  received  a  full  substitute  by 
blood-baptism . 

Bloody  Marriage,  a  name  given  to  the 
marriage  of  Henry  of  Navarre  and  Mar¬ 
garet  of  Valois,  sister  of  Charles  IX.,  King 
of  France,  which  was  celebrated  on  the 
Monday  previous  to  the  massacre  of  the 
Huguenots,  Sunday,  Aug.  24,  1572,  St. 
Bartholomew’s  Day. 

Bloody  Sweat.  Luke  says  that  during 
Christ’s  agony  in  the  garden  “  his  sweat 
was  as  it  were  great  drops  of  blood  falling 
down  to  the  ground  ”  (xxii.  44).  This 
phenomenon  is  not  unknown  in  other  cases. 
Charles  IX.  of  France  died  of  bloody  sweat. 
See  Stroud:  The  Physical  Cause  of  the 
Death  of  Christ  (London,  1847),  pp.  S5-88. 

Blunt,  John  Henry,  D.  D.,  Church  of 
England;  b.  at  Chelsea,  London,  Aug. 
25,  1823;  d.  in  London  as  rector  of  Bevers- 
ton,  Gloucestershire,  April  11,  1884.  He 


Blu 


(  ii7  ) 


Bog 


prepared  several  well-known  biblical  and 
theological  compends:  Dictionary  of  Doc¬ 
trinal  and  Historical  Theology  (London, 
1870);  Dictionary  of  Sects ,  Heretics ,  etc. 
(1874);  Reformation  of  the  Church  of  Eng¬ 
land  (1868-82),  2  vols. 

Blunt,  John  James,  Church  of  England; 
b.  at  Newcastle-under-Lyme;  d.  at  Cam¬ 
bridge,  June  18,  1855.  He  was  educated 
at  Cambridge,  and  from  1839  was  Margaret 
.  Professor  of  Divinity  in  that  University. 
His  Undesigned  Coincidences  in  the  Writ¬ 
ings  of  the  Old  and  New  Testaments  :  an  Ar¬ 
gument  for  their  Veracity  (London,  1847),  is 
a  well-known  book.  He  wrote  a  History  of 
the  Reformation  and  other  volumes.  See 
his  Memoir  (London,  1856). 

Boardman,  George  Dana,  American 
Baptist  missionary;  b.  at  Livermore,  Me., 
Feb.  8,  1801.  He  was  graduated  at  Water- 
ville  College,  Me. ,  1822,  and,  after  a  course 
of  study  at  Andover  Theological  Seminary, 
went  to  Burmah  in  1825,  where  he  labored 
successfully  among  the  Karens  until  his 
death,  near  Tavoy,  Burmah,  Feb.  11,  1831. 
His  widow  was  the  second  wife  of  Adoni- 
ram  Judstrn. 

Boardman,  George  Dana,  D.  D.  (Brown 
University,  1866),  Baptist;  son  of  preced¬ 
ing;  b.  at  Tavoy,  Burmah,  Aug.  18,  1828; 
was  graduated  at  Brown  University,  1852; 
and  at  Newton  (Mass.)  Theological  Institu¬ 
tion,  1825.  Since  1864  he  has  been  pastor  of 
the  First  Church,  Philadelphia.  He  was 
President  of  the  American  Baptist  Mission¬ 
ary  Union,  1880-84,  and  has  published  sev¬ 
eral  volumes  of  discourses. 

Boardman,  Henry  Augustus,  D.  D.,  a 
distinguished  Presbyterian  minister  and 
writer;  b.  at  Troy,  N.  Y.,  Jan.  9,  1808;  d.  at 
Philadelphia,  June  15,  1880.  He  was  gradu¬ 
ated  at  Yale  College  in  1829,  and  Prince¬ 
ton  Theological  Seminary  in  1833.  He 
became  pastor  of  the  Tenth  Presbyterian 
Church,  Philadelphia,  Nov.  8,  1833,  in 
which  relation  he  continued  until  his  death. 
Among  his  published  works  are:  The  Script¬ 
ural  Doctrine  of  Original  Shi  (1839);  The 
Bible  in  the  Counting-House  (1853);  and  The 
Higher- Life  Doctrine  of  Sanctification  Tried 
by  the  Word  of  God. 

Bockhold,  Johann.  See  Anabaptists. 

Bodenstein.  See  Carlstadt. 

Boehme,  Jacob,  a  mystical  writer,  b.  in 
Upper  Lusatia,  1575;  d.  at  Gorlitz,  in  Sile¬ 
sia,  Nov.  17,  1624.  He  was  a  shoemaker 
by  trade.  As  the  fruit  of  religious  and 


philosophical  meditation,  he  prepared  a 
thesis  which,  in  manuscript  form,  was  cir¬ 
culated  among  his  friends.  It  fell  under 
the  eye  of  the  chief  ecclesiastical  authority 
in  Gorlitz,  who  aroused  the  wrath  of  the 
magistrate  against  Boehme,  who  promised 
to  stop  writing.  He  kept  his  promise  for 
five  years,  when  he  began  again  to  write, 
and  during  the  remainder  of  his  life  wrote 
some  thirty  works.  The  publication  of 
two  of  these  works  in  1623  aroused  a  bit¬ 
ter  persecution,  and  Boehme  fled  to  Dres¬ 
den,  and  then  to  Silesia,  where  he  was 
overtaken  by  illness,  and  returned  home  to 
die.  His  works  were  collected  and  pub¬ 
lished  by  his  friends,  and  have  been  widely 
read  both  in  Germany  and  England,  and  it 
is  conceded  that  his  writings  have  exerted 
considerable  influence  on  the  theology  of 
recent  times. 

Boethius,  Ancius  Manlius  Severinus, 
b.  in  Rome,  480;  beheaded  at  Pavia,  525. 
For  many  years  he  held  an  influential  so¬ 
cial  and  intellectual  position  at  Rome.  Sus¬ 
pected  of  connection  with  the  Arians,  he 
was  banished  by  Theodoric  to  Pavia,  and 
finally  beheaded.  He  exerted  a  marked 
influence,  by  his  writings,  on  mediaeval 
thought,  and  his  De  Consolatione  Philoso- 
phice  was  translated  into  Anglo-Saxon  by 
King  Alfred,  and  Thomas  Aquinas  wrote  a 
commentary  upon  it.  Eng.  trans.  in  Bohn’s 
Library.  It  is  doubtful  if  he  wrote  any  of 
the  theological  works  that  have  been  as¬ 
cribed  to  him. 

Bogatzky  (bo-gats' -hee),  Karl  Heinrich 
von,  b.  at  Jankowe,  Silesia,  Sept.  7,  1690; 
d.  at  Halle,  June  15,  1774.  From  1746,  by 
Francke’s  invitation,  he  lived  at  the  Halle 
orphanage,  and  devoted  his  time  to  the 
preparation  of  devotional  literature.  His 
Golden  Treasury  for  the  Children  of  God 
(1718,  Eng.  trans.  1745),  has  passed  through 
many  editions,  most  recent,  London,  1888. 
See  his  Autobiography  (Eng.  trans.,  Lon¬ 
don,  1856),  and  Life  by  Kelley  (London, 
1889). 

Bogomiles,  a  heretical  sect  of  the  Greek 
Church,  of  the  twelfth  century.  Their 
doctrine  was  a  strange  mixture  of  Mani- 
cheism,  Docetism,  and  fancy.  They  re¬ 
jected  baptism  by  water  only,  and  the 
symbolic  rites  of  the  Lord’s  Supper,  and 
were  opposed  to  the  worship  of  images 
and  relics.  They  suffered  persecution, 
and  their  leader,  Basilius,  was  put  to  death, 
and  they  were  condemned  by  the  synod 
of  Constantinople  in  1140.  They  lingered 
on,  however,  during  the  Middle  Ages. 
See  the  Church  Histories  of  Neander  and 
Gieseler. 


Boh 


(  n8) 


Bon 


Bohemia.  “  By  far  the  greater  part  of 
the  population  (4,940,898)  belongs  to  the 
Roman  Catholic  Church,  while  only  3,438 
are  members  of  the  Greek  Church,  106,115 
Protestants,  and  89,933  Jews.  The  coun¬ 
try  constitutes  an  archbishopric,  and  is 
divided  into  three  bishoprics.  In  1870 
there  were  140  ecclesiastical  foundations, 
with  endowmentsamounting  to  ^65, 726.” — 
Ency.  Britannica.  The  Evangelical  church¬ 
es  represent  the  adherents  both  of  the 
Lutheran  or  Augsburg  Confession,  and 
those  of  the  Reformed  or  Helvetic  Con¬ 
fession.  They  are  controlled  by  the  Church 
Council  in  Vienna.  Christianity  was  intro¬ 
duced  into  Bohemia  from  Moravia  in  the 
latter  part  of  the  ninth  century.  See  Huss; 
Reformation. 

Bohemian  Brethren,  a  religious  society 
organized  in  Bohemia  near  the  close  of  the 
fifteenth  century.  Its  growth  was  rapid, 
and  included  a  large  part  of  the  population, 
when  suppressed  by  Ferdinand  II.  by  the 
most  violent  measures.  Kept  alive  to  some 
extent,  in  secret,  it  was  revived  by  Count 
Zinzendorf  in  Saxony,  and  received  the 
name  of  the  Moravian  Brethren.  The  sect 
had  its  origin  with  the  so-called  Chelczicky 
Brethren,  whose  leader,  Peter  Chelczicky, 
was  a  layman  of  the  lower  nobility,  who 
wrote  against  the  Roman  Church  and 
clergy.  This  little  band  were  compelled  to 
seek  refuge  in  the  forests  and  among  the 
mountains.  “  They  rejected  the  oath,  the 
profession  of  the  soldier,  all  rank  and  hon¬ 
or  connected  with  an  office,  the  right  of 
any  secular  authority  to  punish,  etc.  They 
stood  in  absolute  opposition  to  any  kind  of 
hierarchy.  The  doctrine  of  community  of 
property  they  did  not  adopt;  but  they 
taught  that  the  rich  only  administered  his 
property  for  the  good  of  the  poor,  and 
their  positive  goal  was  an  approach  to  the 
congregational  life  of  the  primitive  Church, 
and  a  realization,  in  practical  life,  of  the 
words  and  example  of  Christ.  At  the  Con¬ 
vention  of  Lhotka  (1467)  these  tenets  were 
solemnly  adopted;  and  they  continued  to 
be  the  life-giving  soul  in  the  social  and 
political  body  which  gradually  developed 
from  the  Chelczicky  Brethren  into  the 
Unitas  Fratrum ,  or  the  Bohemian  Breth¬ 
ren.  .  .  .  What  the  Unitas  Fratrum  has 
contributed  to  the  doctrinal  development 
of  Christianity  is  not  of  great  interest;  but 
with  respect  to  the  practical  application  of 
the  Christian  doctrines  to  the  individual 
realization  of  the  Christian  ideal  in  actual 
life,  to  the  congregational  organization 
under  the  guidance  of  the  Christian  spirit, 
the  Bohemian  Brethren  have  hardly  been 
excelled  in  the  history  of  the  Christian 
Church  but  by  the  apostolic  age.” — G.  von 


Zezschwitz  in  Schaff-Herzog:  Ency.,  vol.  i. , 
p.  308.  The  Reformation  was  the  occasion 
of  profound  interest  on  the  part  of  the 
Unitas  Fratrum ,  but  differences  of  opin¬ 
ion,  especially  regarding  the  doctrine  of 
the  Lord’s  Supper,  kept  them  from  affili¬ 
ating  with  the  Lutherans.  When,  in  after 
times,  they  were  absorbed  with  sects  of 
Protestant  faith,  they  most  naturally  unit¬ 
ed  with  the  Calvinists.  The  Reformation 
was  the  beginning  of  a  period  of  great 
literary  activity  in  the  Unitas  Fratrum.. 
The  Bohemian  translation  of  the  Bible  was 
one  of  the  fruits  of  this  activity.  During 
the  seventeenth  century  political  partisan¬ 
ship  entered  into  the  life  of  the  society, 
and  was  among  the  influences  that  led  to 
its  suppression  by  Ferdinand  II. 

Bolivia.  “  The  Roman  Catholic  Church  is 
the  established  church  of  the  country,  with 
an  exclusive  privilege  of  public  worship. 
There  are  no  evangelical  congregations  in 
Bolivia.  In  1826  the  State  confiscated  and 
sold  the  estates  of  the  Church,  and  assumed 
the  obligation  to  maintain  the  church  offi¬ 
cers.” — Plitt. 

Bolingbroke,  Henry  St.  JbHN,  Vis¬ 
count;  b.  at  Battersea,  London,  Oct.  1, 
1678;  d.  there,  Dec.  12,  1751.  A  freethink- 
ing  nobleman  of  great  ability,  whose  opin¬ 
ions  had  much  influence  on  the  higher 
classes  during  the  reigns  of  Queen  Anne 
and  the  first  two  Hanoverian  kings.  He 
may  be  said  to  have  originated  that  con¬ 
temptuous  patronage  of  Christianity,  as  a 
useful  kind  of  religious  police  system, 
which  was  common  among  the  statesmen 
of  the  eighteenth  century. 

Bollandists.  See  Acta  Sanctorum. 

Bonar,  Horatius,  D.  D.,  Free  Church 
of  Scotland;  b.  in  Edinburgh,  Dec.  19, 
1808,  where  he  was  educated.  He  was 
pastor  at  Kelso  (1838-1866),  and,  with  his 
congregation,  separated  from  the  Kirk  in 
1843;  from  1866  he  was  pastor  of  the 
Grange  Free  Church,  Edinburgh,  until  his 
death,  July  31,  1889.  His  fame  rests  upon 
his  poems  and  hymns.  The  best  known 
of  his  collections  is:  Hymns  of  Faith  ana 
Hope  (London,  1857-1871),  3  vols. 

Bo'naventu'ra,  St.,  called  the  Seraphic 
Doctor ;  b.  at  Bagnorea,  Tuscany,  1221;  d. 
at  Lyons,  July  15,  1274.  He  entered  the 
order  of  the  Franciscans  in  1243,  and  stud¬ 
ied  theology  and  philosophy  in  Paris  under 
Alexander  Hales,  and  became  professor  of 
theology  in  the  University,  1253;  General 
of  his  order,  1256  ;  Cardinal-bishop  of 
Alba,  1273.  The  influence  of  Bonaventura 


Bon 


(  119  ) 


Bor 


in  reforming  and  administering  the  affairs 
of  his  order  was  very  great.  “  As  a  teacher 
and  author,  he  occupies  one  of  the  most 
prominent  places  in  the  history  of  mediaeval 
theology ;  not  so  much,  however,  on  account 
of  any  strongly  pronounced  originality,  as 
on  account  of  the  comprehensiveness  of  his 
views,  the  ease  and  clearness  of  his  reason¬ 
ing,  and  a  style  in  which  are  still  lingering 
some  traces  of  the  great  charm  of  his  per¬ 
sonality.” — Gass  in  Schaff-Herzog:  Ency . , 
s.  v.  See  his  complete  works,  in  Latin  (edi¬ 
tion,  Paris,  1864-1871),  15  vols. ;  Eng. 
trans. ,  Life  of  St.  Francis  of  Assisi  (London, 
1868);  The  Month  of  Jesus  Christ  (1882); 
Psalter  of  the  Blessed  Virgin  (1852);  The 
Life  of  Christ  (1881). 

Boniface,  the  name  of  nine  Popes.  See 
Popes. 

Boniface,  St.,  the  “  Apostle  of  Ger¬ 
many;  ”  b.  in  Devonshire,  Eng.,  in  680;  d. 
probably  in  755,  near  Dokkum,  Friesland. 
His  baptismal  name  was  Winfrid.  Edu¬ 
cated  in  the  convents  of  Exeter  and  Nut¬ 
cell,  he  entered  the  priesthood  at  thirty 
years  of  age.  Fired  with  missionary  zeal, 
he  visited  Friesland  in  715,  but  his  efforts 
were  frustrated  by  a  war  then  waged  be¬ 
tween  Charles  Martel  and  the  king  of  the 
Frisians.  In  718  he  visited  Rome,  and  was 
commissioned  by  Gregory  II.  to  preach  to 
the  heathen  of  Germany.  His  labors  were 
blessed  in  the  conversion  of  many  thou¬ 
sands  to  the  Christian  faith.  He  organized 
several  bishoprics,  and  after  the  deposition 
of  the  Bishop  of  Mainz,  in  745,  that  was 
made  a  metropolitan  see,  and,  against  his 
wishes,  conferred  upon  him.  Continuing 
his  evangelistic  labors  to  the  last,  he  set 
out  in  755  to  preach  to  the  Frisians.  Many 
converts  were  made,  and  a  general  meeting 
for  confirmation  was  appointed  not  far 
from  Dokkum.  Here  a  mob  of  armed  pa¬ 
gans  slew  the  aged  archbishop.  His  re¬ 
mains  are  deposited  in  the  famous  abbey 
of  Fulda,  which  he  founded. 

Bonnivard'  ( bo-ne-var ),  the  “  Prisoner  of 
Chillon;”  b.  1493,  at  Seyssel  on  the  Rhone; 
d.  1570,  at  Geneva.  He  was  prior  of  the 
convent  of  St.  Victor  at  Geneva,  and 
through  the  influence  of  the  Duke  Charles 
of  Saxony,  was  deprived  of  several  bene¬ 
fices  to  which  he  had  a  hereditary  right. 
Embittered  by  this  action  he  espoused  the 
cause  of  the  Genevan  patriots,  and  was  im¬ 
prisoned,  first  at  Grolee,  and  afterward  at 
Chillon.  His  captivity  at  Chillon  has  been 
made  immortal  by  the  poem  of  Byron.  On 
his  liberation  he  was  received  with  great 
honor  by  the  Genevese,  who  gave  him  a 
liberal  pension  until  his  death.  He  was 


the  author  of  a  History  of  Geneva,  and  other 
works  more  interesting  than  reliable. 

Boni  Homines.  See  Perfecti. 

Bonner,  Edmund,  Bishop  of  London  dur¬ 
ing  the  persecution  of  the  Protestants  by 
Mary  ;  b.  at  Hanley,  about  1495  ;  d.  in 
the  Marshalsea  prison,  London,  Sept.  5, 
1569.  While  at  Oxford  his  reputation  as  a 
scholar  in  canon  law  attracted  the  attention 
of  Wolsey,  who  rapidly  promoted  him. 
After  the  death  of  his  patron  he  was  ap¬ 
pointed  chaplain  by  Henry  VIII.,  whose 
good-will  he  gained  by  efforts  in  behalf  of 
the  reformation.  His  zeal  lasted,  how¬ 
ever,  only  through  the  lifetime  of  the 
king.  Refusing  to  take  the  oath  of  suprem¬ 
acy,  he  was  imprisoned  and  deprived  of 
his  see  in  1549.  At  the  accession  of  Mary 
he  was  restored,  and  within  three  years  he 
aided  in  condemning  no  less  than  two  hun¬ 
dred  Protestants  to  the  stake.  When 
Elizabeth  came  to  the  throne  he  was  de¬ 
posed  and  committed  to  the  Marshalsea, 
where  he  remained  until  his  death,  a  period 
of  ten  years.  His  character  and  life  re¬ 
veal  a  time-serving  and  brutal  spirit  that 
admits  of  but  slight  defence. 

Booth,  William,  General  of  the  Salva¬ 
tion  Army;  b.  at  Nottingham,  England, 
April  10,  1829.  He  was  first  a  minister 
in  the  Methodist  New  Connection,  but  in 
1865  resigned,  and  devoted  himself  entirely 
to  evangelistic  labors.  From  “  the  Chris¬ 
tian  Mission,”  started  in  the  East  End  of 
London,  he  organized  the  “  Salvation 
Army,”  now  so  widely  known.  See  Sal¬ 
vation  Army. 

Bora,  Katharina  von,  Luther’s  wife;  b. 
at  Bitterfield,  Saxony,  Jan.  29,  1499;  d. 
at  Torgau,  Dec.  20,  1552.  While  a  nun 
at  Nimtzsch,  near  Grimma,  having  read 
the  writings  of  Luther,  she  decided,  with 
eight  of  her  companions,  to  escape  from 
the  convent.  She  married  Luther,  June 
13,  1525,  and  bore  him  six  children!  The 
marriage  was  a  happy  one.  After  the 
death  of  Luther  she  continued  to  live  in 
Wittenberg,  receiving  a  scant  support  from 
the  Danish  King,  Christian  III.  Seeking 
refuge  from  the  plague,  in  1552,  she  died  at 
Torgau. 

Borel,  Adam,  the  founder  of  the  Borelists; 
b.  in  Zealand,  1603  ;  d.  in  Amsterdam, 
1667.  He  was  pastor  of  a  Reformed  con¬ 
gregation,  but  resigned  and  became  the 
leader  of  a  party  bearing  his  name.  They 
looked  upon  the  Church  as  having  become 
entirely  degenerate,  and,  acknowledging  no 
other  religious  authority  than  the  Bible, 


Bor 


(  120  ) 


Bou 


without  note  or  comment,  they  confined 
themselves  to  private  devotion.  Their 
tenets  were  very  similar  to  those  of  the 
Quakers. 

Borromeo,  Count  Carlo,  St.,  b.  of 
noble  and  pious  parents  in  the  castle  of 
Arona,  on  Lago  Maggiore,  Oct.  2,  1538;  d. 
in  Milan,  Nov.  3,  1584.  He  studied  theol¬ 
ogy,  philosophy,  and  canon  law  at  Pavia. 
In  1560,  his  uncle,  Pius  IV.,  made  him 
cardinal-deacon  and  archbishop  of  Milan. 
With  singular  devotion  he  sought  to  bring 
about  reforms  in  the  Church.  During  the 
terrible  plague  of  1576,  he  remained  at  the 
post  of  duty  and  gave  a  noble  example  of 
courage  and  trust.  His  efforts  at  reform 
aroused  bitter  opposition,  and  members  of 
the  order  of  Humiliati  {q.  v. )  instigated  a 
plan  to  take  his  life  in  1569.  He  founded 
the  “  Collegium  Helvetium  ”  for  the  train¬ 
ing  of  priests  to  labor  in  Switzerland,  and 
oppose  the  introduction  of  Protestantism 
into  Italy.  Bitter  in  his  attacks  upon  the 
Reformers,  he  did  not  hesitate  to  employ 
the  Inquisition.  He  was  canonized,  1610. 
See  his  complete  works  (Milan,  1747);  and 
Lives  by  G.  P.  Giussani  (Rome,  1610;  Eng. 
trans.,  London,  2  vols. ;  C.  A  Jones,  Lon¬ 
don,  1877). 

Borromeo  Union,  founded  in  Coblenz, 
1844,  for  the  circulation  of  Roman  Catholic 
literature.  Up  to  1887  if  had  distributed 
$2,500,000  worth  of  books. 

Borrow,  George,  b.  at  East  Dereham, 
Eng.,  in  1803;  d.  1881.  Without  special 
advantages  in  youth,  he  early  developed  a 
r  taste  for  literature  and  facility  in  acquir¬ 
ing  languages.  With  a  natural  inclination 
for  adventure,  he  made  himself  familiar 
with  the  habits  and  language  of  gipsies, 
both  in  England  and  Spain.  He  gathered 
the  fruits  of  his  investigations  ixia.  Diction¬ 
ary ,  published  in  1841.  Under  engagement 
to  act  in  the  service  of  the  British  and 
Foreign  Bible  Society,  in  their  work  in 
Spain,  he  gave  his  experiences  in  a  work 
published  in  1843,  entitled  The  Bible  in 
Spain:  or ,  the  Journeys ,  Adventures ,  and 
Imprisonment  of  an  Englishman  in  an  At- 
tempt  to  Cimilate  the  Scriptures  in  the  Penin¬ 
sula.  This  book,  by  reason  of  its  charming 
style  and  entertaining  narrative,  had  a  large 
circulation.  Mr.  Borrow  labored  for  a 
time  as  colporter  in  Russia,  and  then  edited 
the  New  Testament  in  the  Mandchu  or 
Chinese-Tartar  language. 

Bossuet  ( bo-sii-a ),  Jacques  Benigne,  a 
famous  French  preacher  and  controver¬ 
sialist;  b.  at  Dijon,  Sept.  27,  1627;  d.  in 
Paris,  April  12,  1704.  He  was  Bishop  of 


Condom  in  1669—70,  when  he  was  ap¬ 
pointed  Preceptor  to  the  Dauphin,  after¬ 
ward  Louis  XIV.  In  1681  he  became 
Bishop  of  Meaux,  in  which  see  he  re¬ 
mained  for  nearly  a  quarter  of  a  century. 
These  promotions  came  to  him  through 
the  reputation  he  early  gained  as  a  scholar 
and  pulpit  orator.  His  best-known  work, 
published  in  1688,  The  History  of  the  Va¬ 
riations  of  the  Protestant  Churches ,  was  the 
occasion  of  wide-spread  discussion.  He 
opposed  the  Quietistic  views  of  Madame 
Guyon,  and  in  this  way  came  into  conflict 
with  Fenelon.  While  strongly  maintaining 
the  doctrines  of  the  Roman  Catholic 
Church,  he  opposed  the  extravagant  claims 
of  the  Pope  to  absolute  supremacy,  and 
one  of  his  works,  that  asserted  the  inde¬ 
pendence  of  the  French  Church,  was  put 
into  the  Index  Expurgatorius . 

Boston,  Thomas,  Church  of  Scotland; 
b.  at  Dunse,  March  17,  1677;  d.  at  Ettrick, 
May  20,  1732;  was  graduated  at  Edinburgh 
University,  1694;  pastor  at  Simprin,  Ber¬ 
wickshire,  1699;  at  Ettrick,  1707.  He  was 
a  prolific  writer,  but  is  now  remembered 
by  two  works,  The  Crook  in  the  Lot  (1737), 
a  book  for  those  in  sorrow;  and  Hiwian 
Nature  in  its  Fourfold  Estate  (1720).  Both 
of  these  works  have  been  frequently  re¬ 
printed.  See  his  Memoirs  ( Edinburgh,  1776; 
2d  ed.,  1813). 

Boudinot  {boo' -de-not),  Elias,  LL.  D. ; 
b.  in  Philadelphia,  May  2,  1740;  d.  at  Bur¬ 
lington,  N.  J. ,  Oct.  24,  1821.  He  was  a 
lawyer  by  profession,  and  was  elected 
president  of  Congress  in  1782,  and,  while 
holding  this  position,  signed  the  prelim¬ 
inary  treaty  of  peace  with  Great  Britain. 
He  was  a  prominent,  member  in  the  early 
history  of  the  American  Board  of  Commis¬ 
sioners  for  Foreign  Missions,  and  the  first 
president  of  the  American  Bible  Society. 
He  was  a  model  Christian  layman. 

Bourdaloue  ( boor-da-loo ),  Louis,  “  the 
prince  of  French  preachers;”  b.  at  Bourges, 
Aug.  20,  1632;  d.  in  Paris,  May  13,  1704. 
He  belonged  to  the  order  of  Jesuits.  His 
eloquence  gained  for  him  a  great  reputa¬ 
tion  in  Paris,  and  after  the  Revocation  of 
the  Edict  of  Nantes,  he  was  sent  to  Lan¬ 
guedoc  to  seek  the  conversion  of  the  Hu¬ 
guenots  to  the  Church  of  Rome.  Near 
the  close  of  his  life  he  devoted  his  time 
entirely  to  ministrations  in  hospitals,  pris¬ 
ons,  and  houses  of  charity.  Many  of  his 
sermons  have  been  translated  into  English. 

Bourignon  {boo-ren-yon'),  Antoinette,  a 
Quietist  of  Roman  Catholic  origin;  b.  at 
Lille,  Flanders,  Jan.  13,  1616;  d.  at 


Bou 


(  121  ) 


Bra 


Franeker,  Oct.  30,  1680.  Physically  de¬ 
formed,  her  early  life  was  spent  in  solitude 
and  reading  mystical  books.  Twice,  on  ac¬ 
count  of  her  wealth,  she  was  sought  in 
marriage,  but  escaped  by  flight,  as  she  was 
determined  to  remain  single.  After  the 
death  of  her  parents  she  spent  part  of  her 
inheritance  in  building  a  hospital  at  Lille, 
1653.  In  1667  she  gathered  about  her,  in 
Amsterdam,  acompany  of  followers  (known 
as  Bourignonists),  to  whom  she  made 
known  her  “  revelations.”  She  taught 
that  religion  was  an  internal  ecstasy,  and 
that  all  religious  rites  were  unnecessary; 
condemning  the  churches  as  corrupt,  she 
announced  it  as  her  mission  to  restore  a 
pure  Christianity.  Her  principles,  which 
she  preached  with  great  zeal,  found  some 
adherents  on  the  Continent,  but  met  with 
most  favor  in  Scotland.  Her  books  in 
English  translations  are:  Light  of  the  World 
(London,  1696);  The  Light  Risen  in  Dark¬ 
ness  (i703)>  The  A  cademy  of  Learned 
Divines  (1708);  The  Renovation  of  the  Gos¬ 
pel  Spirit  (1737);  An  Apology  for  A.  B. 
(London,  1669),  containing  information  re¬ 
garding  her  life. 

Bourignonists.  See  above. 

Boy-Bishop.  The  election  of  a  “  boy- 
bishop  ”  was  a  curious  custom  in  the  Ro¬ 
man  Church  of  mediaeval  times.  On  St. 
Nicholas’  Day  (the  patron  of  children),  the 
cathedral-choir  boys  elected  one  of  their 
number  “  bishop,”  in  which  office  he  re¬ 
mained  until  Holy  Innocents’  Day.  Dur¬ 
ing  this  time  he  exercised  nearly  all  of  the 
episcopal  functions,  sometimes  even  say¬ 
ing  mass.  If  he  died  before  the  close  of 
his  term  of  office  he  was  buried  with  epis¬ 
copal  honors.  This  travesty  of  sacred 
things  was  forbidden  by  the  Council  of 
Paris,  in  1212,  but  the  practice  continued 
in  many  places.  In  England  the  custom 
was  abolished  in  1542,  by  Henry  VIII.,  but 
restored,  in  1556,  by  Queen  Mary.  “  John 
Stubbs,  Querester,”  of  Gloucester  Cathe¬ 
dral,  was  the  last  boy-bishop  elected  in 
England  (1558).  The  sermon  which  he 
preached  on  Holy  Innocents’  Day  (1558)  is 
preserved  in  the  British  Museum. 

Boyle  Lectures,  founded  and  endowed 
by  Robert  Boyle  (b.  1627;  d.  1691),  for  the 
purpose  of  demonstrating  “  the  truth  of 
the  Christian  religion  against  atheists, 
theists,  pagans,  Jews,  and  Mahometans.” 
The  course  consists  of  eight  sermons  to  be 
preached  within  the  period  of  three  years 
in  the  Chapel  Royal,  Whitehall.  Boyle 
was  an  eminent  Christian  philosopher,  and 
one  of  the  founders  of  the  Royal  Society 
(1662).  He  wrote  and  published  several 


theological  treatises  of  value.  Among 
other  gifts  he  paid  the  expenses  incident 
to  the  preparation  of  a  Malay  translation 
of  the  Gospels  and  the  Acts,  and  of  an 
Irish  version  of  the  Bible. 

Bradford,  John,  burned  at  Smithfield, 
June  1,  1555.  He  began  the  study  of  law 
in  the  Temple,  1547,  then  went  to  Cam¬ 
bridge,  and  after  studying  theology  was 
appointed  chaplain  to  Edward  VI.,  in  1552. 
With  the  accession  of  Queen  Mary  he 
was  arrested  for  seditious  utterances  and 
heresy.  Refusing  to  recant,  he  met  the 
death  of  a  martyr  with  courage.  His  writ¬ 
ings  were  republished  by  the  Parker 
Society  (Cambridge,  1848). 

Bradshaw,  William,  a  Puritan  divine; 
b.  1571;  d.  1618.  Educated  at  Cambridge, 
he  was  settled  at  Chatham,  in  Kent,  in  1601, 
but  was  suspended  for  refusing  to  sign  the 
Thirty-nine  Articles.  For  a  time  he  was 
lecturer  of  Christ  Church,  Newgate  Street, 
London,  but  his  opposition  to  “cere¬ 
monies  ”  caused  trouble,  and  he  retired  to 
the  country.  His  most  important  work  is, 
English  Puritanis?ne :  Containeing  The 
Maine  Opinions  of  the  Rigidest  Sort  of  those 
that  are  called  Puritanes  in  the  Realme  of 
England  (1605).  An  outline  of  this  work 
is  given  in  Neal’s  History  of  the  Puritans. 
See  Dexter:  Congregationalis?n  as  seen  in  its 
Literature.  Appendix. 

Bradwardine,  Thomas  (b.  1290;  d.  in 
London,  1349),  called  “  The  profound 
doctor,”  on  account  of  his  great  learning. 
He  was  for  some  years  Chancellor  of  the 
University  of  Oxford,  and  acted  as  confess¬ 
or  of  Edward  III.  during  his  campaigns 
in  France.  Faithful  in  the  discharge  of  his 
duties,  his  influence  over  the  king  was 
very  great.  He  became  Archbishop  of 
Canterbury  in  1349,  a  few  months  previous 
to  his  death.  He  was  proficient  in  theol-  * 
ogy,  mathematics,  and  astronomy,  and  a 
man  of  earnest  piety. 

Brady,  Nicholas,  b.  at  Bandon,  Ireland, 
1659;  d.  in  London,  1726.  He  was  the 
translator,  in  connection  with  Nahum  Tate, 
of  the  metrical  version  of  the  Psalms, 
which,  superseded  the  version  of  Stern- 
hold  and  Hopkins.  He  also  translated 
Virgil’s  Hineid,  and  wrote  several  short 
poems  and  dramas.  An  earnest  advocate 
of  the  Revolution,  he  acted  as  chaplain  to 
William,  and  at  the  time  of  his  death  held 
the  livings  of  Claphamand  Richmond,  near 
London. 

Brahminism,  or  Hindooism,  the  religion 
professed  by  about  150,000,000  of  the 


Bra 


(  122  ) 


Bra 


— • - 

people  of  India  or  Hindustan.  It  takes  its 
name  from  the  Brahmins,  the  highest 
“  caste,”  or  religious  and  social  class,  of 
those  who  profess  it;  these,  again,  receiv¬ 
ing  their  designation  as  Brahmins  from 
Brahma,  the  Supreme  Being  of  their  sys¬ 
tem. 

Brahminism  is  founded  on  four  sacred 
books,  called  Vedas,  written  in  Sanskrit; 
and  known  by  the  names  of  the  Rig-Veda, 
the  Yagur-Veda,  the  Sama-Veda,  and  the 
Atharva  -  Veda.  Collectively  they  are 
known  as  “  The  Veda,”  of  which  word  the 
original  meaning  is  knowledge  by  sight,  the 
contents  of  the  work  being  said  to  have 
been  “  seen”  by  those  to  whom  Brahma 
revealed  them.  The  most  important  and 
ancient  of  these  sacred  books  is  the  Rig- 
Veda,  or  Veda  of  Praise,  which  is  the 
foundation  of  the  other  three.  Each  Veda 
consists  of  two  divisions,  the  Samhitas  or 
Mantras,  which  are  hymns  to  the  gods,  and 
the  Brahmanas  or  Sutras,  which  are  prose 
commentaries  on  the  hymns  of  much  later 
date.  The  Rig-Veda  hymns  are  more  than 
a  thousand  in  number,  addressed  to  various 
gods  and  written  by  many  different  authors. 
All  the  manuscripts  of  the  Veda  are  compar¬ 
atively  modern,  but  the  hymns  themselves 
are  alleged  to  be  very  ancient,  the  most  re¬ 
cent  of  them  being  said  to  have  been  writ¬ 
ten  b.  c.  1200,  and  the  earliest  B.  c.  2000. 
Accepting  these  dates,  the  earliest  portion 
of  the  Veda  is  contemporary  with  the  pa¬ 
triarch  Abraham,  the  latest,  with  the 
prophet  Samuel. 

The  religion  of  Brahminism,  as  set  forth 
in  the  Rig-Veda,  is  that  form  of  polytheism 
which  finds  its  gods  in  the  forces  and  as¬ 
pects  of  Nature;  and  nearly  half  the  hymns 
are  addressed  to  the  two  most  prominent 
of  these  deities — Indra,  the  Firmament, 
and  Agni,  Fire.  But,  at  a  later  date  than  the 
Rig-Veda,  new  elements  were  introduced 
by  the  “  Institutes  of  Manu,”  which  con- 
•  sisted  mainly  of  a  priesthood,  a  ceremonial 
system,  and  the  worship  of  Brahma.  At 
a  still  more  recent  date,  when  the  minute 
ceremonial  and  its  necessary  priesthood 
had  become  an  intolerable  burden  to  the 
Hindoos,  the  system  of  Buddha  (Bud¬ 
dhism)  was  introduced  as  a  revolt  against 
them.  Then  came  a  reaction,  and  Bud¬ 
dhism  was  entirely  expelled  from  India, 
finding  its  home  in  China  and  Japan.  From 
this  time  Brahminism  changed  to  its  pres¬ 
ent  form,  in  which  a  Supreme  Being  is 
acknowledged,  who  is  supreme  over  the 
universe,  over  man,  and  over  330  millions 
of  other  gods.  The  gods  universally  ac¬ 
knowledged,  however,  are  seventeen  in 
number;  the  great  triad,  Brahma,  Vishnu, 
and  Siva,  the  creating,  preserving,  and  de¬ 
stroying  principles  (with  their  correspond¬ 


ing  feminine  principles),  being  the  most 
important.  The  other  deities  are  mostly 
personified  powers  of  nature,  including 
those  mentioned  in  the  Veda.  Besides 
these,  veneration  is  paid  to  the  planets,  to 
sacred  rivers  such  as  the  Ganges,  and  to  a 
host  of  local  gods.  Of  the  three  principal 
gods,  Brahma  is  now  little  worshipped,  all 
the  worship  having  been  attracted  to  Vishnu 
and  Siva.  Vishnu  is  worshipped  chiefly 
in  the  form  of  Avatars  or  incarnations, 
manifestations  on  earth  in  various  forms, 
animal  and  human,  ten  in  number,  of  which 
one  is  yet  to  come.  The  most  reverenced 
of  these  avatars  of  Vishnu  are  Krishna  and 
Rama.  Siva,  the  principle  of  destruction, 
is  worshipped  with  frequent  animal  sacri¬ 
fices,  and  his  devotees  inflict  terrible  and 
protracted  tortures  on  themselves,  such  as 
suspending  themselves  by  hooks  driven 
through  the  flesh  in  various  parts  of  their 
bodies.  Their  images  have  in  many  cases 
a  monstrous  character,  with  many  heads, 
arms,  or  bodies. 

But  this  gross  system  of  idolatry  and 
polytheism  is  explained  away  for  the  more 
educated  classes  into  a  monotheistic  phi¬ 
losophy.  There  is  one  Supreme  Being,  it 
is  alleged,  from  whom  all  other  Divine  be¬ 
ings  proceeded  by  a  series  of  emanations, 
and  this  Deity  is  also  called  Brahma,  like 
the  first  person  of  the  triad,  who  is  recog¬ 
nized  as  the  Creator.  The  soul  of  man  is 
regarded  as  a  limited  portion  of  the  Divine 
Essence,  separated  off  from  his  infinity 
and,  in  the  case  of  the  good,  to  be  finally 
reabsorbed  into  the  Divine  Essence.  This 
world  is  a  place  of  trial,  in  which  souls  are 
embodied  for  the  purpose  of  determining 
by  trial  the  place  and  condition  of  their 
future  existence.  This  is  settled  by  strik¬ 
ing  a  balance  between  the  good  works  done 
in  this  life  and  their  rewards  in  the  next, 
and  the  evil  works  and  their  punishments. 
But  the  highest  condition  of  all  is  that  of 
absorption  into  the  essence  of  the  Supreme 
Brahma,  and  this  is  attained  only  by  those 
who  carefully  observe  the  ceremonial  pre¬ 
scribed  in  the  laws  of  Manu,  by  acquiring 
the  highest  knowledge  through  one  of  the 
systems  of  philosophy,  and  by  devotion  to 
the  gods. 

A  peculiar  power  of  Brahminism  rests  in 
its  system  of  “  caste,”  which  made  a  sharp 
division  between  the  classes  of  society, 
and  to  which  the  Brahmins,  or  highest  and 
teaching  caste,  attributed  a  sacred  charac¬ 
ter.  The  castes  originally  were  only  four: 
the  Brahmins,  from  whom  alone  the  priests 
were  taken;  the  Kshatryas,  or  princes  and 
warriors;  the  Vaisyas,  or  commercial  class; 
and  the  Sudras,  the  laboring  and  wage¬ 
earning  class.  There  are  now  a  number 
of  subdivisions  of  every  caste  except  the 


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Brahmins,  who  still  reign  supreme,  though 
there  are  signs  that  their  influence  is  dying 
out,  through  contact  of  the  Hindoo  popula¬ 
tion  with  Europeans. — Benham:  Diet,  of 
Religion. 

Brahmo  Somaj  (worshiping  assembly)  is 
a  religious  and  social  organization  that 
was  founded  in  Calcutta  in  1830,  by  the 
wealthy  and  cultured  Rajah  Ram  Mohun 
Roy  (b.  Bombay,  1772;  d.  Bristol,  Eng., 
1833).  The  Brahmo  Somaj  was  a  revolt 
against  Hindoo  polytheism.  One  god 
(Brahma)  is  recognized,  idolatry  con¬ 
demned,  and  the  doctrines  of  the  fatherhood 
of  God  and  the  brotherhood  of  men  made 
prominent.  These  views,  however,  came 
to  their  full  development  under  the  guid¬ 
ance  of  Keshub  Chunder  Sen,  who  joined 
the  sect  in  1858.  The  society  is  essentially 
Unitarian  in  its  doctrine  and  faith.  The 
movement  has  been  watched  with  deep  in¬ 
terest  by  Christians  of  every  land.  Before 
the  death  of  Chunder  Sen  in  1884,  internal 
dissensions  had  weakened  the  society,  but 
the  organization  in  many  ways  has  exerted 
a  marked  influence  in  the  promotion  of 
education  and  Christian  ethics  in  India. 
See  Keshab  Chandra  Sen  and  the  Brahma 
Samaj ,  by  T.  E.  Slater  (London,  1884). 

Brainerd,  David,  a  celebrated  missionary 
to  the  Indians;  b.  at  Haddam,  Conn., 
April  20,  1718;  d.  at  Northampton,  Mass., 
Oct.  g,  1747.  After  completing  his  studies, 
he  began  his  missionary  work  in  1743.  He 
gathered  a  church  of  Indian  converts  at 
Crossweeks,  N.  J.  In  1746  he  left  this  lit¬ 
tle  company  in  charge  of  William  Tennett, 
while  he  visited  the  Susquehanna  tribe,  but 
his  labors  had  already  broken  his  health, 
and  he  retired  to  the  home  of  Jonathan 
Edwards,  at  Northampton,  where  he  soon 
after  died. 

Brasses  in  Churches,  sepulchral  tablets, 
made  generally  of  the  mixed  metal  called 
latten,  and  inlaid  on  slabs  of  stone,  to  form 
part  of  the  pavement  of  the  church,  or  to 
lie  on  the  top  of  an  altar-tomb.  Brasses 
are  either  (1)  figures  of  the  persons  com¬ 
memorated,  or  (2)  inscriptions,  with  or 
without  ornamental  scroll-work,  or  (3) 
floriated  crosses  with  inscriptions  at  the 
foot  or  in  a  surrounding  border. — Benham. 

Bray,  Thomas,  b.  at  Marton,  in  Shrop¬ 
shire,  1656;  d.  in  London,  1730.  He  was 
educated  at  Cambridge,  and  in  1698  found¬ 
ed  the  “  Society  for  the  Propagation  of  the 
the  Gospel  in  Foreign  Parts.”  He  was  sent 
to  Maryland  (U.  S.  A.),  in  1700,  and,  after 
two  years  of  arduous  labor  in  organizing 
Episcopal  churches,  and  establishing  pa¬ 


rochial  libraries,  he  returned  home,  and 
became  rector  of  St.  Botolph,  London.  His 
plan  of  parish  libraries  was  extended  to 
England  and  Wales,  and  there  is  a  society 
still  in  existence  for  this  purpose,  known 
as  the  “  Bray  Associates.”  Bray  published 
several  works:  Catechetical  Lectures ,  and 
Papal  Usurpation  and  Tyranny ,  Ancient  and 
Modern ,  are  the  most  important. 

Brazil.  The  Roman  Catholic  Church 
was  introduced  by  the  Portuguese  when 
they  took  possession  of  the  country  in 
1500,  first  by  the  Franciscans,  and  since 
1549  by  the  Jesuits.  The  constitution  of 
1824,  still  in  force,  states  that  “  the  Roman 
Catholic  religion  will  continue  to  be  the 
religion  of  the  State;  but  all  sects  will  be 
tolerated,  provided  that  they  should  hold 
worship  in  special  buildings  put  up  for  the 
purpose,  without  the  external  form  of 
churches.”  The  Roman  Church  is  entire¬ 
ly  dependent  upon  the  State;  it  has  no 
property  of  its  own,  and  its  officials  are 
paid  by  the  State.  The  monasteries  are 
now  practically  abandoned.  The  Arch¬ 
bishop  of  Bahia  is  primate,  and  there  are 
ten  bishops.  The  clergy  have  little  in¬ 
fluence  over  the  educated  class,  and  the  re¬ 
cent  Revolution  has  lessened  their  power 
in  every  direction.  There  are  Protestant 
Churches  in  Rio  de  Janeiro,  Sao  Paulo, 
Rio  Grande  do  Sul,  and  a  few  other  places. 
Several  foreign  missionary  societies  are 
doing  a  work  which,  it  may  be  hoped,  will 
increase  in  influence  and  extent,  under  the 
protection  of  the  Republic.  See  Fletcher 
and  Kidder:  Brazil  (9th  ed.,  Boston,  1878). 

Bread.  Among  the  Jews  bread  was  gen¬ 
erally  made  of  wheat.  Barley  was  some¬ 
times  used.  (Judg.  vii.  13.)  The  loaves 
were  shaped  like  a  plate,  and  were  about 
the  thickness  of  the  outstretched  hand. 
The  unleavened  bread  was  quite  thin,  and 
was  broken,  not  cut.  The  word  bread ,  as 
used  in  the  Bible,  often  refers  to  food  or 
provisions  in  general. 

Breastplate.  See  High-Priest. 

Breckenridge,  John,  D.  D.,b.  at  Cabell’s 
Dale,  Ky.,  July  4,  1797;  d.  near  Lexing¬ 
ton,  Ky.,  Aug.  4,  1841.  After  studying  in 
the  Princeton  Theological  Seminary  he  was 
licensed  to  preach  in  1822,  and  soon  after¬ 
ward  was  appointed  chaplain  to  the  House 
of  Representatives.  He  was  pastor  of  the 
Presbyterian  Church  at  Lexington,  Ky., 
1823-26.  In  1831  he  removed  to  Philadel¬ 
phia,  and  became  secretary  of  the  Presby¬ 
terian  Board  of  Education  till  1836  when 
he  accepted  a  professorship  in  Princeton 
Theological  Seminary.  In  1838  he  was 


Bre 


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Bre 


appointed  secretary  of  the  Presbyterian 
Board  of  Foreign  Missions.  He  resigned 
in  1840,  and  just  before  his  death  was 
chosen  president  of  Oglethorpe  University, 
Georgia.  He  engaged  in  a  notable  dis¬ 
cussion  with  Bishop  Hughes  of  New  York, 
which  was  published  in  Phil.,  (1836),  un¬ 
der  the  title,  Roman  Catholic  Controversy. 

Breckenridge,  Robert  Jefferson,  D. 
D.  LL.  D.,a  distinguished  Presbyterian 
minister;  b.  at  Cabell’s  Dale,  Ky.,  March 
8,  1800;  d.  at  Danville,  Ky.,  Dec.  27,  1871. 
He  was  graduated  at  Union  College,  N. 
Y.,  1819;  practised  law  in  Kentucky,  1823- 
31 ;  pastor  of  the  First  Presbyterian  Church 
in  Baltimore,  1832-45;  president  of  Jeffer¬ 
son  College,  1845-47;  pastor  of  the  First 
Presbyterian  Church,  Lexington,  Ky.,  and 
superintendent  of  public  instruction  for  the 
State,  1847-53;  professor  of  theology ,  Dan¬ 
ville  Seminary,  1853  until  his  death.  Dr. 
B.  was  a  leader  in  the  Presbyterian  Church 
on  the  Old  School  side,  and  took  an  active 
part  in  the  debates  that  culminated  in  the 
disruption  of  the  denomination.  He  op¬ 
posed  the  reunion  that  took  place  in  1869. 
During  the  war  he  defended  the  Union 
cause,  but  was  much  opposed  to  the 
emancipation  act.  He  did  a  great  work  in 
organizing  the  public  school  system  of 
Kentucky.  Like  his  brother  John,  he  was 
an  earnest  opponent  of  the  Roman  Catholic 
Church.  His  most  important  publication 
was,  The  Knowledge  of  God ,  Objectively  and 
Subjectively  Considered ,  2  vols.  (N.  Y. ,  1859). 

Brenz,  Johann,  next  to  Melancthon  the 
most  prominent  German  divine  of  his  time; 
b.  at  Weil,  Swabia,  June  24,  1499;  d.  at 
Stuttgart,  Sept.  11,  1570.  Educated  at 
Heidelberg,  he  became  a  priest  in  1520. 
While  preaching  at  Swabian  Hall  (1522),  he 
came  out  in  favor  of  the  Reformation,  and 
was  compelled  to  seek  refuge  during  the 
Smalcald  war  (1546)  and  the  Interim  (1547). 
In  1552  he  was  appointed  provost  at  Stutt¬ 
gart.  He  presented  the  Wiirtemberg  Con¬ 
fession  to  the  Council  of  Trent  in  1553. 
He  was  the  author  of  the  first  Protestant 
catechism,  which  was  published  (1528)  a 
year  before  that  of  Luther.  The  theory  of 
the  absolute  ubiquity  of  Christ  was  first 
promulgated  by  him.  See  his  Life  by 
Hartmann  (Elberfeld,  1862). 


After  the  death  of  Groot,  Thomas  a  Kem- 
pis  became  the  leader  of  the  association. 
From  this  time  on,  the  organization  grew 
rapidly,  and  the  brother  and  sister  houses 
were  to  be  found  everywhere.  In  teach¬ 
ing  children  in  the  schools  and  providing 
good  books  for  their  use,  they  did  a  great 
work.  During  the  sixteenth  century  this 
work  came  more  under  the  control  of  the 
State,  and  the  association  finally  disap¬ 
peared. 

Brethren  of  the  Free  Spirit.  See  Free 
Spirit,  Brethren  of  the. 

Brethren,  Plymouth.  See  Plymouth 
Brethren. 

Brethren,  United.  See  Moravians. 

Brethren,  United,  in  Christ.  See 
United  Brethren  in  Christ. 

Bretschneider  (bret  -  shni  -  der),  Karl 
Gottlieb,  b.  at  Gersdorf,  Saxony,  Feb. 
11,  1776;  d.  at  Gotha,  Jan.  22,  1848.  He 
studied  theology  at  Leipzig,  and  was  ap¬ 
pointed  superintendent-general  at  Gotha, 
in  1816.  He  was  distinguished  as  a  con¬ 
troversial  writer,  and  became  the  leader  of 
a  party  which  sought  to  take  a  medium 
position  between  rationalism  and  ortho¬ 
doxy.  He  was  the  author  of  a  valuable 
Greek  New  Testament  lexicon.  His  auto¬ 
biography,  published  in  1851,  attracted 
much  attention.  A  translation  of  this  work, 
by  Prof.  Geo.  E.  Day,  appeared  in  the 
Bibliotheca  Sacra ,  Nos.  36  and  38  (1852, 
1853).  Of  his  numerous  dogmatic  writings, 
the  only  one  which  has  been  translated 
into  English  is  his  Manual  of  the  Religion 
and  History  of  the  Christian  Church ,  which 
was  published  in  1857. 

Breviary,  an  office-book  of  the  Roman 
Catholic  Church,  which  contains  the  offices 
for  the  canonical  hours.  (See  Canonical 
Hours.)  The  Roman  Church  enjoins,  un¬ 
der  pain  of  excommunication,  all  “  relig¬ 
ious  ”  persons  (i.  e.,  all  persons,  male  or 
female,  who  have  taken  vows  in  any  relig¬ 
ious  order),  to  repeat,  either  in  private  or 
public,  the  services  of  the  canonical  hours, 
as  contained  in  the  breviary.  In  the  Luther¬ 
an  and  Episcopal  Churches  modifications 
and  translations  of  the  breviary  are  used. 


Brethren  of  the  Common  Life.  This  as¬ 
sociation  was  founded  by  Gerhard  Groot 
(1340-84).  A  man  of  deep  and  earnest 
religious  spirit,  he  gathered,  in  his  native 
city  of  Deventer,  a  band  of  young  men 
who  engaged  in  Christian  effort,  especially 
in  the  direction  of  guiding  those  who  were 
seeking  for  a  more  perfect  life  in  Christ. 


Brewster,  William,  b.  at  Scrooby,  Eng., 
1560  (?);  d.  at  Plymouth,  Mass.,  April  10, 
1644.  He  was  a  student,  for  a  time,  at 
Cambridge,  and  then  was  in  the  employ  of 
William  Davison,  ambassador  and  after¬ 
ward  secretary  of  state  to  Queen  Eliza¬ 
beth,  until  the  disgrace  of  that  statesman 


Bri 


(  125  ) 


Bro 


in  1585.  He  then  returned  to  Scrooby, 
where  for  some  years  he  had  charge  of  the 
post-office.  A  company  of  Brownists  met 
each  Lord’s  day  in  his  home  until  1608, 
when  the  congregation,  to  avoid  further 
persecution,  removed,  first  to  Amsterdam, 
and  in  1609  to  Leyden.  John  Robinson 
was  teacher,  and  Brewster  ruling  elder,  of 
this  little  company.  Mr.  Brewster,  re¬ 
duced  in  circumstances  by  his  generosity 
toward  his  brethren,  gained  his  living  by 
teaching  English.  He  opened  a  printing 
office,  and  published  many  controversial 
works.  In  1620,  when  a  part  of  the  con¬ 
gregation  sailed  in  the  Mayflower  for  New 
England,  Brewster  was  recognized  as  their 
spiritual  head.  He  did  not  administer  the 
sacraments,  as  he  had  not  been  ordained, 
but  he  preached  regularly  until  1629,  when 
William  Ralph  was  settled  as  minister  at 
Plymouth. 

Bridget,  St.  (453-523),  the  patroness  of 
Ireland.  Born  about  the  middle  of  the 
fifth  century,  she  early  took  the  veil,  and 
retired  into  a  cell  at  Kildare,  where  so 
many  joined  her  that  it  was  necessary  to 
build  nunneries  in  different  parts  of  the 
country,  all  of  which  acknowledged  her  as 
their  mother  and  foundress.  Many  tradi¬ 
tions  and  miracles  are  given  in  accounts  of 
her  life.  Her  day  falls  on  Feb.  1. 

Bridgewater  Treatises.  The  Rev.  Fran¬ 
cis  Henry,  eighth  earl  of  Bridgewater  (b. 
1758;  d.  1829),  by  his  will  devised  the  sum 
of  eight  thousand  pounds  to  be  paid  to  the 
author  or  authors,  selected  by  the  presi¬ 
dent  of  the  Royal  Society,  who  should 
write  and  publish  1,000  copies  of  a  treatise 
“On  the  Power,  Wisdom,  and  Goodness 
of  God,  as  Manifested  in  the  Creation.” 
Eight  persons  were  chosen  to  write  treat¬ 
ises  on  the  several  branches  of  the  sub¬ 
ject.  Their  names  and  subjects  were  as 
follows:  (1)  Rev.  Thomas  Chalmers,  D. 
D.:  The  Adaptation  of  External  Nature  to 
the  Moral  and  Intellectual  Constitution  of 
Man;  (2)  John  Kidd,  M.  D.:  The  Adapta¬ 
tion  of  External  Nature  to  the  Physical  Con¬ 
dition  of  Man;  (3)  Rev.  W.  Whewell:  As¬ 
tronomy  and  General  Physics  considered  zvith 
reference  to  Natural  Theology;  (4)  Sir 
Charles  Bell:  The  Hand ,  its  Mechanism 
and  Vital  Endowments ,  as  Evincing  Design’, 
(5)  Peter  Mark  Roget,  M.  D.:  Animal  and 
Vegetable  Physiology  considered  zvith  refer¬ 
ence  to  Natural  Theology;  (6)  Rev.  Dr. 
Buckland:  On  Geology  and  Mineralogy;  (7) 
Rev.  W.  Kirby:  On  the  History,  Habits, 
and  Instincts  of  Animals;  (8)  William 
Prout:  Chemistry,  Meteorology ,  and  the 
Functions  of  Digestion ,  considered  zvith  ref¬ 
erence  to  Natural  Theology. 


Briefs.  See  Bulls  and  Briefs. 

Brigittines.  See  Birgitta. 

Briggs,  Charles  Augustus,  D.  D.  (Ed¬ 
inburgh,  1884),  Presbyterian;  b.  in  New 
York  City,  Jan.  15,  1841;  studied  in  the 
University  of  Virginia,  1857-60;  in  the 
Union  Theological  Seminary,  New  York, 
1861-63;  and  in  the  University  of  Berlin 
under  Dorner  and  Rodiger,  1866-69;  be¬ 
came  pastor  at  Roselle,  N.  J.,  1870;  pro¬ 
fessor  of  Hebrew  and  the  cognate  languages 
in  Union  Theological  Seminary ,  1874.  He 
is  the  author  of  Biblical  Study  (New  York, 
1833;  3d  ed.  1888);  American  Presbyterian¬ 
ism  :  Its  Origin  and  Growth  (1885);  Mes¬ 
sianic  Prophecy  (1886);  Whither  ?  (1889). 

Broadus,  John  Albert,  D.  D.  (William 
and  Mary,  1859,  Richmond  College,  1859); 
LL.  D.(Wake  Forrest  College,  N.  C.,  1871), 
Baptist;  b.  in  Culpeper  County,  Va. ,  Jan. 
24, 1827;  was  graduated  at  the  University  of 
Virginia,  1850;  assistant  professor  of  Latin 
and  Greek  in  that  institution,  1851,  and  also 
pastor  of  the  Baptist  church;  professor  of 
New  Testament  interpretation  and  hom¬ 
iletics  in  the  Southern  Baptist  Theological 
Seminary,  1859  (first  at  Greenville,  S.  C., 
removed  to  Louisville,  Ky.,  1877).  He  is 
the  author  of:  The  Preparation  and  Delivery 
of  Ser?nons  (Philadelphia,  1870);  Lectures 
on  the  History  of  Preaching  (New  York, 
1876);  Commentary  on  Matthew  (Philadel¬ 
phia,  1887). 

Brooks,  Elbridge Gerry,  D.  D.,  a  prom¬ 
inent  leader  and  minister  in  the  Universal- 
ist  denomination;  b.  at  Dover,  N.  H.,  July 
29,  1816;  d.  at  Philadelphia,  April  8,  1878. 
After  serving  prominent  churches  in  New 
England,  from  1837  to  1859,  he  was  called 
to  the  pastorate  of  the  Church  of  Our  Sav¬ 
iour  in  New  York  City.  He  remained 
here  until  1867,  when  he  became  general 
agent  of  the  board  of  trustees  of  the  Gen¬ 
eral  Convention.  In  1868  he  accepted  the 
pastorate  of  the  Church  of  the  Messiah  in 
Philadelphia.  He  published  Our  Nezv  De¬ 
parture  (1874);  Universalis?n  in  Life  and 
Doctrine,  and  its  Superiority  as  a  Practical 
Power.  He  was  a  man  of  marked  influ¬ 
ence  in  his  denomination.  See  E.  S.  Brooks: 
The  Life-work  of  Elbridge  Gerry  Brooks 
(Boston,  1881). 

Brooks,  Phillips,  D.  D.  (Harvard,  1877; 
Oxford,  1885;  Columbia,  1887),  Episcopa¬ 
lian;  b.  in  Boston,  Dec.  13,  1835;  was  gradu¬ 
ated  at  Harvard,  1855;  at  the  P.  E.  Theo¬ 
logical  Seminary,  Virginia,  1859;  became 
rector  of  the  Church  of  the  Advent, 
Philadelphia,  1859;  of  Holy  Trinity  in  the 


Bro 


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Bro 


same  city,  1862;  of  Trinity  Church,  Bos¬ 
ton,  1869.  He  is  the  author  of  Lectures  on 
Preaching  { New  York,  1877);  Influence  of 
Jesus  (Bohlen  lectures,  1879),  an<^  several 
volumes  of  Sermons  (1878,  1881,  1883,  1887, 
etc.). 

Brorson,  Hans  Adolf,  a  Danish  relig¬ 
ious  poet;  b.  at  Randrup,  in  Jutland,  1694; 
d.  in  Ribe,  1764.  He  studied  theology  in 
Copenhagen  and  was  minister  in  Randrup, 
Touder,  and  Ribe,  becoming  bishop  of 
Ribe  in  1741.  Nearly  one-third  of  the 
hymns  now  in  use  in  the  Danish  Church 
were  from  his  pen.  A  collected  and  critical 
edition  of  his  hymns,  edited  by  P.  A. 
Arland,  was  published  in  Copenhagen 
(1867). 

Brotherhood.  It  is  not  easy  to  deter¬ 
mine  the  origin  of  brotherhoods  in  the 
Christian  Church.  St.  Basil,  in  the  fourth 
century,  gave  them  their  first  written  con¬ 
stitution,  and  St.  Jerome  evidently  ap¬ 
proved  of  fraternities  rather  than  “  her¬ 
mits,”  so  that  we  may  conclude  that  they 
were  established  throughout  the  fourth 
and  fifth  centuries.  In  the  eighth  century 
we  find  that  the  term  “fraternity”  was 
confined  to  monastic  and  clerical  bodies, 
and  not  given  to  laymen;  but  in  the  twelfth 
and  thirteenth  centuries  it  is  used  to  de¬ 
note  a  “  gild,”  whose  majority  would, 
most  likely,  consist  of  lay  members.  The 
history  of  the  different  monastic  orders 
will  be  found  under  their  several  heads. — 
Benham . 

Brown,  James  Baldwin,  English  Con- 
gregationalist;  b.  in  London,  Aug.  19, 
1820;  d.  there,  June  23,  1884.  Educated  at 
London  University  and  Highbury  Theo¬ 
logical  College,  he  became  pastor  at  Lon¬ 
don  Road,  Derby,  1S43;  and,  in  1846,  of 
Clay  lands  Chapel,  Clapham  Road,  London, 
where  he  remained  until  his  death.  He 
was  chairman  of  the  Congregational  Union 
of  England  and  Wales,  in  187S.  A  man  of 
broad  catholicity,  sound  scholarship,  and 
executive  ability,  he  exerted  a  wide  influ¬ 
ence.  He  was  a  prolific  writer.  See  In 
Memoriam:  James  Baldwin  Brown,  by  his 
wife  (London,  1884). 

Brown,  John,  b.  1722;  d.  1787;  com¬ 
monly  known  as  “Brown  of  Haddington,” 
in  which  place  he  was  minister  of  the 
Burgher  branch  of  the  Secession  Church 
and  teacher  in  a  school  of  theology. 
Among  the  valuable  works  which  he  pro¬ 
duced  was  a  Dictionary  of  the  Bible  (1769), 
often  reprinted;  the  Self-Interpreting  Bible 
(1778);  Compendious  History  of  the  British 
Churches  (1788);  A  Short  Catechism  (1764). 


This  last  work  has  had  an  immense  circu¬ 
lation,  and  is  still  in  use. 

Brown,  John  Newton,  D.  D.,  a  Baptist 
minister;  b.  at  New  London,  Conn. ,  1803; 
d.  at  Germantown,  Penn.,  1868.  He  is 
best  known  as  the  compiler  and  editor  of 
an  Encyclopaedia  of  Religious  Knowledge, 
published  in  one  volume  at  Brattlebor- 
ough,  Vt.,  in  1835.  It  has  had  a  large  sale, 
but  its  information  is  now  out  of  date.  In 
its  time  the  work  reflected  great  honor 
upon  the  industry  and  ability  of  Dr.  Brown. 
He  was  professor  of  theology  and  church 
history  in  the  New  Hampton  Theological 
Institution,  N.  H.,  from  1838  to  1845;  pas¬ 
tor  at  Lexington,  Va. ,  1845-1849,  and  then 
editorial  secretary  of  the  American  Baptist 
Publishing  Society. 

Browne,  Robert,  the  founder  of  the 
Brownists,  and,  therefore,  of  Congregation¬ 
alism;  b.  atTolethorp,  Rutlandshire,  Eng., 
about  1550;  d.  between  1631  and  ^633.  at 
Northampton.  Educated  at  Cambridge  in 
1571,  he  acted  for  a  short  time  as  domestic 
chaplain  to  the  Duke  of  Norfolk,  and 
at  this  early  date  he  was  cited  to  ap¬ 
pear  before  an  ecclesiastical  commission, 
under  charge  of  teaching  seditious  doc¬ 
trines.  He  refused  to  obey  the  summons, 
and  became  a  school-teacher  at  Southwark 
for  three  years.  He  studied  theology  at 
Cambridge  about  1578,  and,  although  with¬ 
out  a  iicense  to  preach,  he  earnestly  pro¬ 
mulgated  his  views  as  opportunity  offered. 
In  1581  he  began  a  ministry  at  Norwich 
which  attracted  a  large  congregation.  His 
unsparing  denunciation  of  the  evils  and 
errors  that  he  believed  existed  in  the 
Established  Church  aroused  a  spirit  of 
persecution  that  led  him,  with  a  few  fol¬ 
lowers,  to  flee  to  Middelburg  in  Zealand. 
Here  he  remained  for  two  years,  where  he 
prepared  three  treatises  which  were  print¬ 
ed  and  sent  to  England  for  distribution. 
The  little  church  formed  at  Middelburg 
was  soon  divided  in  sentiment,  and  in 
Dec.,  1583,  Browne,  with  four  or  five  fam¬ 
ilies,  came  to  Scotland.  In  the  following 
year  he  published  A  Trite  and  Short 
Declaration,  Both  of  the  Gathering  and  Joyn- 
ing  together  of  certaine  Persons;  and  also  of 
the  Lamentable  Breach  and  Disuision  which 
fell  amongst  them  (4to,  pp.  24).  It  is  from 
this  little  pamphlet  that  we  learn  the  early 
history  of  the  sect  who,  as  a  term  of  re¬ 
proach,  were  known  as  Brownists.  Within 
a  few  days  after  reaching  Edinburgh,  in 
Jan.,  1584,  Browne  was  summoned  before 
the  session  of  the  Kirk.  After  a  brief  im¬ 
prisonment  he  was  released,  and,  with  ac¬ 
customed  zeal  and  activity  he  preached  in 
different  parts  of  Scotland,  and  then  re- 


Bro 


(  127  ) 


Bru 


turned  to  England,  where  he  was  confined 
in  prison  for  a  long  time.  Through  the 
influence  of  Lord  Burghley  he  was  finally 
released,  and  made  his  residence  at  North¬ 
ampton.  Here  he  was  cited  by  the  bishop 
of  Peterbrough,  and,  refusing  to  appear, 
was  excommunicated.  We  come  now  to 
the  change  in  his  life  and  actions  that  has 
been  the  source  of  much  speculation.  Not 
long  after  his  excommunication  he  asked 
the  privilege  of  uniting  with  the  Church  of 
England.  In  1586  he  was  appointed  mas¬ 
ter  of  the  grammar-school  at  St.  Olave, 
Southwark,  and  in  1591  he  was  presented 
by  Lord  Burghley  with  the  small  living  of 
Achurch-cum-Thorpe,  where  he  lived  for 
almost  forty  years.  A  dispute  with  the 
constable  of  his  parish  in  regard  to  the 
payment  of  rates,  in  which  he  came  to 
blows,  and  his  subsequent  insolence  to  the 
justice,  led  to  his  imprisonment  in  North¬ 
ampton  jail,  where  he  died,  aged  eighty. 
Dr.  H.  M.  Dexter  in  his  Congregationalism 
as  seen  in  its  Literature ,  finds  reason  in  this 
incident,  connected  with  the  long  seclusion 
of  this  once  strong  and  active  nature  in  his 
little  parish,  to  believe  that  the  stress  of 
labor  in  earlier  years,  and  the  sufferings  of 
persecution  and  imprisonment  had  left  him 
mentally  weak  and  unbalanced.  The  in¬ 
vestigations  of  Dr.  Dexter  and  others  give 
to  Robert  Browne  his  rightful  place  as  the 
founder  of  Congregationalism.  The  story 
of  his  later  life  ought  not  to  hide  that  of 
his  earlier  years  when  he  taught  earnestly 
and  distinctly  the  principles  that  underlie 
the  polity  of  ecclesiastical  order  held  by 
Congregationalists,  See  Congregation¬ 
alism. 

Brownson,  Orestes  Augustus,  LL.  D., 
one  of  the  ablest  defenders  of  Romanism 
this  country  has  produced;  b.  at  Stock- 
bridge,  Vt.,  1803;  d.  1876.  He  was  orig¬ 
inally  a  Baptist;  united  with  the  Presbyte¬ 
rian  Church  at  Ballston,  N.  Y.,  in  1823; 
and  after  preaching,  first  as  a  Universalist 
and  then  as  a  Unitarian  minister,  he  finally 
became  an  infidel  Socialist.  In  1844  he 
joined  the  Roman  Catholic  Church,  and 
established  Brownson' s  Quarterly  Review , 
in  which,  with  remarkable  intellectual 
vigor,  he  defended  the  most  extreme  Ul¬ 
tramontane  views.  His  collected  Works 
(N.  Y.,  1883-85)  form  19  vols. 

Bruce,  Alexander  Balmain,  D.  D. 
(Glasgow,  1876),  Free  Church  of  Scotland; 
b.  in  the  parish  of  Aberdalgie,  near  Perth, 
Jan.  30,  1831;  educated  at  Edinburgh;  en¬ 
tered  the  ministry,  1859;  pastor  at  Car- 
dross,  1859-68;  at  Broughty  Ferry,  For¬ 
farshire,  1868-75;  since  1875  professor  of 
apologetics  and  New  Testament  exegesis 


in  the  Free  Church  College,  Glasgow.  He 
is  the  author  of  The  Training  of  the  Twelve 
(Edinburgh,  1871;  3d  ed.,  1883);  The  Hu¬ 
miliation  of  Christ  (1876);  1'he  Parabolic 
Teaching  of  Christ  (1882);  The  Miraculous 
Element  in  the  Gospels  (N.  Y.,  1887). 

Brugglenians,  a  sect  founded  in  1746  by 
two  brothers,  named  Kohler,  in  the  village 
of  Bruegglen,  in  the  canton  of  Bern,  Swit¬ 
zerland.  They  professed  to  have  direct 
communications  from  God,  and  announced 
that  on  a  certain  day  the  world  would  per¬ 
ish,  with  the  exception  of  their  followers, 
who  would  be  taken  up  to  heaven.  They 
taught  and  practised  immoralities  under 
the  guise  of  the  doctrine  that  the  flesh  is 
under  the  dominion  of  Satan,  and  there¬ 
fore  Satan,  and  not  man,  is  responsible  for 
what  is  done  in  the  flesh.  In  1752  they 
were  arrested,  and  one  of  the  brothers, 
Hieronymous,  was  executed.  It  is  not 
known  what  became  of  the  other.  The 
doctrines  of  the  sect  were  revived  by  the 
Antonians. 

Bruis,  Pierre  de.  See  Petrobrus- 

SIANS. 

Brully  ( broo-ley ),  Peter,  the  successor 
of  Calvin  in  Strasburg,  and  a  martyr  to 
the  Protestant  faith;  b.  near  Metz,  Ger¬ 
many,  about  1518;  burned  at  Tournav, 
Feb.  19,  1545. 

Bruno,  St.,  the  “Apostle  of  the  Prus¬ 
sians;”  b.  at  Querfurt,  Prussian  Saxony, 
about  970;  d.  Feb.  14,  1009.  He  was 
canon  of  Magdeburg,  when  he  became  a 
Benedictine  monk,  and  went  as  a  mission¬ 
ary  in  1004,  first  to  Poland,  then  to  Hun¬ 
gary  and  Russia,  and  finally  among  the 
Prussians,  where,  with  eighteen  of  his 
companions,  he  suffered  martyrdom. 

Bruno  of  Cologne,  St.  ,  founder  of  the 
Carthusian  order  of  monks;  b.  at  Cologne, 
about  1030;  d.  at  the  monastery  of  La 
Torre,  in  Calabria,  Oct.  6,  1101.  He'  was 
canonized  by  Leo  X.  in  1504,  and  his  festi¬ 
val  is  observed  on  Oct.  6.  See  Carthu¬ 
sians. 

Bruno,  Giordano,  Italian  philosopher; 
b.  at  Nola,  near  Naples,  about  1548  ; 
burned  at  the  stake,  in  Rome,  Feb.  17, 
1600.  In  his  fifteenth  year  he  entered  the 
order  of  the  Dominicans  at  Naples.  His 
opinions  in  regard  to  some  of  the  Romish 
mysteries  soon  brought  him  into  trouble. 
From  Rome,  where  he  had  gone  to  avoid 
imprisonment,  he  fled,  in  1576,  to  Geneva, 
and  from  there  made  his  way  to  Paris  in 
1 5 79.  With  restless  energy,  in  all  the 


Bru 


(  128  ) 


Bud 


places  which  he  visited,  he  promulgated 
his  pantheistic  views,  and  unfolded  the 
discoveries  of  Copernicus,  which  he  fully 
accepted.  At  Toulouse  he  lectured  on 
astronomy,  and  at  Paris  he  was  offered  a 
chair  of  philosophy,  if  he  would  receive 
the  Mass.  This  he  refused  to  do,  but  was 
permitted  to  give  lectures.  In  1583  Bruno 
visited  England,  and  some  of  his  most  able 
works  were  prepared  during  the  two  years 
he  remained  there.  In  1586  he  returned  to 
Paris,  but  the  persecution  of  his  enemies 
compelled  him  to  seek  refuge  in  Marburg 
and  Wittenberg,  then  at  Helmstadt,  Frank¬ 
fort,  and  Zurich.  While  at  the  latter  place 
he  accepted  an  invitation  to  Venice,  where 
he  was  seized  by  the  emissaries  of  the  In¬ 
quisition,  and  in  1793  was  brought  to 
Rome.  After  an  imprisonment  of  seven 
years  he  was  excommunicated  on  the  9th 
of  February,  1600,  and  on  the  17th  was 
burned  at  the  stake.  Bruno  was  the  fore¬ 
runner  of  the  modern  pantheistic  school  of 
philosophers.  He  held  that  the  universe 
was  simply  a  manifestation  of  God,  and 
therefore  itself  divine.  Upon  the  spot 
where  he  was  put  to  death,  a  statue  in  his 
memory  was  unveiled,  with  much  cere¬ 
mony,  in  Rome,  Sunday,  June  9,  1889. 
See  his  Italian  works  (ed.  P  de  Lagarde, 
Gottingen,  1888),  2  vols. ;  his  Life,  by  I. 
Frith  (London,  1887). 

Bruys,  Pierre  de.  See  Petrobrussians. 

Bryanites.  See  Bible  Christians. 

Bryennios,  Philotheos,  D.  D.  (Athens, 
1S80;  Edinburgh,  1884);  b.  at  Constanti¬ 
nople,  April  7,  1833;  educated  at  Chalce 
and  Leipzig,  Berlin  and  Munich.  He  was 
appointed  professor  of  theology  at  Chalce, 
1S61;  metropolitan  of  Serrae,  in  Macedo¬ 
nia,  in  1875;  metropolitan  of  Nicomedia, 
1877.  In  1873  he  made  his  famous  dis¬ 
covery,  in  the  Jerusalem  monastery  at 
Constantinople,  of  the  Second  Epistle  of 
Clement  to  the  Corinthians, and  th zDidachd 
(or  The  Teaching  of  the  Twelve  Apostles ). 
His  edition  was  published  at  Constanti¬ 
nople  (1883).  See  Dr.  Schaff’s  ed.  (3d  ed. 
NewT  York,  1888). 

Bu'cer,  Martin,  b.  at  Schlettstadt,  a 
town  of  Alsace,  near  Strasburg,  1491;  d. 
at  Cambridge,  Eng.,  Feb.  28,  1551.  A 
member  of  the  Dominican  order  (1506),  he 
early  became  a  friend  and  follower  of 
Luther.  When  the  differences  arose  be¬ 
tween  Luther  and  Zwingli  regarding  the 
Lord’s  Supper,  he  favored  the  latter,  but 
used  his  efforts  to  bring  about  a  union  be¬ 
tween  the  two  great  leaders.  By  invitation 
of  Archbishop  Cranmer,  he  came  to  Eng¬ 


land  to  teach  theology  in  the  University  of 
Cambridge.  After  laboring  for  two  years 
in  the  interests  of  the  Reformation,  he  died 
there.  His  influence  in  many  ways  was 
marked  and  useful. 

Buchanites,  a  Scotch  sect  which  ap¬ 
peared  in  the  latter  part  of  the  eighteenth 
century,  and  is  chiefly  interesting  as  fur¬ 
nishing  a  strange  example  of  religious  ex¬ 
travagance.  The  absurdities  related  and 
believed  about  Mrs.  Buchan,  the  found¬ 
ress,  were  very  numerous  and  shocking. 
It  is  stated  that  some  of  the  descendants 
of  the  Covenanters  of  the  Scottish  Low¬ 
lands  were  among  her  adherents .—Benham. 

Buck,  Charles,  b.  in  1771;  d.  in  1815. 
His  fame  rests  upon  his  Theological  Dic¬ 
tionary,  first  published  in  London,  in  1802. 
It  has  had  an  immense  sale  both  in  Eng¬ 
land  and  this  country.  Mr.  Buck  spent 
his  life  in  the  ministry  of  the  Independents 
in  England.  He  published  Anecdotes ,  Re¬ 
ligious,  Moral ,  and  Entertaining  (1799), 
which  was  very  popular  in  its  day. 

Buckley,  James  Monroe,  D.  D.  (Wesley¬ 
an  University,  1876),  LL.  D.  (Emory  and 
Henry,  Va. ,  1882),  Methodist;  b.  at  Rah¬ 
way,  N.  J.,  Dec.  16,  1836;  studied  at  Wes¬ 
leyan  University,  and  entered  the  Metho¬ 
dist  ministry  1858.  After  filling  many  im¬ 
portant  appointments  he  was  elected  editor 
of  The  Christian  Advocate  in  1880.  He  is 
the  author  of  Appeals  to  Meti  of  Sense 
and  Reflection  to  Begin  a  Christian  Life 
(New  York,  1869;  5th  ed.  1875);  The 
Land  of  the  Czar  and  the  Nihilist  ( Boston 
1886),  and  other  volumes. 

Budde,  Johann  Franz,  b.  1667;  d.  at 
Jena,  1729.  He  was  a  German  theologian 
of  considerable  note  as  a  writer  on  moral 
theology,  “a  man  of  genuine  piety  and 
immense  learning.” 

Buddhism,  the  religion  professed  by 
one-third  of  the  population  of  the  world, 
namely:  the  people  of  China,  Japan,  Siam, 
Burmah,  Nepaul,  Ceylon,  Mongolia,  Tar¬ 
tary,  Thibet,  and  Cashmere.  It  is  an  off¬ 
shoot  of  Brahminism,  and  originated  in  In¬ 
dia  six  centuries  before  the  Christian  era 
with  Siddhartha,  better  known  as  Sakya- 
mouni,  or  by  the  title  of  Buddha  (Eng., 
“  The  Enlightened  ”),  which  he  assumed, 
and  from  which  his  followers  are  named 
“  Buddhists.”  But  it  has  been  questioned 
whether  there  ever  was  such  a  person  as 
Buddha,  and  whether  the  whole  mass  of 
traditions  respecting  him  are  not  unhistor- 
ical.  Of  this  opinion  were  Professor  Wil¬ 
son,  as  shown  at  length  in  his  Essay  on 


Bui 


(  129  ) 


Bun 


Buddha  and  Buddhism ,  and  also  Professor 
Maurice,  as  shown  in  his  Lectures  on  the  Re¬ 
ligions  of  the  World. 

There  is  no  God  in  the  religious  system 
of  Buddhism,  but  there  is  a  kind  of  wor¬ 
ship  of  Buddha,  for  which  temples  are 
erected,  and  which  consists  simply  of  pray¬ 
ers  and  the  burning  of  perfumed  woods  be¬ 
fore  the  images  and  alleged  relics  of  Bud¬ 
dha,  which  are  innumerable.  There  are 
also  a  vast  number  of  Buddhist  monks,  or 
“  bonzes,”  who  live  a  strict  life  in  commu¬ 
nities  like  those  of  Christian  monks  of  the 
Middle  Ages,  act  as  preachers  and  teach¬ 
ers,  and  employ  themselves  in  study.  The 
end  and  object  of  the  Buddhist  religion  is 
“  Nirvana,”  of  which  term  the  meaning  is 
doubtful,  some  considering  that  it  signifies 
absolute  annihilation,  others  that  it  is  ab¬ 
sorption  into  Buddha,  which  may  be  re¬ 
garded  as  a  form  of  the  religious  idea  of 
absorption  into  God.  This  end  is  to  be  at¬ 
tained  by  extinction  of  self,  and  thus  the 
strict  practice  of  Buddhism  is  a  rigid  as¬ 
ceticism,  similar  to  that  of  the  early  Egyp¬ 
tian  Hermits. 

It  must  not  be  supposed,  however,  that 
Buddhism  maintains  the  same  form  in  all 
the  countries  where  it  is  professed.  It  has 
ever  shown  a  remarkable  power  of  assim¬ 
ilating  with  itself  some  of  the  features  of 
other  religions.  In  some  countries  it  re¬ 
tains  its  original  form  of  a  religion  without 
a  deity;  in  others  it  bears  clear  traces  of 
the  influence  of  other  religions:  as  of  some 
obsolete  Christian  heresy  in  Thibet,  and 
of  polytheism  in  China. — Benham:  Diet, 
of  Religion. 

Bulgaria  was  converted  to  Christianity 
about  860,  by  Cyril  and  Methodius  {<].  v.). 
Of  its  present  population,  the  Turks,  Tar¬ 
tars,  Albanians  and  Circassians  are  Mo¬ 
hammedans;  the  Roumanians,  the  Arme¬ 
nians,  and  most  of  the  Russians  belong 
to  the  Greek  Church.  After  a  long  con¬ 
flict,  the  Bulgarians  of  Greek  faith,  in  1870, 
secured  a  decree  from  the  Sultan  by  which 
a  national  Bulgarian  Church  was  estab¬ 
lished.  This  action  was  followed  by  the 
excommunication  of  the  entire  Bulgarian 
nation  from  the  Orthodox  Church  by  the 
Greek  Patriarch  at  Constantinople;  but 
this  act  has  not  been  recognized  by  other 
branches  of  the  Orthodox  Church,  in  Rus¬ 
sia,  Greece,  etc.  American  missionaries 
began  their  labors  in  Bulgaria  in  1858,  and 
have  made  a  considerable  number  of  con¬ 
verts,  and,  through  the  influence  of  their 
schools,  have  done  much  to  enlighten  the 
people  and  advance  the  growth  of  the  na¬ 
tion.  Many  young  men  from  Bulgaria 
have  been  educated  at  Robert  College, 
Constantinople. 


Bull,  George,  D.  D.,  Church  of  Eng¬ 
land;  b.  at  Wells,  March  25,  1634;  d.  at 
Brecknock,  South  Wales,  Feb.  17,  1710. 
He  was  educated  at  Oxford;  rector  of  St. 
George’s,  near  Bristol,  then  of  Suddington 
(1662);  Avening  (1685);  archdeacon  of 
Llandaff  (1687);  bishop  of  St.  David’s 
(1705).  He  is  remembered  for  his  Defen- 
sio  Fidei  Nicence ,  in  which,  with  much 
learning,  he  attempts  to  show  that  the  or¬ 
thodox  doctrine  of  the  Trinity  was  fully 
developed  before  the  Council  of  Nice  (1680; 
Eng.  trans.,  Oxford,  1851-55),  3  vols.  See 
his  complete  works  (Oxford,  1S27),  7  vols., 
with  life  by  Nelson. 

Bullinger  ( hool-ling-er ),  Heinrich,  b.  at 
Bremgarten,  near  Zurich,  July  18,  1504; 
d.  at  Zurich,  Sept.  17,  1575.  He  was  4 
disciple  of  Zwingli,  and  a  powerful  sup¬ 
porter  of  that  reformer  in  his  contention 
with  Luther  on  the  doctrine  of  the  Lord’s 
Supper.  Through  his  theological  works 
and  correspondence  he  exerted  a  strong 
influence  upon  Protestant  thought  in  Eng¬ 
land.  Many  of  his  sermons  were  translated 
into  English. 

Bulls  and  Briefs,  Papal,  are  the  two 
kinds  of  authoritative  letters  issued  by  the 
popes  in  their  official  capacity  as  head  of 
the  Church,  the  bulls  being  the  more  im¬ 
portant.  They  are  distinguished  from 
each  other  by  several  marks.  A  bull  is 
written  on  thick,  polished  parchment,  com¬ 
monly  in  angular  Gothic  characters,  and 
is  always  open.  A  brief  is  not  so  impor¬ 
tant  as  a  bull.  It  is  written  upon  white 
paper,  or  thin  parchment,  in  modern  cur¬ 
sive  characters,  and  is  sometimes  sent 
open,  sometimes  closed.  There  are  other 
points  in  which  they  differ,  but  these  dis¬ 
tinctions  are  not  much  older  than  the  fif¬ 
teenth  century. 

Bunsen  {boon-sen),  Christian  Karl 
JosiAS,  a  German  nobleman  and  scholar 
whose  intellectual  service  and  Christian 
character  endeared  him  to  the  English- 
speaking  world ;  b.  at  Korbach  in  the  prin¬ 
cipality  of  Waldeck,  Aug.  25,  1791;  d.  at 
Bonn,  Nov.  28,  i860.  He  held  many  posi¬ 
tions  of  political  honor,  and  from  1841  to 
1854  was  minister  to  England  from  Prussia. 
The  later  years  of  his  life  were  spent  in 
scholarly  retirement  at  Heidelberg.  He 
wrote  many  volumes  on  philological,  histor¬ 
ical,  and  theological  subjects.  His  Memoirs 
were  published  in  1868  by  his  widow,  an 
accomplished  English  lady.  Bunsen  did 
much  to  interpret  German  thought  to 
English  readers  and  thinkers. 

Bunting,  Jabez,  D.  D.,  an  eminent  Wes- 


Bun 


(  130  ) 


Bur 


leyan  minister;  b.  at  Manchester,  Eng., 
May  13,  1779;  d.  June  16,  1858.  The  child 
of  Christian  parents  who  gave  him  good 
educational  advantages,  he  was  converted 
when  about  sixteen,  and  at  nineteen  enter¬ 
ed  the  ministry  of  the  Wesleyan  Con¬ 
ference.  He  was  very  successful  in  his 
work,  and  early  won  a  position  of  com¬ 
manding  influence.  He  was  four  times 
elected  President  of  the  Conference,  in 
1820,  1828,  1S36  and  1S44,  and  from  the 
foundation  of  the  Wesleyan  Theological 
Institution  in  1834  till  his  death  he  was  its 
president.  For  eighteen  years  he  was 
secretary  of  the  Wesleyan  Missionary 
Society,  of  which  he  was  a  principal  organ¬ 
izer.  His  word  was  law  among  his  breth¬ 
ren,  and  his  rare  wisdom  and  beautiful 
spirit  endeared  him  to  believers  of  every 
name. 

Bunyan,  John,  the  author  of  the  Pil¬ 
grim's  Progress;  b.  at  Elstow,  near  Bed¬ 
ford,  Eng.,  Nov.,  1628;  d.  in  London,  Aug. 
31,  i63S.  He  was  brought  up  at  his  fa¬ 
ther’s  trade,  as  a  tinker.  While  under 
parental  influences  that  were  by  no  means 
unfavorable  he  appears  to  have  developed 
in  early  years  a  headstrong  disposition 
that  often  led  him  into  youthful  excesses. 
The  facts,  however,  do  not  warrant  the  as¬ 
sumption  that  his  life  was  peculiarly  loose 
or  disreputable,  but  rather  give  evidence 
that  his  self- accusations  were  the  severe 
judgment  of  a  heart  and  conscience  that 
were  keenly  alive  to  their  monitions.  He 
joined  the  army  in  1645,  but  after  a  brief 
service  he  returned  to  Elstow,  and  a  year 
after  was  married,  being  then  about  twenty 
years  of  age.  His  wife  brought  but  little 
dowry  beyond  two  books  which  she  had  in¬ 
herited  from  her  father — The  Practice  of 
Piety ,  by  Bishop  Bail)',  and  The  Plain 
Man's  Pathway  to  Heaven ,  by  Arthur  Dent. 
These  volumes  served  to  deepen  the  con¬ 
victions  of  spiritual  need  which  already 
had  brought  the  young  tinker  into  great 
trouble  and  depression  of  mind.  Giving 
up  the  amusements  that  were  then  in 
vogue,  he  led  a  life  of  strict  and  austere 
conduct.  Through  experiences  that  prov¬ 
ed  a  providential  preparation  for  his  life- 
work,  he  finally  found  peace  in  believing 
on  Christ.  The  casual  conversation  of  a 
pious  woman  of  Bedford  on  the  ‘  ‘  new 
birth,”  and  the  acquaintance,  made  through 
her,  with  the  Baptist  minister  in  the  town, 
were  among  the  influences  that  led  to  his 
conversion.  He  was  baptized  in  1653,  and 
soon  entered  the  Baptist  ministry.  As  a 
preacher  he  at  once  gathered  and  held  the 
attention  of  great  congregations.  In  1660 
the  Act  of  Uniformity,  compelling  at¬ 
tendance  upon  the  services  of  the  Church 


of  England,  was  revived  and  enforced  with 
vigor.  Bunyan  was  among  the  number 
who  refused  to  obey  this  law,  and  he  was 
arrested  for  continuing  his  ministry  in 
secret,  and  imprisoned  in  Bedford  jail. 
For  twelve  years  he  was  under  official  re¬ 
straint.  Efforts  were  made  to  secure  his 
pardon,  but  he  proved  an  incorrigible  of¬ 
fender,  in  that  he  used  every  opportunity 
of  liberty  that  came  to  him  of  preaching 
the  Word  of  Life.  His  first  wife  died  two 
years  before  his  imprisonment,  and  he  had 
again  married  an  estimable  woman,  who 
proved  a  kind  foster-mother  to  his  four 
children,  during  his  long  confinement. 
The  services  of  his  friends,  and  various 
liberties  that  were  granted  to  him,  did 
much  to  alleviate  his  trying  position.  Part 
of  his  time  he  employed  in  making  tags  of 
boot-laces,  which  enabled  him  to  aid  in  the 
support  of  his  family.  It  was  in  these 
years  of  enforced  seclusion  and  study  of 
the  Word  of  God  that  he  wrote  his  im¬ 
mortal  Allegory.  The  Declaration  of  In¬ 
dulgence,  issued  by  Charles  II.  in  1672,  for 
the  purpose  of  removing  the  disabilities  of 
Roman  Catholics,  annulled  the  Act  of  Uni¬ 
formity,  and  Bunyan  was  set  free.  Hon¬ 
ored  and  beloved,  he  continued  his  pas¬ 
torate  among  his  people  at  Bedford,  at  the 
same  time  preaching  for  a  part  of  each 
year  in  the  Baptist  churches  of  London. 
His  pen  was  busy,  but  none  of  his  other 
works  bear  comparison  with  the  Pilgrim's 
Progress.  The  illness  that  terminated  his 
life  was  the  result  of  a  cold  caught  in  a 
rain-storm,  while  returning  home  from  a 
visit,  where  he  had  sought  to  effect  a 
reconciliation  between  a  father  and  son. 

Innumerable  editions  of  the  Pilgrim's 
Progress  have  been  published.  The  col¬ 
lection  in  the  Lenox  Library,  New  York, 
is  the  most  extensive  in  existence.  It  has 
258  editions  of  the  work  in  English,  and 
seventy-four  in  foreign  languages.  The 
delight  of  the  lowly,  this  wonderful  book 
has  exerted  a  fascinating  power  over  the 
most  cultured  and  gifted  minds.  Eternity 
can  alone  reveal  the  blessing  that  it  has 
been  to  multitudes  in  finding  Christ  as  the 
Way,  the  Truth,  and  the  Life. 

Burckhardt  ( boork-hart ),  Johann  Lud¬ 
wig,  a  celebrated  Eastern  traveler;  b.  at 
Lausanne,  Switzerland,  Nov.  24,  1784;  d. 
at  Cairo,  Egypt,  Oct.  15,  1817.  He  was 
educated  at  Leipzig  and  Gottingen,  and 
came  to  England  in  1806,  where  he  re¬ 
ceived  the  aid  of  the  “  Association  for  Pro¬ 
moting  the  Discovery  of  the  Interior  Parts 
of  Africa,”  and  traveled  in  Syria,  Pales¬ 
tine,  Egypt,  and  Arabia,  but  his  early  death 
cut  short  his  plans  for  the  exploration  of 
the  sources  of  the  Niger.  His  works  were; 


Bur 


(  131  ) 


Bus 


Travels  in  Arubia  (1819);  Travels  in  Syria 
and  the  Holy  Land  (1822):  Travels  in  Ara¬ 
bia  (1829);  Notes  on  the  Bedouins  and  Wa- 
habvs  (1830);  Arabic  Proverbs  (1830). 

Burgher.  See  Secession  Church. 

Burial  of  the  dead  was  the  custom  among 
the  Jews  from  the  earliest  times.  The 
bodies  of  persons  who  were  denied  relig¬ 
ious  burial  were  burned.  (Josh.  vii.  24.) 
Burial-places  were  outside  of  the  towns, 
and  the  tombs  were  usually  in  caves  in  the 
limestone  rock,  and  were  closed  by  a  stone 
on  the  end  or  surface.  Many  of  these 
caves  are  found  near  Jerusalem,  with  cham¬ 
bers  resembling  the  Roman  catacombs. 
The  dead  were  carried  on  a  bier,  followed 
by  kindred  and  friends,  and  often  by  pro¬ 
fessional  mourners.  (Jer.  ix.  17;  Amos  v. 
19;  Matt.  ix.  23.)  The  early  Christians 
followed  the  Hebrew  custom  and  buried 
theirdead.  (See  Catacombs.  )  Their  belief 
in  the  joyful  resurrection  of  the  sainted 
dead  manifested  itself  in  many  ways  in 
connection  with  the  burial  of  their  mortal 
remains. 

Burmah.  See  Missions. 

Burnet,  Gilbert,  Bishop  of  Salisbury;  b. 
at  Edinburgh,  Sept.  iS,  1643;  d.  at  Salis¬ 
bury,  March  17,  1715.  From  Scotland, 
where  he  was  educated  at  Aberdeen,  and 
for  some#  rears  was  professor  of  divinity, 
he  removed  to  London  in  1673,  where  he 
gained  great  popularity  as  preacher  at  the 
Rolls  Chapel.  Here,  as  in  Scotland,  he 
became  mixed  up  in  the  politico-ecclesias-  ! 
tical  affairs  of  the  time,  and  in  1684  he  was 
dismissed  from  his  position  because  of  his 
connection  with  Russell,  whom  he  attend¬ 
ed  to  the  scaffold.  During  this  same  year 
he  was  introduced  to  the  Prince  of  Orange 
and  soon  became  a  great  favorite.  When 
William  came  to  the  throne,  Burnet  was  ap¬ 
pointed  Bishop  of  Salisbury.  He  ex¬ 
pressed  many  views  in  his  writings  that 
met  with  disfavor,  but  his  influence  was 
widely  recognized.  His  fame  rests  upon 
his  two  great  works,  the  History  of  the 
Reformation  of  the  Church  of  England ,  and 
History  of  His  Own  Time.  He  published 
a  number  of  other  volumes,  historical  and 
polemical. 

Burns,  William  Chalmers,  an  eminent 
and  devoted  Scotch  missionary;  b.  at  Dun, 
Scotland,  April  1,  1815;  d.  at  Port  of  Nieu- 
chwang,  China,  April  4,  1868.  The  child 
of  pious  parents,  he  was  educated  at  the 
University  of  Aberdeen,  and  at  Glasgow, 
where  he  studied  theology,  and  received  a 
license  to  preach  in  1S39,  He  became  an 


evangelist,  and  labored  with  great  success 
in  England,  Ireland,  and  Canada  (1844-46). 
In  the  spring  of  1847  he  sailed  for  China 
to  take  charge  of  the  mission  of  the  Eng¬ 
lish  Presbyterian  Church.  It  was  here 
that  he  accomplished  a  wonderful  life- 
work.  He  identified  himself  with  the  peo¬ 
ple  in  every  possible  way,  and  gained  an 
influence  that  opened  the  way  for  preach¬ 
ing  the  Gospel  to  great  multitudes.  See 
Memoir ,  by  Rev.  Islay  Burns,  D.  D.  (New 
York,  1871). 

Burnt-Offerings.  See  Sacrifices. 

Burr,  Enoch  Fitch,  D.  D.  (Amherst, 
1868),  Congregationalist ;  b.  at  Green’s 
Farms, Westport,  Conn.,  Oct.  21,  1818;  was 
graduated  at  Yale  College,  1839;  since  1850 
has  been  pastor  in  Lyme,  Conn.  He  is 
author  of  Ecce  Caelum  { Boston,  1867);  Pater 
Mundi  (1869);  Celestial  Empires  (New 
York,  1885);  Supreme  Things  (1889),  and 
other  volumes. 

Burton,  Robert,  author  of  The  Anatomy 
of  Melancholy  ;  b.  at  Lindley  in  1576.  He 
was  a  graduate  of  Oxford,  and  while  rector 
of  Segrave,  in  Leicestershire,  still  held  his 
fellowship  at  Christ  Church,  where  he  died 
in  1640.  The  work  which  has  kept  his 
fame  alive  is  full  of  a  quaint  wit  and  learn¬ 
ing. 

Bush,  George,  a  popular  Bible  commen¬ 
tator;  b.  at  Norwich, Vt. ,  June  12, 1796;  d.at 
Rochester,  N.  Y. ,  1858.  He  was  a  graduate 
of  Dartmouth  College  and  Princeton  Theo¬ 
logical  Seminary.  In  1824  he  became  pas¬ 
tor  of  a  Presbyterian  church  in  Indianap¬ 
olis,  and  in  1831  accepted  the  professorship 
of  Hebrew  in  the  University  of  the  City  of 
New  York.  He  began  the  publication  of 
his  Arotes  on  the  Pentateuch,  Joshua,  and 
Judges,  in  1840.  A  new  edition  was  issued 
in  1S70.  Prof.  Bush  was  an  earnest  ad¬ 
vocate,  from  1845,  of  Swedenborgianism. 
See  Fernald:  Memoirs  and  Reminiscences  of 
the  Late  Professor  George  Bush  (Boston, 
i860). 

Bushnell,  Horace,  an  American  Con¬ 
gregational  clergyman,  who,  by  reason  of 
his  rich  intellectual  and  spiritual  endow¬ 
ments,  his  originality  and  force  as  a  writer, 
and  his  power  of  quickening  other  minds 
easily,  takes  high  rank  among  the  strong 
men  of  his  day.  The  eldest  child  in  an 
intelligent  Christian  family,  of  genuine 
New  England  stock,  he  was  born  in  the 
town  of  Litchfield,  Conn.,  on  the  14th  of 
April,  1802;  he  died  in  the  city  of  Hart¬ 
ford,  in  the  same  State,  Feb.  17,  1876.  The 
development  of  a  robust  physique,  and  of 


Bus 


(  132  ) 


Bus 


great  practical  ingenuity  and  deftness  was 
due  to  an  early  initiation,  by  his  father, 
into  farm  work  and  mechanical  industry. 
As  the  result  of  a  faithful  Christian  nurt¬ 
ure,  he  ever  manifested  during  childhood 
a  tender  susceptibility  to  religious  truth; 
but  he  did  not  make  a  public  profession  of 
his  faith  in  Christ  till  he  was  nineteen 
years  old.  Then  first  he  began  to  apply 
himself  diligently,  with  a  view  to  a  college 
course  of  study.  At  the  age  of  twenty- 
one  he  entered  Yale  College,  from  which 
he  was  graduated  with  honor,  in  the  class 
of  1827. 

After  a  brief  trial  of  school-teaching,  he 
Avas  engaged  for  ten  months  in  editorial 
work  upon  the  New  York  Journal  of  Com¬ 
merce, ,  which  contributed  most  valuable 
elements  to  his  equipment  for  the  sphere 
in  which  he  was  destined  to  move.  Hav¬ 
ing  spent  a  half-year  in  the  Yale  laAv 
school,  he  accepted  a  tutorship  in  the  col¬ 
lege,  still,  however,  continuing  his  law 
studies  for  a  year  and  a  half  longer.  Just 
as  he  was  ready  for  admission  to  the  bar, 
there  occurred  a  crisis  in  his  life.  It  was 
in  connection  with  a  poAverful  revival  in 
the  college,  Avhen  he  seemed  not  so  much 
to  have  been  restored  from  a  religious  de¬ 
cline  as  to  have  been  thoroughly  neAv-born. 
“  My  difficulty  had  been,”  he  says,  “that 
I  had  been  substituting  thought  for  every¬ 
thing  else,  and  expecting  so  intently  to 
dig  out  a  religion  by  my  head,  that  I  Avas 
pushing  it,  all  the  while,  practically  aAvay. 
Noav,  I  Avas  to  think  myself  out  of  my 
over-thinking,  and  discover  hoAv  far  above 
reason  is  trust." 

The  result  of  this  neAv  experience  Avas 
the  exchange  of  the  laAv  for  theology;  and 
in  this  issue  the  secret  longings  and  hopes 
of  his  godly  mother,  cherished  even  before 
his  birth,  Avere  fulfilled. 

His  tutorship  Avas  soon  resigned.  A 
course  of  study  in  the  Yale  Divinity  school 
Avas  entered  upon  and  completed.  On  re¬ 
ceiving  a  license  to  preach,  he  supplied 
the  pulpit  of  the  North  Church  in  Hart¬ 
ford  for  six  Aveeks,  and  then  Avas  unan¬ 
imously  invited  to  the  pastorate.  His  or¬ 
dination  and  installation,  Avhich  took  place 
on  the  22d  of  May,  1833,  constituted  a 
most  happy  and  fruitful  pastqral  relation, 
Avhich  Avas  broken  only  by  the  necessities 
of  ill  health,  after  a  continuance  of  tAventy- 
six  years.  By  his  marriage  Avith  Mary 
Apthorp,  of  NeAV  Haven,  a  life-connection 
Avas  formed,  Avhich  brought  to  his  side  a 
true  and  efficient  helpmeet  in  the  Avork  be¬ 
fore  him. 

There  was,  from  the  first,  a  decided  flavor 
of  originality  in  Doctor  Bushnell’s  preach¬ 
ing;  and  in  his  addresses  on  public  oc¬ 
casions  a  richness  and  independence  of 


thought,  Avhich  dreAv  into  his  congrega¬ 
tion  young  people  of  culture,  and  profes¬ 
sional  men.  General  attention  was  not, 
hoAvever,  attracted  to  his  utterances  until 
the  year  1839,  "’hen  he  delivered  before 
the  Society  of  Inquiry,  in  Andover  Theo¬ 
logical  Seminary,  an  address  on  “  Revela¬ 
tion.”  As  he  touched  upon  the  biblical 
teachings  concerning  the  doctrine  of  the 
Trinity,  suspicions  of  a  departure  from 
orthodoxy  were  aAvakened.  In  the  spring 
of  1840  he  received  and  declined  an  invita¬ 
tion  to  the  presidency  of  Middlebury  Col¬ 
lege.  In  1841  Wesleyan  University  con¬ 
ferred  upon  him  the  degree  of  Doctor  of 
Divinity.  Harvard  University  subse¬ 
quently  honored  him  Avith  the  same  degree, 
as  also  Yale,  his  Alma  Mater,  Avith  that  of 
LL.  D. 

Our  limits  forbid  any  attempt  to  notice 
in  detail  the  events  of  his  life,  or  even  the 
published  products  of  his  busy  pen.  We 
call  attention  to  a  feAv  salient  points  only. 
In  the  year  1846  his  famous  “  Discourses 
on  Christian  Nurture  ”  appeared,  Avhich  set 
forth  the  organic  unity  of  the  family  over 
against  the  intense  individualism  of  the 
day.  The  doctrine  taught  was  that  the 
child,  under  a  true  Christian  nurture,  is 
to  groAv  up  a  Christian,  and  never  know 
himself  as  being  otherAvise.  It  is  difficult 
to  understand  hoAv  it  Avas  that  this  Avork, 
Avhich  is  noAv  generally  accepted  as  a  stan¬ 
dard  text-book  on  this  subject,  should 
have  encountered  the  charge  cn  being  full 
of  “dangerous  tendencies.” 

“  The  year  1848  Avas  the  central  point  in 
the  life  of  Horace  Bushnell.”  While 
seeking  for  clearer  light  and  a  higher 
Christian  life,  certain  vital  questions,  re¬ 
specting  Christ  and  his  atoning  Avork, 
Avhich  had  long  been  engaging  his  earnest 
thoughts,  seemed  to  open  to  him  of  their 
own  accord.  The  result  Avas  such  a  per¬ 
sonal  discovery  of  Christ,  as  a  manifesta¬ 
tion  of  God,  as,  in  his  vieAv,  amounted  vir¬ 
tually  to  a  neAv  revelation.  Having  been 
invited,  apart  from  any  agency  of  his  OAvn, 
to  give  addresses  upon  three  public  occa¬ 
sions,  he  regarded  the  opportunities  as 
providentially  prepared  for  the  expression 
of  the  neAv  vieAvs  Avhich  had  come  to  him. 

On  the  9th  of  July  he  delivered  before 
the  Harvard  Divinity  School  a  “  Discourse 
on  the  Atonement.”  While  he  maintained 
that  the  sufferings  of  Christ  Avere  both 
vicarious  and  propitiatory,  he  rejected  the 
elements  of  penal  satisfaction,  and  of  a 
compensatory  infliction  of  evil  as  evil,  in 
these  sufferings.  Christ  is  God  manifest 
in  the  flesh,  the  expression  of  God’s  love 
and  justice;  and  as  such,  Avhen  he  is  re¬ 
ceived  by  faith,  becomes  and  is  the  ground 
of  our  justification,  and  a  pOAver  for  our 


Bus 


(  133  ) 


Bus 


renewal  in  character.  On  the  15th  of  Au¬ 
gust,  by  assignment  of  the  General  Asso¬ 
ciation  of  Connecticut,  he  gave  at  New 
Haven,  as  a  concio  ad  clerum ,  a  “  Discourse 
on  the  Divinity  of  Christ.”  Having 
proved  from  the  Scriptures  that  Christ  is 
divine  in  his  being,  he  undertakes  to  show 
that  the  real  intent  and  value  of  this  doc¬ 
trine,  and  of  the  Trinity  as  well,  lie  simply 
in  its  adaptation  to  express  God  for  the 
uses  of  the  religious  life.  He  refuses  to 
affirm  three  metaphysical  personalities  in 
the  Godhead.  The  three  Persons  are  to 
be  taken  as  Instrumental  Persons  for  the 
practical  uses  of  the  soul.  All  questions 
as  to  the  interior  nature  of  the  Godhead 
are  uninvestigable. 

In  the  third  address,  entitled  “  Dogma 
and  Spirit,”  which  was  given  at  Andover 
Seminary  in  September,  he  applies  his 
idea  of  Christ,  as  a  personal  manifestation 
of  God,  to  the  subject  of  “The  True  Re¬ 
viving  of  Religion,”  in  distinction  from 
sporadic  spiritual  quickenings,  or  so-called 
revivals,  which  are  specially  characteristic 
of  the  reign  of  Dogma. 

It  may  be  here  parenthetically  stated ,  in 
the  way  of  illustrating  the  marvelous  ver¬ 
satility  of  his  mind,  and  its  fertility  as  well, 
that,  in  addition  to  the  preparation  of  these 
elaborate  papers,  he  delivered  on  the  24th 
of  August  of  the  same  year,  the  day  after 
Commencement  at  Harvard,  his  sparklingly 
beautiful  oration,  “  Work  and  Play.”  His 
playful  nature,  instead  of  suffering  restric¬ 
tions,  flourished  vigorously  in  the  sunshine 
of  his  faith. 

In  February  of  the  following  year  these 
three  theological  addresses  were  consol¬ 
idated  in  one  published  volume,  under  the 
title,  God  in  Christ ,  prefaced  by  a  “  Disser¬ 
tation  on  Language,”  which  was  designed 
to  be  a  key  to  his  whole  system  of  thought. 
The  drift  of  this  paper  was  to  show  that 
names  for  thought  and  spirit  in  language 
are  all  based  upon  material  types  and 
images,  and  are  fitted  to  express  our  inte¬ 
rior  sentiments  and  feelings,  by  reason  of 
some  analogy  which  we  cannot  explain. 
Thus  it  is  that  language,  material  in  its 
base,  becomes  a  medium  through  which 
God  and  a  spiritual  world  come  into  ex¬ 
pression.  The  Christian  truth  is  the  ex¬ 
pression  of  God  in  language — a  principle 
which  applies  to  the  language  of  act ,  as,  for 
example,  in  the  incarnation  and  the  cruci¬ 
fixion,  as  well  as  to  the  language  of  words 
in  the  Scriptures. 

The  book  was  condemned  as  heretical 
by  leading  theological  authorities.  But 
their  witness  “  did  not  agree  together  ”  as 
to  what  and  where  the  heresy  was — some 
charging  the  author  with  one  error  and 
some  with  its  very  opposite.  The  Hartford 


Central  Association,  of  which  he  was  a 
member,  appointed  a  committee  for  the 
examination  of  the  book,  which,  through 
Dr.  Noah  Porter,  the  chairman,  reported 
that,  though  there  were,  in  the  views  pre¬ 
sented,  variations  from  the  historic  formu¬ 
las  of  faith,  “  the  errors  were  not  fun¬ 
damental.”  This  report  was  accepted  by 
the  Association  with  but  three  dissenting 
votes. 

This  action,  which  was  ecclesiastically 
final,  did  not,  however,  restore  quiet.  Ag¬ 
itation  was  kept  up,  and  the  General  Asso¬ 
ciation  was  appealed  to  in  1S50,  and  again 
in  1852,  to  pronounce  its  condemnation 
upon  the  alleged  heresies.  But  the  body 
very  properly  refused  to  render  any  judg¬ 
ment  in  the  case.  From  this  time  the  ex¬ 
citement  gradually  died  out. 

Doctor  Bushnell  took  no  personal  part 
in  the  controversy,  but  devoted  himself, 
with  unruffled  mind  and  unremitting  ear¬ 
nestness,-  to  pastoral  labors,  and  to  such 
outside  work  as  important  public  occasions 
called  for;  of  which  we  cannot  make  spe¬ 
cific  mention. 

In  1851  the  book,  Christ  in  Theology ,  ap¬ 
peared,  having  for  its  purpose,  not  to  an¬ 
swer  his  opponents,  but  rather  to  make  his 
positions  more  intelligible.  About  this 
time  ominous  symptoms  of  pulmonary  dis¬ 
ease  showed  themselves;  nevertheless,  his 
activities  were  unceasing,  except  as  inter¬ 
spaced  by  more  frequent  vacations.  In 
1856  he  was  invited  to  the  presidency  of 
the  new  College  of  California,  whose 
location  he  had  helped  to  fix;  but  the 
honor  was  declined.  In  1858  his  great 
work,  Nature  and  the  Supernatural — the 
fruit  of  many  years  of  study — was  given 
to  the  public.  Compelled,  at  length,  by 
continued  ill  health,  and  to  the  great  grief 
of  his  devoted  people,  he  resigned  his  pas¬ 
torate,  and  early  in  July,  1859,  preached 
his  farewell  sermon. 

The  remaining  seventeen  years  of  his 
life,  designated  in  his  biography  as  a 
“  Ministry  at  Large,”  were  carefully  econ¬ 
omized  for  the  completion,  or  revision  and 
publication,  of  literary  and  theological  ma¬ 
terial,  which  had  engaged  the  studies  of 
his  earlier  and  more  vigorous  days.  Among 
these  were  two  volumes  of  sermons, 
in  addition  to  Sermons  for  the  New  Life , 
already  published;  two  volumes  of  Liter¬ 
ary  Varieties,  and  a  reissue  of  his  “  Dis¬ 
courses  on  Christian  Nurture,”  to  which 
were  attached  thirteen  new  sermons  upon 
subjects  “  adjacent  thereto.”  Here  belong, 
also,  the  two  volumes  on  The  Vicarious 
Sacrifice ,  in  the  second  of  which,  original¬ 
ly  issued  under  the  title,  Forgiveness  and 
Law ,  he  sets  forth  certain  Godward  rela¬ 
tions  of  the  Atonement  which  he  had  not 


But 


(  134  ) 


Bux 


taken  account  of  in  his  previously  publish¬ 
ed  views.  At  the  time  of  his  death  he  had 
already  begun  the  preparation  of  an  entire¬ 
ly  new  work  on  Inspiration:  Its  Modes  and 
Uses.  A  few  pages  were  written,  but  in 
the  middle  of  a  sentence  his  pen  was  laid 
down,  never  to  be  taken  up  again. 

Although  Horace  Bushnell  was  known 
abroad  chiefly  as  a  theologian,  at  home  he 
was  recognized  also  as  an  earnest  patriot 
and  a  public-spirited  citizen.  The  causes 
of  emancipation,  of  education,  and  of  the 
preservation  of  our  national  unity  as 
against  secession,  received  his  zealous  and 
effective  support.  The  honor  of  his  native 
State  Avas  especially  dear  to  him;  and  in 
behalf  of  the  prosperity  and  adornment  of 
the  city  of  Hartford,  his  interest  and  labors 
never  flagged.  It  Avas  a  Avell-earned  token 
of  respect  Avhich  AA^as  paid  to  his  foresight 
and  efforts,  that,  a  few  hours  before  he  lost 
consciousness,  the  beautiful  and  spacious 
area  of  ground  on  Avhich  the  State  capitol 
now  stands,  Avas  named,  by  the  unanimous 
vote  of  the  city  Council,  “  Bushnell  Park.” 
On  the  Avails  of  the  neAV  church,  built  by 
the  people  Avhom  he  so  faithfully  served, 
is  set  a  mural  tablet,  containing  a  marble 
relievo  of  his  head  and  face,  Avith  this  in¬ 
scription: 

“  In  Memory  of  his  Great  Genius,  his 
Great  Character,  and  his 
Great  Services  to 
Mankind.” 

(See  the  Life  and  Letters  of  Horace  Bush¬ 
nell ,  by  his  daughter.  Harper  &  Brothers, 
NewT  York,  1880). 

The  following  list  embraces  the  pub¬ 
lished  volumes  of  Dr.  Bushnell’s  Avorks, 
Avith  the  dates  of  publication:  Christian 
Nurture,  1S46,  1S61,  1876;  God  in  Christ , 
1849,  !S77;  Christ  in  Theology ,  1851;  Ser¬ 
mons  for  the  New  Life,  1858,  1876;  Arature 
and  the  Supernatural,  1S58,  1877;  Work  and 
Play,  1864,  1881;  Christ  and  his  Salvation, 

1864,  1877;  The  Vicarious  Sacrifice,  vol.  i., 

1865,  1877;  Do.,  vol.  ii.  (first  published  un¬ 
der  the  title,  Forgiveness  and  Law ),  1874, 
1877;  Moral  Uses  of  Dark  Things,  1868, 
1881;  The  Reform  against  Nature,  1869; 
Sermons  on  Living  Subjects,  1872,  1877; 
Building  Eras,  1881. 

Amos  S.  Chesebrough. 

Butler,  Joseph,  the  author  of  the  Anal¬ 
ogy ;  b.  at  Wantage,  in  Berkshire,  May  18, 
1692;  d.  at  Bath,  June  16,  1752.  His 
father,  a  linen-draper,  Avas  a  Presbyterian 
layman,  and  he  educated  his  son  Avith  a 
vieAv  to  his  entering  the  ministry  of  that 
church.  While  pursuing  his  studies  at 
the  academy  at  Gloucester,  he  decided  to 
join  the  Church.  Even  before  he  entered 
Oriel  College  at  Oxford,  he  gave  promise 


of  remarkable  intellectual  ability.  In  1718 
he  Avas  made  preacher  at  the  Chapel  of  the 
Rolls,  Avhere  he  remained  until  1726.  The 
year  previous  he  Avas  made  rector  of  Stan¬ 
hope,  Avhere  he  labored  for  nearly  eight 
years,  and  published  the  first  edition  of 
his  Sermons.  In  1736  he  became  prebend¬ 
ary  of  Rochester,  and  in  the  same  year 
appeared  his  great  Avork,  the  Analogy  op 
Religion,  Natural  and  Revealed,  to  the 
Course  and  Constitution  of  Nature.  It  came 
at  a  most  opportune  time,  Avhen  the  influ¬ 
ence  of  deistical  speculation  Avas  at  its 
height,  and  its  defense  of  revealed  relig¬ 
ion  Avas  conceded  on  every  hand  as  one 
of  the  best  and  most  complete  ever  made. 
Butler  had  Avon  a  high  place  in  the  esteem 
of  the  learned  Queen  Caroline,  and  on  her 
death-bed  she  urged  her  husband  to  pro¬ 
mote  him.  This  he  did,  in  a  perfunctory 
Avay,  by  appointing  him  bishop  of  the 
small  see  of  Bristol  in  1738.  Two  years 
later  he  Avas  made  dean  of  St.  Paul’s,  and 
in  1750  he  accepted  the  see  of  Durham, 
Avhere  his  labors  Avere  soon  brought  to  a 
close  by  his  illness  and  death.  Bishop 
Butler  Avas  never  married.  SomeAvhat 
austere  in  spirit,  his  profound  intellect  de¬ 
lighted  to  grapple  Avith  the  deepest  prob¬ 
lems  in  the  realm  of  metaphysical  thought. 
His  Analogy,  assuming  the  existence  of  a 
Divine  First  Cause,  undertakes  to  shoAv 
that  the  “constitution  and  course  of  nature” 
is  Avhat  Ave  might  naturally  look  for,  and 
that  it  is  in  perfect  analogy  Avith  both  natu¬ 
ral  and  revealed  religion.  The  book  is  nar- 
roAv  in  its  scope  and  condensed  in  its  state¬ 
ments,  and  requires  close  attention  in  or¬ 
der  to  be  understood  and  appreciated,  but 
it  Avill  long  continue  to  hold  its  place  as  a 
marvel  of  profound  and  exhaustive  reason¬ 
ing,  Avithin  the  limits  of  its  arguments. 
Editions  of  the  Analogy  are  very  numerous. 

Butler,  William  Archer,  Church  of  Ire¬ 
land;  b.  at  Annerville,  Ireland,  1814;  d.  in 
Dublin,  July  5,  1S48.  Brought  up  a 

Roman  Catholic,  he  became  a  Protestant, 
and  Avas  educated  at  Trinity  College,  Dub¬ 
lin,  in  which  institution  he  Avas  appointed 
professor  of  moral  philosophy  in  1S37,  at 
the  same  time  holding  the  position  of  rec¬ 
tor  at  Clondehorka,  and  then  at  Raymo- 
ghy.  His  fame  rests  upon  his  Sermons 
(1849-56;  republished,  N.  Y.,  1879),  2 
vols.,  and  Lectures  on  the  History  of  An¬ 
cient  Philosophy  (1856),  2  vols.  (2d  ed., 
London,  1874).  See  his  Memoir  in  first, 
vol.  of  Sermons. 

Butzer.  See  Bucer,  Martin. 

Buxton,  Sir  Thomas  Foavell,  b.  at 
Earl’s  Colne,  Essex,  April  1,  1 7S6 ;  d.  at 


Bux 


(  135  ) 


Cai 


shown  no  inclination  at  all  to  verse-making 
until  one  night,  when,  sleeping  in  a  stable, 
he  had  a  wonderful  dream.  He  was  order¬ 
ed  to  sing  a  song,  and  when  he  said  he 
knew  none,  he  was  told  to  “  sing  the  be¬ 
ginning  of  created  things.”  From  that  time 
he  devoted  his  whole  time  to  his  art.  His 
chief  work,  written  about  670,  was  a  para¬ 
phrase  of  parts  of  the  Bible,  the  parts 
chosen  by  him  being  the  Creation  of  the 
World,  the  chief  points  in  the  history  of  the 
Children  of  Israel,  the  life  of  Daniel,  and 


Bath,  Feb.  19,  1S45.  Educated  at  Trinity 
College,  Dublin,  he  entered  business  life 
in  1808;  member  of  Parliament  (1S1S-37). 
After  the  death  of  Wilberforce  he  became 
(1824)  the  leader  of  the  antislavery  party. 
His  philanthropic  labors  were  exerted  in 
many  directions.  He  was  made  baronet 
in  1840.  See  Memoir  by  his  son,  Charles 
Buxton  (London,  1S48;  new  ed.,  1872). 

Buxtorf  ( books-lorf ),  a  famous  family  of 
Hebraists.  (1)  Johann,  b.  at  Camen,  West¬ 
phalia,  Dec.  25,  1564;  d.  at  Basel,  Sept. 
13,  1629.  He  became  professor  of  Hebrew 
at  Basel(i59i).  His  knowledge  of  rabbin¬ 
ical  literature  was  very  great,  and  he  was 
a  sturdy  defender  of  the  Massoretic  text. 
(2)  His  son,  Johann,  b.  at  Basel,  Aug.  13, 
1599;  succeeded  his  father  1630;  d.  at 
Basel,  Aug.  17,  1664.  He  held  that  the 
Hebrew  text  was  inspired,  even  in  its  vow¬ 
els  and  vowel-points.  (3)  Johann  Jacob, 
b.  at  Basel,  Sept.  4,  1645;  succeeded  his 
father,  1669,  and  d.  there,  April  1,  1704. 
(4)  Johann,  his  great-grand-nephew;  b.  at 
Basel,  Jan.  8,  1663;  succeeded  his  uncle, 
1704,  and  d.  there,  June  19,  1732. 

c. 

Cab,  a  Hebrew  measure  equal  to  3J/3  liq¬ 
uid  or  dry  pints. 

Cabbala,  the  secret  oral  tradition  re¬ 
specting  the  mystical  sense  of  the  Penta¬ 
teuch,  so  called  because  it  was  reputed 
among  the  Jewish  doctors  that  it  was  “  re¬ 
ceived  ”  (Heb.  Kabbal ,  to  receive)  by  Moses 
from  God,  by  Joshua  from  Moses,  and  by 
the  seventy  Elders  from  Joshua.  But  it 
really  originated  in  Babylon  during  the  cap¬ 
tivity,  and  was  collected  and  put  into  writ¬ 
ing  about  A.  D.  125  by  Simon  ben  Jochai. 
It  proposes  to  give  a  mystical  meaning  to 
every  word  and  every  letter  of  the  Law; 
and  its  peculiar  system  of  assigning  mys¬ 
tical  numbers  to  letters  and  words  was,  it 
can  hardly  be  doubted,  copied  by  early 
Christian  writers. — Benbam.  See  Kitto; 
Milman  :  History  of  the  Jckjs,  ii.  p.  421; 
iii.  pp.  438-444;  and  for  full  treatment  of 
the  subject,  Ginsburg:  The  Kabbalah:  its 
Doctrines ,  D  evelopment ,  and  Literature 
(London,  1865). 

Caecilia.  See  Cecilia. 

% 

Caecilianus.  See  Doxatists. 

Caedmon  (ked' -/non),  the  author  of  the 
first  Christian  English  poem,  was  a  native 
of  Northumbria.  Caedmon  was  a  servant 
in  one  of  the  Yorkshire  abbeys,  in  the  sev¬ 
enth  century,  The  story  goes  that  he  had 


the  whole  of  the  gospels.  Bede  says  of 
him:  “  Others  after  him  tried  to  make  re¬ 
ligious  poems,  but  none  could  vie  with  him, 
for  he  did  not  learn  the  art  of  poetry  from 
men,  nor  of  men,  but  from  God;”  and  this 
was  the  common  idea  of  his  contempora¬ 
ries.  He  died  somewhere  at  the  end  of 
the  seventh  century,  but  the  exact  date  is 
not  known.  —  Benham:  Diet,  of  Religion. 
The  poems  ascribed  to  Caedmon  were  first 
published  by  Francis  Junius,  in  1655,  from 
a  MS.  now  in  the  Bodleian  Library,  at  Ox¬ 
ford. 

Caesarea,  the  name  of  two  towns  in  Pal¬ 
estine.  (1)  Caesarea  Palestine,  now  Kais- 
aryah,  thirty  miles  north  of  Joppa,  built 
by  Herod,  about  22  b.  c.  It  was  the  home 
of  Cornelius,  and  Philip  the  Evangelist. 
(Acts  x.  1;  viii.  40;  xxi.  8.)  Paul  was  im¬ 
prisoned  here  for  two  years.  (Acts  ix.  30; 
xvii.  22;  xxi.  8;  xxiii.  23;  xxiv.  27.)  About 
65  a.  D.  a  dispute  arose  as  to  the  control 
of  the  city,  between  the  Syrian  and  Jewish 
citizens,  which  led  to  an  insurrection  in 
which  20,000  Jews  perished  in  an  hour.  C. 
became  the  seat  of  a  bishopric,  and  was 
the  home  of  Eusebius.  Councils  were 
held  there  in  196,  331,  and  337,  and  it  was 
a  prominent  point  during  the  crusades. 
(2)  C.esarea  Philippi,  situated  at  the 
base  of  Mt.  Hermon.  Rebuilt  by  Philip 
the  Tetrarch,  he  gave  it  the  name  of  Caesar 
in  connection  with  his  own.  It  was  visit¬ 
ed  by  our  Lord.  (Matt.  xvi.  13.)  It  was 
taken  and  retaken  during  the  crusades,  and 
was  the  seat  of  a  bishopric.  About  fifty 
families  now  make  their  homes  among  the 
ruins  of  its  former  greatness. 

Caesarius  of  Arles,  b.  at  Chalons,  the  lat¬ 
ter  part  of  the  fifth  century;  d.  at  Arles, 
543.  He  was  educated  in  the  monastery 
of  Lerins  and  became  Bishop  of  Arles  in 
502.  He  introduced  many  reforms  in  his 
diocese,  and  presided  over  several  councils, 
and  earnestly  defended  the  doctrines  of 
Augustine  against  the  semi-Pelagians. 

Cai'aphas  (depression),  high-priest  of  the 
Jews  under  Tiberius  during  the  years  of 
our  Lord’s  public  ministry  and  at  the  time 


Cai 


(  136  ) 


Cai 


of  his  trial  and  crucifixion.  In  character 
he  was  coarse  and  brutal,  but  adroit  and 
crafty.  (Matt.  xxvi.  3,  4;  John  xi.  49,  50; 
xviii.  14.)  He  it  was  who  instigated  the 
murder  of  Jesus,  and  afterward  persecuted 
his  followers.  (Acts  iv.  6,  17.)  He  was 
deposed  by  Vitellius,  a.  d.  36. 


he  was  protected.  He  went  into  the  land  of 
Nod,  on  the  east  of  Eden,  where  he  built  a 
city,  which  he  named  after  his  son,  Enoch. 
His  descendants  are  enumerated,  with  the 
inventions  for  which  they  were  remarkable. 

Cain'ites,  an  obscure  Gnostic  sect  of  the 


CVESAREA  PHll.HTI. 


Cain  {possession),  the  firstborn  of  Adam 
and  Eve.  His  history  is  detailed  in  Gen. 
iv.  In  punishment  for  the  murder  of  his 
brother  a  curse  was  pronounced  upon  him, 
and  he  w'as  condemned  to  be  a  “fugitive 
and  a  vagabond”  on  the  earth.  “  Lest  any 
finding  him  should  kill  him,”  God  merci¬ 
fully  gave  him  a  sign,  or  mark,  whereby 


second  century.  “They  held  that  Sop/iia 
(wisdom)  found  means  to  preserve  in  every 
age  in  this  world,  which  the  Demiurge 
had  created,  a  race  bearing  within  them  a 
spiritual  nature  similar  to  her  own,  and 
intent  upon  opposing  the  tyranny  of  the 
Demiurge.  The  Cainites  regarded  Cain 
as  the  chief  of  this  race.  They  honored 


Caj 


(  137  ) 


Cal 


Cain,  and  the  evil  characters  of  Scripture, 
generally,  on  the  ground  that,  in  propor¬ 
tion  to  the  hatred  such  characters  evinced 
of  the  laws  of  the  god  of  this  world  (the 
Demiurge),  the  more  worthily  did  they 
act  as  the  sons  of  Sophia ,  whose  chief  work 
is  to  destroy  the  kingdom  of  the  Demi¬ 
urge.” —  McClintock  and  Strong:  Cvc., 
$.  v.  Neander:  Ch.  Hist.,  1.,  448. 

Cajetan  ( ka-y e-tan ),  Cardinal,  b.  at 
Gaeta,  Italy,  Feb.  20,  1469;  d.  in  Rome, 
Aug.  9,  1534.  His  proper  name  was 
Thomas  de  Vio,  but  he  adopted  that  of 
Cajetan  from  his  birthplace.  He  was 
chosen  general  of  the  Dominican  order  in 
1508,  and  in  1517  was  made  a  cardinal. 
The  most  remarkable  event  in  his  life  was 
the  conference  with  Luther  at  Augsburg, 
1518.  He  completely  failed  in  his  effort 
to  secure  the  retraction  of  Luther,  and  re¬ 
turned  to  Rome  deeply  impressed  with  the 
great  reformer’s  ability  and  knowledge  of 
the  Bible.  He  published  a  Latin  version 
of  a  portion  of  the  Old  Testament,  and  a 
commentary  upon  Thomas  Aquinas’s  Sum- 
via,  which  has  often  been  republished. 

Calamy,  Edmund,  was  born  in  London, 
Feb.,  .1600.  He  took  his  B.  A.  degree  at 
Cambridge,  in  1619,  being  a  member  of 
Pembroke  Hall.  In  1626  he  was  made  a 
lecturer  at  Bury  St.  Edmunds,  where  he 
continued  until  the  publication  of  Bishop 
Wren’s  articles  compelled  him  to  give  up 
his  office  and  leave  the  diocese.  He  then  re¬ 
ceived  the  valuable  living  of  Rochford,  in 
Essex,  but,  having  avowed  himself  a  Pres¬ 
byterian,  he  lost  this  position.  In  1639  he 
was  made  lecturer  of  St.  Mary’s,  Alderman- 
bury,  in  London,  which  office  he  filled  for 
twenty  years.  He  joined  with  four  others 
in  printing  a  pamphlet,  which  they  pub¬ 
lished  under  the  pseudonym  of  Smectym- 
nuus,  this  strange  word  being  made  up  of 
the  initials  of  their  several  names:  Ste¬ 
phen  Marshall,  Edmund  Calamy,  Thomas 
Yong,  Matthew  Newcomen,  William  Spur- 
stovv.  This  book  was  written  as  a  reply 
to  Bishop  Hall’s  Divine  Right  of  Episco¬ 
pacy;  and  it  may  be  doubted  whether  any¬ 
thing  which  has  ever  issued  from  the  press 
of  the  religious  world  has  surpassed  this 
work  in  severity  of  language.  In  1641 
Calamy  was  appointed  one  of  the  well- 
known  Assembly  of  Divines.  His  views 
became  more  moderate  when  the  Inde¬ 
pendents  supplanted  the  Presbyterians; 
and  he  was  one  of  the  Presbyterians  who 
remonstrated  against  the  execution  of  King 
Charles.  At  the  Restoration  Charles  II. 
made  him  one  of  his  chaplains,  and  offered 
him  the  see  of  Lichfield  and  Coventry, 
which  he  refused.  When  the  Act  of  Uni¬ 


formity  was  passed,  he  resigned  his  pre¬ 
ferment,  and  refused,  like  many  others,  to 
attend  the  church  in  which  he  had  so  long 
officiated.  Calamy  died,  Oct.  29,  1666,  of 
a  broken  heart,  occasioned  by  the  sight  of 
the  misery  caused  by  the  Fire  of  London. 

Calderwood,  Henry,  LL.  D.  (Glasgow, 
1865),  United  Presbyterian  Church  of  Scot¬ 
land;  b.  at  Peebles,  near  Edinburgh,  May 
10,  1830;  studied  at  the  University  of  Edin¬ 
burgh  (1847-1853),  in  which  institution  he 
became  professor  of  moral  philosophy  in 
1868.  He  is  the  author  of:  The  Philosophy 
of  the  Infinite  (London,  1854);  Handbook  op 
Moral  Philosophy  (1872);  The  Relations  of 
Mind  and  Brain  (1879);  Y’/zz’  Relations  of 
Science  and  Religion  (1881). 

Ca'leb,  the  son  of  Jephunneh,  of  the 
tribe  of  Judah  (Num.  xiii.  6),  called  also 
the  Kenezite,  or  son  of  Kenez.  (Num.  xxxii. 
12;  Josh.  xiv.  6,  14).  “  The  reconciliation 
of  these  accounts  is  either  to  suppose  that 
that  division  of  the  tribe  of  Judah  which 
Caleb  headed  had  so  intermingled  itself 
with  the  Kenezites,  a  tribe  of  Southern 
Palestine,  that  he  could  be  reckoned  a 
Kenezite,  or  that  Caleb  was  the  head  of  the 
Kenezites,  who  had  been  absorbed  by 
Judah.” — Riietschi.  Caleb  was  one  of  the 
twelve  spies  sent  by  Moses  into  Canaan. 
(Num.  xiii.  6.)  He  and  Joshua  were  the 
only  adults  born  in  Egypt  who  entered  the 
promised  land.  He  was  given  possession 
of  Hebron  and  its  neighborhood.  (Josh, 
xiv.) 

Calendar,  “the  mode  of  adjusting  the 
months  and  other  divisions  of  the  civil 
year  to  the  natural  or  solar  year.  The  ne¬ 
cessity  of  some  division  and  measurement 
of  time  must  have  been  early  felt.  The 
phases  or  changes  of  the  moon  supplied  a 
natural  and  very  obvious  mode  of  dividing 
and  reckoning  time,  and  hence  the  division 
into  months  of  twenty-nine  or  thirty  days 
was,  perhaps,  the  earliest  and  most  uni¬ 
versal.  But  it  would  soon  be  observed 
that,  for  many  purposes,  the  changes  of 
the  seasons  were  more  serviceable  as  marks 
of  division;  and  thus  arose  the  division  into 
years  {q.  v.),  determined  by  the  motions  of 
the  sun.  It  was  soon,  however,  discovered 
that  the  year,  or  larger,  division,  did  not 
contain  an  exact  number  of  the  smaller  di¬ 
visions  or  months,  and  that  an  accommo¬ 
dation  was  necessary;  and  various  not 
very  dissimilar  expedients  were  employed 
for  correcting  the  error  that  arose.  The 
ancient  Egyptians  had  a  year  determined 
by  the  changes  of  the  seasons,  without 
reference  to  the  changes  of  the  moon,  and 
containing  365  days,  divided  into  twelve 


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Cal 


months  of  thirty  days  each,  with  five  sup¬ 
plementary  days  at  the  end  of  the  year. 
The  Jewish  year  consisted,  in  the  earliest 
periods,  as  it  still  does,  of  twelve  lunar 
months,  a  thirteenth  being  from  time  to 
time  introduced,  to  accommodate  it  to  the 
.  sun  and  seasons;  this  was  also  the  case 
with  the  ancient  Syrians,  Macedonians, 
etc.  The  Jewish  months  have  alternately 
twenty-nine  and  thirty  days;  and  in  a  cycle 
of  nineteen  years  there  are  seven  years 
having  the  intercalary  month,  some  of 
these  years  having  also  one,  and  some  two, 
days  more  than  others  have,  so  that  the 
length  of  the  year  varies  from  353  to  385 
days.  The  Greeks,  in  the  most  ancient 
periods,  reckoned  according  to  real  lunar 
months,  twelve  making  a  year;  and  about 
594  b.  c. ,  Solon  introduced  in  Athens  the 
mode  of  reckoning  alternately  thirty  and 
twenty-nine  days  to  the  month,  accommo¬ 
dating  this  civil  year  of  354  days  to  the 
solar  year  by  occasional  introduction  of 
an  intercalary  month.  A  change  was  after¬ 
ward  made,  by  which,  three  times  in  eight 
years,  a  month  of  thirty  days  was  intercal¬ 
ated,  making  the  average  length  of  the 
year  365^  days. 

“  The  Romans  are  said  to  have  had,  orig¬ 
inally, ayearof  ten  months;  but  in  the  times 
of  their  kings  they  adopted  a  lunar  year 
of  355  days,  divided  into  twelve  months, 
with  an  occasional  intercalary  month. 
Through  the  ignorance  of  the  priests,  who 
had  the  charge  of  this  matter,  the  utmost 
confusion  gradually  arose,  which  Julius 
Caesar  remedied,  46  b.  c. ,  by  the  introduc¬ 
tion  of  the  Julian  Calendar ,  according  to 
which  the  year  has  ordinarily  365  days, 
and  every  fourth  year  is  a  leap-year  of  366 
days — the  length  of  the  year  being  thus 
assumed  as  365 34'days,  while  it  is  in  reality 
365  days,  five  hours,  forty-eight  minutes, 
and  fifty  seconds;  or  eleven  minutes,  ten 
seconds  less.  Caesar  gave  to  the  months 
the  number  of  days  which  they  still  have. 

“  So  comparatively  perfect  was  the  Julian 
style  of  reckoning  time,  that  it  prevailed  gen- 
erallyamong  Christian  nations,  and  remain¬ 
ed  undisturbed  till  the  renewed  accumula¬ 
tion  of  the  remaining  error  of  eleven  min¬ 
utes  or  so  had  amounted,  in  15S2  years 
after  the  birth  of  Christ,  to  ten  complete 
days;  the  vernal  equinox  falling  on  the  nth 
instead  of  the  21st  of  March,  as  it  did  at  the 
time  of  the  Council  of  Nice,  325  years  after 
the  birth  of  Christ.  This  shifting  of  days 
had  caused  great  disturbances,  by  unfixing 
the  times  of  the  celebration  of  Easter,  and, 
hence,  of  all  the  other  movable  feasts.  And 
accordingly,  Pope  Gregory  XIII.,  after 
deep  study  and  calculation,  ordained  that 
ten  days  should  be  deducted  from  the  year 
1582,  bv  calling  what,  according  to  the  old 


calendar,  would  have  been  reckoned  the 
5th  of  Oct.,  the  15th  of  Oct.,  1582;  and,  in 
order  that  the  displacement  might  not  re¬ 
cur,  it  was  further  ordained  that  every 
hundredth  year  (1S00,  1900,  2100.  etc.) 
should  not  be  counted  a  leap-year,  except¬ 
ing  every  fourth  hundredth,  beginning 
with  2000.  In  this  way  the  difference  be¬ 
tween  the  civil  and  natural  year  will  not 
amount  to  a  day  in  5,000  years.  In  Spain, 
Portugal,  and  part  of  Italy,  the  pope  was 
exactly  obeyed.  In  France,  the  change 
took  place  in  the  same  year,  by  calling  the 
10th  the  20th  of  Dec.  In  the  Low  Coun¬ 
tries  the  change  was  from  the  15th  Dec.  to 
the  25th;  but  it  was  resisted  by  the  Prot¬ 
estant  part  of  the  community  till  the  year 
1700.  The  Catholic  nations,  in  general, 
adopted  the  style  ordained  by  their  sover¬ 
eign  pontiff;  but  the  Protestants  were  then 
too  much  inflamed  against  Catholicism  in 
all  its  relations,  to  receive  even  a  purely 
scientific  improvement  from  such  hands. 
The  Lutherans  of  Germany,  Switzerland, 
and,  as  already  mentioned,  of  the  Low 
Countries,  at  length  gave  way  in  1700, 
when  it  had  become  necessary  to  omit 
eleven  instead  of  ten  days.  A  bill  to  this 
effect  had  been  brought  before  the  Parlia¬ 
ment  of  England  in  15S5,  but  does  not  ap¬ 
pear  to  have  gone  beyond  a  second  reading 
in  the  House  of  Lords.  It  was  not  till 
1751,  and  after  great  inconvenience  had 
been  experienced  for  nearly  two  centuries, 
from  the  difference  of  the  reckoning,  that 
an  act  was  passed  (24  Geo.  II.,  1751)  for 
equalizing  the  style  in  Great  Britain  and 
Ireland  with  that  used  in  other  countries  of 
Europe.  It  was  then  enacted  that  eleven 
days  should  be  omitted  after  the  2d  of 
Sept. ,  1 752,  so  that  the  ensuing  day  should 
be  the  14th.  A  similar  change  was,  about 
the  same  time,  made  in  Sweden  and  Tus¬ 
cany;  and  Russia  is  now  the  only  country 
which  adheres  to  the  old  style ;  an  adher¬ 
ence  which  renders  it  necessary,  when  a 
letter  is  thence  addressed  to  a  person  in 
another  country,  that  the  date  should  be 

given  thus:  April  —  »or  july  ^  ;  for,  it  will 

be  observed,  the  year  1S00,  not  being  con¬ 
sidered  by  us  as  a  leap-year,  has  interjected 
another  (or  twelfth)  day  between  old  and 
new  style.” — Chambers:  Cyclopedia. 

Calf.  See  Golden  Calf. 

Calhoun,  Simeon  Howard,  American 
foreign  missionary;  b.  in  Boston,  Mass.. 
Aug.  15,  1S04;  d.  at  Buffalo,  N.  Y.,  Dec. 
14,  1S76.  Graduating  at  Williams  College 
in  1S29,  he  studied  law,  but  after  his  con¬ 
version  became  an  agent  of  the  American 
Bible  Society  in  the  Levant  in  1837.  In 


Cal 


(  139  ) 


Cal 


1844  he  was  appointed  a  missionary  under 
the  American  Board,  and  subsequently 
under  the  Presbyterian  Board.  His  prin¬ 
cipal  field  of  labor  was  in  Syria,  at  the 
seminary  at  Abeih,  on  the  slopes  of  Leba¬ 
non.  He  was  a  man  of  rare  gifts  and  great 
force  of  character. 

Calixtines,  the  name  given  to  one  of  the 
factions  into  which  the  Hussites  divided  in 
1420.  They  asserted  that  the  communion 
in  both  kinds  was  essential  to  the  sacra¬ 
ment.  Their  name  is  derived  from  the 
chalice  ( calix ). 

Calixtus,  “  the  name  of  three  different 
popes.  Little  is  known  of  Calixtus  I., 
Bishop  of  Rome  from  about  220-226  A.  D. , 
during  the  reigns  of  Heliogabalus  and  Se- 
verus.  Calixtus  II.,  Guido  of  Vienne, was 
elected  in  1119,  after  the  death  of  Gelasius 

II.  In  1122  he  concluded,  with  the  Em¬ 
peror  Henry,  the  important  treaty  of 
Mentz,  by  which  the  mutual  rights  of  the 
Church  and  the  empire  were  definitely  set¬ 
tled.  He  died  in  Dec.,  1124.  Calixtus 

III. ,  Alphonso  de  Borgia,  was  raised  to  the 
papal  chair  in  1455,  at  a  very  advanced  age. 
He  was  feeble  and  incompetent.  The  great 
object  of  his  policy  was  the  excitement  of 
a  crusade  against  the  Turks,  but  he  did 
not  find  the  Christian  princes  responsive 
to  his  call.  He  died  in  1458.” — Ency. 
Britannica. 

Calixtus,  George,  1586-1656;  one  of  the 
most  independent  and  influential  theolo¬ 
gians  of  the  Lutheran  Church.  He  was 
appointed  divinity  professor  at  Helmstadt 
in  1614,  where  he  spent  nearly  fifty  years 
in  laborious  literary  work.  He  was,  in  his 
time,  the  most  prominent  representative  of 
the  school  of  Melancthon,  and  he  met  with 
opposition  from  the  orthodox  Lutherans. 
He  was  devoted  to  the  cause  of  Christian 
union,  and  did  all  that  he  could  to  bring 
about  a  reconciliation  between  the  Luther¬ 
an  and  Reformed  churches. 

Calmet,  Augustine,  1672-1757;  a  French 
Benedictine  monk.  He  was  a  prolific 
writer.  His  best-known  work  is  a  Dic¬ 
tionary  of  the  Bible.  An  American  edition, 
enriched  with  notes  by  Dr.  Robinson,  has 
had  a  large  circulation. 

Caloyers,  is  the  name  given  to  monks  in 
the  Greek  Church.  It  signifies  “  a  good 
old  age.”  Greek  monks  follow  the  rules 
of  St.  Basil,  which  are  more  rigorous  than 
those  of  the  West.  Their  largest  monas¬ 
tery  is  at  Mt.  Sinai. 

Calvary.  See  Holy  Sepulchre. 


Calvin,  John,  b.  at  Noyon,  in  Picardy. 
July  10,  1509;  d.  at  Geneva,  May  27,  1564. 
He  was  the  son  of  Gerard  Calvin, 
or  Chauvin,  an  official  of  the  cathedral, 
who  had  risen  from  poor  estate.  Gerard 
Calvin’s  eldest  son,  Charles,  became  a 
priest  at  Noyon,  but,  as  many  priests  of 
that  day  did,  openly  professed  unbelief 
while  he  continued  to  hold  his  chaplaincy. 
He  died  in  1536,  refusing  the  Sacraments. 
In  1523  John  Calvin  went  to  study  classics 
in  Paris,  where  he  is  said  to  have  been  so 
strict  and  severe  in  manner  that  his  fellow- 
students  dubbed  him  “  The  Accusative 
Case.”  He  had  been  intended  by  his 
father  for  the  Church,  and  not  only  re¬ 
ceived  the  tonsure,  but  was  even  made 
Cure  of  Pont  l’Eveque,  his  grandfather’s 
birthplace.  But  he  was  never  ordained 
priest,  and  in  1529  was  sent  to  Orleans 
College,  where  he  applied  himself  to  the 
Civil  Law  under  Petrus  de  Stella,  a  study 
in  which  he  afterwards  made  great  prog¬ 
ress  at  Bourges,  under  Andrew  Alciat; 
here  also  he  studied  Greek,  under  Wol- 
mar. 

By  this  time  he  had  become  deeply 
moved  by  the  doctrines  of  the  German  re¬ 
formers.  He  says  of  himself:  “  Every 
time  I  looked  down  into  myself  my  con¬ 
science  was  goaded  with  fierce  stings.  But 
God  took  pity  on  me,  and  conquered  my 
heart,  and  subdued  it  to  docility  by  a  sud¬ 
den  conversion.”  The  result  was  that  he 
began  to  teach,  and,  though  of  shy  and  re¬ 
tiring  habits,  he  was  so  full  of  zeal  that 
he  threw  himself  into  his  new  work  with 
ardor. 

On  the  death  of  his  father  he  returned 
to  Paris,  and  there  published  Notes  on  Sen¬ 
eca  de  dementia ,  which,  though  ostensibly 
a  commentary  on  a  heathen  writer,  was 
really  a  covert  appeal  to  all  readers  on  be¬ 
half  of  toleration  in  matters  of  faith. 
When  the  persecution  in  France  began, 
Calvin  moved  from  place  to  place  for 
safety.  At  Poitiers  he,  for  the  first  time, 
celebrated  the  Lord’s  Supper  according  to 
the  Reformed  manner,  and  the  spot  is 
still  known  as  Calvin’s  Cave.  In  1535 
he  went  to  Basle,  where  he  studied  the 
Scriptures  in  the  original  Hebrew.  Here 
he  wrote  the  first  edition  of  his  Institutes , 
and  dedicated  it  to  Francis  I. 

He  then  resolved  to  visit  Italy,  where 
the  Reformation  was  making  some  prog¬ 
ress,  under  the  protection, chiefly, of  Renee, 
Duchess  of  Ferrara,  daughter  of  Louis 
XII.  His  letters  to  her,  written  subse¬ 
quently,  are  among  the  most  interesting  of 
his  writings.  “  I  do  not  hesitate  to  affirm,” 
says  Guizot,  “  that  the  great  Catholic 
bishop  who,  in  the  seventeenth  century, 
directed  the  consciences  of  the  mightiest 


Cal 


(  140  ) 


Cal 


men  in  France,  did  not  fulfill  this  difficult 
task  with  more  Christian  firmness,  intelli¬ 
gent  justice,  and  knowledge  of  the  world, 
than  Calvin  displayed  in  his  intercourse 
with  the  Duchess  of  Ferrara.”  She,  on  her 
side,  was  always  loyal  and  generous  to 
him;  but  her  husband,  Hercules  d’Este, 
displayed  so  much  hostility  to  the  Protes¬ 
tants  that  he  left  Italy,  and  after  wander¬ 
ing  from  place  to  place,  reached  Geneva  in 
August,  1536,  with  no  other  expectation 
than  that  he  would  stay  there  for  a  day 
or  two.  But  here  he  met  with  another  re¬ 
former,  as  enthusiastic  and  fearless  as 
himself:  like  himself,  also,  both  in  being  a 
I'renchman  and  a  refugee.  His  name  was 
William  Farel.  He  had  succeeded  in  per¬ 
suading  the  Genevans  to  “  live  according 
to  the  holy  Evangelical  law  and  the  Word 
of  God,  which  had  been  made  known  to 
them,  forsaking  all  masses  and  other  papal 
ceremonies  and  frauds,  images  and  idols, 
and  living  together  in  unity  and  obedience 
to  the  law.”  But  he  lacked,  and  was  con¬ 
scious  that  he  lacked,  the  power  of  organ¬ 
ization,  and  he  saw  that  Calvin  possessed 
it  in  a  wonderful  degree.  With  extreme 
difficulty,  and  after  many  refusals,  he  per¬ 
suaded  Calvin  to  become  permanently  res¬ 
ident  in  Geneva,  and  the  latter  began  a 
course  of  lectures  on  Divinity,  on  Sept.  1, 
1536.  In  a  few  months  he  had  drawn  up 
the  formula  which  is  memorable  as  the 
first  Confession  of  Faith  by  the  Reformed 
Church  of  France. 

M.  Guizot  gives  the  followingaccount  of 
it:  “It  was  simple  in  form,  moderate  in 
tone,  and  free  from  many  of  the  theological 
controversies  which  afterward  arose  among 
the  Reformers;  its  principal  object  was  to 
separate  the  Reformed  faith  clearly  and 
entirely  from  the  Church  of  Rome,  its  tra¬ 
ditions,  its  priestcraft,  and  its  worship;  at 
the  same  time,  it  was  entirely  in  harmony 
with  the  facts,  dogmas,  and  precepts  con¬ 
tained  in  the  Scriptures,  the  authority  of 
which  it  asserted  as  the  fixed  basis  and  law 
of  the  Christian  faith.  The  Confession  is  di¬ 
vided  intotwenty-one  articles.  The  starting- 
point  of  the  first  three  is  the  law  and  word 
of  God,  ‘as  they  are  contained  in  the  Holy 
Scriptures,’  and  at  their  close  all  the  Ten 
Commandments  are  inserted,  according  to 
the  version  given  in  the  Book  of  Exodus. 
The  ten  subsequent  articles  enumerate  and 
announce  the  fundamental  doctrines  of 
evangelical  orthodoxy,  namely:  the  natural 
depravity  of  man;  the  redemption  by  our 
Lord  Jesus  Christ;  the  necessity  of  faith  in 
Christ  for  regeneration  and  salvation;  and 
they  end  with  the  insertion  of  the  whole  of 
the  Apostles’  Creed  and  the  Lord’s  Prayer, 
together  with  this  previous  declaration  : 
‘  All  that  Jesus  Christ  did  and  suffered  for 


our  redemption  we  believe  truly  and  with¬ 
out  doubt,  as  it  is  stated  in  the  creed  which 
is  recited  in  the  Church.’  The  eight  re¬ 
maining  articles  treat  of  the  Sacraments  of 
the  Church,  which  they  reduce  to  two, 
Baptism  and  the  Lord’s  Supper;  they  very 
briefly  indicate  the  essential  principles  of 
ecclesiastical  organization,  the  duty  of  the 
pastor  to  his  flock,  of  believers  to  the  civil 
powers.  ‘  By  which  we  mean  that  every 
Christian  is  bound  to  pray  to  God  for  the 
prosperity  of  the  rulers  and  governors  of 
the  country  in  which  he  lives,  to  obey  the 
statutes  and  decrees  which  are  not  in  op¬ 
position  to  the  commandments  of  God,  to 
strive  to  promote  the  public  welfare,  peace, 
and  profit,  and  to  take  no  part  in  schemes 
which  may  provoke  danger  and  dissension. 
At  the  same  time,  in  the  hands  of  the 
Church,  and  to  be  exercised  by  its  author¬ 
ity,  these  articles  formally  establish  the 
punishment  of  excommunication,  which  we 
hold  to  be  a  sacred  and  salutary  weapon  in 
the  hands  of  believers,  so  that  the  wicked, 
by  their  evil  conversation,  may  not  corrupt 
the  good,  and  dishonor  Christ.  We  hold 
that  it  is  expedient,  and  according  to  the 
ordinance  of  God,  that  all  open  idolaters, 
blasphemers,  murderers,  thieves,  adulter¬ 
ers,  and  false  witnesses,  all  seditious  and 
quarrelsome  persons,  slanderers,  pugilists, 
drunkards,  and  spendthrifts,  if  they  do  not 
amend  their  lives  after  they  have  been  duly 
admonished,  shall  be  cut  off  from  commun¬ 
ion  with  believers,  until  they  have  given 
satisfactory  proof  of  repentance.’  ” 

But  the  strain  was  greater  than  the  Swiss 
could  bear.  They  who  had  resisted  the 
foreign  dukes,  and  established  their  polit¬ 
ical  independence,  were  determined  also  to 
be  independent  of  moral  laws.  Calvin, 
they  said,  was  a  good  expounder  of  Script¬ 
ure,  but  had  no  right  over  their  morals: 
he  was  only  restoring  papal  tyranny,  with 
himself  for  pope.  The  malcontents  were 
seconded  by  the  partisans  of  the  old  relig¬ 
ion,  and  in  March,  1538,  Calvin  and  Farel 
were  expelled  from  the  city,  on  the  ground 
that  they  had  withheld  the  Communion 
from  some  who  refused  to  accept  their 
doctrinal  views. 

Calvin  traveled  about  for  four  months, 
visiting  the  Reformed  bodies  in  various 
parts,  and  then  settled  himself  at  Strasburg, 
where  the  reformers,  Bucer  and  Capito, 
esteemed  him  highly:  there  he  set  up  a 
French  Church,  became  its  first  minister, 
and  was  likewise  chosen  Professor  of 
Divinity.  His  affection  for  the  Church  of 
Geneva  stili  continued,  as  was  shown  by 
the  answer  which  he  wrote  to  Cardinal 
Sadolet’s  Epistle  to  the  Church  of  Geneva, 
inviting  them  to  return  to  the  ancient  faith. 
The  cardinal’s  letter  was  calm,  temperate, 


Cal 


(  I4i  ) 


Cal 


and  generous  in  tone.  Calvin’s  answer 
was  also  courteous  and  respectful,  but 
thoroughly  uncompromising  in  his  asser¬ 
tion  of  his  own  position  and  of  the  evils  of 
Rome.  It  is  said — but  there  is  no  proof 
forthcoming  —  that  the  two  antagonists 
afterward  met,  and  were  mutually  pleased. 
But  Calvin’s  letter  was  regarded  as  tri¬ 
umphing  over  the  cardinal. 

Two  years  later  the  divines  of  Strasburg 
desired  him  to  assist  at  a  Diet,  which  the 
emperor  had  convened  at  Worms  and 
Ratisbon,  for  settling  the  differences  in  re¬ 
ligion;  he  complied  with  their  request,  and 
had  a  conference,  at  that  meeting,  with  Me- 
lancthon.  By  this  time  the  town  of  Geneva 
was  very  pressing  for  his  return;  at  last  he 
yielded  to  their  importunity,  and  went 
thither  in  Sept.,  1541.  The  first  thing  he 
did  was  to  settle  a  form  of  discipline  and  a 
consistorial  jurisdiction,  with  a  power  to 
inflict  censures  and  canonical  penances, 
even  to  excommunication;  this  method  was 
thought  by  many  persons  to  be  too  rigor¬ 
ous,  and  too  nearly  approaching  to  Roman 
tyranny ;  notwithstanding,  the  matter  was 
carried,  and  this  new  canon  legally  passed 
by  an  assembly  of  all  the  people,  Nov.  20, 
1541,  the  clergy  and  laity  pledging  them¬ 
selves  to  an  unalterable  conformity  to  it. 
Calvin  made  for  himself  a  great  many 
enemies  by  his  inflexible  severity  in 
maintaining  the  rights  and  jurisdiction 
of  his  consistory,  these  rigors  being 
sometimes  the  occasion  of  disturbances 
in  the  town. 

His  conduct  towards  Servetus  has  been 
justly  condemned  (Servetus),  but  it  must 
be  remembered  that  religious  toleration 
was  a  virtue  which  men  were  only  begin¬ 
ning  to  learn,  and  the  condemnation  of 
Servetus  was  approved,  even  by  the  gentle 
Melancthon. 

Calvin  was  a  man  of  indefatigable  indus¬ 
try  and  very  considerable  learning,  had  a 
good  memory,  and  was  a  brilliant  writer. 
His  earnestness  on  behalf  of  his  opinions 
has,  perhaps,  never  been  surpassed;  even 
Maimbourg  and  Moreri  allowed  him  to  be 
a  person  of  wisdom  and  learning,  of  a  very 
regular  and  sober  life,  and  so  far  from 
covetousness  that  he  died  worth  only  fso, 
including  the  value  of  his  library;  but  they 
add  that  he  was  a  melancholy  and  also 
irascible  man,  and  that  even  his  friends 
charged  him  with  being  satirical. 

He  had  always  been  of  feeble  and  deli¬ 
cate  frame,  and  on  the  27th  of  May,  1564, 
he  died  in  perfect  calmness,  exhorting  all 
about  him  to  cling  to  the  Gospel  which  he 
had  taught  them,  and  to  walk  worthy  of 
the  Divine  goodness.  He  was  buried,  ac¬ 
cording  to  his  own  request,  in  that  portion 
of  the  burial-ground  of  Geneva  allotted  to 


the  poor,  and  the  precise  spot  is  unmarked 
and  unknown. 

Calvin’s  whole  works  have  been  pub¬ 
lished  in  several  editions.  His  Commen- 
tciries  on  the  Scriptures  are  still  regarded  as 
of  great  value,  from  their  critical  power 
and  spiritual  insight.  But  his  chief  work 
is  his  Christian  Institutes ,  the  design  of 
which  was  to  exhibit  a  full  view  of  the 
doctrines  of  the  Reformers;  and,  as  no  sim¬ 
ilar  work  had  appeared  before,  it  leaped  at 
once  into  popularity.  It  went  through 
several  editions  in  his  life-time,  has  been 
translated  into  all  the  principal  modern 
languages,  and  its  effect  upon  the  Christian 
world  ever  since  has  been  so  remarkable 
as  to  entitle  it  to  be  looked  upon  as  one  of 
the  very  few  books  which  have  done  some¬ 
thing  to  change  the  world.  Many  lives  of 
Calvin  have  been  written;  one  of  the  best 
is  by  M.  Guizot:  St.  Louis  and  Calvin. — 
Benham:  Did.  of  Religion. 

Calvinism  is  a  term  that  designates  the 
doctrinal  system  of  Calvin,  but  it  is  to  be 
remembered  that,  as  regards  the  doctrines 
of  sin,  grace,  and  predestination,  he  de¬ 
veloped  more  fully  the  views  that  Avere 
first  promulgated  by  St.  Augustine  (353- 
430).  The  tenets  held  by  Calvin  are  stated 
as  follows  by  W.  Lindsay  Alexander,  D.  D. 
( Ency .  Britannica,  vol.  iv.,  pp.  719,  720): 
“  Man  as  a  sinner  is  guilty  and  corrupt. 
The  first  man  was  made  in  the  image  and 
likeness  of  God,  which  not  only  implies 
man’s  superiority  to  all  other  creatures,  but 
indicates  his  original  purity,  integrity,  and 
sanctity.  From  this  state  Adam  fell,  and 
in  his  fall  involved  the  whole  human  race 
descended  from  him.  Hence,  depravity 
and  corruption  diffused  through  all  parts 
of  the  soul,  attach  to  all  men,  and  this  first 
makes  them  obnoxious  to  the  anger  of 
God,  and  then  comes  forth  in  works,  which 
the  Scripture  calls  works  of  the  flesh.  (Gal. 
v.  19.)  Thus  all  are  held  vitiated  and  per¬ 
verted  in  all  parts  of  their  nature,  and  on 
account  of  such  corruption  deservedly  con¬ 
demned  before  God,  by  whom  nothing  is 
accepted,  save  righteousness,  innocence, 
and  purity.  Nor  is  that  a  being  bound  for 
another’s  offense;  for  when  it  is  said  that 
we,  through  Adam’s  sin,  have  become  ob¬ 
noxious  to  the  divine  judgment,  it  is  not 
to  be  taken  as  if  we,  being  ourselves  inno¬ 
cent  and  blameless,  bear  the  fault  of  his 
offense,  but  that,  we  having  been  brought 
under  a  curse  through  his  transgression, 
he  is  said  to  have  bound  us. 

“  From  him,  however,  not  only  has  pun¬ 
ishment  overtaken  us,  but  a  pestilence  in¬ 
stilled  from  him  resides  in  us,  to  which 
punishment  is  justly  due.  Thus,  even  in¬ 
fants,  whilst  they  bring  their  own  condem- 


Cal 


(  142  ) 


Cal 


nation  with  them  from  their  mothers’ 
womb,  are  bound  not  by  another’s,  but  by 
their  own  fault.  For,  though  they  have 
not  yet  brought  forth  the  fruits  of  iniquity, 
they  have  the  seed  shut  up  in  them;  nay, 
their  whole  nature  is  a  sort  of  seed  of  sin, 
therefore  it  cannot  but  be  hateful  and  abom¬ 
inable  to  God.  {Inst. ,  bk.  ii.,  ch.  1,  sec.  8.) 
To  redeem  man  from  this  state  of  guilt,  and 
to  recover  him  from  corruption,  the  Son  of 
God  became  incarnate,  assuming  man’s  na¬ 
ture  into  union  with  his  own,  so  that  in  him 
were  two  natures  in  one  person.  Thus  in¬ 
carnate  he  took  on  him  the  offices  of  Proph¬ 
et,  Priest,  and  King,  and  by  his  humilia¬ 
tion,  obedience,  and  suffering  unto  death, 
followed  by  his  resurrection  and  ascension 
to  heaven,  he  has  perfected  his  work,  and 
fulfilled  all  that  was  required  in  a  Re¬ 
deemer  of  men,  so  that  it  is  truly  affirmed 
that  he  has  merited  for  man  the  grace  of 
salvation.  (Bk.  ii. ,  ch.  13-17.)  But  until  a 
man  is  in  some  way  really  united  to  Christ, 
so  as  to  partake  of  him,  the  benefits  of 
Christ’s  work  cannot  be  attained  by  him. 
Now  it  is  by  the  secret  and  special  opera¬ 
tion  of  the  Holy  Spirit  that  men  are  united 
to  Christ,  and  made  members  of  his  body. 
Through  faith,  which  is  a  firm  and  certain 
cognition  of  the  divine  benevolence  tow¬ 
ard  us,  founded  on  the  truth  of  the  gra¬ 
cious  promise  in  Christ,  men  are,  by  the 
operation  of  the  Spirit,  united  to  Christ, 
and  are  made  partakers  of  his  death  and 
resurrection,  so  that  the  old  man  is  cruci¬ 
fied  with  him,  and  they  are  raised  to  a  new 
life,  a  life  of  righteousness  and  holiness. 
Thus  joined  to  Christ  the  believer  has  life 
in  him,  and  knows  that  he  is  saved,  having 
the  witness  of  the  Spirit  that  he  is  a  child 
of  God,  and  having  the  promises,  the  certi¬ 
tude  of  which  the  Spirit  had  before  im¬ 
pressed  on  the  mind,  sealed  by  the  same 
Spirit  on  the  heart.  (Bk.  iii.,  ch.  33-36.) 
From  faith  proceeds  repentance,  which  is 
the  turning  of  our  life  to  God,  proceeding 
from  a  sincere  and  earnest  fear  of  God, 
and  consisting  in  the  mortification  of  the 
flesh  and  the  old  man  within  us,  and  a 
vivification  of  the  Spirit.  Through  faith, 
also,  the  believer  receives  justifica¬ 
tion,  his  sins  are  forgiven,  he  is  accepted 
of  God,  and  is  held  by  him  as  right¬ 
eous,  the  righteousness  of  Christ  being 
imputed  to  him,  and  faith  being  the 
instrument  by  which  the  man  lays  hold  on 
Christ,  so  that,  with  his  righteousness,  the 
man  appears  in  God’s  sight  as  righteous. 
This  imputed  righteousness,  however,  is 
not  disjoined  from  real  personal  right¬ 
eousness,  for  regeneration  and  sanctifi¬ 
cation  come  to  the  believer  from  Christ 
no  less  than  justification:  the  two  blessings 
are  not  to  be  confounded,  but  neither  are 


they  to  be  disjoined.  The  assurance 
which  the  believer  has  of  salvation  he  re¬ 
ceives  from  the  operation  and  witness  of 
the  Holy  Spirit;  but  this  again  rests  on  the 
divine  choice  of  the  man  to  salvation;  and 
this  falls  back  on  God’s  eternal,  sovereign 
purpose,  whereby  he  has  predestinated 
some  to  eternal  life,  while  the  rest  of  man¬ 
kind  are  predestinated  to  condemnation  and 
eternal  death.  Those  whom  God  has  chosen 
to  life  he  effectually  calls  to  salvation,  and 
they  are  kept  by  him  in  progressive  faith 
and  holiness  unto  the  end.  ( Bk.  iii.  passim. ) 
The  external  means  or  aids  by  which  God 
unites  men  into  the  fellowship  of  Christ, 
and  sustains  and  advances  those  who  be¬ 
lieve,  are  the  church  and  its  ordinances, 
especially  the  sacraments.  The  church 
universal  is  the  multitude  gathered  from 
diverse  nations,  which,  though  divided  by 
distance  of  time  and  place,  agree  in  one 
common  faith,  and  it  is  bound  by  the  tie  of 
the  same  religion:  and  wherever  the  word 
of  God  is  sincerely  preached,  and  the  sac¬ 
raments  are  duly  administered,  according 
to  Christ’s  institute,  there,  beyond  doubt,  is 
a  church  of  the  living  God.  (Bk.  iv.,ch.  1, 
sec.  7-11.)  The  permanent  officers  in  the 
church  are  pastors  and  teachers,  to  the 
former  of  whom  it  belongs  to  preside  over 
the  discipline  of  the  church,  to  administer 
the  sacraments,  and  to  admonish  and  ex¬ 
hort  the  members,  while  the  latter  occupy 
themselves  with  the  exposition  of  Script¬ 
ure,  so  that  pure  and  wholesome  doctrine 
may  be  retained.  With  them  are  to  be 
joined,  for  the  government  of  the  church, 
certain  pious,  grave,  and  holy  men,  as  a 
senate  in  each  church;  and  to  others,  as 
deacons,  is  to  be  entrusted  the  care  of  the 
poor.  The  election  of  the  officers  in  a 
church  is  to  be  with  the  people,  and  those 
duly  chosen  and  called  are  to  be  ordained 
by  the  laying  on  of  the  hands  of  the  pas¬ 
tors  (ch.  iii.,  sec.  4-16).  The  sacraments 
are  two — Baptism  and  the  Lord’s  Supper. 
Baptism  is  the  sign  of  initiation,  whereby 
men  are  admitted  into  the  society  of  the 
church,  and,  being  grafted  into  Christ,  are 
reckoned  among  the  sons  of  God;  it  serves 
both  for  the  confirmation  of  faith  and  as  a 
confession  before  men.  The  Lord’s  Sup¬ 
per  is  a  spiritual  feast,  where  Christ  attests 
that  he  is  the  life-giving  bread  by  which 
our  souls  are  fed  unto  true  and  blessed  im¬ 
mortality.  That  sacred  communication  of 
his  flesh  and  blood  whereby  Christ  trans¬ 
fuses  into  us  his  life,  even  as  if  it  pene¬ 
trated  into  our  bones  and  marrow,  he,  in 
the  Supper,  attests  and  seals;  and  that  not 
by  a  vain  or  empty  sign  set  before  us,  but 
there  he  puts  forth  the  efficacy  of  his  Spirit 
whereby  he  fulfills  what  he  promises.  In 
the  mystery  of  the  Supper,  Christ  is  truly 


Cam 


(  143  ) 


Cam 


exhibited  to  us  by  the  symbols  of  bread 
and  wine;  and  so  his  body  and  blood,  in 
which  he  fulfilled  all  obedience  for  the  ob¬ 
taining  of  righteousness  for  us,  are  pre¬ 
sented.  There  is  no  such  presence  of 
Christ  in  the  Supper  as  that  he  is  affixed  to 
the  bread,  or  included  in  it,  or  in  any  way 
circumscribed;  but  whatever  can  express 
the  true  and  substantial  communication  of 
the  body  and  blood  of  the  Lord,  which  is 
exhibited  to  believers  under  the  said  sym¬ 
bols  of  the  Supper,  is  to  be  received,  and 
that  not  as  perceived  by  the  imagination 
only,  or  mental  intelligence,  but  as  enjoyed 
for  the  aliment  of  the  eternal  life.  (Bk.  iv. , 
ch.  15,  17.)” 

This  body  of  doctrine,  so  ably  set  forth 
and  defended  by  Calvin,  has  been  often  re¬ 
stated  and  modified  by  theologians  and  in 
accepted  creeds.  The  “  Federal  Scheme  ” 
of  Cocceius  and  the  labors  of  the  Westmin¬ 
ster  divines  changed  it  somewhat  in  form. 
In  this  country,  the  views  expressed  by 
Hopkins,  the  younger  Edwards,  Emmons, 
N.  W.  Taylor,  and  others  of  the  New  Eng¬ 
land  school,  have  had  a  marked  influence  in 
the  restatement  and  modification  of  Calvin¬ 
ism,  which  characterize  its  presentation 
and  acceptance  at  the  present  time  to  a 
very  general  extent. 

Calvinism  in  history  is  a  wonderful  tes¬ 
timony  to  its  power  in  personal  character, 
and  as  a  moral  force  in  the  life  of  the  na¬ 
tions  where  it  has  been  dominant.  It  has 
been  the  friend  of  education,  developed  un¬ 
swerving  loyalty  to  Christ,  and  proved  it¬ 
self  an  aggressive  missionary  faith. 

Camaldules,  a  religious  order  founded  by 
Romualdus  about  1009,  at  Camaldoli,  a  vil¬ 
lage  thirty  miles  east  of  Florence.  Romu¬ 
aldus  was  a  Benedictine  monk,  and  a  mem¬ 
ber  of  the  noble  family  of  the  dukes  of  Ra¬ 
venna.  The  rules  of  the  order  were  very 
strict.  The  members  lived  in  separate 
huts,  and  obeyed  the  command  of  silence. 
From  Italy  the  order  spread  into  France, 
Germany,  and  Poland,  but  it  is  now  almost 
extinct. 

Cambridge  Platform,  The,  was  adopted 
by  a  synod  of  New  England  churches  at 
Cambridge,  Mass.,  June,  164S.  It  was  sub¬ 
stantially  the  Westminster  Confession, with 
such  modifications  as  adapted  it  to  the  Con¬ 
gregational  polity  of  church  government. 
See  Schaff:  Creeds ,  vol.  i,  836.  Congre¬ 
gationalism. 

Cambridge  Platonists,  a  name  given  in 
the  seventeenth  century  to  a  number  of 
scholars  connected  with  the  Cambridge 
University,  who  sought  to  assimilate  the 
doctrines  of  Plato  with  those  of  Christian 


faith.  The  four  chief  Platonists  were  Ben¬ 
jamin  Whichcote,  John  Smith,  Henry 
More,  and  Ralph  Cudworth,  accounts  of 
whom  will  be  found  under  their  several 
names. 

Camel  is  a  beast  of  burden  frequently 
mentioned  in  the  Bible.  In  early  times 
they  constituted  a  large  item  of  wealth 
among  the  Hebrews.  The  peculiar  confor¬ 
mation  of  its  stomach  enables  it  to  go  with¬ 
out  food  or  water  for  days,  and  it  is  satis¬ 
fied  with  such  coarse  grass  and  shrubs  as 
the  desert  affords.  It  has  an  elastic, 
broad,  cushioned  foot  that  does  not  easily 
sink  in  the  sand.  The  common  camel 
travels  slowly, but  the  dromedary  can  make 
as  many  as  nine  miles  an  hour.  Among 
the  Hebrews  the  eating  of  the  flesh  of  the 
camel  was  forbidden  (Lev.  xi.  4),  but  they 
used  its  milk.  The  Arabs  use  both  flesh 
and  milk.  A  coarse  cloth  was  woven  of 
its  hair,  with  which  John  the  Baptist  is 
said  to  have  been  clothed.  The  proverb 
(Matt.  xix.  24),  “It  is  easier  for  a  camel  to 
go  through  a  needle’s  eye,”  etc.,  is  a  figu¬ 
rative  expression  denoting  something  be¬ 
yond  human  power.  Some  think  it  refers 
to  the  small  door  within  the  heavy  door  of 
the  Oriental  gate,  called  “  the  needle’s 
eye.”  By  unloading  the  camel  it  can  be 
taken  through  this  door. 

Cameron,  Richard,  b.  at  Falkland,  Fife; 
d.  at  Aysmoss,  July  22,  1680.  He  was  a 
popular  field  preacher.  In  1680,  in  con¬ 
nection  with  Donald  Cargill  and  Thomas 
Douglas,  he  drew  up  the  Sanquhar  Decla¬ 
ration  (so  called  from  the  village  in  which 
they  met),  in  which  they  disowned  the  au¬ 
thority  of  Charles  II.  At  the  head  of  a 
band  of  earnest  men,  he  promulgated  his 
views  until  killed  in  the  battle  of  Ays¬ 
moss. 

Cameronians.  After  the  death  of  Rich¬ 
ard  Cameron  his  followers  welcomed  King 
William;  but  they  were  unwilling  to  join 
the  Established  Church.  In  1706  the  Rev. 
John  Macmillian  united  with  the  “socie¬ 
ties”  that  had  been  formed,  and  in  1743 
they  organized  a  Presbytery,  taking  the 
name  of  “  Reformed  Presbyterians.”  A 
presbytery  was  formed  in  the  United 
States  in  1774.  In  1863  the  majority  of 
the  body  decided  that  it  was  right  to  coun¬ 
tenance  the  political  institutions  of  the 
country.  This  led  to  a  rupture,  and  in 
1876  the  large  body  united  with  the  Free 
Church  of  Scotland.  See  Presbyterians, 
Reformed. 

Camisards  (from  camisade ,  a  night  at¬ 
tack).  After  the  revocation  of  the  Edict 


Cam 


(  144  ) 


Cam 


of  Nantes  by  Louis  XIV.,  in  1685,  the  ter¬ 
rible  persecutions  that  followed  drove  the 
great  body  of  the  French  Protestants  from 
the  country,  but  the  peasantry  of  Ce- 
vennes  were  too  poor  to  escape,  and  in  the 
fastnesses  of  the  mountains  still  held  their 
religious  gatherings.  The  Romish  author¬ 
ities  instigated  the  most  cruel  methods  to 
suppress  this  rebellion.  Fired  with  relig¬ 
ious  zeal,  the  Camisards,  under  the  leader¬ 
ship  of  Cavalier  (q.  v.),  resisted  with  des¬ 
perate  valor  the  armies  sent  against  them 
(1702-1705),  but  were  finally  compelled  to 
surrender,  after  the  province  of  Langue¬ 
doc  had  been  laid  waste.  See  History  of 
Ant.  Court  (1760;  new  ed.,  by  Alais,  1819). 

Campanella,  Thomas,  a  Dominican 
monk,  distinguished  for  his  philosophical 
ability;  b.  at  Stilo,  in  Calabria,  Sept.  5, 
1568;  d.  in  Paris,  March  21,  1639.  His 
exposure  of  many  of  the  artificial  dogmas 
of  the  “scholastic  philosophy”  aroused 
the  hatred  of  the  orthodox  schoolmen  and 
monks,  and  he  was  compelled  to  flee  from 
Naples  to  Rome,  and  then  to  other  cities. 
Returning  to  Calabria,  he  became  involved 
in  a  political  conspiracy,  and  was  confined 
in  a  Naples  prison  for  twenty-seven  years. 
Liberated  in  1626  by  Pope  Urban  VIII., 
he  finally  left  Rome  for  France,  where  he 
received  a  welcome  worthy  of  his  great 
abilities.  He  wrote  in  opposition  to  Aris¬ 
totle,  and  was  the  earnest  opposer  of  the 
Reformation.  His  best-known  works  on 
theology  and  philosophy  are:  Universalis 

Philosophice . Partes  Tres;  De  Gentilismo 

non  Retinendo ,  and  Atheismus  Trhimphatus 
seu  reductio  ad  religioneni  per  scientiam  ver- 
itaiis. 

Campani'le,  the  detached  bell-tower  of  a 
church.  In  Italy  there  are  very  fine  and 
lofty  examples  of  such  bell-towers,  both 
round  and  square:  that  of  Florence,  267 
feet  high  and  forty-five  feet  square,  was 
designed  by  the  famous  Giotto;  the  tower 
of  Avinelli,  at  Bologna,  is  320  feet  high 
and  two  yards  out  of  the  perpendicular; 
that  of  Pisa  is  150  feet  high  and  four  yards 
out  of  the  perpendicular;  that  of  Cremona 
is  395  feet  high. 

Campaniles  are  not  unknown  in  connec¬ 
tion  with  English  churches.  There  was 
one  to  old  St.  Paul’s,  and  a  fine  one,  until 
the  last  generation,  opposite  the  south 
porch  of  Salisbury  Cathedral,  since  the 
wanton  destruction  of  which  the  peal  of 
bells  has  had  no  home.  There  are  also 
such  detached  towers  at  Elstow,  near  Bed¬ 
ford;  at  Ledbury  and  Pembridge,  in  Here¬ 
fordshire;  and  at  Berkeley,  in  Gloucester¬ 
shire.  There  are  traditions  that  they 
were  the  work  of  guilds  of  masons  who 


were  thrown  out  of  employment  by  the 
cessation  of  church  building  at  the  Refor¬ 
mation. — Benham:  Did.  of  Religion. 

Campbell,  Alexander,  founder  of  the 
Disciples  of  Christ;  b.  near  Ballymena, 
in  County  Antrim,  Ireland,  Sept.  12,  1788; 
d.  at  Bethany,  West  Va. ,  March  4,  1866. 
He  was  a  student  for  a  time  at  the  Univer¬ 
sity  of  Glasgow,  and  before  coming  to  this 
country,  in  1809,  he  was  a  licentiate  of  the 
Seceder  Church,  Scotland.  His  father,  a 
minister  in  the  same  church,  had  been  in 
this  country  two  years  when  his  son  joined 
him  at  his  home  in  Western  Pennsylvania. 
He  continued  his  studies  under  his  father, 
and  began  to  preach  in  1810.  His  services 
met  with  popular  approval,  but  both  father 
and  son  fell  under  the  displeasure  of  the 
church  authorities  because  of  the  peculiar 
views  which  they  held.  Those  who  were 
in  sympathy  with  them  formed  a  congre¬ 
gation  called  “The  Christian  Association.” 
The  church  was  known  as  the  “  Brush 
Run  Church,”  of  which  Thomas  Campbell, 
the  father,  became  elder,  and  Alexander 
Campbell  the  preacher.  They  held  to  the 
opinion  that  “  Christian  union  can  result 
from  nothing  short  of  the  destruction  of 
creeds  and  confessions  of  faith,  inasmuch 
as  human  creeds  and  confessions  have  de¬ 
stroyed  Christian  union,”  and  “  that  noth¬ 
ing  ought  to  be  received  into  the  faith  or 
worship  of  the  Church,  or  be  made  a  term 
of  communion  among  Christians  that  is  not 
as  old  as  the  New  Testament;  nor  ought 
anything  to  be  admitted  as  of  divine  obli¬ 
gation  in  the  Church  constitution  or  man¬ 
agement,  save  what  is  enjoined  by  the 
authority  of  our  Lord  Jesus  Christ  and  his 
apostles  upon  the  New  Testament  Church, 
either  in  express  terms  or  by  approved 
precedent.”  In  1812,  having  become  con¬ 
vinced  that  immersion  is  the  proper  form 
of  baptism,  Mr.  .Campbell,  with  his  con¬ 
gregation,  was  immersed.  He  formed 
several  congregations,  which  united  with 
a  Baptist  Association,  but,  still  protesting 
against  creeds,  and  accepting  the  Bible 
alone  as  the  rule  of  faith  and  practice,  they 
were,  in  1827,  excluded  from  the  fellowship 
of  the  Baptist  churches.  They  then  began 
to  organize  under  the  name  of  Christians, 
or  Disciples  of  Christ,  and  have  continued 
to  grow  until  they  now  number  over  six 
hundred  thousand  communicants.  In  1823 
Mr.  Campbell  began  the  publication  of  The 
Christian  Baptist ,  which  was  afterwards 
merged  in  The  Millennial  Harbinger ,  of 
which  he  was  the  editor  until  his  death.  In 
1840  he  founded  Bethany  College,  and  be¬ 
came  its  president.  In  labors  he  was  abun¬ 
dant.  As  a  pulpit  orator  he  held  the  rapt 
attention  of  vast  audiences  that  gathered 


Cam 


(  145  ) 


Can 


to  hear  him  as  he  journeyed  through  the 
interior  States.  He  was  always  ready  to 
contend  for  the  truth  as  it  had  unfolded  to 
his  view,  and  he  held  several  famous  de¬ 
bates  with  prominent  men,  in  which  he 
gained  wide  recognition  as  a  man  of  re¬ 
markable  power,  and  did  much  to  call  at¬ 
tention  to  the  denomination  which  he  had 
founded.  He  published  a  summary  of 
theology  called  the  Christian  System  (often 
reprinted);  a  treatise  on  Remission  of  Sin 
(1846);  Memoirs  of  Thomas  Campbell  (1861). 
See  Richardson:  Memoirs  of  A.  Ca7npbell 
(1868). 

Campbellites.  See  Disciples  of  Christ. 

Campbell,  John  M’Leod;  b.  May  4, 
1800,  in  Argyllshire,  Scotland;  d.  at  Ros- 
neath,  Feb.  27,  1872.  He  was  educated  at 
the  Universities  of  Glasgow  and  Edin¬ 
burgh.  In  1825  he  became  minister  of  the 
parish  of  Row.  For  preaching  the  doctrine 
of  unlimited  atonement  he  was  tried  for 
heresy,  and  deposed  by  the  Assembly  in 
1831.  In  1833  he  began  an  independent 
ministry  in  Glasgow  that  continued  for 
twenty-six  years.  He  published,  in  1856, 
the  work  that  has  made  his  name  prom¬ 
inent:  The  Nature  of  the  Atonement ,  and  its 
Relation  to  Remission  of  Sins  and  Eternal 
Life.  In  this  treatise  he  argues  that  “  It 
was  the  spiritual  essence  and  nature  of  the 
sufferings  of  Christ,  and  not  that  these 
sufferings  were  penal,  which  constituted 
their  value  as  entering  into  the  atonement 
made  by  the  Son  of  God,  when  he  put 
away  sin  by  the  sacrifice  of  himself.” 
Compelled  to  retire  from  his  Glasgow  par¬ 
ish  in  1859,  by  reason  of  failing  health,  he 
still  continued,  to  some  extent,  in  literary 
work  at  his  quiet  home  at  Rosneath.  He 
was  a  man  of  beautiful  Christian  character, 
an  able  thinker,  and  beloved  and  honored 
by  a  large  circle  of  devoted  friends.  He 
published:  Christ ,  the  Bread  of  Life  (1851); 
Thoughts  on  Revelation  (1862).  See  D. 
Campbell  :  Me?norials  of  John  M’ Leo d 
Campbell  (London,  1877),  2  vols. 

Campbell,  Thomas,  father  of  Alexander 
Campbell;  b.  in  Ireland,  Feb.  1,  1763;  d. 
at  Bethany,  Va. ,  Jan.  4,  1854.  See  Alex¬ 
ander  Campbell  and  Disciples. 

Camp-Meeting,  a  name  given  to  religious 
gatherings  held  in  the  open  air.  The  first 
meeting  of  the  kind  is  said  to  have  met  in 
Kentucky,  on  the  banks  of  the  Red  River, 
in  1799,  and  was  in  charge  of  a  Methodist 
and  a  Presbyterian  minister.  These  meet¬ 
ings  were  introduced  into  England  in  1807, 
by  the  Rev.  Lorenzo  Dow.  The  Wesleyan 
Conference  did  not  approve  of  them,  and 


William  Clowes  and  Hugh  Bourne  were 
expelled  for  holding  them.  In  1810  these 
ministers  founded  the  Primitive  Method¬ 
ists,  who  sanction  the  use  of  camp-meet¬ 
ings.  In  recent  years  certain  localities  in 
the  United  States  have  been  purchased  and 
fitted  up,  both  by  Baptists  and  Methodists, 
to  carry  on  these  meetings,  with  special 
conveniences  for  those  who  attend. 

Ca'na  of  Galilee,  memorable  as  the  scene 
of  Christ’s  first  miracle  (John  ii.  1-11;  iv. 
46),  and  the  home  of  Nathaniel.  (John  xxi. 
2.)  The  commonly  received  site  is  Kefr 
Kenna,  about  four  miles  northeast  of 
Nazareth.  Robinson  thinks  it  was  Kana- 
el-Jelil  about  nine  miles  north  of  Nazareth. 
See  Biblical  Researches ,  vol.  iii,  204-208. 

Ca'naan,  the  fourth  son  of  Ham  (Gen. 
x.  6;  1  Chron.  i.  8);  the  progenitor  of  the 
Phoenicians  (“  Zidon  ”),  and  of  the  various 
nations  who,  before  the  Israelite  conquest, 
peopled  the  sea-coast  of  Palestine,  and 
generally  the  whole  of  the  country  west¬ 
ward  of  the  Jordan.  (Gen.  x.  13;  1  Chron.  i. 
I3>) 

Ca'naan,  Land  of,  the  country  inhabited 
by  the  posterity  of  Canaan,  known  as 
Canaanites.  At  the  time  of  its  conquest 
by  Joshua  it  was  peopled  by  several  tribes 
known  as  Hittites,  Jebusites,  Amorites, 
Girgasites,  Hivites,  Perizzites,  etc.  The 
original  boundaries  of  the  country  were 
Mount  Lebanon  on  the  north,  the  wilder¬ 
ness  of  Arabia  on  the  south,  and  the 
Arabian  desert  on  the  east. 

Ca'naanites.  See  above. 

Can'dace,  the  title  of  an  Ethiopian  queen, 
whose  treasurer  was  met  by  Philip  and 
converted.  (Acts  viii.  27.)  Her  realm  was 
situated  north  of  Meroe,  in  upper  Nubia. 

Can'dlemas,  the  festival  of  the  purifica¬ 
tion  of  the  Virgin  Mary ,  celebrated  Feb.  2. 
The  name  is  derived  from  the  fact  that 
lighted  candles  were  borne  about  in  the 
processions,  and  placed  in  churches  in 
memory  of  him  who  “  came  to  be  a  light  to 
lighten  the  Gentiles.” 

Candles,  Use  of.  A  candle  (from  candeo , 
I  burn)  was  originally  made  of  wax.  When 
it  grew  thinner  in  shape  toward  the  end, 
it  was  a  “  taper.”  It  is  a  matter  of  dispute 
whether  the  “  many  lights  ”  of  which  we 
are  told  at  the  breaking  of  bread  at  Troas 
(Acts  xx.  8)  were  symbolical  or  not.  “There 
is  no  gfound,”  says  Dean  Plumptre,  “  for 
assuming  that  the  lamps  at  this  early 
period  had  any  distinctive  ritual  or  sym- 


Can 


(  146  ) 


Can 


bolic  character,  though  it  would  be  a  nat¬ 
ural  expression  of  respect  that  two  or  more 
should  be  placed  in  front  of  the  Apostle, 
or  other  presiding  elder  at  such  a  meeting, 
beside  the  loaf  which  was  to  be  broken  and 
the  cup  which  was  to  be  blest.”  (See  art. 
“  Acts  of  the  Apostles,”  Bishop  Ellicott: 
Coimnentary  on  the  Bible . 

The  same  writer  inclines  to  the  belief 
that  the  “  many  lights  ”  are  emphasized  by 
way  of  answer  to  the  calumny  propagated 
by  the  enemies  of  the  faith  that  the  meet¬ 
ings  were  held  in  darkness  for  indulgence 
in  shameful  sins.  The*  advocates  of  the 
ceremonial  use  of  lights  dwell  on  the  fact 
that  the  early  Christians  were  familiar  with 
the  symbolical  meaning  of  the  candlesticks 
in  the  Temple  service,  and  that  this  has 
been  continued  from  the  beginning.  There 
is  no  proof,  however,  of  the  use  before  the 
fourth  century;  it  is  mentioned  both  by 
Athanasius  and  Jerome.  In  the  Roman 
Catholic  Church  it  is  a  strict  rule  that  wax 
candles  must  always  be  alight  during  the 
Mass — even  a  village  priest  cannot  say 
Mass  without  two  candles.  One  must  al¬ 
ways  be  used,  also, 'when  the  Communion  is 
brought  to  the  sick,  or  when  Extreme  Unc¬ 
tion  is  given.  The  two  candles  are  to 
symbolize  the  two  natures  of  Christ,  His 
Divinity  and  Manhood. — Benham:  Diet,  of 
Religion . 


GOLDEN  CANDLESTICK. 
( From  the  Arch  0/  Titus.) 


Candlestick,  The  Golden.  See  Taber¬ 
nacle. 

Candlish,  Robert  Smith,  D.  D.,  Free 
Church  of-Scotland ;  b.  in  Edinburgh,  March 
23,  1806;  d.  there,  Oct.  19,  1872.  Educated 
at  the  University  of  Glasgow,  he  entered 


the  ministry  of  the  Established  Church  of 
Scotland  in  1831,  and  three  years  later  was 
appointed  to  St. George’s,  Edinburgh,  where 
he  soon  won  distinction,  and  remained  until 
his  death.  With  Dr.  Chalmers  he  was  a 
leader  in  the  formation  of  the  Free  Church 
in  1843,  and  in  1861  became  honorary 
Principal  of  New  College.  See  his  Memoir 
by  W.  WTilson  (Edinburgh,  1880). 

Canker-worm.  This  name  is  given  in  the 
Bible  to  the  larvae,  or  caterpillar  state  of 
the  locust.  These  larvae  consume  what  has 
been  left  by  the  winged  locust.  (Neh.  iii. 
15,  16;  Joel  i.  4.) 

Cannon,  James  Spencer,  b.  Jan.  28, 1776; 
d.  in  New  Brunswick,  N.  J.,  July  25,  1852. 
From  1818  to  1819,  and  from  1826  to  1852 
he  was  professor  of  pastoral  theology  and 
ecclesiastical  history  in  the  Theological 
Seminary  of  the  Reformed  Church,  New 
Brunswick.  He  was  an  able  and  conscien¬ 
tious  teacher.  His  Lectures  071  Pastoral 
Theology  were  published  after  his  death 
(N.  Y. ,  1853). 

Canon,  a  person  who  possesses  a  preb¬ 
end  or  revenue  allotted  for  the  perform¬ 
ance  of  divine  service  in  a  cathedral  or 
collegiate  church.  Canons  connected  with 
the  English  cathedrals  are  required  to 
spend  three  months  of  the  year  in  residency ; 
there  are  also  minor  canons,  who  take  part 
in  the  daily  choral  service. 

Canon  of  the  Mass  is  that  portion  of  the 
service  in  the  Roman  Church  which  be¬ 
gins  after  the  “  Sanctus.” 

Canon  of  the  Scriptures.  The  collection 
of  books  which  constitute  our  Bible  is 
called  the  “  canon,”  because  being  the  rule 
of  faith.  In  this  latter  sense,  the  word  was 
first  used  only  in  the  fourth  century.  Orig¬ 
inally  the  word  “  canon  ”  means  a  straight 
rod  or  ruler.  In  a  figurative  sense,  it  ex¬ 
pressed  that  which  serves  to  meastire  or 
determine  anything ,  whether  in  ethics,  or  in 
art,  or  in  language.  Great  epochs  in  his¬ 
tory,  made  to  serve  in  the  determination 
of  intermediate  dates,  were  called  “  chrono¬ 
logical  canons.”  The  Alexandrine  gram¬ 
marians  spoke  of  the  classic  Greek  authors, 
as  a  whole,  as  “  the  canon,”  the  absolute 
standard  of  pure  language,  the  perfect 
model  of  composition.  By  a  common 
transition  in  the  history  of  words,  canon,  as 
that  which  measures,  was  afterward  used 
for  that  which  is  so  measured,  and  so  has 
passed  into  the  category  of  approved  stand¬ 
ards.  This  much  for  the  classical  use  of 
the  word.  As  for  the  ecclesiastical  use  of 
the  word,  it  occurs  in  its  literal  sense  in 


Can 


(  147  ) 


Can 


the  apocryphal  book  of  Judith  (xiii.  6),  for 
the  rod  at  the  head  of  a  couch.  In  the  New 
Testament  it  is  used  in  two  passages  with 
the  meaning  of  measure  or  norm  (Gal.  vi. 
16);  and  in  the  second  of  the  two  passages 
(2  Cor.  x.  13)  there  is  already  a  foreshadow¬ 
ing  of  the  later  patristic  usage.  Clement  of 
Rome  ( Epist .  to  the  Corinthians  i. ;  vii. ;  xli.) 
still  adheres  in  general  to  the  New  Testa¬ 
ment  definition;  but  Clement  of  Alexandria 
( Stromata  vi.  15;  vii.  16)  who  speaks  of  the 
“canon  of  truth,”  and  others  of  his  contem¬ 
poraries  we  find  broadening  it  to  signify, 
not  a  single  rule  alone,  but  the  leading, 
fundamental  principles  governing  the 
Church  of  Christ.  So,  “  little  by  little,  the 
the  word  took  on  the  higher  meaning  of  a 
rule  of  doctrine,  a  certain  correct  type  of 
teaching,  as  over  against  that  which  was 
erroneous  or  heretical.  From  this  point 
the  transfer  of  the  title  from  the  doctrine 
itself  to  the  collection  of  books  supposed 
to  contain  it  was  not  far  off.  At  first,  parts 
of  books,  only,  such  as  came  frequently 
into  use  at  church  festivals,  were  referred 
to  as  ‘  canonized.’  That  is,  they  were 
understood  to  form  a  part  of  the  establish¬ 
ed  law  and  order  of  the  discipleship.” 
But  the  term  canon,  as  applied  to  the  Bible 
as  a  whole,  to  designate  its  proper  con¬ 
tents,  we  first  meet  with  about  the  middle 
of  the  fourth  century,  in  one  of  the  utter¬ 
ances  of  the  Council  of  Laodicea  (canon 
59;  a.  D.  363),  and  simultaneously  in  the 
Festal  Epistles  of  Athanasius  (xxxix). 
Shortly  after  this  time  numerous  witnesses 
testify  to  the  common  adoption  of  the  term 
“canon”  in  this  technical  sense.  The 
question  arises:  Mow  did  the  collection  of 
those  books  originate?  To  answer  this  we 
must  treat  each  part  of  the  Bible,  viz.,  the 
Old  and  New  Testaments,  separately. 

(a)  The  canon  of  the  Old  Testament .  The 
traditional  view,  which  prevailed  for  fifteen 
centuries,  was  that  the  collection  of  the 
Old  Testament  books  proceeded  from  Ezra 
or  (and)  his  contemporaries,  or  from  a  little 
later  time,  and  that  the  tripartition  of  the 
canon,  and  the  manner  in  which  the  indi¬ 
vidual  books  were  placed,  were  intentional. 
This  view  is  untenable;  for  some  biblical 
books  {e.  g.,  the  present  books  of  Daniel, 
and  Chronicles)  belong  to  a  later  time;  and 
some  books  would  have  certainly  been 
placed  differently,  had  the  entire  canon 
originated  at  once.  The  order  of  the  Old 
Testament  books  is  rather  to  be  explained 
from  the  history  of  the  Old  Testament 
canon. 

The  writings  of  the  Old  Testament  di¬ 
vide  themselves  into  four  collections:  the 
Pentateuch,  the  prophetico-historical  books 
(Joshua,  Judges,  Samuel,  Kings),  the  pro¬ 
phetical  books  of  prophecy  (Isaiah,  Jere¬ 


miah,  Ezekiel,  twelve  Minor  Prophets), 
and  the  other  writings.  We  may  safely  as¬ 
sume  that,  since  the  time  of  Moses,  laws 
and  documents  concerning  the  Mosaic  time 
were  preserved  in  the  sanctuary.  (Deut. 
xxxi.  9,  26;  Josh.  xxiv.  26;  1  Sam.  x.  25;  2 
Kings  xxii.  8.)  The  priests  also  would  re¬ 
tain  partly  oral  and  partly  written  infor¬ 
mation  (subsequently  combined  in  the 
Priests’  Codex),  in  regard  to  many  similar 
matters;  and  between  the  eighteenth  year 
of  Josiah  and  the  destruction  of  Jerusalem 
(about  586  b.  C.),  the  writings  of  Moses  and 
the  Priests’  Codex,  long  in  existence,  were 
combined.  During  and  after  the  exile  the 
influence  of  this  book  is  great,  and  the 
prophets  and  the  pious  give  it  canonical 
authority. 

As  the  prophets  were  the  spiritual  ex- 
horters  and  guides  of  the  people,  it  was  a 
natural  desire  to  have  a  collection  of  their 
writings.  And  thus,  almost  contempora¬ 
neously,  originated  the  collection  of  histor- 
ico-prophetic  and  distinctively  prophetic  books 
(or  the  so-called  second  canon). 

Of  a  slower  growth  was  the  third  canon 
or  the  Hagiographa.  Since  David,  there  ex¬ 
isted  collections  of  Psalms,  and  since  Sol¬ 
omon,  collections  of  Proverbs.  These  were 
increased  in  the  course  of  time.  The 
name  of  Solomon  made  the  Song  of  Songs 
dear  to  the  Israelites,  and  its  age  and  con¬ 
tents  made  the  book  of  Job  precious.  Lam¬ 
entations  appeal  directly  to  the  heart  of  the 
Jew,  and  was  accepted  as  sacred;  and  Ruth, 
on  account  of  its  genealogy  of  David,  was 
regarded  as  a  fit  introduction  to  the  Psalms 
of  the  royal  singer.  To  these  six  writings 
(Ruth,  Psalms,  Job,  Proverbs,  Song  of 
Songs,  Lamentations)  were  added,  in  the 
course  of  time,  Ezra ,  Ne hernia h ,  Chronicles , 
Ecclesiastes ,  Esther ,  and,  finally,  Daniel  in 
the  time  of  Maccabees.  After  this  time 
no  other  book  was  received  as  canonical, 
not  even  the  book  of  Jesus  Sirach  or  Ec- 
clesiasticus. 

if)  The  New  Testament  Canon.  The 
canon  of  the  Old  Testament  descended 
to  the  church  from  the  Jews,  with  the  sanc¬ 
tion  of  Christ  and  the  apostles.  The  New 
Testament  canon  was  gradually  formed,  on 
the  model  of  the  Old,  in  the  course  of  the 
first  four  centuries.  The  first  trace  of  it 
appears  in  the  second  Epistle  of  Peter  (iii. 
15),  where  a  collection  of  Paul’s  epistles  is 
presumed  to  exist,  and  is  placed  by  the 
side  of  “  the  other  scriptures.”  From 
what  we  know,  as  early  as  the  middle  of 
the  second  century,  the  principal  books  of 
the  New  Testament,  the  four  Gospels,  the 
Acts,  the  thirteen  Epistles  of  Paul,  the 
first  Epistle  of  Peter,  and  the  first  of  John 
(designated  by  Eusebius  as  homolegomena , 
i.  e.,  universally  acknowledged),  were 


Can 


(  148  ) 


Can 


in  general  use  in  the  Church,  and  ac¬ 
knowledged  to  be  apostolic,  inspired  by 
the  spirit  of  Christ,  and,  therefore,  authori¬ 
tative  and  canonical.  By  the  close  of  the 
fourth  century  the  doubts  which  had  rest¬ 
ed  upon  the  so-called  antilegomena ,  or 
spoken  against,  or  controverted  books, 
viz.,  Epistle  to  the  Hebrews,  the  Apoc¬ 
alypse,  the  second  Epistle  of  Peter,  the  sec¬ 
ond  and  third  Epistles  of  John,  the  Epistle 
of  James,  and  the  Epistle  of  Jude,  had  van¬ 
ished,  and  the  books  which  formed  then 
the  canon  of  the  New  Testament  were  the 
same  as  we  have  them  now. 

(Such  is,  in  short,  a  succinct  history  of  the 
Canon  of  the  Scriptures,  prepared  from 
the  most  reliable  sources.) 

B.  Pick. 

Canon  Law  is  “  a  collection  of  ecclesias¬ 
tical  constitutions  for  the  government  and 
regulation  of  the  Roman  Catholic  Church, 
although  many  of  its  regulations  have  been 
admitted  into  the  ecclesiastical  system  of 
the  Church  of  England,  and  still  influence 
other  Protestant  bodies.  It  was  compiled 
from  the  opinions  of  the  ancient  Latin  , 
fathers,  the  decrees  of  general  councils, 
and  the  decretal  epistles  and  bulls  of  the 
holy  see.  These,  from  a  state  of  disorder 
and  confusion,  were  gradually  reduced  into 
method,  and  may  be  briefly  described  in 
the  following  chronological  order:  (i)  G ra¬ 
ttan's  Decree ,  which  was  a  collection  of 
ordinances,  in  three  books,  commenced 
by  Ivo,  Bishop  of  Chartres,  1114  A.  D., 
and  subsequently  corrected  and  arranged 
by  Gratian,  a  Benedictine  monk,  in  the 
year  1150,  after  the  manner  of  Justinian’s 
Pandects  of  the  Roman  Law.  This  work 
comprises  ecclesiastical  legislation,  as  it 
may  be  called,  from  the  time  of  Constan¬ 
tine  the  Great,  at  the  beginning  of  the  fourth 
to  that  of  Pope  Alexander  III.,  at  the  end 
of  the  twelfth  century.  (2)  The  Decretals. 
They  are  a  collection  of  canonical  epistles, 
in  five  books,  written  by  popes  alone,  or 
assisted  by  some  cardinals,  to  determine 
any  controversy,  and  first  published  about 
the  year  1230,  by  Raimundus  Barcinus. 
They  lay  down  rules  respecting  the  lives 
and  conversation  of  the  clergy,  matrimony 
and  divorces,  inquisition  of  criminal  mat¬ 
ters,  purgation,  penance,  excommunica¬ 
tion,  and  other  matters  deemed  to  be  with¬ 
in  the  cognizance  of  the  ecclesiastical 
courts.  To  these  five  books  of  Gregory, 
Boniface  VIII.  added  a  sixth,  published 
1298  A.  D.,  called  Sextus  Decretalium ,  or 
the  Sext,  which  is  itself  divided  into  five 
books,  and  forms  a  supplement  to  the  work 
of  Barcinus,  of  which  it  follows  the  ar¬ 
rangement.  The  Sext  consists  of  decisions 
promulgated  after  the  pontificate  of  Greg¬ 


ory  IX.  Then  there  came  the  Clementines , 
which  were  constitutions  of  Pope  Clement 
V. ,  published  1308  A.  u.  These  decretals 
form  the  principal  portion  of  the  canon  law. 
John  Andreas,  a  celebrated  canonist  in  the 
fourteenth  century,  wrote  a  commentary 
on  them,  which  he  entitled  Novellce,  from  a 
very  beautiful  daughter  he  had  of  that 
name,  whom  he  bred  a  scholar;  the  father, 
being  a  professor  of  law  at  Bologna,  had 
instructed  his  daughter  so  well  in  it  that 
she  assisted  him  in  reading  lectures  to  his 
scholars,  and,  therefore,  to  perpetuate  her 
memory,  he  gave  that  book  the  title  of 
Novellce.  (3)  The  Extravagants  of  John 
XXII.,  and  other  later  popes,  by  which 
term  is  meant  to  be  denoted  documents 
which  transcend  the  limits  of  a  particular 
collection  of  regulations.  These  books, 
viz.,  Gratian' s  Decree ,  the  Decretals ,  and 
the  Extra vaga tits,  together  form  the  Cor¬ 
pus  Juris  Canonici ,  or  great  body  of  the 
C.  L. ,  as  formerly  received  and  adminis¬ 
tered  by  the  Church  of  Rome.  There  are, 
however,  other  publications  of  a  later  pe¬ 
riod,  of  more  or  less  authority,  but  which 
do  not  appear  to  have  received  the  formal 
sanction  of  the  holy  see.” — Chambers: 
Cyclopedia.  In  Germany  the  Canon  Law  is 
still  the  common  law  of  both  sections  of  the 
Christian  Church,  and  in  purely  religious 
and  ecclesiastical  questions  affecting  their 
internal  affairs,  it  is  applicable,  so  far  as 
not  altered  by  modern  church  standards. 
The  canon  law  is  of  no  intrinsic  obligation 
in  England.  In  France,  since  the  begin¬ 
ning  of  this  century,  the  affairs  of  the 
Church  and  religion  are  regulated  by  civil 
enactment.  As  the  canon  law  is  one  of  the 
sources  of  common  law  in  England,  it  has 
also  had  an  important  place  in  the  law  of 
Scotland. 

Canonical  Hours,  .otherwise  called  Hours 
of  Prayer ,  are  certain  stated  times  of  the 
day,  consigned  in  the  East,  and  in  the 
West  before  the  Reformation,  more  espe¬ 
cially  by  the  Church  of  Rome,  to  offices  of 
prayer  and  devotion.  These  were  at  first 
three  only,  and  were  supposed  to  be  in¬ 
herited  from  the  Jewish  Church  (see  Psa. 
lv.  17;  Dan.  iv.  10;  Acts  iii.  1);  namely, 
the  third,  sixth  and  ninth  hours,  corre¬ 
sponding  to  9  A.  m. ,  noon,  and  3  r.  M.  with 
us.  They  were  increased  to  five,  and  sub¬ 
sequently  to  seven  (see  Ps.  cxix.  164),  and 
in  time  made  obligatory  on  monastic  and 
clerical  bodies. 

Canonization,  a  ceremony  in  the  Church 
of  Rome,  by  which  persons  deceased  are 
ranked  in  the  catalogue  of  the  saints.  This 
act  is  preceded  by  beatification;  and  after 
the  merits  of  the  individual  have  been  duly 


Can 


(  149  ) 


Cap 


tested  and  approved,  the  pope  decrees  the 
canonization. 

Canterbury,  a  city  and  borough  in  the 
county  of  Kent,  fifty-five  miles  southeast 
of  London.  As  the  capital  of  Ethelbert, 
the  fourth  Saxon  king  of  Kent,  it  was  the 
first  settlement  of  Augustine,  who  was 
made  bishop  of  the  see  in  597.  From  this 
time  Canterbury  became  the  permanent 
seat  of  the  archbishopric.  The  Diocese  of 
Canterbury  consists  of  the  county  of  Kent, 
with  the  exception  of  a  small  district,  and 
includes  a  portion  of  Surrey,  around  Croy¬ 
don  and  Addington,  the  archbishop’s  coun¬ 
try  residence,  and  Lambeth  Palace,  his 
London  residence,  on  the  south  bank  of 
the  Thames.  The  Province  of  Canterbury 
includes  twenty-four  dioceses  in  England 
and  Wales,  over  which  the  Archbishop  of 
Canterbury  exercises  a  metropolitan  juris¬ 
diction.  He  stands  at  the  head  of  the 
Church  of  England,  and  is  styled  the  Pri¬ 
mate  of  all  England,  and  Metropolitan;  and 
he  is,  ex  officio,  the  first  subject  of  the 
crown,  after  the  princes  of  the  blood  Royal. 
The  endowment  of  the  office  is  now  fixed 
at  ^15,000  a  year. 

The  magnificent  Cathedral  of  Canterbury 
was  erected  between  1070  and  1495,  on 
ground  which  had  been  the  site  of  succes¬ 
sive  churches  from  the  primitive  ages  of 
Christianity.  The  most  ancient  portions 
of  the  existing  cathedral  are  the  western 
half  of  the  crypt,  and  the  towers  of  St. 
Andrew  and  St.  Anselm,  eastward  of  the 
eastern  transept.  These  portions  of  the 
church  date  from  the  times  of  Archbishops 
Lanfranc  and  Anselm.  Next  to  these  are 
the  eastern  part  of  the  crypt,  the  choir, 
the  retro-choir,  and  the  corona,  usually 
called  “  Becket’s  crown.”  The  choir  screen 
is  early  fourteenth-century  work,  the  nave 
and  transepts  late  fourteenth-century;  and 
the  latest  portion  of  all  is  the  central 
tower,  dating,  as  has  been  said,  from  just 
before  the  Reformation.  As  a  whole,  the 
prominent  architectural  features  of  the 
cathedral  may  be  said  to  be  late  Norman, 
the  earliest  of  Pointed  or  Early  English, 
and  Perpendicular.  The  northwestern 
tower  was  rebuilt  in  1S34,  and  much  res¬ 
toration  has  been  effected  at  later  dates. 

Apart  from  its  glorious  architecture,  the 
cathedral  of  Canterbury  is  most  interest¬ 
ing  on  account  of  its  associations.  It  has 
been  the  Metropolitan  Church  of  the 
Southern  Province  for  thirteen  centuries, 
and  in  later  times  it  has  been  the  chief 
church  of  the  Anglican  communion 
throughout  the  world.  Within  its  walls 
are  the  graves  of  most  of  the  Archbishops 
of  Canterbury,  down  to  the  time  of  Cardi¬ 
nal  Pole,  the  last  of  them  who  was  laid 


there.  In  graves,  known  or  unknown, 
within  its  walls  there  lie  the  bodies  of  St. 
Blaize,  St.  Wilfrid,  St.  Alphege,  and  St. 
Anselm;  while  it  was  for  three  centuries 
and  a  half  (A.  D.  1170-1538)  regarded  with 
the  greatest  reverence,  as  containing  the 
shrine  of  Thomas  a  Becket.  The  cathe¬ 
dral  is  also  the  burial-place  of  Henry  IV., 
and  of  Edward,  the  Black  Prince,  whose 
armor  is  still  preserved  over  his  tomb,  al¬ 
though  his  good  sword  was  appropriated 
by  Oliver  Cromwell.  In  short,  to  use  the 
words  of  Dean  Stanley,  “  There  is  no 
church,  no  place  in  the  kingdom,  with  the 
exception  of  Westminster  Abbey,  that  is 
so  closely  connected  with  the  history  of 
Great  Britain.” 

Until  the  Reformation,  Canterbury  Ca¬ 
thedral  was  the  church  of  a  large  Benedict¬ 
ine  monastery.  In  A.  d.  1538  it  was  re¬ 
founded  by  Henry  VIII.  as  a  Cathedral 
Body  of  Secular  Clergy,  and  it  now  con¬ 
sists  of  a  Dean,  six  Canons,  twenty-five 
Honorary  Canons,  six  Preachers  and  four 
Minor  Canons;  the  income  of  this  body 
amounting  to  about  ^10,000  a  year. — 
Benham  :  Diet,  of  Religion.  See  Stanley: 
Afemorials  of  Canter bury  (London,  10th  ed. 
1883). 

Canticles.  See  Song  of  Solomon. 

Cantor.  See  Precentor. 

Caper'naum  ( village  of  Nahum)  is  called 
Christ’s  “  own  city  ”  (Matt.  ix.  1),  and  was 
the  scene  of  many  of  his  mighty  acts 
(Matt.  viii.  5—14 ;  ix.  2;  xvii.  24;  John  vi. 
1 7—59 ;  iv.  46,  etc.).  The  Gospels  tell  us 
that  it  was  (1)  a  city  of  Galilee  (Luke  iv. 
31)  ;  (2)  on  the  shore  of  the  lake  (Matt, 
iv.  13;  John  vi.  17-24);  (3)  the  seat  of  a 
collector  and  of  a  garrison  (Matt.  viii.  5), 
and  probably  a  custom-house  (Matt.  xvii. 
24;  Mark  ii.  1,  14;  Luke  v.  27;  compare 
Matt.  ix.  1,  9);  (4)  it  had  a  noted  syna¬ 
gogue  built  by  a  Roman  centurion  (Luke 
vii.  1,  5);  (5)  it  was  named  with  Chorazin 
and  Bethsaida  in  the  woes  pronounced 
by  Jesus,  and  its  destruction  predicted. 
(Matt.  xi.  20-23;  Luke  x.  13-15.)  There 
is  little  doubt  but  that  the  city  was  on 
the  west  side  of  the  Sea  of  Galilee,  and 
near  its  northern  end.  Two  places  lay 
claim  to  its  site.  One  is  Khan  Minieh ,  at 
the  northern  end  of  the  plain  of  Gennesaret, 
near  the  lake,  and  the  other  is  Tell  Hum, 
about  two  miles  north  of  Khan  Minieh. 
Eminent  scholars  have  favored  both  these 
sites.  It  has  been  generally  conceded  that 
the  situation  of  Khan  Minieh  is  most  in 
accord  with  the  New  Testament  narrative, 
being  near  the  shore,  and  on  the  high  road 
from  Jerusalem  to  Damascus.  The  main 


Cap 


(  150  ) 


Cap 


reason  for  favoring  Tell  Hum  has  been  the 
fact  that  extensive  ruins  were  found  there, 
while  they  were  lacking  at  Khan  Minieh. 
This  reason,  however,  has  been  removed 
by  the  discoveries  of  an  American  scholar. 
Dr.  Selah  Merrill,  in  1876-77,  superintend¬ 
ed  excavations  which  brought  to  light  the 
existence  of  well-preserved  ruins,  beneath 
a  now  fertile  and  cultivated  piece  of  ground 
near  Khan  Minieh ,  and  it  is  but  justice  to 
add  that  it  was  Dr.  Merrill  who  called  the 
attention  of  Lieut.  Kitchener,  the  English 
explorer,  to  these  ruins,  the  discovery  of 
which  has  been  frequently  credited  to  him. 
Capernaum  had  a  custom-house  and  garri¬ 
son,  and  the  fact  that  Tell  Hum  is  two  miles 
away  from  the  lake  and  road  that  the  cus¬ 
tom-house  was  designed  to  accommodate, 
while  at  Khan  Minieh  we  have  the  point 
where  road  and  lake  intersect,  would  seem 
to  give  the  weight  of  argument  in  favor  of 
the  latter  place,  now  that  it  is  known  to  be 
the  site  of  an  ancient  town. 

Caph'tor,  the  primitive  seat  of  the  Caph- 
torim,  or  Philistines.  (Deut.  ii.  23;  Jer. 
xlvii.  4.)  It  is  probably  identical  with 
Caphtur ,  and  the  northern  delta  of  Egypt. 

Capitularies,  a  name  given  to  the  laws 
issued  by  the  Frankish  kings.  Each  na¬ 
tion  composing  the  Frankish  Empire  was 
bound  by  these  laws.  As  the  kings  ex¬ 
ercised  a  legislative  authority  in  the  affairs 
of  the  Church  the  capitularies  (so  called 
from  capitula,  because  the  edicts  were 
divided  into  chapters)  often  had  important 
ecclesiastical  bearings. 

Cappado'cia,  the  most  eastern  district  of 
Asia  Minor.  It  is  an  elevated  table-land 
intersected  by  mountain  ranges.  It  is 
sparsely  wooded,  but  a  good  grain  and 
grazing  country.  Some  of  its  Jewish 
residents  were  among  the  hearers  of  St. 
Peter’s  first  sermon  (Acts  ii.  9),  and,  after¬ 
ward,  converts  in  this  province  were  ad¬ 
dressed  by  him.  (1  Peter  i.  1.) 

Cappel,  the  name  of  a  family  of  dis¬ 
tinguished  theologians  and  scholars  (1491— 
1722).  Louis  Cappel,  the  most  celebrated 
member  of  the  family  (b.  1585;  d.  1685)  at 
the  age  of  twenty-eight  accepted  the  chair 
of  Hebrew  at  Saumur,  and,  twenty  years 
after,  that  of  theology.  He  advocated 
liberal  views  with  regard  to  the  verbal  in¬ 
spiration  of  Scripture,  and  the  history  of 
the  Bible,  which  were  condemned  by  the 
authorities  at  Rome,  and  he  had  great  dif¬ 
ficulty  in  securing  the  printing  of  some  of 
his  works. 

Captivity  of  the  Jews.  The  jews  reckon 


their  national  captivities  as  four:  The 
Babylonian  includes  “  the  ‘  seventy  years’ 
between  the  first  invasion  of  Judaea  by 
Nebuchadnezzar  and  the  permission  for  the 
return,  given  by  Cyrus  (b.  c.  605-536); 
the  Median  was  from  Darius  the  Mede  to 
Darius  Codomanus  (b.  C.  536-332);  the 
Grecian,  from  the  entrance  of  Alexander 
the  Great  into  Jerusalem  to  the  insurrec¬ 
tion  of  the  Hebrews  under  the  Maccabees 
(b.  c.  332-167);  and  the  Roman,  from  b.  c. 
63.”  In  A.  D.  70  Jerusalem  was  destroyed, 
and  the  Jews  driven  forth  as  wanderers 
upon  the  earth. 

Capuchins.  In  the  Roman  Church,  a 
monastic  order  which  grew  out  of  the 
Order  of  St.  Francis,  and  was  instituted  by 
Matthew  de  Baschi,  of  Urbino.  He  was 
an  observant  of  the  Convent  of  Monte 
Falco,  and,  having  convinced  himself  that 
the  friars  of  his  time  wore  a  different 
capuche ,  or  cowl,  from  that  worn  by  St. 
Francis,  he  obtained  the  leave  of  Pope 
Clement  VII.,  in  1526,  to  resume  what  he 
held  to  be  the  original  form.  He  obtained 
further  permission  to  retire  into  solitude 
and  live  a  hermit  life,  with  as  many  others 
as  chose  to  embrace  the  strict  observance. 
The  new  order  multiplied  fast,  for  in  1529 
they  had  four  monasteries,  keeping  strict 
rules  as  to  hours  for  worship,  for  mental 
prayer,  for  silence,  for  discipline.  They 
had  no  revenues,  but  were  to  live  by  beg¬ 
ging  (and  were  not  to  ask  for  meat,  eggs, 
or  cheese,  though  they  might  eat  them  if 
offered);  everything  about  their  churches 
was  to  be  poor  and  mean,  their  very  chal¬ 
ices  of  pewter.  It  was  a  terrible  shock  to 
the  order  when,  in  1543,  the  third  vicar- 
general,  Bernardine  Ochino,  became  a 
Protestant  (Ochino).  The  pope,  in  his 
anger,  was  very  near  dissolving  the  order, 
but  their  eager  and  submissive  entreaties 
saved  them,  and  the  result  was  that  this 
order  became  one  of  the  most  extreme 
types  of  monasticism.  It  stands  in  con¬ 
trast  to  Jesuitism,  inasmuch  as  the  latter 
represents  the  clever  and  unscrupulous 
casuistry  of  the  Roman  Church,  whereas 
the  Capuchins  exhibit  a  strong  sympathy 
with  the  coarse  instincts  of  the  ignorant 
masses.  They  had  found  their  way  into 
France  and  Germany  by  the  end  of  the 
sixteenth  century,  and  into  Spain  early  in 
the  seventeenth.  The  order  was  abolished 
in  France  and  Germany  at  the  end  of  the 
eighteenth  century:  it  figures  much  in  the 
history  of  the  French  Revolution.  In  Ger¬ 
many  it  revived  again,  but  the  monks  were 
driven  from  their  convents  in  1SS0.  There 
are  still  several  thousands  of  them,  chiefly 
in  Austria  and  Switzerland.  There  are 
five  Capuchin  convents  in  England,  two  in 


Car 


(  I5i  ) 


Car 


Wales,  and  three  in  Ireland. — Benham: 
Did.  of  Religion. 

Caraites.  See  Karaites. 

Carbuncle,  a  pellucid  green  stone, 
supposed  to  be  either  the  emerald  or 
beryl. 

Carche'mish,  a  city  of  northern  Syria 
taken  by  Pharaoh-Necho  shortly  after  the 
battle  of  Megiddo  (2  Kings  xxiii.  29),  after¬ 
ward  retaken  by  Nebuchadnezzar.  (Jer. 
xlvi.  2-12.)  Its  precise  site  is  still  a  mat¬ 
ter  of  discussion. 

Cardinal,  the  name  of  the  highest  digni¬ 
tary  in  the  Roman  Catholic  hierarchy,  next 
to  that  of  the  Pope.  The  origin  of  the 
name,  and  the  period  in  which  it  was  first 
used,  are  uncertain.  The  majority  of  the 
cardinals  are  always  Italians.  Cardinals 
alone  are  eligible  to  the  papal  see,  and  they 
alone  elect  the  Pope.  By  reason  of  their 
close  connection  with  the  papal  dignity 
they  were  allowed  by  Innocent  IV.  (1245) 
to  wear  the  red  hat  with  the  pendent  tas¬ 
sels,  and  by  Paul  II.  (1464)  to  wear  a 
purple  robe.  See  Conclave. 

Cardinal  Virtues,  The,  are  prudence, 
justice,  temperance,  and  fortitude. 

Carey,  William,  D.  D.,  Baptist  mission¬ 
ary;  b.  at  Paulerspury,  Northamptonshire, 
Eng.,  Aug.  17,  1761;  d.  at  Serampore, 
India,  June  9,  1834.  In  early  youth  he 
learned  the  trade  of  a  shoemaker,  but  be¬ 
fore  he  was  twenty  he  developed  remark¬ 
able  gifts  as  a  linguist,  and  had  made  such 
good  use  of  scanty  opportunities  that  he 
was  an  acceptable  village  preacher.  He 
became  pastor  of  a  church  at  Moulton 
(1786),  and  then  at  Leicester  (1789).  Five 
years  later  he  was  sent  out  by  the  Baptist 
Missionary  Society  as  their  first  mission¬ 
ary  to  India.  Having  the  misfortune  to 
lose  all  of  his  property,  he  accepted  the 
superintendence  of  an  indigo  factory  at 
Malda,  and  for  a  time  was  able  at  his  own 
expense  to  prosecute  his  labors  of  transla¬ 
tion.  Through  the  opposition  of  the  Brit¬ 
ish  Government,  he  was  compelled  to  re¬ 
move  to  Serampore  in  1799.  There  he 
accomplished  a  great  work  through  his 
schools  and  the  printing-press,  from  which 
proceeded  many  versions  of  the  Bible.  He 
made  a  version  of  the  Bible  into  Bengali, 
and  other  languages  of  India,  and  prepared 
grammars  and  dictionaries.  In  1801  he  was 
appointed  professor  of  Sanskrit,  Bengali, 
and  Mahratta,  in  the  Fort  William  College, 
Calcutta,  and  filled  this  position  for  thirty 
years.  See  J.  C.  Marsh  man;  Life  and 


Times  of  Carer,  Marshman,  and  Ward 
(London,  1859),  2  vols. ;  Iffe,  by  George 
Smith  (1885). 

Cargill,  Donald,  one  of  the  leaders  of 
the  Scotch  Covenanters;  b.  at  Rattray, 
Perthshire,  abojit  1C19;  executed  in  Edin¬ 
burgh,  July  27,  1681.  He  was  educated  at 
St.  Andrews,  and  became  minister  of  the 
Barony  Church,  Glasgow,  in  1650.  When 
Episcopacy  was  established  in  Scotland  in 
1661,  he  refused  to  accept  his  charge  from 
the  archbishop,  and  openly  denounced  the 
character  of  Charles  II.,  and  the  measures 
of  the  Government.  He  was  banished  be¬ 
yond  the  Tay  in  1662,  but  in  his  wander¬ 
ings  plotted  rebellion,  and  in  1679  joined 
Richard  Cameron  ( q .  v.)  and  others,  and 
was  wounded  at  the  battle  of  Bothwell 
Bridge.  He  fled  to  Holland,  where  he 
remained  for  a  little  time.  On  his  return, 
he  was  captured,  July  11,  1681,  and  taken 
to  Edinburgh,  where  he  was  condemned 
after  a  brief  trial. 

Carlstadt,  Andreas  Rudolphus  Boden- 
stein,  “  one  of  the  boldest  of  the  German 
Reformers,  first  the  friend  and  afterward 
opponent  of  Martin  Luther,”  was  b.  at 
Carlstadt  in  1480;  d.  at  Basel,  Dec.  24, 
1541.  As  the  result  of  his  quarrel  with 
Luther,  he  was  ordered  to  leave  the  terri¬ 
tory  of  the  elector  of  Saxony.  He  sought 
the  intercession  of  Luther,  and  through 
his  influence  he  was  permitted  to  return 
to  Saxony.  For  a  few  y®ars  he  led  a 
quiet  life  at  Carlstadt,  when  he  again 
allied  himself  with  the  opponents  of  the 
German  Reformer.  Zwingli  took  part  in 
support  of  the  views  of  Carlstadt  on  the 
Supper.  In  1534  he  became  pastor  and 
professor  of  theology  at  Basel,  where  he 
remained  until  his  death.  “  He  was  the 
first  to  write  against  celibacy,  and  the  first 
Protestant  divine  to  take  a  wife.” 

Car'mel  (fruitful),  a  mountain,  promon¬ 
tory,  or  range,  about  twelve  miles  long, 
that  juts  out  into  the  Mediterranean,  south 
of  the  bay  of  Acre.  Its  highest  elevation 
is  1,740  feet.  Now,  as  in  Old  Testament 
times,  it  is  covered  with  verdure  and  for¬ 
ests.  (Song  of  Sol.  vii.  5;  Isa.  xxxiii.  9; 
xxxv.  2;  Amos  i.  2.)  The  history  of  Eli¬ 
jah  and  Elisha  is  intimately  connected  with 
this  region.  (2  Kings  ii.  25;  iv.  25.)  The 
scene  of  the  contest  between  Elijah  and 
the  prophets  of  Baal  (1  Kings  xviii.  20-42) 
is  supposed  to  have  been  near  the  east  end 
of  the  ridge,  at  el  Mahrakah,  “  the  burn¬ 
ing.”  On  the  summit  of  the  mountain  is 
a  Carmelite  monastery,  the  home  ©f  a  lit¬ 
tle  company  of  monks.  A  German  colony, 
settled  in  recent  years  at  Haifa,  at  the  foot 


Car 


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Car 


of  Carmel,  have  been  successful  in  the 
cultivation  of  yneyards. 

Carmelites,  one  of  the  four  orders  of 
mendicant  friars  founded  in  the  twelfth 
century  by  Berthold,  a  crusader,  who  had 
vowed  to  embrace  the  religious  life  if  he 
should  be  victorious  in  battle.  He  settled 
as  a  monk  in  Calabria,  where  it  was  be¬ 
lieved  the  prophet  Elijah  appeared  to  him 
in  a  vision;  he  then  removed  to  Mount 
Carmel  (1156),  and  from  this  place  his  suc¬ 
cessors  take  their  name  of  Carmelites.  Al¬ 
bert,  Patriarch  of  Jerusalem,  a  native  of 
the  diocese  of  Amiens,  and  kinsman  of 
Peter  the  Hermit,  gave  them  sixteen  rules 
of  severe  discipline  in  1205,  which  Pope 
Honorius  III.  confirmed.  The  severity  of 
these  rules  was  relaxed  by  Innocent  IV.  in 
1245.  The  habit  was  at  first  striped,  but 
they  afterward  changed  it  for  brown,  with 


and  dates  back,  probably,  to  ante-Christian 
times,  and  the  Bacchanalian  festivals  of  the 
Romans.  Races,  masquerading,  buffoonery, 
and  banqueting  are  the  outward  forms  of 
carnivals.  Carnival-time  at  Rome  has  for 
many  generations  attracted  great  crowds  of 
strangers,  but  is  now  shorn  of  most  of  its 
old  splendors. 

Caroline  Books,  The,  are  four  works 
which  originated  in  the  controversies  of 
the  eighth  century  concerning  image  wor¬ 
ship.  The  action  of  the  second  Synod  of 
Nice  (7S7)  in  commanding  the  worship  of 
images,  met  the  disapproval  of  Charle¬ 
magne,  who  brought  the  matter  before  the 
theologians  of  his  court  for  discussion. 
The  result  was  the  preparation  of  the 
Caroline  Books,  which,  while  admitting 
the  use  of  Christian  art  for  instruction, 
protested  against  its  superstitious  misuse. 


MOUNT  CARMEL,  with  the  village  of  Haifa  and  the  mouth  of  the  Kishon. 


a  white  cloak  and  scapulary.  They  are 
sometimes  called  White  Friars.  A  second 
order  of  Carmelites,  known  as  the  Dis- 
ealceati,  or  barefooted  friars,  was  estab¬ 
lished  in  the  sixteenth  century,  chiefly  by 
the  zeal  of  St.  Theresa  ( q .  z\),  a  nun  of 
this  order,  belonging  to  the  convent  of 
Avila,  in  Castile,  who  restored  the  ancient 
rigor  of  the  rule.  Pope  Clement  VIII. 
gave  them  large  privileges,  and  they  had 
many  houses  in  Spain  and  France. 

In  Spain  they  are  still  numerous,  but 
have  been  swept  away  in  France.  In  Eng¬ 
land  there  are  now  six  nunneries,  and  one 
house  of  friars,  and  in  Ireland,  also,  they 
have  several  establishments. — Benham  : 
Diet,  of  Religion. 

Carnival,  a  name  given  in  Roman  Cath¬ 
olic  countries  to  the  days  immediately  pre¬ 
ceding  Lent.  Carnival  season  has  been 
marked  by  wild  and  often  riotous  revelry. 


Carpenter,  Mary,  philanthropist;  b.  at 
Exeter,  Eng.,  April  3,  1807;  d.  at  Bristol, 
June  14,  1S77.  Her  life  was  spent  in 
seeking  to  improve  the  criminal  class.  She 
was  especially  interested  in  organizing  re¬ 
formatory  schools  for  vicious  girls.  Be¬ 
tween  1866  and  1S76  she  visited  India  four 
times  in  order  to  develop  philanthropic  en¬ 
terprises  in  that  country.  Her  life  was 
eminently  useful.  See  her  Life  ami  Work 
by  J.  E.  Carpenter  (London  1S79). 

Carpocratians,  a  Gnostic  sect  founded  by 
Carpocrates  early  in  the  second  century. 
Their  principles  were  both  pantheistic 
and  immoral.  Image  worship  was  first 
fostered  by  them. 

Carroll,  John,  the  first  Roman  Catholic 
bishop  of  the  United  States;  b.  at  Upper 
Marlborough,  Md.,  Jan.  S,  1735;  d.  at  Balti¬ 
more,  Md.,  Dec.  3,  1S15.  He  was  or- 


Car 


(  153  ) 


Car 


dained  a  priest  at  Liege,  and  became  a 
member  of  the  Society  of  Jesus.  At  the 
breaking  out  of  the  War  of  the  Revolution 
he  returned  to  America,  and  in  1786  was 
appointed  vicar  -  general  of  the  recently 
established  Roman  Catholic  hierarchy,  and 
in  1789  was  consecrated  in  England  under 
the  title  of  “  Bishop  of  Baltimore.”  In 
1S15  he  was  made  archbishop. 

Carson,  Alexander,  LL.  D.,  b.  in  Ire¬ 
land,  1776;  d.  at  Belfast,  Aug.  24,  1844. 
From  1797  to  1805  he  was  pastor  of  a  Pres¬ 
byterian  church  in  Tubbermore,  Ireland, 
where  he  withdrew  from  the  denomination. 
He  was  followed  by  most  of  his  congrega¬ 
tion,  but,  as  they  could  gain  no  legal  control 
of  their  former  chusph  edifice,  he  preached 
for  a  long  time  in  barns  and  fields.  He 
was  led  by  investigation  to  accept  Baptist 
principles,  and  became  an  earnest  advocate 
of  their  views.  His  writings  upon  this 
subject  have  been  widely  read.  See  Bap¬ 
tism  in  its  Mode  and  Subjects,  with  a  Sketch 
of  the  Life  of  Dr.  Carson  (5th  ed.,  Phila. 
1357). 

Carstares,  William,  D.  D.,  a  prominent 
political  and  ecclesiastical  leader  of  the  sev¬ 
enteenth  century,  who  took  an  active  part 
in  bringing  about  the  Revolution  of  1688; 
b.  at  Cathcart,  Scotland,  1649;  d.  at  Edin¬ 
burgh,  1715.  He  was  employed  to  nego¬ 
tiate  between  the  English  and  Scotch  con¬ 
spirators  in  the  Rye  House  plot.  Arrested 
and  put  to  the  torture  of  the  thumb-screw, 
he  refused  to  make  any  confession.  Re¬ 
turning  to  Holland  in  1685,  he  became  one 
of  the  principal  advisers  of  the  Prince  of 
Orange,  and  after  the  prince  came  to  the 
English  throne  Carstares  was  able  to  ef¬ 
fect  a  reconciliation  between  him  and  the 
Scottish  Church.  His  influence  was  such 
in  ecclesiastical  affairs  that  he  was  pop¬ 
ularly  called  “Cardinal  Carstares.”  He 
was  elected  principal  of  the  University  of 
Edinburgh  in  1704,  and  in  the  course  of 
eleven  years  was  four  times  elected  Mod¬ 
erator  of  the  General  Assembly. 

Carthage,  Ancient  Church  of.  The 
African  churches  were  not  planted  by  the 
Apostles,  nor  were  any  preachers,  so  far 
as  we  know,  sent  thither  by  them.  Peti- 
tian  is  positive  that  the  Africans  were  the 
last  people  of  the  empire  to  receive  the 
Gospel.  St.  Augustine,  in  his  book  De 
Unitate  Ecclesice,  does  not  affirm  that 
Christianity  was  planted  in  Africa  in  apos¬ 
tolic  time;  he  only  asserts  that  some  bar¬ 
barous  nations  received  the  message  of  the 
Gospel  later.  Tertullian,  in  his  Presc7'ip- 
tions,  does  not  range  the  African  Christians 
with  those  of  apostolic  times.  Salvian,  in 


his  seventh  book,  De  Providentid ,  seems  to 
say  that  the  Church  of  Carthage  was 
founded  by  the  apostles,  but,  being  of  an¬ 
other  country,  and  much  later  in  time,  his 
testimony  is  not  so  reliable  as  that  of  St. 
Augustine  and  Tertullian.  Nicephorus 
and  Dorotheus  relate  that  Simon,  the  Ca- 
naanite,  surnamed  Zelotes,  and  St.  Peter, 
preached  the  gospel  in  Africa,  but  this 
account  appears  altogether  fabulous. 

But,  by  whomsoever  it  was  founded,  the 
Church  of  Carthage  exerted  a  vast  influ¬ 
ence  upon  the  whole  of  Christendom. 
Like  Egypt,  Carthage  had  undergone  great 
changes  through  foreign  conquest:  orig¬ 
inally  a  Punic  settlement,  it  was  altogether 
crushed  by  the  Roman  conquest.  Conse¬ 
quently,  the  Church  of  Carthage  was  a 
Latin  church;  and  Dean  Milman  says  that 
“  Carthage,  not  Rome,  was  the  mother  of 
Latin  Christianity.” 

The  first  great  name  in  its  annals  is  that 
of  Q.  Septimius  Florens  Tertullianus,  in 
the  latter  part  of  the  second  century. 
(Tertullian.)  After  him,  we  come  to  the 
great  name  of  St.  Cyprian,  and  the  schism 
of  the  Donatists,  which  began  in  his  days. 
(Cyprian;  Donatists.) 

The  invasion  of  the  Vandals,  who  took 
Carthage  in  439,  almost  ruined  the  African 
churches;  many  of  the  bishops  were  ban¬ 
ished,  and  the  see  of  Carthage  was  vacant 
for  some  time.  But  when,  in  534,  Belisa- 
rius  recovered  Africa  for  the  Emperor 
Justinian,  the  Catholic  religion  revived, 
and  held  its  own  till  the  Moors  and  Sara¬ 
cens  conquered  the  country.  This  event 
made  such  havoc  in  the  Church  that  in 
Gregory  the  Great’s  time  there  were  not 
more  than  three  bishops  there,  who  had  a 
very  small  number  of  Christians  under 
their  care. — Benham:  Diet,  of  Religion. 

Carthu'sians,  “  a  monastic  order  which 
owes  its  origin  to  St.  Bruno,  who  retired 
in  1084,  with  six  companions,  to  the  soli¬ 
tude  of  La  Chartreuse  (whence  the  name), 
near  Grenoble,  where  they  built  hermit¬ 
ages,  wore  rude  garments,  and  lived  upon 
vegetables  and  coarse  bread.  After  1170, 
when  the  order  received  papal  approba¬ 
tion,  it  extended  rapidly.  It  dates  from 
1180,  in  England,  where  the  name  of  Char¬ 
treuse-houses  was  corrupted  into  charter- 
houses.  The  Carthusians  were  divided 
into  two  classes,  fathers  {patres ),  and 
brothers  ( conversi ).  Each  occupied  a  sep¬ 
arate  cell,  with  a  bed  of  straw,  a  pillow,  a 
woolen  coverlet,  and  the  means  of  manual 
labor,  or  of  writing.  They  left  their  cell, 
even  for  meals,  only  on  festivals,  and  on 
days  of  the  funeral  of  a  brother  of  the  or¬ 
der.  Thrice  a  week  they  fasted  on  bread, 
water,  and  salt,  and  there  were  several 


(  154  ) 


Car 


Car 


lengthened  fasts  in  the  year.  Flesh  was 
forbidden  at  all  times,  and  wine,  unless 
mixed  with  water.  Unbroken  silence,  ex¬ 
cept  on  rare  occasions,  was  enforced,  as 
well  as  frequent  prayer  and  night-watch¬ 
ing.  These  austerities  were  continued, 
with  little  modification,  by  the  modern 
Carthusians.  The  order  at  one  time  count¬ 
ed  sixteen  provinces,  and  can  still  boast 
some  of  the  most  magnificent  convents  in 
the  world — as  La  Grande  Chartreuse ,  near 
Grenoble,  and  Certosa ,  near  Pavia.  They 
were  given  to  hospitality  and  works  of 
charity,  and  were,  on  the  whole,  better  edu¬ 
cated  than  the  mendicant  orders.  Their 
principal  seats  were  in  Italy,  France,  and 
Switzerland;  but  they  have  shared  the  fate 
of  the  other  monastic  establishments,  and 
their  convents  are  now,  for  the  most  part, 
solitudes  indeed.  The  Carthusian  nuns 
arose  at  Salette,  on  the  Rhone,  in  France, 
about  1229.  They  followed  the  rules  of 
the  Carthusian  monks,  but  with  some  miti¬ 
gations,  of  which  the  most  notable  is  that 
they  have  a  common  refectory.” — Cham¬ 
bers:  Cyclopedia . 

Cartwright,  Thomas,  was  one  of  the 
earliest  and  most  learned  champions  of 
Puritanism,  and  he  may  be  regarded  as 
the  founder  of  Presbyterianism  in  England. 
Born  in  1535,  he  went  to  Clare  Hall,  Cam¬ 
bridge,  in  1547,  and  eventually  became  a 
Fellow  of  Trinity  College  in  1562.  He  is 
said  to  have  been  a  most  hard-working  stu¬ 
dent,  and  never  to  have  slept  above  five 
hours  a  night;  his  studies,  however,  were 
interrupted  when  Mary  became  Queen  of 
England,  in  1553,  for  Cartwright  then  left 
Cambridge,  and  studied  as  alawyer’s  clerk. 
On  the  accession  of  Elizabeth,  however, 
he  returned  to  Cambridge,  took  his  B.  A. 
degree  in  1567,  and  two  years  later  was  ap¬ 
pointed  Lady  Margaret  Professor  of  Divin¬ 
ity;  his  lectures  now  were  so  hostile  to 
Episcopacy  and  the  established  customs  of 
the  Church  of  England,  that  he  came  under 
the  displeasure  of  the  Vice-Chancellor  of 
the  University,  John  Whitgift,  a  strong 
Episcopalian;  the  result  was  that  Cart¬ 
wright  was  deprived  of  his  professorship 
in  1570,  and  of  his  fellowship  in  1571.  He 
now  went  to  Geneva,  but  was  persuaded 
to  return  to  England  in  the  following  year 
(1572).  On  his  return  a  bitter  controversy 
arose  between  the  Puritans  and  Episcopa¬ 
lians,  Cartwright  championing  the  former 
and  Whitgift  the  latter. 

Hooker,  in  his  preface  to  The  Ecclesias¬ 
tical  Polity ,  refers  to  Cartwright’s  method 
of  conducting  the  controversy,  and  says: 
“  There  will  come  a  time  when  three  words, 
uttered  with  charity  and  meekness,  shall 
receive  a  far  more  blessed  reward  than 


three  thousand  volumes  written  with  dis¬ 
dainful  sharpness  of  wit.”  Cartwright’s 
statements,  in  his  published  replies  to 
Whitgift,  were  accounted  so  dangerous  to 
the  peace  of  the  Church  and  of  the  king¬ 
dom  that  a  warrant  was  issued  for  his  ar¬ 
rest  on  December  11,  1574.  He,  how¬ 
ever,  fled  to  Antwerp,  and  ministered  there 
to  the  English  congregation.  Meanwhile, 
the  first  Presbyterian  body  in  England  had 
established  themselves  at  Wandsworth, 
and  Cartwright  had  published  a  trans¬ 
lation  of  Travers’s  work,  naming  it  a  Full 
and  Plain  Declaration  of  Ecclesiastical  Dis- 
cipline ,  in  which  it  was  sought  to  prove 
that  a  Presbyterian  form  of  government, 
after  the  Geneva  fashion,  was  the  true  form 
of  church  governm^it.  Cartwright  re¬ 
mained  abroad  till  1585.  During  his  ab¬ 
sence  from  England,  he  published  a  second 
reply  to  Whitgift  (1575-1577);  visited  the 
Channel  Islands,  iq  order  to  aid  in  estab¬ 
lishing  Presbyterianism  there  (1576);  re¬ 
ceived  an  offer  of  the  Divinity  chair  at  St. 
Andrew’s  University,  Scotland,  from 
James  I.  (1582),  but  refused  it;  and  finally, 
in  1583,  issued,  in  conjunction  with  Walter 
Travers,  a  rough  draft  of  a  Presbyterian 
Book  of  Holy  Discipline  which  was  grad¬ 
ually  adopted  by  Presbyterian  bodies  all 
over  England,  so  that  in  1590  the  move¬ 
ment  originated  by  Cartwright  boasted  of 
500  ministers.  Efforts  were  now  made  to 
suppress  it,  and  Cartwright  himself  was, 
by  order  of  the  Court  of  High  Commis¬ 
sion,  committed  to  the  Fleet  (May,  1590). 
This  was  the  second  time  that  he  had  been 
imprisoned;  for  on  his  return  to  England, 
in  1585,  he  was  arrested  by  order  of  Ayl¬ 
mer,  Bishop  of  London,  and  suffered  two 
months’  imprisonment;  he  was  then  re¬ 
leased  through  the  influence  of  his  friend 
and  patron,  the  Earl  of  Leicester  (a  strong 
defender  of  the  Non-conformists),  and  re¬ 
ceived  from  him  the  chaplaincy  of  a  hos¬ 
pital  at  Warwick,  where  he  stayed  till  his 
second  imprisonment.  He  was  again  re¬ 
leased  in  1592,  and  allowed  to  return  to 
his  hospital  at  Warwick,  on  condition  that 
he  did  “not  meddle  with  controversies, 
but  inclined  his  hearers  to  piety  and  mod¬ 
eration;  and  this  promise  he  kept  during 
his  life.”  (Walton:  Life  of  Hooker .)  His 
old  opponent,  Whitgift,  who  was  made 
Archbishop  of  Canterbury  in  1583,  now 
showed  him  many  acts  of  kindness,  of 
which  the  Earl  of  Leicester  says  that  Cart¬ 
wright  was  deeply  sensible.  In  1603-1604, 
the  two  opponents  died  within  a  few  weeks 
of  each  other,  “  each  ending  his  days  in 
perfect  charity  with  the  other.” 

Cartwright’s  books  against  the  Discipline 
and  Prayer  Book  of  the  Church  of  England 
were  answered  in  the  famous  Ecclesiastical 


Car  (  155  )  Cas 


Polity  of  Richard  Hooker,  published  in 
1594.  Many  writings  of  Cartwright  were 
published  after  his  death,  including  Com¬ 
mentaries  on  Ecclesiastes,  Proverbs,  Co- 
lossians,  and  on  the  whole  Gospel  history. 
His  greatest  work  was  A  Confutation  of 
the  Rheviish  Translation  of  the  New  Testa- 
nient,  published  in  1618.  Other  works  from 
his  pen  are  a  Catechisme  (1611);  Christian 
Religion  (1616);  and  Harmonia  Evangelica 
(1627). — Benham:  Diet,  of  Religion.  See 
Brook:  Memoir  of  Thomas  Cartwright 
(1845). 

Cartwright,  Peter,  a  western  Methodist 
preacher,  whose  eccentric  character  but 
sterling  ability  made  him  widely  known; 
b.  in  Virginia,  1785;  d.  near  Pleasant 
Plains,  Ill.,  Sept.  25,  1872.  He  was  con¬ 
verted  in  1801,  and  for  more  than  fifty 
years  he  was  in  active  ministerial  service. 
He  is  said  to  have  received  over  ten  thou¬ 
sand  persons  into  the  church,  and  preached 
more  than  fifteen  thousand  sermons.  See 
Autobiography  of  Peter  Cartwright ,  the  Back- 
woods  Preacher ,  edited  by  Rev.  W.  P.  Strick¬ 
land  (N.  Y.,  1856). 

Casas.  See  Las  Casas. 

Casaubon,  Isaac,  b.  at  Geneva,  Feb.  18, 
1559;  d.  in  London,  July  1,  1614.  Next  to 
Scaliger,  he  was  the  greatest  scholar  of  his 
age.  He  was  professor  of  Greek  at  Gene¬ 
va  (1582-96),  then  at  Montpellier  (1596- 
1600).  From  1600  he  was  librarian  to  Hen¬ 
ry  IV.,  until  the  assassination  of  that  mon¬ 
arch  (1610),  when  he  removed  to  London. 
He  frequently  engaged  in  the  theological 
discussions  of  his  times,  and  edited  a  Nov¬ 
um  Testamentum  Grcecum  (Geneva,  1587). 

Cassander,  George,  b.  1515;  d.  at  Co¬ 
logne,  1566.  His  life-work  was  a  futile 
attempt  to  bring  about  a  reconciliation  be¬ 
tween  the  Roman  Church  and  the  Reform¬ 
ers.  An  edition  of  his  works  was  publish¬ 
ed  in  Paris,  1616. 

Cassianus,  Johannes,  one  of  the  first 
founders  of  monastic  institutions  in  west¬ 
ern  Europe;  b.  about  360,  and  d.  about 
448.  He  was  the  founder  and  first  repre¬ 
sentative  of  semi-Pelagianism.  (See  Pela- 
gianism.  )  The  first  collected  edition  of  his 
works  is  that  of  Basel  (1559). 

Cassiodorus,  Magnus  Aurelius,  a  Ro¬ 
man  monk,  distinguished  as  a  historian 
and  statesman;  b.  about  468;  d.  in  the 
monastery  of  Viviers,  about  568.  He  was 
very  successful  in  inciting  the  monks  of 
his  time  to  literary  work.  The  most  val¬ 
uable  of  his  works  is  Variarum  Epistolar- 


um,  Libri  xii.  This  is  the  best  source  of 
our  knowledge  of  the  Ostrogothic  empire 
in  Italy.  He  wrote  much  on  religious  and 
theological  subjects. 

Cassock,  a  close-fitting  garment  with 
tight  sleeves,  used  by  clergy  of  all  orders, 
and  also  by  laymen  officially  employed  in 
the  conduct  of  Divine  worship,  such  as 
choirmen,  sacristans,  clerks,  etc.  It  is 
worn  beneath  the  surplice  or  alb.  Black 
is  the  usual  color,  but  in  some  churches 
violet,  as  a  matter  of  taste,  is  preferred, 
while  scarlet  also  is  sometimes  employed 
for  acolytes  and  servers  on  great  festivals. 
In  the  Roman  Church,  priests  and  the  mi¬ 
nor  orders  wear  black;  bishops,  purple; 
cardinals,  scarlet;  and  the  pope,  white. 

Castell,  Edmund,  a  learned  English 
Orientalist;  b.  1606;  d.  in  Belfordshire, 
1685.  While  connected  with  Cambridge 
University  he  prepared  his  great  Lexicon 
Heptaglotten.  He  spent  eighteen  years  and 
$60,000  on  this  work,  which  broke  down 
both  his  health  and  fortune.  At  his  death 
he  was  rector  of  Hingham.  He  aided  Dr. 
Walton  in  the  preparation  of  his  Polyglot 
Bible. 

Casuistry  is  that  branch  of  theology  and 
morals  which  deals  with  cases  of  con¬ 
science;  that  is,  deciding  what  is  right  or 
wrong  in  doubtful  matters.  Casuistry 
was  developed  among  the  Jews  to  a  re¬ 
markable  extent,  because  of  their  rever¬ 
ence  for  the  Mosaic  laws  and  the  various 
regulations  found  in  the  Apocrypha  and 
the  Talmud,  in  the  keeping  of  which  in¬ 
numerable  questions  arose.  The  Stoic 
philosophers  wrote  elaborate  treatises  on 
the  questions,  “Is  suicide  justifiable?” 
“  Is  duty  to  a  friend  paramount  to  the 
claims  of  the  state  ?”  etc.  The  practice  of 
confession  in  the  Roman  Catholic  Church 
necessitated  rules  and  regulations  for  the 
guidance  of  the  #bishop  or  priest.  Up  to 
the  thirteenth  century  the  confessor  had 
to  depend  to  a  great  extent  upon  his  own 
discretion  in  questions  of  doubtful  con¬ 
science.  But  since  that  time  elaborate 
books  of  instruction  have  been  prepared 
under  the  sanction  of  the  ecclesiastical  au¬ 
thorities.  Thomas  Aquinas  was  one  of 
the  great  casuists  of  the  Middle  Ages. 
Among  the  Jesuits  casuistry  has  had  a 
rank  growth,  and  their  avowed  principles 
and  actions  have  often  shocked  the  con¬ 
sciences  of  Christians  of  every  name,  giv¬ 
ing  permission  as  they  do  to  the  use  of  de¬ 
ceit  and  falsehood,  under  the  plea  that 
this  is  permissible  if  the  intentions  and 
purposes  are  good.  Among  casuistical 
writers  of  the  Protestant  faith  may  be 


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mentioned  Melancthon,  Jeremy  Taylor, 
and  Sanderson.  In  recent  times  the  ten¬ 
dency  has  been  to  treat  the  great  funda¬ 
mental  questions  and  principles  of  religion 
and  morality  without  attempting  to  formu¬ 
late  specific  rules  of  application. 

Catabaptist  (from  kata,  against,  and 
bapfizo ,  baptize),  one  who  opposes  bap¬ 
tism,  especially  that  of  infants. 

Catacombs  (Gr.  kata ,  and  kumbos,  a  hol¬ 
low),  subterraneous  chambers  and  passages 
formed  generally  in  a  rock  which  is  soft 
and  easily  excavated,  such  as  tufa.  Cata¬ 
combs  are  to  be  found  in  almost  every 
country  in  which  such  rocks  exist,  and, 
in  most  cases,  probably  originated  in  mere 
quarries,  which  afterward  came  to  be  used 
either  as  places  of  sepulture  for  the  dead 
or  as  hiding-places  for  the  living.  The 
most  celebrated  catacombs  in  existence, 
and  those  which  are  generally  understood 
when  catacombs  are  spoken  of,  are  those 
on  the  Via  Appia,  at  a  short  distance  from 
Rome.  To  these  dreary  crypts  it  is  be¬ 
lieved  that  the  early  Christians  were  in  the 
habit  of  retiring,  in  order  to  celebrate  their 
new  worship,  in  times  of  persecution,  and 
in  them  were  buried  many  of  the  saints 
and  martyrs  of  the  primitive  Church.  They 
consist  of  long  narrow  galleries,  usual!)' 
about  eight  feet  high  and  five  feet  wide, 
which  twist  and  turn  in  all  directions,  very 
much  resembling  mines,  and  at  irregular 
intervals  expand  into  wide  and  lofty 
vaulted  chambers.  The  graves  were  con¬ 
structed  by  hollowing  out  a  portion  of  the 
rock,  at  the  side  of  the  gallery,  large 
enough  to  contain  the  body.  The  entrance 
was  then  built  up  with  stones,  on  which 
usually  the  letters  D.  M.  (Deo  Maximo), 
or  the  monogram  forming  the  Greek 
name  of  Christ,  were  inscribed.  Other  in¬ 
scriptions  and  marks,  such  as  the  cross, 
are  also  found.  The  original  extent  of  the 
catacombs  is  uncertain,  the  guides  main¬ 
taining  that  they  have  a  length  of  twenty 
miles,  whereas  about  six  only  can  now  be 
ascertained  to  exist,  and  of  these,  many 
portions  have  either  fallen  in  or  become 
dangerous.  When  Rome  was  besieged  by 
the  Lombards  in  the  eighth  century,  many 
of  the  catacombs  were  destroyed,  and  the 
popes  afterward  caused  the  remains  of 
many  of  the  saints  and  martyrs  to  be  re¬ 
moved  and  buried  in  the  churches.  Art 
found  its  way  into  the  catacombs  at  an 
early  period,  and  many  remains  of  frescoes 
are  still  found  in  them.  After  being  neg¬ 
lected  for  centuries  they  were  again  brought 
to  notice  by  Father  Bosio,  who  spent  thirty 
years  in  their  exploration.  His  investiga¬ 
tions  were  published  in  1632,  two  years 


after  his  death;  but  the  most  exhaustive 
treatise  on  the  subject  in  all  its  aspects  is 
the  Rotna  Sotterranca  of  De’  Rossi  (1864- 
67),  of  which  an  abridgment  is  published 
in  English  by  Dr.  Northcote.  The  cata¬ 
combs  at  Naples,  cut  into  the  Capo  di 
Monte,  resemble  those  at  Rome,  and  evi¬ 
dently  were  used  for  the  same  purposes, 
being  in  many  parts  literally  covered  with 
Christian  symbols.  In  one  of  the  large 
vaulted  chambers  there  are  paintings, 
which  have  retained  a  freshness  which  is 
wonderful,  considering  the  time  and  the 
dampness  of  the  situation.  The  palm-tree, 
as  a  memorial  of  Judea,  is  a  prominent 
object  in  these  pictures.  At  Palermo  and 
Syracuse  there  are  similar  catacombs,  the 
latter  being  of  considerable  extent.  They 
are  also  found  in  Greece,  in  Asia  Minor, 
in  Syria,  Persia,  and  Egypt.  At  Milo, 
one  of  the  Cyclades,  there  is  a  hill 
which  is  honey-combed  with  a  labyrinth 
of  tombs  running  in  every  direction.  In 
these,  bass  -  reliefs  and  figures  in  terra¬ 
cotta  have  been  found,  which  prove  them 
to  be  long  anterior  to  the  Christian 
era.  In  Peru  and  other  parts  of  South 
America,  catacombs  have  been  discovered. 
The  catacombs  in  Paris  are  a  species  of 
charnel-houses,  into  which  the  contents  of 
such  burving-places  as  were  found  to  be 
pestilential,  and  the  bodies  of  some  of  the 
victims  of  1792,  were  cast.” — Chambers: 
Cyclopedia.  See  J.  H.  Parker:  The  Archce- 
ology  of  Rotne  (London  1874-77),  9  vols. ; 
W.  H.  Withrow:  The  Catacombs  of  Rotne 
(London,  1888);  Smith  and  Cheetham: 
Diet,  of  Chris.  Antiquities. 

Cataphrygians.  See  Montanists. 

Catechism  (from  the  Greek  kateched ,  to 
teach  orally),  oral  instruction  in  any 
science  or  art,  conveyed  by  questions  and 
answers.  The  word  from  which  it  is  de¬ 
rived  is  used  in  Luke  i.  4:  “  That  thou 
mightest  know  the  certainty  concerning 
the  things  wherein  thou  wast  instructed,” 
margin ,  “  wast  taught  by  word  of  mouth  ” 
{katechethes).  It  is,  therefore,  particularly 
applied  to  elementary  religious  teaching, 
for  the  use  of  those  who  are  about  to  be 
confirmed.  So  entirely  was  this  the  case 
in  the  early  Church,  that  every  person  ap¬ 
plying  for  admission  into  the  Church  by 
baptism  was  known  as  a  catechumen.  The 
teacher  was  known  as  a  “  catechist,”  and 
the  position  of  the  candidate  was  called 
that  of  the  “  Catechumenate,”  as  we  talk 
of  the  “  Episcopate  ”  and  the  “  Diaconate.” 
A  person  admitted  to  the  Catechumenate 
was  signed  with  the  cross,  and  received 
imposition  of  hands.  He  was  then  regard¬ 
ed  as  a  Christian,  though  not  one  of  the 


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Jideles.  He  now  became  one  of  the 
Audientes ,  or  hearers,  who  remained  in 
church  till  the  sermon  was  ended,  then 
withdrew  before  the  celebration  of  the 
sacrament.  Presently  he  became  one  of 
the  Genujiectentes ,  who  were  permitted  to 
kneel  while  prayer  was  being  said  for 
them.  Next  came  the  Competentes,  who 
learned  the  Creeds,  preparatory  to  being 
baptized. 

Catechising  somewhat  declined  after  the 
establishment  of  Christianity.  For,  in  the 
first  place,  infant  baptism  became  the 
custom  of  the  Church,  parents  became 
instructors,  and  in  place  of  individual 
instruction  came  external  organization. 
Missionaries  went  into  heathen  lands  and 
converted  the  rulers,  who  thereupon 
caused  their  subjects  to  embrace  the  Faith. 
Such  was  the  process  under  the  new  state 
of  things.  It  was  the  Reformation  which 
gave  an  impulse  to  the  revival  of  catechis¬ 
ing.  Luther,  in  1529.  put  forth  his  Lon¬ 
ger  and  Shorter  Catechisms,  the  one  for  the 
use  of  teachers,  the  other  for  scholars,  and 
these  books  are  still  the  recognized  text¬ 
books  in  Germany  and  Scandinavia.  Al¬ 
most  contemporaneously  appeared  the 
Catechism  of  the  Gallican  Reformed 
Church,  and  in  England  Cranmer  followed 
the  example.  He  drew  up  two  books,  The 
Institution  of  a  Christian  Alan ,  and  A 
Necessary  Doctrine  and  Erudition  for  any 
Christian  Alan ,  which  contained  an  expla¬ 
nation  of  the  Apostles’  Creed,  the  Ten 
Commandments,  and  the  Lord’s  Prayer. 
These,  and  a  somewhat  voluminous  work 
of  the  same  character,  published  in  1548, 
formed  the  basis  of  the  Church  of  England 
Catechism,  which  appeared  in  the  first 
Prayer-book  of  Edward  VI.  It  is  almost 
identical  with  the  first  part  of  that  which 
we  have  now. 

The  other  great  Catechism  which  the 
Reformation  produced  in  Great  Britain  is 
that  of  the  Westminster  Confession,  and 
this  also  appears  in  a  double  form.  The 
shorter  was  published  in  1646,  the  longer 
in  1647.  It  is  the  standard  book  in  all 
Presbyterian  churches.  (Westminster 
Confession.)  The  first  question  and 
answer  form  a  noble  opening  of  this  cele¬ 
brated  document: — 

Q.  What  is  the  chief  and  highest  end  of 
man? 

A.  Man’s  chief  and  highest  end  is  to 
glorify  God,  and  fully  to  enjoy  Him  for 
ever. 

The  following  is  a  short  analysis  of  the 
longer  Westminster  Catechism: 

What  man  ought  to  believe  concerning  Cod. 
— His  Existence, the  Holy  Trinity  .Creation, 
Providence,  the  Fall,  Original  Sin,  and  the 
Punishment  of  Sin,  the  Covenant  of  Grace 


both  in  the  Old  and  New  Testaments,  the 
Mediator,  the  Incarnation,  Christ’s  Of¬ 
fices,  His  Humiliation,  Death,  Resur¬ 
rection,  Ascension,  Present  Intercession, 
Future  Judgment,  Church,  the  Elect, 
Justification,  Sanctification,  Assurance. 

The  Duty  of  Alan. —  Obedience  to  the 
Moral  Law,  the  Ten  Commandments,  what 
things  make  Sins  more  heinous,  their  De¬ 
servings,  Ordinances  of  the  Word,  Sacra¬ 
ments,  and  Prayer,  The  Lord’s  Prayer. 

The  Council  of  Trent,  recognizing  the 
force  of  the  impulse  in  the  favor  of  cate¬ 
chising,  drew  up  the  Catechism  which  is 
the  authoritative  work  of  the  Church  of 
Rome,  Catechismus  Romanus  ex  Decreto 
Cone.  Trident.  It  was  published,  under 
the  authority  of  Pope  Pius  V.,  in  1566. — 
Benham:  Diet,  of  Religion. 

Catechu' mens.  See  Catechism. 

Catena  (Lat.,  a  chain'),  a  continuous 
chronological  collection  of  extracts  from 
writers,  to  prove  that  a  given  doctrine,  as 
regards  faith  or  morals,  has  been  held 
without  break  from  the  beginning. 

Caterpillar.  See  Canker-worm. 

Cath'ari,  a  name  very  generally  given 
to  various  branches  of  a  sect  which  ap¬ 
peared  in  Southern  Europe  during  the 
Middle  Ages.  They  probably  originated 
among  the  Slavs,  and  they  had  a  bishopric 
in  Southern  Macedonia,  which  is  men¬ 
tioned  in  the  twelfth  century.  The  Bogom¬ 
iles  (q.  v.)  were  a  sect  of  the  Cathari. 
Slav  merchants  brought  their  doctrine 
into  Italy,  and  about  1035  some  of  the 
Cathari  were  burned  by  order  of  the  Ro¬ 
man  Church.  They  continued  to  spread, 
and  within  a  hundred  years  they  had  many 
churches,  and  also  dioceses,  but  before  the 
close  of  the  fourteenth  century  the  bitter 
persecution  of  the  Inquisition  had  driven 
them  out  of  Italy.  The  most  numerous 
body  of  the  Cathari  had  their  seat  in 
Southern  France,  where  they  were  known 
as  Albigenses.  For  a  more  full  descrip¬ 
tion  of  their  history  and  doctrines  see 
Albigenses;  Paulicians. 

Cath'arine  “  is  the  name  of  several  saints 
of  the  Roman  Catholic  Church.  The  sim¬ 
ple  designation  of  Saint  Catharine ,  how¬ 
ever,  is  given  to  a  virgin,  said  to  have 
been  of  royal  descent  in  Alexandria,  who, 
publicly  confessing  the  gospel  at  a  sacri¬ 
ficial  feast  appointed  by  the  emperor  Maxi¬ 
minus,  was  put  to  death  in  307  A.  D. ,  after 
being  tortured  on  a  wheel.  Hence  the 
name  of  ‘  St.  Catharine’s  wheel.’  Very 
extraordinary  legends  exist  as  to  her  con- 


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verting  fifty  philosophers  sent  by  the  em¬ 
peror  to  convert  her  in  prison,  besides  a 
multitude  of  other  persons;  the  convey¬ 
ance  of  her  head  by  the  angels  to  Mount 
Sinai,  etc.  She  is  regarded  as  the  patron¬ 
ess  of  girls’  schools.  67.  Catharine  of 
Siena,  one  of  the  most  famous  saints  of 
Italy,  was  the  daughter  of  a  dyer  in  Siena, 
and  was  born  there  in  1347  A.  D.;  practiced 
extraordinary  mortifications;  and  was  said 
to  be  favored  with  extraordinary  tokens  of 
favor  by  Christ,  whose  wounds  were  im¬ 
pressed  upon  her  body,  etc.  She  became 
a  Dominican,  and  therefore,  afterward,  a 
patron  saint  of  the  Dominicans.  She  wrote 
devotional  pieces,  letters,  and  poems, 
which  have  been  more  than  once  printed; 
the  best  edition  appeared  at  Siena  and 
Lucca  in  1707-1713,  in  4  vols.,  4to,  under 
the  title  of  Opere  della  serafica  Santa  Cata¬ 
rina.  St.  Catharine  of  Bologna  and  St. 
Catharine  of  Sweden  are  of  less  note.” — 
Chambers:  Cyclopcedia. 

Cathedral  (Lat.  cathedra ,  a  chair),  the 
principal  church  in  a  diocese,  so  called 
from  its  possessing  the  chair  or  throne  of 
the  bishop  of  the  diocese.  The  officials 
connected  with  a  cathedral  are,  generally, 
the  dean,  canons,  archdeacons  of  the  dio¬ 
cese,  honorary  canons,  minor  canons,  lay 
clerks,  choristers,  organist,  chapter  clerk, 
architect,  master  of  grammar-school,  verg¬ 
ers,  bedesmen. 

Catholic  ( universal ),  a  designation  adopt¬ 
ed  at  a  very  early  period  by  the  Christian 
Church  to  indicate  its  world-wide  univer¬ 
sality  in  contrast  with  the  national  par¬ 
ticularism  of  Judaism.  It  is  used  in  this 
sense  in  the  phrase  in  the  Apostles’  Creed, 
“  The  holy  Catholic  Church.” 

Catholic  Apostolic  Church,  “  a  religious 
community,  often  called  *  Irvingites,’  but 
not  itself  acknowledging  any  other  name 
than  that  of  ‘  The  Catholic  Apostolic 
Church,’  which,  the  members  say ,  belongs 
to  them  in  common  with  the  whole  of  bap¬ 
tized  Christendom.  The  relation  of  the 
celebrated  preacher,  Edward  Irving,  to 
this  community  was,  as  they  state  it, 
somewhat  similar  to  that  of  John  Baptist 
to  the  early  Christian  Church;  i.  e.,  he 
was  the  forerunner  and  prophet  of  the 
coming  dispensation,  not  the  founder  of  a 
new  sect;  and,  indeed,  the  only  connection 
which  Irving  seems  to  have  had  with  the 
existing  organization  of  the  Catholic  Apos¬ 
tolic  body  was  in  *  fostering  spiritual  per¬ 
sons  who  had  been  driven  out  of  other 
congregations  for  the  exercise  of  their 
spiritual  gifts.’  Shortly  after  Irving’s 
trial  and  deposition,  certain  persons  were, 


at  some  meetings  held  for  prayer,  desig¬ 
nated  as  ‘  called  to  be  apostles  of  the 
Lord’  by  certain  others  claiming  prophetic 
gifts.  In  the  year  1835,  six  months  after 
Irving’s  death,  six  others  were  similarly 
designated  as  ‘  called  ’  to  complete  the 
number  of  the  ‘  twelve,’  who  were  then 
formally  ‘  separated  ’  by  the  pastors  of 
the  local  congregations  to  which  they  be¬ 
longed,  to  their  higher  office  in  the  Uni¬ 
versal  Church,  on  the  14th  of  July,  1835. 
This  separation  is  understood  by  the  com¬ 
munity  not  as  ‘  in  any  sense  being  a 
schism,  or  separation  from  the  one  Cath¬ 
olic  Church,  but  a  separation  to  a  special 
work  of  blessing  and  intercession  on  be¬ 
half  of  it.’  The  twelve  were  afterward 
guided  to  ordain  others — twelve  prophets, 
twelve  evangelists,  and  twelve  pastors — 
‘  sharing  equally  with  them  the  one  Cath¬ 
olic  Episcopate,’  and  also  seven  deacons, 
for  administering  the  temporal  affairs  of 
the  Church  Catholic.  The  central  episco¬ 
pacy  of  eight  and  forty  was  regarded  as 
‘  indicated  by  prophecy,’  being  foreshown 
in  the  forty-eight  boards  of  the  Mosaic 
Tabernacle.  For  ecclesiastical  purposes 
the  Church  Universal  is  under  their  charge 
in  twelve  tribes,  for  Christendom  is  con¬ 
sidered  to  be  divided  into  twelve  portions, 
or  tribes,  each  tribe  being  under  the  spe¬ 
cial  charge  of  an  apostle  and  his  co-minis¬ 
ters,  and  the  seat  of  the  Apostolic  College 
being  at  Albury,  in  England.  For  the  ser¬ 
vice  of  the  church  a  comprehensive  book 
of  liturgies  and  offices  was  provided  by 
the  ‘  apostles,’  and  lights,  incense,  vest¬ 
ments,  holy  oil,  water,  chrism,  and  other 
adjuncts  of  worship  have  been  appointed 
by  their  authority.  Each  congregation  is 
presided  over  by  its  ‘  angel,’  or  bishop, 
who  ranks  as  pastor  in  the  Universal 
Church;  under  him  are  four  and  twenty 
priests,  divided  into  the  four  ministries  of 
‘  elders,  prophet's,  evangelists,  and  pas¬ 
tors,’  and  with  these  are  the  deacons, 
seven  of  whom  regulate  the  temporal  af¬ 
fairs  of  the  church,  besides  whom  there 
are  also  ‘  sub-deacons,  acolytes,  singers, 
and  door-keepers.’  The  understanding  is 
that  each  elder,  with  his  co-presbyters  and 
deacons,  shall  have  charge  of  500  adult 
communicants  in  his  district,  but  this  has 
been  but  partially  carried  into  practice. 
This  is  the  full  constitution  of  each  par¬ 
ticular  church  or  congregation,  as  founded 
by  the  ‘  restored  apostles,’  each  local 
church  thus  ‘  reflecting  in  its  government 
the  government  of  the  Church  Catholic  by 
the  angel  or  high-priest,  Jesus  Christ,  and 
his  forty-eight  presbyters  in  their  fourfold 
ministry  (in  which  apostles  and  elders  al¬ 
ways  rank  first),  and  under  these  the  dea¬ 
cons  of  the  Church  Catholic.’  The  priest- 


Cat 


(  159  ) 


Cel 


hood  is  supported  by  tithes,  it  being 
deemed  a  duty,  on  the  part  of  all  members 
of  the  church  who  receive  yearly  incomes, 
to  offer  a  tithe  of  their  increase  every 
week,  besides  the  free-will  offering  for  the 
support  of  the  place  of  worship,  and  for 
the  relief  of  distress.  Each  local  church 
sends  a  tithe  of  its  tithes  to  the  *  Temple,’ 
by  which  the  ministers  of  the  Universal 
Church  are  supported;  by  these  offerings, 
too,  the  needs  of  poorer  churches  are  sup¬ 
plied,  and  other  expenses  connected  with 
the  administration  of  the  Church  Catholic. 
From  recent  statements  made  by  members 
of  this  community,  it  appears  to  be  mak¬ 
ing  steady  progress.  It  claims  to  have 
among  its  clergy  many  of  the  Roman,  An¬ 
glican,  and  other  churches,  the  orders  of 
those  ordained  by  Greek,  Roman,  and  An¬ 
glican  bishops  being  recognized  by  it  with 
the  simple  confirmation  of  an  ‘  apostolic 
act.’” — Ency .  Britannica. 

They  have  one  church  in  New  York,  and 
a  few  adherents  scattered  in  different  parts 
of  the  United  States.  See  Edward  Irving 
and  the  Catholic  Apostolic  Church ,  by  J.  S. 
Davenport  (N.  Y.,  1853);  The  True  Consti¬ 
tution  of  the  Church  and  the  Restoration ,  by 
W.  W.  Andrews  (N.  Y.,  1854);  History  of 
Irvingism ,  by  E.  Miller  (London,  1878),  2 
vois. 

Catholic  or  United  Copts,  that  portion 
of  the  Coptic  Church  which  acknowledges 
the  supremacy  of  the  pope. 

Catholic  Emancipation  Act,  an  act 
passed  by  Parliament  in  1829  repealing 
former  laws  which  imposed  political  dis¬ 
abilities  upon  Roman  Catholics. 

Catholic  ( universal)  Epistles,  a  name 
given  to  the  following  epistles — James, 
First  and  Second  Peter,  First,  Second,  and 
Third  John,  and  Jude. 


09:  was  with  the  French  colony  at  Portar- 
lington,  Ireland,  1709-27;  came  to  England 
and  was  made  brigadier  -  general,  1735; 
lieutenant-governor  of  Jersey,  1738;  major- 
general,  1739. 

Cave,  William,  D.  D.,  Church  of  Eng¬ 
land  •  b.  at  Pickwell,  Leicestershire,  Dec.  30, 
1637;  d.  at  Windsor,  Aug.  4,1713.  Educated 
at  Cambridge;  became  vicar  of  Islington, 
1662;  of  Isleworth,  1690;  canon  of  Wind¬ 
sor,  1684.  His  fame  rests  upon  his  histor¬ 
ical  works,  among  the  best  known  of  which 
are  his  j Primitive  Christianity  (London, 
1672),  and  Historia  Literaria  (1688-98;  best 
ed.  Waterland,  Oxford  1740-43),  2  vols. 

Cecil,  Richard,  in  his  day  one  of  the 
principal  leaders  of  the  Evangelical  party; 
b.  in  London,  Nov.  8,  1748;  d.  at  Hamp¬ 
stead,  Aug.  15,  1810.  In  early  life  he  im¬ 
bibed  skeptical  views,  but  the  Christian 
character  of  his  mother  exerted  an  influ¬ 
ence  that  led  to  his  conversion.  After 
graduating  at  Oxford  he  was  ordained  to 
the  ministry  in  1776.  In  the  places  where 
he  preached  he  gained  a  high  reputation 
for  eloquence.  His  Works  with  Memoir , 
were  reprinted  in  New  York (1845,  3  vols.), 
from  the  London  edition. 

Cecilia,  St.,  the  patroness  of  music,  be¬ 
cause  she  is  said  to  have  united  instru¬ 
mental  with  vocal  music  in  Divine  worship. 
According  to  tradition  she  was  martyred 
with  her  husband,  Valerian,  in  the  third 
century,  but  nothing  is  known  of  her  actual 
history.  Her  festival  day,  Nov.  22,  is 
celebrated  with  splendid  music  in  many 
Roman  Catholic  Churches. 

Cedar.  This  name  is  applied  in  Script¬ 
ure  to  several  cone-bearing  trees,  and  once 
to  the  juniper-tree  of  Sinai  (Lev.  xiv.  4), 
but  ordinarily  it  refers  to  the  cedar  of  Leb¬ 
anon.  Several  groves  of  cedars  are  still 
found  on  the  mountains  of  Lebanon.  It  is 
distinguished  by  its  gnarled  strength,  and 
massive,  wide-spreading  branches.  The 
wood  is  hard  and  fragrant,  and  takes  a  high 
polish. 


Cattle,  as  a  scriptural  term,  includes  the 
tame  quadrupeds  used  for  domestic  pur¬ 
poses  as  oxen,  horses,  camels,  goats,  etc. 
(Gen.  xiii.  2;  Num.  xx.  19;  Job.  i.  3.)  Cat¬ 
tle  formed  a  large  part  of  the  wealth  of  the 
Hebrews. 

Cavalier  (ka-va-le-a),  Jean,  the  leader 
of  the  Camisards;  b.  at  Ribaute,  Langue¬ 
doc,  France,  Nov.  28,  1681;  d.  at  Chelsea, 
London,  May  17,  1740.  An  ardent  Protes¬ 
tant,  he  espoused  the  cause  of  the  Cami¬ 
sards  in  their  uprising  in  the  Cevennes, 
1702,  and  was  remarkably  successful  in 
repelling  the  forces  sent  against  them,  un¬ 
til,  overwhelmed  by  superior  numbers,  he 
was  defeated  near  Nages,  April  16,  1704. 
He  served  under  the  Duke  of  Savoy,  1704- 


Celestine  I.,  St.,  a  Roman  by  birth,  suc¬ 
ceeded  by  Boniface  I.  as  Bishop  of  Rome 
in  423,  and  held  the  seat  eight  years,  five 
months,  and  three  days.  It  is  told  of  him 
that  in  his  time  some  innovators  in  the 
provinces  of  Narbonne  and  Vienna,  insist¬ 
ing  upon  the  passage  of  Scripture,  “  Let 
your  loins  be  girt,”  persuaded  the  clergy 
to  change  their  former  dress,  and  to  wear 
great  cloaks,  girded  with  belts.  There¬ 
upon  he  wrote,  in  428,  a  long  epistle  to  the 
bishops  of  the  two  provinces,  condemning 


Cel 


(  160  ) 


Cel 


this  abuse.  The  great  events  of  his  pon¬ 
tificate  were  two:  (i)  the  Council  of  Eph¬ 
esus  in  430,  at  which  Nestorius  was  con¬ 
demned  (Ephesus),  and  (2)  the  dispute 
about  appeals  of  the  African  clergy  to  the 
Pope  of  Rome,  which  had  made  so  much 
noise  in  the  time  of  Zosimus  ( q .  v. ),  and 
which  was  now  raised  again.  The  bishops 
of  the  African  Synod  having  sent  their  leg¬ 
ates  into  the  East  to  inspect  the  records  of 
the  Council  of  Nice,  these  legates  brought 
a  copy  of  the  records  back  with  them, 
which  clearly  destroyed  the  pretence  of 
appeals  to  Rome,  and  determined  the  con¬ 
troversy  on  the  side  of  the  African  bishops; 
upon  which  they  wrote  a  letter  to  Pope 
Celestine,  defended  the  privileges  of  their 
churches,  and  denounced  the  pope’s  in¬ 
sistence  upon  appeals,  as  a  piece  of  secular 
vanity  and  encroachment. — Benham:  Did. 
of  Religion. 

Celestines,  a  monastic  order,  established 
in  1254,  and  so  called  from  their  founder, 
Pope  Celestine  V.  They  spread  rapidly 
in  France,  Germany,  and  Italy,  but  there 
are  now  only  a  few  convents  left.  They 
followed  the  order  of  St.  Benedict,  and 
wore  white  garments  with  black  capes  and 
scapularies,  and  were  devoted  to  a  life  of 
contemplation. 

Celibacy,  the  unmarried  state  to  which, 
according  to  the  discipline  of  the  Church 
of  Rome,  the  clergy  are  bound,  as  are 
other  persons  who  pledge  themselves  to  it, 
by  a  special  vow.  In  the  Jewish  Church 
the  priests  lived  in  marriage,  but  were  for¬ 
bidden  to  marry  a  harlot,  or  a  woman  who 
had  been  divorced,  or  even  a  widow.  We 
know  that  some  of  the  apostles  of  Christ 
were  married,  though  St.  Paul  expressed 
the  opinion  that  there  were  certain  circum¬ 
stances  which  made  it  better  not  to  marry. 
This  is  a  passage  of  his  writings  worth 
considering,  for  it  is  much  relied  upon  by 
advocates  of  celibacy. 

It  is  the  seventh  chapter  of  the  first 
Epistle  to  the  Corinthians.  Now,  by  a 
thorough  consideration  of  this  chapter  it 
appears,  firstly,  that  in  some  cases  the 
apostle  advises  marriage,  without  exception 
of  any  order  of  person  (verse  9).  Secondly, 
he  leaves  it  to  choice  and  discretion. 
Thirdly,  he  recommends  single  life,  not 
upon  the  score  of  merit,  but  of  conven¬ 
ience,  because  the  Church  was  likely  to 
fall  under  a  state  of  persecution  (verse  28). 
Fourthly,  that  the  advice  was  not  partic¬ 
ularly  directed  to  the  clergy,  but  to  Chris¬ 
tians  in  general.  The  apostle  nowhere 
limits  his  discourse  to  the  former,  but  all 
along  applies  himself  to  believers  in  com¬ 
mon.  Indeed,  some  of  the  greatest  divines 


of  the  Church  of  Rome  have  owned  the 
celibacy  of  the  clergy  as  neither  of  Divine 
nor  apostolical  institution.  Thus,  in  the 
Canon  Law,  which  may  be  looked  upon  as 
the  sense  of  the  Church  of  Rome  for  some 
ages,  we  have  Gratian  saying,  “  The  mar¬ 
riage  of  priests  is  forbidden  neither  by 
evangelical,  legal,  nor  apostolical  author¬ 
ity;  but,  for  all  that,  it  is  altogether  pro- 
prohibited  by  the  laws  of  the  Church.” 

St.  Paul,  elsewhere,  not  only  does  not 
forbid,  but  even  expressly  permits,  mar¬ 
riage  to  the  clergy.  For,  laying  down  the 
qualifications  of  a  bishop,  in  the  Epistle  to 
Titus,  he  proposes  this  as  one,  “  that  he  be 
blameless,  the  husband  of  one  wife,  having 
faithful  children.”  In  the  ancient  Church 
many  persons  were  admitted  to  holy  orders 
who  had  their  wives  living  and  dwelling 
with  them.  In  the  Apostolical  Constitutions 
the  apostles  were  introduced  in  this  man¬ 
ner:  “  We  have  ordered  that  a  bishop, 
priest,  or  deacon,  should  be  the  husband  of 
one  wife,  whether  their  wives  be  alive  or 
dead.”  The  preference  for  single  life 
seems  to  have  been  started  by  Tertullian, 
who,  in  the  latter  part  of  his  time,  being  led 
away  with  the  enthusiasms  of  Montanus, 
endeavored  to  refine  upon  the  Christian 
religion,  and  strain  it  up  to  angelical  per¬ 
fection.  We  may  likewise  observe  that 
the  excessive  commendation  of  virginity 
and  ignorance  grew  together,  and  that  the 
reputation  of  celibacy  was  highest  when 
knowledge  was  at  the  lowest  ebb,  as  will 
appear  to  any  one  who  considers  the  his¬ 
tory  of  the  tenth  and  eleventh  centuries, 
and  compares  them  with  the  other  periods 
of  the  Church;  whereas,  when  the  argu¬ 
ment  is  impartially  considered,  it  will  be 
found  that  there  is  no  intrinsic  excellence 
in  single  life  above  that  of  marriage,  and 
that  the  imputations  of  discredit  and  dis¬ 
advantage  thrown  upon  marriage  are  no 
better  than  a  reflection  upon  the  state  of 
creation  and  the  order  of  Providence. 
That  sobriety  is  not  inconsistent  with  mar¬ 
riage  appears  plainly  by  the  apostle’s  as¬ 
suring  us  that  “marriage  is  honorable  in 
all  men,  and  the  bed  undefiled.”  (Heb. xiii. 
4.)  In  the  Council  of  Nice,  when  the  cel¬ 
ibacy  of  the  clergy  was  proposed,  under 
the  pretence  of  promoting  chastity,  the 
celebrated  Confessor  and  Bishop,  Paphnu- 
tius,  declared  that  cohabitation  with  a  law¬ 
ful  wife  was  chastity,  and  was  applauded 
for  his  sentence  by  the  whole  Council.  He 
added  that,  though  he  had  lived  all  his  life¬ 
time  in  celibacy,  yet  he  did.  not  think  this 
yoke  ought  to  be  imposed  upon  the  clergy. 
Clement  of  Alexandria  affirms  that  just 
men  under  the  old  law  had  children,  and 
lived  in  marriage  with  sobriety.  “What,” 
says  he,  “  cannot  people  cohabit  in  matri- 


Cel 


(  161  ) 


Cha 


mony  with  the  character  of  temperance  ? 
Without  all  doubt;  let  us  not,  therefore, 
attempt  to  dissolve  a  union  of  God’s  insti¬ 
tution.”  ( Stromata ,  lib.  iii.)  And  St.  Am¬ 
brose  says:  “  The  apostle  commands  a 
bishop  to  be  the  husband  of  one  wife,  not 
that  he  excludes  an  unmarried  man,  for 
that  is  farther  than  the  precept  reaches. 
There  is,  therefore,  no  more  meant  by  this 
qualification  than  that  by  conjugal  chastity 
he  may  guard  his  virtue,  and  preserve  the 
grace  given  him  in  baptism.”  (Ambrose: 
Epist.  82,  ad  V ere  ell. ) 

To  put  the  case  in  a  single  sentence,  the 
celibacy  of  the  clergy  was  looked  upon  as 
a  thing  indifferent  in  the  first  two  cen¬ 
turies,  was  proposed  in  the  third,  magni¬ 
fied  in  the  fourth,  and,  in  some  places,  im¬ 
posed  in  the  fifth. 

But,  notwithstanding  that  it  gained 
ground  in  some  provinces  of  the  West, 
celibacy  never  universally  prevailed  even 
there  till  the  thirteenth  or  fourteenth  cen¬ 
tury.  In  the  East  it  has  never  been  im¬ 
posed  or  practised  from  the  apostles’  time 
to  the  present  age.  It  is  very  noticeable 
that,  among  all  the  heresies,  from  the 
Apostles’  time  to  the  Council  of  Nice, 
there  was  scarcely  one  which  did  not  either 
condemn  or  decry  marriage,  and  laud  cel¬ 
ibacy  as  a  most  perfect  state.  Thus  did 
Saturninus,  the  Cerinthians,  Basilidians, 
Marcionites,  and  Carpocratians;  to  whom 
we  may  add  Tatian,  and  many  others. — 
Benham:  Diet,  of  Religion.  See  Lea:  Sac¬ 
erdotal  Celibacy  (Phila. ,  1867;  2d  ed.,  1884). 

Cellites  or  Cellit^e.  This  name,  derived 
from  cella ,  a  cell,  was  given  in  early  days 
to  a  class  of  monks  midway  between  her¬ 
mits  and  cenobites.  They  lived  alone  like 
hermits,  but,  unlike  them,  repaired  at  fes¬ 
tivals  to  the  church  of  the  monastery  to 
which  they  had  attached  themselves.  In 
the  Middle  Ages  the  name  was  applied  to  a 
religious  order,  founded  in  1300,  which 
had  houses  at  Antwerp,  Louvain,  Malines, 
Cologne,  and  other  German  towns;  their 
special  work  was  to  nurse  the  sick  poor 
and  to  bury  the  dead.  They  are  some¬ 
times  called  Alexians,  from  their  founder, 
Alexius,  a  Roman,  but  they  were  a  branch 
of  the  Beghards  (y.  v.). 

Celsus  is  the  first  writer  against  Chris¬ 
tianity  of  whom  history  makes  mention. 
His  book  has  perished,  and  it  is  only 
through  the  answer  made  to  it  by  Origen 
that  we  have  any  clew  to  its  contents  or 
the  history  of  the  writer. 

Celtic  Church.  See  England,  Church 
of;  Scotland,  Church  of;  Ireland, 
Church  of. 


Celtic  Religion.  See  DruidiSm. 

Cen'chrese,  the  eastern  harbor  of  Cor¬ 
inth  (nine  miles  distant)  on  the  Saronic 
Gulf,  and  the  emporium  of  its  trade  with 
Asia.  Phoebe  was  a  deaconess  in  the 
church  formed  there  (Rom.  xvi.  1),  and 
Paul  sailed  from  thence  to  Ephesus.  (Acts 
xvii.  18.) 

Censer,  a  portable  metal  vessel  used 
for  receiving  from  the  altar  burning  coals, 
on  which  the  priest  sprinkled  the  incense 
for  burning.  (2  Chron.  xxvi.  16,  18,  19; 
Luke  i.  9.) 

Censer,  in  Roman  Catholic  Worship. 
See  Thurible. 

Censor.  See  Index  Expurgatorius. 

Censures,  Ecclesiastical,  the  penalties 
visited  by  Church  authorities  upon  offend¬ 
ers.  The  different  kinds  of  censure  are 
the  following:  Excommunication  cuts  off 
from  the  Communion  of  the  Church;  Sus- 
pension  forbids  the  use  of  the  Ecclesiastical 
Functions,  either  wholly,  or  with  respect 
to  some  branches;  Deposition  degrades  an 
ecclesiastic,  and  deprives  him  of  his  Or¬ 
ders;  an  Interdict ,  in  the  Church  of  Rome, 
forbids  the  administering  of  the  Sacraments 
and  performance  of  Divine  Service  in  pub¬ 
lic. 

Centuries  of  Magdeburg,  the  name  given 
to  the  first  great  work  on  Church  History 
by  Protestant  writers.  It  was  planned  by 
Matthias  Flacius  Illyricus,  and  written 
with  the  aid  of  associates,  all  of  whom 
lived  at  Magdeburg,  where  the  work  was 
published  (1560-1574).  It  covers  the  first 
thirteen  centuries  of  the  history  of  the 
Church,  and  gives  a  volume  to  each  cen¬ 
tury.  In  learning  and  criticism  it  has 
never  been  superseded. 

Centurion  (from  centum ,  one  hundred) 
is  the  name  of  an  officer  in  the  Roman  army, 
commanding  a  hundred  men. 

Cerdo,  a  Gnostic  teacher.  See  Marcion¬ 
ites. 

Cerinthus,  the  founder  of  one  of  the  ear¬ 
liest  heretical  sects  of  Christians.  He  was 
a  Jew,  and  his  views  represent  a  mixture 
of  Gnosticism  and  Judaism.  See  Gnos¬ 
ticism. 

Chaderton,  Laurence,  a  Puritan  divine; 
b.  in  Lancashire,  Sept.  14,  1536;  d.  1640. 
He  was  a  fellow  of  Christ’s  College,  Cam¬ 
bridge,  and  for  many  years  was  a  favorite 


Cha 


(  162  ) 


Cha 


preacher  there.  He  was  one  of  the  five 
Puritan  representatives  in  the  Hampton 
Court  Conference  (q.  v.),  and  one  of  the 
translators  of  the  Bible,  from  Chronicles 
to  Canticles  inclusive. 

Chalcedon,  an  ancient  maritime  town  of 
Bithynia,  in  Asia  Minor.  In  451  A.  D.  it 
was  the  seat  of  the  Fourth  General  Coun¬ 
cil,  which  condemned  the  Monophysites. 

Chalced'ony,  a  brilliant,  transparent 
green  stone,  named  after  Chalcedon,  in 
Bithynia,  where  it  was  found.  (Rev. 
xxi.  19.) 

Chaldae'a,  the  country  of  Assyria  and 
Babylonia.  See  Assyria. 

Chaldees.  See  Assyria. 

Chalice  (Latin  calix ,  a  cup),  the  cup 
used  in  the  sacrament  of  the  Lord’s  Sup¬ 
per. 

Chalmers,  Thomas,  D.  D.,  LL.  D.,  “  was 
b.  at  Anstruther,  in  Fifeshire,  17th  March, 
1780,  educated  at  the  university  of  St.  An¬ 
drews,  and  in  his  nineteenth  year  licensed  to 
preach  the  gospel.  In  1803,  he  was  ordained 
minister  of  the  parish  of  Kilmany,  in  Fife¬ 
shire,  about  nine  miles  from  St.  Andrews. 
At  this  period  his  attention  was  entirely 
absorbed  by  mathematics  and  natural  phi¬ 
losophy,  to  the  neglect  of  the  studies  apper¬ 
taining  to  his  profession.  To  gratify  his 
love  of  scientific  pursuits,  he  even  formed 
mathematical  and  chemistry  classes  in  St. 
Andrews, during  the  winter  of  1803-04, and, 
by  his  wonderful  enthusiasm  and  lucidity 
of  exposition,  excited  intense  interest,  and 
obtained  for  himself  a  great  reputation. 
In  1808,  he  published  an  Inquiry  into  the 
Extent  and  Stability  of  National  Resources , 
which  proved  his  capacity  for  dealing  with 
questions  of  political  economy.  Shortly 
after  this,  certain  domestic  calamities,  and 
a  severe  illness  of  his  own,  opened  up  the 
fountains  of  his  soul,  and  rendered  him 
keenly  susceptible  to  religiousimpressions. 
Having  to  prepare  an  article  on  Christian¬ 
ity  for  Brewster’s  Edinburgh  Encyclopedia, 
he  commenced  an  extensive  study  of  the 
evidences,  and  rose  from  his  investigations 
convinced  that  Christianity  was  a  fact ,  and 
the  Bible  the  veritable  *  word  of  God.’ 
Then  the  great  genius  of  the  man  broke 
forth  like  sunshine.  He  grew  earnest,  elo¬ 
quent,  devout,  and  faithful  to  his  pastoral 
duties.  In  July,  1815,  he  was  translated 
to  the  Tron  church  and  parish,  Glasgow, 
where  his  magnificent  oratory  took  the  city 
by  storm.  His  Astronomical  Discourses 
were  probably  the  most  sublimely  intel¬ 


lectual  and  imaginative  that  had  ever  been 
preached  in  a  Scottish  pulpit.  They  were 
published  in  1817,  and  had  a  prodigious 
popularity.  During  the  same  year  he 
visited  London,  where  his  preaching  excited 
as  great  a  sensation  as  at  home.  But 
Chalmers’  energies  could  not  be  exhausted 
by  mere  oratory.  Discovering  that  his 
parish  was  in  a  state  of  great  ignorance  and 
immorality,  he  began  to  devise  a  scheme 
for  overtaking  and  checking  the  alarming 
evil.  It  seemed  to  him  that  the  only 
means  by  which  this  could  be  accomplished 
was  by  ‘  revivifying,  remodeling,  and  ex¬ 
tending  the  old  parochial  economy  of  Scot¬ 
land,’  which  had  proved  so  fruitful  of  good 
in  the  rural  parishes.  In  order  to  wrestle 
more  closely  with  the  ignorance  and  vice 
of  Glasgow,  in  1819  he  became  minister  of 
St.  John’s  parish,  ‘  the  population  of  which 
was  made  up  principally  of  weavers,  labor¬ 
ers,  factory  workers,  and  other  operatives.’ 
‘  Of  its  2,000  families,’  says  Dr.  Hanna, 
‘  more  than  800  had  no  connection  with 
any  Christian  church,  while  the  number  of 
its  uneducated  children  was  countless.’ 
We  have  not  space  to  narrate  at  length  how 
vast  and  successful  were  the  labors  of 
Chalmers.  It  is  sufficient  to  say  that,  in 
pursuance  of  his  favorite  plan,  he  broke  up 
his  parish  into  twenty-five  districts,  each 
of  which  he  placed  under  separate  manage¬ 
ment,  and  established  two  week  -  day 
schools,  and  between  forty  and  fifty  local 
Sabbath-schools,  for  the  instruction  of  the 
children  of  the  ‘  poorer  and  neglected 
classes,’  more  than  1,000  of  whom  attend¬ 
ed.  In  a  multitude  of  other  ways  he 
sought  to  elevate  and  purify  the  lives  of 
his  parishioners.  While  in  Glasgow,  he 
had  matured  his  opinions  relative  to  the 
best  method  of  providing  for  the  poor.  He 
disliked  the  English  system  of  a  ‘  compul¬ 
sory  assessment,’  and  preferred  the  old 
Scotch  method  of  voluntary  contributions 
at  the  church-door,  administered  by  elders. 
The  management  of  the  poor  in  the  parish 
of  St.  John’s  was  intrusted  to  his  care  by 
the  authorities,  as  an  experiment,  and  in 
four  years  he  reduced  the  pauper  expend¬ 
itures  from  ,£1,400  to  £280  per  annum. 

“Chalmers  was  a  leader  in  the  General  As¬ 
sembly, and  came  forward  as  the  vindicator 
of  popular  rights;  the  struggles  in  regard 
to  patronage  between  the  high-church 
and  the  ‘  moderate  ’  or  ‘  Erastian  ’  party 
became  keener  and  more  frequent,  until 
the  decision  of  the  civil  courts  in  the 
famous  ‘  Auchterarder  and  Strathbogie  ’ 
cases  brought  matters  to  a  crisis;  and  on 
the  18th  of  May,  1S43,  followed  by  47° 
clergymen,  he  left  the  church  of  his  fathers, 
rather  than  sacrifice  those  principles  which 
he  believed  essential  to  the  purity,  honor. 


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and  independence  of  the  church.  The  rapid 
formation  and  organization  of  the  Free 
Church  were  greatly  owing  to  his  indefati¬ 
gable  exertions,  in  consequence  of  which  he 
was  elected  principal  of  the  Free  Church 
College,  and  spent  the  close  of  his  life  in 
the  zealous  performance  of  his  learned  du¬ 
ties,  and  in  perfecting  his  Institutes  of  The¬ 
ology.  He  died  suddenly  at  Morningside, 
Edinburgh,  May  30,  1847.” — Chambers: 
Cyclopedia.  See  Memoir  by  bis  son-in-law, 
Rev.  William  Hanna  (Edinburgh  1847-52), 
4  vols. ;  Life  by  Donald  Fraser  (N.  Y., 
1881). 

Chambers,  Talbot  Wilson,  S.  T.  D. 
(Columbia  College,  1853),  LL.  D.  (Rutgers, 
1885),  Reformed  (Dutch);  b.  at  Carlisle, Pa. , 
Feb.  25,  1819;  was  graduated  at  Rutgers 
College,  1834;  studied  theology  in  both 
the  New  Brunswick  and  Princeton  Theo¬ 
logical  Seminaries;  pastor  of  the  Second 
Reformed  Church,  Somerville,  N.  J. ,  1839, 
and  since  1849  one  of  the  pastors  of  the 
Collegiate  Dutch  Church  of  New  York 
City.  He  is  the  author  of  The  Noon 
Prayer  -  Meeting  in  Fultoti  Street  (N.  Y.* 
1857):  Memoir  of  Theodore  Fr  e  ling huy  sen, 
(1863):  Exposition  of  Zechariah,  in  Schaff- 
Lange’s  Commentary  (1874);  The  Psalter:  a 
Witness  to  the  Divine  Origin  of  the  Bible 
(1875);  Companion  to  the  Revised  Version  of 
the  Old  Testament  (1885);  Associate  editor 
of  Jackson’s  Dictionary  of  Religious  Knowl¬ 
edge. 

Chamberlain,  an  officer  in  Eastern  courts 
who  was  placed  in  charge  of  the  king’s 
lodgings,  wardrobes,  etc.  As  a  rule 
eunuchs  were  employed  in  this  service. 
The  term,  as  used  in  Acts  xii.  20,  denotes 
one  holding  a  position  of  very  close  inti¬ 
macy  with  the  king.  Erastus,  who  sent  salu¬ 
tations  to  the  Roman  Christians  (Rom. 
xvi.  23),  was  probably  treasurer  of  the 
city. 

Chamier,  Daniel,  a  distinguished  French 
Protestant  divine  ;  b.  at  Mont61imart, 
Dauphine,  France,  1565;  killed  during  the 
siege  of  Montauban,  1621.  He  was  pro¬ 
fessor  and  pastor  at  Montauban,  1612.  A 
skilled  controversalist,  he  became  a  trusted 
leader  of  the  Protestants.  It  is  said  that 
he  drew  up  the  Edict  of  Nantes.  His  chief 
work  is  Panstratice  Catholicce  (Geneva, 
1626),  4  vols. 

Chancel,  the  upper  end  of  the  church, 
commonly  raised  above  the  general  level, 
and  including  the  space  for  the  communion 
table,  altar,  and  the  choir,  which  is  railed 
off.  The  name  chancel  is  derived  from 
the  lattice  or  railing  ( cancelli ),  by  which  the 


choir  is  separated  from  the  body  of  the 
church. 

Chancellor  of  a  Diocese,  in  England,  is 
the  keeper  of  the  seals  of  an  archbishop  or 
bishop,  and  the  judge  of  his  diocesan  court. 
He  exercises  jurisdiction  when  the  bishop, 
by  any  reason,  is  disabled.  Generally  the 
diocesan  chancellor  is  a  layman. 

Channing,  William  Ellery,  the  most 
celebrated  Unitarian  preacher  of  modern 
times,  and  one  of  the  noblest  of  philanthro¬ 
pists.  He  was  born  April  7,  1780,  at  New¬ 
port,  R.  I.,  the  son  of  a  judge.  Both  father 
and  mother  were  Calvinists  of  deep  relig¬ 
ious  feeling.  After  graduating  at  Harvard 
College,  he  passed  through  a  time  of  very 
anxious  religious  doubt,  which  occasioned 
him  such  suffering  as  permanentlyenfeebled 
his  health,  but,  emerging  from  it,  he  be¬ 
came  a  preacher  in  Boston.  His  fire  and 
eloquence,  as  well  as  his  personal  charac¬ 
ter,  drew  large  congregations,  who  soon 
discovered  that  their  preacher  was  really 
an  Arian.  He  was,  however,  so  eagerly 
bent  on  the  redress  of  social  and  moral 
evils,  that  he  had  hardly  formulated  with 
definiteness  his  own  creed.  It  was  a  time 
of  much  controversy  in  America,  parties 
dividing  themselves  into  “  Anti-Trinita¬ 
rian  ”  and  “  Anti-Calvinistic.”  Channing 
became  the  spokesman  of  both,  but  his  en¬ 
deavors  to  recognize  the  unity  between 
“  all  lovers  of  truth  and  followers  of  Christ, 
both  on  earth  and  in  heaven,”  caused  him 
to  be  much  esteemed  by  men  of  all  schools. 

Though  the  theology  of  Channing  is  un¬ 
mistakably  Unitarian,  it  has  nothing  in 
common  with  the  coldness  of  Priestly,  or 
the  coarseness  of  Belsham.  He  combats 
the  traditional  views  of  the  Atonement, 
and  of  human  depravity,  and  emphasizes 
the  “  human  element  ”  in  the  character  of 
Christ;  but  he  maintains  firmly  the  sin¬ 
lessness,  the  miracles,  and  the  Resurrec¬ 
tion  of  Christ.  One  of  his  sermons  on  the 
Resurrection  was  preached,  without  ac¬ 
knowledgment,  not  long  ago  by-  a  cele¬ 
brated  preacher  in  the  cathedral  of  which 
he  is  a  canon.  Channing’s  last  sermons 
were  among  his  noblest.  His  literary 
essays,  too,  are  of  supreme  beauty,  nota¬ 
bly  that  on  Milton.  But  high  among  all 
his  works  rank  his  labors  for  the  abolition 
of  slavery,  for  the  promotion  of  temper¬ 
ance,  and  for  the  reform  of  prisons.  A 
Roman  Catholic  writer  calls  him  “  the 
American  Fenelon.”  He  died  at  Benning¬ 
ton,  Vt.,  Oct.  2,  1842.  —  Benham:  Diet, 
of  Religion.  Channing’s  Works  were  pub¬ 
lished  in  Boston  (1848),  6  vols.,  and  a 
cheap  edition  in  1880.  See  his  Memoir , 
with  Extracts  from  his  Correspondence  and 


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Manuscripts,  by  his  nephew,  the  Rev.  W. 
H.  Channing  (1848,  10th  ed.,  1874). 

Chant  (Lat.  cantus,  song),  words  recited 
to  musical  tones  without  musical  measure. 
It  is  chiefly  used  for  prose  compositions, 
though  sometimes  employed  for  hymns. 
It  is  the  oldest  form  of  church  music.  The 


one  or  more  priests  to  say  daily  mass  for 
the  souls  of  the  founder  and  his  rela¬ 
tives,  or  other  benefactors.  A  chantry  was 
often  annexed  to  cathedral  and  parochial 
churches,  either  within  the  walls,  or  attach¬ 
ed  to  the  exterior  of  the  building.  Chant¬ 
ries  were  dissolved  by  the  statute  of  1 
Edward  VI.,  c.  14. 


HENRY  VII. 'S  CHAPEL,  WESTMINSTER  ABBEY. 


Ambrosian  is  the  earliest  style  of  chant 
that  has  come  down  to  us,  but  it  is  not 
until  the  time  of  Gregory  the  Great  that 
we  have  any  certain  knowledge  of  church 
chanting. 

Chantry.  Chantries  were  small  buildings, 
originally  founded  and  endowed  with  lands 
and  other  revenues,  for  the  maintenance  of 


Chantry  Priest,  one  whose  office  it  was 
to  serve  the  altar  of  a  chantry. 

Chapel  (Latin  capclla ),  “  a  small  church 
destined  for  a  family  or  a  convent,  but 
without  parochial  rights;  or  an  addition  to 
a  large  church, destined  for  occasional  ser¬ 
vice  or  for  a  mission  congregation.  The 
derivation  of  capclla  is  obscure,  but  gen- 


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erally  referred  back  to  the  capa,  or  cloak, 
of  St.  Martin,  which  the  French  kings  car¬ 
ried  with  them  in  battle,  deposited  in  a 
small,  transportable  structure,  hence  call¬ 
ed  a  capella.” — Schaff-Herzog:  Ency. 

Chapin,  Edwin  Hubbell,  D.  D.,  a  Uni- 
versalist  minister,  distinguished  for  his 
pulpit  and  platform  eloquence ;  b.  at  Union 
Village,  N.  Y.,  Dec.  29,  1814;  d.  in  New 
York  City,  Dec.  26,  1880.  He  entered  the 
Universalist  ministry  in  1837;  pastor  at 
Richmond,  Va. ,  1837-40;  Charlestown, 

Mass.,  1840-46;  Boston,  1846-48,  when  he 
came  to  New  York,  and  was  pastor  of  the 
Fourth  Universalist  Society  until  his 
death.  He  published  several  volumes  of 
sermons  and  addresses. 

Chaplain,  originally  a  clergyman  who 
performed  religious  services  in  a  chapel. 
The  name  is  now  commonly  applied  to 
ministers  who  are  appointed  to  discharge 
religious  duties  in  connection  with  govern¬ 
mental,  philanthropic,  and  military  bodies. 
Bishops’  chaplains  are  those  who  aid  them 
in  correspondence,  the  examination  of  can¬ 
didates,  etc.  There  are  thirty-six  chap¬ 


lains-in-ordinary  to  the  Queen,  who  re¬ 
ceive  from  the  Crown  ^30  annually,  and 
twelve  honorary  chaplains,  without  sala¬ 
ries.  These  preach  in  turn  before  the 
Queen. 

Chapter,  the  community  of  clergymen 
connected  with  a  cathedral,  or  collegiate, 
church.  See  Cathedral. 

Chapter-house,  the  apartment,  or  half,, 
in  which  the  dean  and  chapter  meet  to 
transact  official  business.  Some  of  them,, 
connected  with  English  cathedrals,  are 
very  beautiful. 

Chapter  and  Verse.  See  Bible. 

Charge,  (1)  the  spiritual  care  of  a  pas¬ 
tor  over  his  flock,  or  of  a  bishop  over  his 
diocese.  (2)  An  address  from  a  bishop  to  his 
clergy  at  his  visitation,  in  which  he  in¬ 
structs,  exhorts,  or  charges  them  on  mat¬ 
ters  of  peculiar  importance,  or  takes  occa¬ 
sion  to  dilate  on  the  general  obligations 
and  responsibilities  of  the  ministerial  office. 
A  charge  is  addressed  to  the  clergy ;  a  pas¬ 
toral  letter  principally  to  the  people. 


Chariot,  “a  vehicle  used  either  for 
war -like  or  peaceful  purposes,  but 
most  commonly  for  the  former.  Of 
the  latter  use  the  following  are  only 
probable  instances:  as  regards  the 
Jews,  1  Kings  xviii.  44;  and  as  regards 
other  nations,  Gen.  xli.  43;  xlvi.  29;  2 
Kings  v.  9;  Acts  viii.  28.  The  earliest 
mention  of  chariots  in  Scripture  is  in 
Egypt,  where  Joseph,  as  a  mark  of 
distinction,  was  placed  in  Pharaoh’s 
second  chariot  (Gen.  xli.  43),  and, 
later,  when  he  Went  in  his  own  chariot 
to  meet  his  father  on  his  entrance  into 
Egypt  from  Canaan  (xlvi.  29).  In  the 
funeral  procession  of  Jacob  chariots 
also  formed  a  part,  possibly  by  way 
of  escort,  or  as  a  guard  of  honor  (1.  9). 
The  next  mention  of  Egyptian  char¬ 
iots  is  for  a  warlike  purpose.  -  (Ex.  xiv. 
7.)” — Smith:  Diet,  of  the  Bible. 

Charismata.  See  Gifts,  Spiritual. 

Charity,  Brothers  of,  a  Romanist 
order,  founded  in  1540,  at  Seville,  by 
Johannes  di  Dio,  a  Portuguese.  Its 
special  mission  has  been  the  nursing 
of  the  sick.  Magnificent  hospitals  of 
the  order  are  found  in  Milan,  Paris, 
Rome,  Naples,  Vienna,  and  Prague. 
The  members  study  medicine  in  the 
place  of  theology. 


DURHAM  CATHEDRAL:  CHAPTER-HOUSE. 


Charity,  Sisters  of,  a  name  given  to 


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EGYPTIAN  CHARIOT. 

several  orders  of  celibate  women  in  the 
Roman  Catholic  Church,  who  care  for  the 
sick,  and  needy  children.  The  two  most 
important  are  “  The  Sisters  of  St.  Vincent 
de  Paul,”  and  “  The  Daughters  of  St. 
Carlo  Borromeo.”  The  first  was  founded 
in  1629,  in  France,  by  Vincent  de  Paul, 
aided  by  Madame  Louise  de  Marillac  le 
Gras.  They  spread  rapidly,  but,  until  the 
end  of  the  eighteenth  century,  were  mostly 
confined  to  France.  Since  1815  they  have 
been  established  in  all  the  countries  of  Eu¬ 
rope  where  monastic  orders  are  allowed. 
They  were  established  in  the  United  States 
by  Elizabeth  Seaton  (y.  v. ).  Not  only  girls 
of  lowly  position,  but  many  from  the  high¬ 
est  ranks  of  society  have  united  with  this 
and  other  similar  orders.  The  order  of  the 
“  Daughters  of  St.  Borromeo”  dates  from 
1652.  The  work  accomplished  by  the  no¬ 
ble  women  who  have  devoted  their  lives 
to  the  care  of  the  sick,  and  the  care  of 
needy  children,  is  worthy  of  the  praise 
and  admiration  of  Christian  believers  of 
every  name. 

Charlemagne  ( shar-le-mdn ),  b.  about  742 
at  the  Castle  of  Ingelheim,  near  Mayence; 
and  crowned  King  of  the  Franks  at  Noyon 
in  768,  after  the  death  of  his  father,  Pepin 
the  Short.  He  began  his  reign  by  the  de¬ 
feat  of  the  Duke  of  Aquitaine  and  Gascony. 
The  death  of  his  brother,  Carloman,  made 
him  the  sole  and  absolute  monarch  of 
France. 

The  next  year  ne  overthrew  the  Saxons 
near  Osnaburg,  and  demolished  the  famous 
temple  dedicated  to  their  false  god,  Irmen- 
sul.  About  this  time,  Desiderius,  King  of 
the  Lombards,  continuing  his  predecessor’s 
design  of  humbling  the  Roman  pontiffs,  at¬ 
tacked  Pope  Stephen,  and  Adrian,  his  suc¬ 
cessor,  who  begged  Charlemagne’s  assist¬ 


ance;  whereupon  he  led  a  power¬ 
ful  army  into  Italy  in  771,  over¬ 
threw  Desiderius,  and  destroyed 
the  kingdom  of  the  Lombards  in 
776,  two  hundred  years  after  its 
foundation.  The  victorious  prince 
then  visited  the  pope,  and  con¬ 
firmed  the  gift  his  father  had 
made  the  Church  by  the  addition 
of  the  territory  of  Sabina,  the 
dukedom  of  Spoleto  and  Bene- 
ventum. 

After  this,  he  turned  his  arms 
a  second  time  against  the  Saxons, 
and  forced  their  king,  Witikind, 
to  receive  baptism. 

The  same  zeal  for  religion  set 
Charlemagne  upon  a  journey  into 
Spain  against  the  Saracens  in  778. 
He  won  great  victories  over 
them,  but  as  he  was  returning 
from  Spain,  with  a  very  rich  booty,  his 
army  was  set  upon  in  the  narrow  Pass  of 
Roncesvalles,  in  the  Pyrenees,  by  the 
Gascons,  who  then  lived  on  theft  and  rob¬ 
bery.  This  disaster  was  the  theme  of 
many  a  romance  of  song. 

At  last,  after  engaging  in  many  other 
wars,  he  was  crowned  emperor  of  the  West 
at  Rome,  in  800,  by  Leo  III.;  the  Eastern 
Emperor,  Nicephorus,  consenting,  and 
agreeing  that  the  State  of  Venice  should  be 
the  limit  of  both  empires.  Charlemagne 
took  the  name  of  Caesar  and  Augustus,  the 
first  two  emperors  of  Rome,  with  the 
spread  and  the  two-headed  eagle  to  sym¬ 
bolize  respectively  the  Roman  and  the 
German  Empire.  This  was  the  restoration 
of  the  ancient  empire  of  the  Caesars,  and 
was  known  as  “  the  Holy  Roman  Empire,” 
the  first  adjective  signifying  the  sanction 
which  it  received  from  the  Church.  It 
lasted,  though  after  the  sixteenth  century 
much  shorn  of  its  splendor,  until  1806, 
when  Napoleon  put  an  end  to  it.  Charle¬ 
magne  died  at  Aix-la-Chapelle,  and  was 
buried  there  in  814.  There  are  many  rel¬ 
ics  of  him  in  the  cathedral  there. 

Charlemagne  was  a  great  patron  of  learn¬ 
ing:  always,  while  sitting  at  table,  he  had 
read  to  him  either  history,  or  some  book  of 
St.  Augustine.  He  collected  the  laws  and 
customs  of  the  nations  which  had  become 
subject  to  him,  gathered  learned  men  to 
his  court  (among  them  the  English  Alcuin), 
and  founded  universities  and  schools  of 
learning. 

His  dynasty,  known  in  history  as  the 
Carlovingian,  or  Karling,  divided  itself 
after  his  death.  Three  main  divisions 
sprang  from  it,  Italy,  Germany,  France. 
His  influence  lasted  in  all  these  countries 
long  after  his  family  had  ceased  to  rule. 
But  each  nation  took  its  line  diverse  from 


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the  others,  and  in  Germany  only  did  the 
imperial  form  of  government  prevail. 
France  slowly  became  a  consolidated  mon¬ 
archy,  under  the  descendants  of  Hugh  Ca¬ 
pet;  Italy  became  a  collection  of  republics. 
— Benham:  Diet,  of  Religion.  See  Bryce: 
The  Holy  Ro?nan  Empire  (1883);  Life  of 
Charlemagne ,  by  J.  I.  Mombert  (New  York, 
1888). 

Charles  V.,  emperor  of  Germany  during 
the  period  of  the  Reformation;  b.at  Ghent, 
Feb.  24,  1500;  d.  at  Yuste,  Spain,  Sept.  21, 
1558.  He  succeeded  his  grandfather,  Fer¬ 
dinand,  as  king  of  Spain  in  1516,  and  was 
elected  emperor  of  Germany  in  1519,  Soon 
after  his  coronation  he  held  the  Diet  at 
Worms,  at  which  Luther  was  put  under 
the  ban  of  the  empire.  He  became  in¬ 
volved  in  a  long  war  with  Francis  I.,  king 
of  France,  whom  he  took  prisoner  at  the 
battle  of  Pavia,  in  1525.  At  the  Diet  at 
Augsburg,  in  1530,  he  acted  in  the  inter¬ 
ests  of  the  Romanists,  and  demanded  the 
submission  of  the  Protestants.  But  even 
when  his  arms  were  victorious  he  showed 
great  leniency  toward  his  Protestant  sub¬ 
jects,  and  labored  to  bring  about  com¬ 
promises  that  might  again  unify  the 
Church.  Worn  and  disappointed  at  his 
•efforts,  in  1556  he  abdicated  the  throne, 
and  retired  to  the  monastery  of  Yuste, 
where  he  lived  in  seclusion  until  his  death. 
See  his  Life  by  Robertson  (London,  1764; 
Prescott’s  ed.,  Boston,  1857). 

Charm.  See  Divination. 

Charnock,  Stephen,  a  celebrated  Puri¬ 
tan  divine;  b.  in  London,  1628;  d.  there, 
July  27,  1680.  He  obtained  a  fellowship 
at  New  College,  Oxford,  and  afterward  be¬ 
came  chaplain,  in  Ireland,  to  Henry  Crom¬ 
well.  He  was  disqualified  under  the  Act  of 
Uniformity.  His  fame  rests  upon  his  great 
work,  Discourses  on  the  Existence  and  At¬ 
tributes  of  God ,  which  has  passed  through 
many  editions.  His  Works  were  published 
in  Edinburgh,  1864,  5  vols. 

Chassidim  {saints),  a  name  given  to  a 
Jewish  sect,  or  party,  that  was  active  in 
the  time  of  the  Maccabaean  struggle.  They 
were  very  strict  in  their  observance  of  the 
written  and  traditional  law.  Carrying 
their  austerity  to  an  extreme  limit,  they 
finally  degenerated  into  the  “  haughty, 
tyrannical,  and  censorious  Pharisees,  the 
Separatists  of  the  Jewish  religion.”  The 
sect  and  name  disappeared  until  about 
1740,  when  Rabbi  Israel,  called  Baal-Shem 
{lord  of  the  na?ne),  since  he  professed  to 
work  miracles  by  the  use  of  the  cabalistic 
name  of  God,  became  the  leader  of  a  party 


in  Podolia,  who  called  themselves  Chassi¬ 
dim,  or  Saints.  His  fame  attracted  large 
numbers  in  Eastern  Europe  and  Palestine, 
and  when  he  died  (1760)  his  followers 
numbered  about  40,000.  The  Chassidim 
are  divided  into  separate  congregations, 
having  at  their  head  a  rabbi  called  Tsad- 
dik,or  Saint.  They  spend  much  time  in  con¬ 
templation  and  in  prayer,  working  them¬ 
selves  into  a  peculiar  frenzy.  They  lay 
great  stress  on  absolute  faith,  but  the  out¬ 
come  of  their  religion  shows  that  it  is  form¬ 
al,  and,  in  its  spirit,  coarse  and  ignorant. 
The  orthodox  Jews  repudiate  them. 

Chastity  “  is  the  inner  side  of  modesty, 
the  condition  of  bodily  and  moral  purity  in 
the  sexual  relations,  and  the  virtue  of 
self-control  from  forbidden  sexual  long¬ 
ings.  The  New  Testament  idea  of  chastity 
is  the  natural  result  of  its  new  view  of  the 
body  as  the  temple  of  the  Holy  Spirit. 
Hence  the  obligations  to  be  chaste  were  of 
the  strongest.  (1  Cor.  vii.  15-20.)  But 
obedience  is  difficult,  owing  to  the  force 
of  passion.  (1  Peter  ii.  11.)  This  sexual 
passion  is  not  in  itself  sinful,  but  it  is  to 
be  gratified  only  within  the  marriage  bond. 
Unchastity  is  a  scourge,  a  pestilence,  which 
lays  low  body  and  soul.  It  has  a  certain 
and  sad  effect  upon  the  religious  feelings, 
killing  them,  so  that  God  is  utterly  cast 
out,  and,  therefore,  the  door  is  open  to 
every  sin.  It  leads  to  unnatural  vice. 
(Rom.  i.  26,  27.)  And  therefore,  according 
to  the  Bible,  the  unchaste  are  lost.  (1  Cor. 
vi.  9;  Eph.  v.  5;  Rev.  xxi.  2,27.)  Chastity 
is  to  be  in  thought  (Matt.  v.  28)  and  word 
(Eph.  v.  3,  12),  as  well  as  in  deed.  In  re¬ 
generation  the  Christian  receives  grace  to 
attain  this  high  ideal.  It  is  the  duty  of 
both  sexes,  and  of  all  ages  and  relations, 
married  or  not,  to  be  chaste.  To  some  a 
special  grace  to  this  end  is  given.  (Matt, 
xix.  12;  1  Cor.  vii.  7.)  To  those  who 
preserve  absolute  chastity  outside  of  the 
married  state  there  is  peculiar  honor; 
though  this  is  no  implied  disparagement 
to  marriage  (Rev.  xiv.  4),  which  is  a 
divinely  ordered  protection.  Modern  ways 
of  living  have  debarred  many  from  enter¬ 
ing  that  state,  but  their  celibacy  is  no  ex¬ 
cuse  for  unchastity.”  —  Karl  Burger  in 
Schaff-Herzog:  Ency.  vol.  i.,  p.  439. 

Chasuble,  the  uppermost  part  of  the 
robes  of  Roman  Catholic  priests,  worn 
over  the  alb  during  the  celebration  of  the 
mass.  In  recent  years  it  has  been  worn 
by  many  clergy  in  the  English  Church 
while  administering  the  Holy  Communion. 

Chauncey,  Charles,  1589-1671,  second 
president  of  Harvard  College;  b.  in  Eng- 


Cha 


(  168  ) 


Che 


land;  d.  at  Cambridge,  Mass.  Graduate  of 
Cambridge,  Eng.,  1617.  Silenced  by  Laud 
for  his  Puritan  views.  He  came  to  New 
England  in  1638,  and  after  preaching  at 
Plymouth  for  three  years  he  became  pastor 
at  Scituate.  He  was  elected  president  of 
Harvard  College  in  1654,  where  he  remain¬ 
ed  until  his  death.  When  first  condemned 
by  Laud,  he  recanted.  This  weakness, which 
was  only  for  a  short  time,  was  the  source 
of  life-long  regret.  He  wrote  a  volume 
explaining  and  regretting  his  action,  pub¬ 
lished  in  London,  1641  \^The  Retraction  of 
Mr.  C.  C. ,  for?nerly  Min.  of  Ware,  in  Har- 
fordshire. 

Chautauqua,  on  Chautauqua  Lake,  in 
Western  New  York,  famous  as  the  site  of 
the  “  Chautauqua  Assembly,”  a  summer 
school  whose  varied  educational  interests 
have  reached  out  into  every  part  of  the 
nation.  The  Assembly  was  projected  by 
the  Rev.  Dr.  J.  H.  Vincent,  now  a  bishop 
of  the  Methodist  Episcopal  Church,  and 
Lewis  Miller,  Esq.,  a  wealthy  manufact¬ 
urer  in  Akron,  O.  The  first  meeting  was 
held  in  August,  1874.  Each  year  the  scope 
of  the  work  of  the  Assembly  has  broad¬ 
ened,  and  lectures  religious,  scientific,  and 
literary  have  been  given  by  distinguished 
teachers,  authors,  and  preachers.  The 
C.  L.  S.  C.  (Chautauqua  Literary  and 
Scientific  Circle)  was  organized  in  1878, 
and  now  numbers  many  thousands  of  mem¬ 
bers.  Its  course  of  reading  covers  a  period 
of  four  years.  Various  other  departments 
are  in  active  operation,  and  the  entire 
movement  has  had  a  remarkable  influence 
in  “  cultivating  independent  self-education 
at  home,  by  those  who  have  hitherto  lack¬ 
ed  educational  opportunity.” 

Chemnitz  {kem-nits),  Martin,  next  to 
Luther  and  Melancthon  the  most  eminent 
Protestant  theologian  of  the  sixteenth  cen¬ 
tury;  b.  at  Treuenbrietzen,  in  Branden¬ 
burg,  Nov.  9,  1522;  d.  at  Brunswick,  April 
8,  1586.  While  filling  the  position  of  libra¬ 
rian  at  Konigsberg,  he  became  interested 
in  the  Osiander  controversy,  and  went  to 
Wittenberg,  1553,  where  he  gave  lectures 
on  Melancthon’s  Loci  Theologici.  In  1554 
he  was  called  to  Brunswick  as  coadjutor, 
and  in  1557  became  superintendent.  His 
great  work  was  an  examination  and  criti¬ 
cism  of  the  theology  propounded  at  the 
Council  of  Trent,  Exa?nen  Coticilii  Tri- 
dentini{i$6$—,]f),  4  vols.  See  Life  by  Lentz 
(Gotha,  1855). 

Chemosh  {subduer),  the  national  deity  of 
the  Moabites  (Num.  xxi.  29;  Jer.  xlviii. 
46),  identical  with  Molech.  (Judg.  xi.  24.) 
His  worship  was  introduced  by  Solomon 


(1  Kings  xi.  7),  and  suppressed  by  Josiah. 
(2  Kings  xxiii.  13.)  The  inscription  on 
the  Moabite  stone  throws  light  on  the 
Moabite  worship  of  Chemosh.  It  was  to 
Chemosh  that  Mesha  offered  his  son.  (2 
Kings  iii.  27.) 

Chester,  The  Cathedral  of,  is  the  an¬ 
cient  abbey  church  belonging  to  the  mon¬ 
astery  of  St.  Werburgh;  that  of  St.  John 
the  Baptist  having  been  used  by  the  two 
Norman  Bishops  of  Lichfield,  while  they 
occupied  Chester,  as  the  seat  of  the  latter 
bishopric.  It  stands  on  the  site  of  a  very 
ancient  church,  dedicated  to  St.  Peter  and 
St.  Paul,  which  was  the  mother-church  of 
Chester  when  the  relics  of  St.  Werburgh 
were  removed  thither  from  Hanbury  in 
the  year  875,  nearly  two  hundred  years 
after  her  death.  This  church  was  rebuilt 
in  the  tenth  century  by  Ethelred,  ealdor- 
man  of  Mercia,  and  his  wife  Ethelfled, 
and  was  then,  perhaps,  re-dedicated  in 
the  name  of  the  saint  whose  shrine  it 
held.  In  the  year  1095  it  was  again  re¬ 
built,  and  turned  into  a  Benedictine  mon¬ 
astery  by  Hugh  Lupus,  Earl  of  Chester, 
under  the  direction  of  St.  Anselm,  Arch¬ 
bishop  of  Canterbury;  but  this  Norman 
cathedral  became  ruinous  before  the  end 
of  the  twelfth  century,  and  has  disap¬ 
peared.  Of  the  present  cathedral,  the 
eastern  part  is  Early  English,  having  been 
built  at  various  periods  between  1194  and 
1230.  The  lower  portion  of  the  rest  of 
the  building  belongs  to  the  Decorated  or 
fourteenth-century  period,  while  the  upper 
part  of  the  central  tower,  the  transept  and 
nave,  are  Perpendicular,  as  is  nearly  the 
whole  of  the  exterior  casing  of  the  church, 
all  this  part  having  been  constructed  at 
some  time  between  1485  and  1537.  The 
modern  restoration,  at  an  estimated  cost 
of  £ 50,000,  was  begun  in  1844.  When  the 
see  of  Chester  •  was  founded,  in  1541, 
the  dedication  of  the  church  was  altered 
to  that  of  Christ  and  the  Blessed 
Virgin. 

The  cathedral  establishment  consists  of 
a  dean,  four  canons,  twenty-four  honorary 
canons,  and  four  minor  canons;  and  its  en¬ 
dowments  amount  to  about  ^4,000  a  year. 
— Benham:  Diet,  of  Religion. 

Cheyne  {chan),  Thomas  Kelly,  D.  D. 
(Edinburgh,  1884),  Church  of  England;  b. 
in  London,  Sept.  18,  1841 ;  was  graduated  at 
Worcester  College,  1862;  fellow  of  Balliol 
College,  Oxford,  1868;  Oriel  professor  of 
the  interpretation  of  Holy  Scripture,  1885. 
He  is  the  author  of  Commentaries  on  Lsaia/i 
(1880-81),  2  vols.;  Micah  (1882);  Hosea 
(1884)  ;  Jeremiah  (1883-84),  and  a  new 
translation  of  the  Psalms  (1884). 


Chi 


(  169  ) 


Chi 


Childermas  Day.  See  Innocents’  Day. 

Chili.  “  The  form  of  worship  recognized 
by  the  constitution  is  the  Roman  Catholic, 
yet  Government  tolerates  the  public  pro¬ 
fession  of  others.  For  the  purposes  of 
ecclesiastical  administration,  Chili  is  di¬ 
vided  into  four  dioceses — one  archbishop- 


the  adult  Indians  produced  little  fruit,  but 
in  their  schools  they  have  been  more  suc¬ 
cessful.  Worship,  including  salaries  and 
repairs  of  churches,  costs  the  Government 
annually  ,£63,425.  In  Santiago  there  is  one 
handsome  Protestant  church;  in  Valparaiso, 
three;  and  a  chapel  in  Talca.  Roman  Ca¬ 
tholicism  exists  in  a  mild  form  among  the 


CHESTER  CATHEDRAL. 


ric  and  three  bishoprics — which  are  subdi¬ 
vided  into  144  parishes.  The  mission 
department  is  under  the  direction  of  Cap¬ 
uchin  friars,  and  consists  of  a  prefect  and 
sub-prefect,  and  a  staff  of  thirty  missionaries 
and  several  chaplains,  stationed  in  the 
provinces  of  Aranco,  Valdivia,  Llangui- 
hue,  and  Magallanes.  Their  labors  among 


educated  classes,  but  with  a  good  deal  of 
superstition  among  the  miners  and  peas¬ 
antry.” — Ency.  Britannica . 

Chiliasm.  See  Millennium;  Millena- 

RIANISM. 

Chilling  worth,  William,  a  learned  theo- 


Chi 


(  170  ) 


Chi 


# 

logian  of  the  Church  of  England;  b.  at 
Oxford,  Oct.  1602;  d.  at  Chichester,  Jan. 
30,  1644.  A  fellow  of  Trinity  College,  Ox¬ 
ford,  1628,  he  joined  the  Roman  Church  in 
1629,  and  went  to  Douay.  The  further 
study  of  the  subject  soon  led  him  to  re¬ 
nounce  his  new  faith,  and  he  returned  to 
England,  where  he  devoted  himself  to  writ¬ 
ing  in  defense  of  the  Protestant  faith.  In 
1638  he  was  ordained  to  the  ministry  in  the 
Church  of  England,  and  the  same  year  ap¬ 
peared  the  work  upon  which  his  fame  rests, 
The  Religion  of  Protestants  a  Safe  Way  to 
Salvation.  His  Works  were  last  published 
at  Oxford,  3  vols.  (1838).  See  Des  Mai- 
zeaux:  Historical  and  Critical  Account  of  the 
Life  and  Writings  of  W.  Chillingworth 
(London,  1725). 

Chimere  (Old  French,  chamarre ,  a  gown 
or  coat),  the  vestment  which  bishops  wear 
over  the  rochet,  which  is  a  short  and  nar¬ 
row  surplice.  It  was  originally  sleeveless, 
and  the  lawn  sleeves  now  worn  are  the 
sleeves  of  the  rochet,  very  much  length¬ 
ened  and  widened. 

China.  ‘  ‘  The  principal  religions  of  China 
are  Buddhism, Taonism,  and  Confucianism, 
to  which  must  be  added  Mohammedan¬ 
ism  in  the  northern  and  western  prov¬ 
inces  of  the  empire.  Buddhism  was 
introduced  from  India  during  the  first 
century  of  the  Christian  era;  and  thus, 
coming  at  a  time  when  the  national 
mind  had  been  prepared  by  the  teach¬ 
ings  of  Confucius  and  the  mysticisms 
of  Laon-tsse  for  the  reception  of  a  re¬ 
ligious  system  which  should  satisfy  the 
requirements  of  its  higher  nature,  the 
new  faith  spread  rapidly  through  the 
country,  and,  at  the  present  day,  num¬ 
bers  more  adherents  than  either  of  the 
other  two  leading  religions. 

“  Laon-tsse,  who  was  the  founder  of 
the  Taonist  sect,  was  a  contemporary 
of  Confucius.  Like  that  sage,  also,  he 
held  office  at  the  court  of  Chow,  but, 
being  disheartened  at  the  want  of  suc¬ 
cess  attending  his  efforts  to  reform  the 
manners  of  the  age,  he  retired  into  pri¬ 
vate  life,  and  devoted  himself  to  the 
composition  of  The  Sdtra  of  Reason  and 
Virtue.  In  this  work  he  enunciated  a 
scheme  of  philosophy  which  bears  a 
strong  analogy  to  the  doctrines  of  the 
Quietists  and  Manichaeists,  the  leading 
point  being  the  relation  between  some¬ 
thing,  which  he  calls  Taon ,  and  the 
universe.  The  philosophical  bearing 
of  his  system  was,  however,  soon  lost 
sight  of,  and  his  profound  specula¬ 
tions  were  exchanged  for  the  pursuit 
of  immortality  and  the  search  after 


the  philosopher’s  stone  by  his  follow¬ 
ers.  But  while  Buddhism  and  Taonism 
find  their  adherents  among  the  common 
people,  Confucianism  is,  par  excellence , 
the  religion  of  the  learned.  The  opin¬ 
ions  and  teachings  of  the  sage  are  their 
constant  study;  and  at  stated  periods  they 
assemble  fn  temples  devoted  to  his  honor 
to  worship  at  the  shrine  of  the  ‘  Throne¬ 
less  King.’  But  the  process  of  decay, 
which  has  been  going  on  for  so  many 
centuries  in  the  distinctive  features  of 
these  creeds,  has  served  so  to  obliterate 
the  lines  of  demarcation  which  originally 
separated  them,  that,  at  the  present  day, 
the  dogmas  of  Buddha  and  .Laon-tsse,  and 
the  teachings  of  Confucius,  may,  as  far  as 
the  masses  areconcerned,  be  treated  as  the 
foundations  of  a  common  faith.” — Ency. 
Britannica.  See  Buddhism;  Taonism; 
Confucius. 

China,  Missions  in.  See  Missions;  Mis¬ 
sionary  Statistics  in  Appendix. 

Chirothecae,  the  embroidered  gloves 
worn  by  Roman  Catholic  bishops.  They 
were  formerly  worn  by  bishops  of  the 
Church  of  England. 


CHOIR  OF  ST.  ASAPH  CATHEDRAL. 


Cho 


(  I7i  ) 


Chr 


CHOIR  OF  YORK  MINSTER. 

Choir  (Latin  chorus)  has  always  been 
used  in  a  double  sense:  (1)  of  the  singers 
of  the  church;  (2)  of  the  part  of  the  church 
where  they  sit.  There  was  a  choir  in  the 
Jewish  temple  (2  Chron.  v.  12),  and  very 
early  mention  is  made  of  their  services  in 
Christian  worship. 

The  choir  “  in  churches  of  fully  devel¬ 
oped  plan  is  that  part  between  the  nave  and 
the  apse  which  is  reserved  for  canons, 
priests,  monks,  and  choristers  during  di¬ 
vine  service.  In  cruciform  churches  the 
choir  usually  begins  at  the  transepts,  and 
occupies  the  head  of  the  cross,  including 
the  altar;  but  sometimes,  especially  in 
monastic  churches,  it  extends  beyond  the 
transepts,  thus  encroaching  on  the  nave. 
In  churches  without  transepts  the  choir  is 
similarly  placed.” — Centurv  Dictionary ,  s.v. 

Chora'zin,  a  city  of  Galilee,  associated 
with  Capernaum  and  Bethsaida  in  the  woes 
pronounced  by  Christ.  (Matt.  xi.  21;  Luke 
x.  13.)  Dr.  W.  M.  Thomson  identifies  it 
with  Kherazeh ,  two  miles  west  of  Tell 
Hum,  where  there  are  extensive  ruins. 

Chorepiscopi  ( country  bishops),  those 
bishops  that  acted  in  country  districts,  but 
whose  position  was  subordinate  to  the 
bishop  of  the  diocese  in  which  they  worked. 
The  friction  which  was  caused  by  this 


relation  led  to  their  abolition  in  the 
ninth  century. 

Chrism,  the  consecrated  oil  used  in 
the  Greek  and  Roman  Church,  in  the 
administration  of  baptism,  confirma¬ 
tion,  ordination  of  priests,  and  ex¬ 
treme  unction. 

Chrisom,  the  old  English  name  for 
the  white  dress  of  a  child  at  its  bap¬ 
tism.  It  originally  signified  the  linen 
band  tied  over  the  forehead  when  the 
child  had  been  anointed,  either  at 
baptism  or  confirmation.  The  dress 
was  returned  when  the  mother  was 
churched,  but  in  case  the  infant  died 
fpl  before  the  chrisom  was  returned  to 
the  church  it  was  called  a  “  chrisom 
|ig|  child,”  and  the  dress  was  sometimes 
used  as  a  shroud. 

HHI  Christ.  See  Jesus  Christ. 

IB  Christ,  Images  and  Pictures  of. 

||||  The  evangelists  give  us  no  hint  of 
HU  the  personal  appearance  of  Christ, 
Hill  but  the  Gnostics  had  what  they  called 
images  of  Christ  as  early  as  the  sec- 
sill  ond  century.  In  the  early  church  some 
took  the  ground  that  he  was  physically 
uncomely,  as  described  in  Isaiah  lii. 
14  ;  liii.  2  ;  while  others  declared  him 
to  have  been  the  most  beautiful  of  man¬ 
kind.  A  spurious  letter  of  Lentulus,  not 
older  than  the  fourth  century,  described 
Christ  as  a  man  of  noble  appearance,  with 
curly  hair  parted  in  front,  and  falling,  dark 
and  glossy,  over  his  shoulders,  with  a 
smooth,  high  forehead,  and  a  reddish 
beard.  He  is  represented  on  the  sar¬ 
cophagi,  and  in  some  of  the  frescoes  of  the 
catacombs,  under  the  figure  of  the  Good 
Shepherd,  as  a  young  man  of  joyful 
countenance.  In  the  middle  ages  the  face 
of  Christ  is  idealized  in  art,  and  finds  its 
highest  expression  in  Leonardo  da  Vinci’s 
painting  of  the  Last  Supper.  Romanists 
claim  that  certain  images  and  pictures  of 
Christ,  still  preserved,  are  of  miraculous 
origin.  One  of  the  most  noted  of  these  is 
the  Veronica  (the  picture  known  as  the 
Ecce  Homo)  on  a  linen  cloth  which,  tradition 
says,  was  given  to  Christ  while  on  his  way 
to  Calvary  by  a  woman  named  Veronica, 
and  with  which  he  wiped  his  brow. 

Christ,  Knights  of  the  Order  of, 
founded  by  Dionysius,  King  of  Portugal,  in 
1317.  At  one  time  the  order  had  immense 
revenues,  but  in  1708  it  was  abolished, 
and  its  estates  confiscated. 

Christ,  Monogram  ok,  a  combination  of 


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the  letters  X  and  P,  found  in  the  catacombs, 
and  used  by  Constantine  on  military 
standards,  coins,  etc. 

Christ,  Person  of.  See  Christology. 

Christ,  Sinlessness  of.  See  Jesus 
Christ. 

Christ,  Three  Offices  of,  are  those  of 
prophet,  priest,  and  king.  This  distinction, 
introduced  by  Calvin,  was  adopted  in  the 
Westminister  and  Heidelberg  catechisms. 

Christadelphians  (so  called  because  they 
believe  that  all  who  are  in  Christ  are  his 
brethren),  a  small  sect  founded  about  i860 
by  John  Thomas,  M.  D.,  who  had  been  con¬ 
nected  with  the  Disciples  of  Christ.  They 
have  a  few  congregations,  Avhich  they 
designate  as  "  ecclesias,”  in  the  United 
States  and  Great  Britain.  They  reject  the 
Trinity,  and  hold  that  Jesus  Christ  is  the 
manifestation  of  the  eternal  spirit  of  God; 
and  that  there  is  only  immortality  in 
Christ.  Immersion  is  essential  to  salva¬ 
tion,  and  only  those  who  hold  the  faith  as 
taught  by  the  Christadelphians  will  have 
part  in  the  resurrection,  and  enjoy  im¬ 
mortality,  all  others  being  annihilated. 
See  A  Declaration  of  the  First  Principles  of 
the  Oracles  of  Deity  (Washington,  D.  C.) 

Christening,  a  name  given  to  the  act  of 
baptism. 

Christian.  “  The  disciples  were  called 
Christians  first  in  Antioch  ”  (Acts  xi.  26) — ■ 
at  Antioch,  that  is,  on  the  Syrian  River 
Orontes — about  a.  d.  43. 

Other  names  by  which  believers  in  Christ 
were  called  were  “  the  brethren  ”  (Acts  xv. 
1),  and  “  the  believers.”  (Acts  v.  14.)  It  is 
thus  likely  that  at  the  time  St.  Luke  speaks 
of,  the  name  Christian  was  not  self-assum¬ 
ed;  and  it  is  clear  that  it  could  not  have 
been  given  by  the  Jews,  since  they  would 
have  considered  it  as  profaning  the  title  of 
their  expected  Messiah — the  names  given 
by  them  were  Nazarenes  or  Galileans;  it 
must,  therefore,  have  been  imposed  by  the 
heathen  population  of  Antioch.  It  was  at 
once  adopted,  and  “  I  am  a  Christian  ”  be¬ 
came  the  formula  of  the  martyr’s  confes¬ 
sion  (Tertullian’s  Apologia ,  ii.). 

Christian  Commission,  The  United 
States.  This  noble  organization,  which 
did  so  much  for  the  spiritual  welfare  of  the 
Union  armies  during  the  Civil  War,  was 
organized  in  1861  in  New  York  City  under 
the  auspices  of  the  Young  Men’s  Christian 
Association.  Through  its  agency,  Bibles, 
tracts,  religious  newspapers,  and  books 


were  distributed,  and  a  great  amount  of 
personal  service  rendered  in  camps  and 
hospitals.  Counting  in  the  various  gifts 
bestowed  through  the  Society,  it  distrib¬ 
uted  over  $6,000,000.  See  Lemuel  Moss: 
Annals  of  the  U.  S.  Christian  Commission 
(Phila. ,  1868). 

Christians  (Christian  Connection),  an 
organization  of  believers  that  arose  almost 
simultaneously  in  various  parts  of  the 
country  about  the  close  of  the  last  century. 

The  leading  spirit  of  the  movement  was 
Rev.  James  O’Kelly,  a  prominent  minister 
in  the  Methodist  Episcopal  Church.  Mr. 
O’Kelly  lived  in  Virginia,  and  seems  to  have 
become  dissatisfied  with  various  require¬ 
ments  in  the  creed  and  discipline  of  his 
church.  The  same  feeling  was  shared  by 
a  considerable  number  of  his  brethren, 
some  of  whom  were  Baptists — who,  like 
the  Puritans  of  old,  wanted  more  liberty  of 
conscience.  These  brethren,  after  some 
consultation,  decided  to  form  a  new  denom¬ 
ination.  They  called  themselves,  at  the 
first," Republican  Methodists,”  but  adopted 
almost  substantially  the  principles  now 
held  by  the  Christians,  and  the  following 
year  (1793),  they  unanimously  adopted  the 
name  "  Christian,”  which  name  has  since 
properly  designated  the  denomination. 

The  denomination  is  peculiar  in  that  the 
members  subscribe  to  no  creed  but  the  un¬ 
qualified  Word  of  God.  They  reckon  hu¬ 
man  creeds  and  formal  statements  of  faith 
as  mischievous,  and  tending  to  bigotry  and 
disunion  among  God’s  people.  But  no 
people  are  more  orthodox  in  their  adher¬ 
ence  to  the  Bible  as  the  “  only  infallible 
rule  of  faith  and  practice.”  They  regard 
Jesus  Christ  as  the  Son  of  God  and  the 
supreme  head  of  the  Church,  hence  they 
adopt  the  name  Christian  as  an  appropriate 
name  for  all  followers  of  Christ.  They 
also  hold  that  not  mere  intellectual  belief, 
but  Christian  character,  is  the  proper  test 
of  church  fellowship;  and,  while  acknowl¬ 
edging  the  right  and  duty  of  private  judg¬ 
ment,  they  believe  in  the  union  of  all  loyal 
believers — many  advocating  even  the  or¬ 
ganic  union  of  the  various  sects  upon  the 
principles  of  the  teachings  of  Christ. 

The  denomination  has  its  chief  following 
among  the  rural  population,  although 
churches  are  well  sustained  in  Albany  and 
Brooklyn,  N.  Y.,  Fall  River,  Mass., 
Springfield,  Ohio,  and  other  important 
towns.  It  has  two  Theological  schools, 
one  at  Stanfordville,  N.  Y. ,  and  one  at 
Merom,  Ind.  It  also  maintains  several 
chartered  colleges  and  institutions  of  a 
high  grade,  among  which  are  Antioch  Col¬ 
lege,  Ohio;  U.  C.  College,  Ind.;  Elon  Col¬ 
lege,  N.  C.,  and  the  Christian  Correspond- 


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ence  College,  N.  Y.  One  of  its  oldest  and 
most  successful  institutions,  also  located  in 
N.  Y.,  is  Starkey  Seminary  and  College, 
which  celebrated  its  semicentennial  in 
June,  1890. 

The  denomination  is  liberal,  but  not  lax. 
The  churches  number  about  1,500,  and  the 
membership  nearly  30,000  in  this  country 
alone.  Within  the  past  few  years  aggres¬ 
sive  foreign  missionary  work  has  been  be¬ 
gun  in  Japan,  and  the  Christians  already 
have  four  commissioned  missions  and  sev¬ 
eral  churches  in  that  field. 

The  principal  organ  of  the  church  is  the 
Herald  of  Gospel  Liberty ,  published  un¬ 
der  the  direction  of  the  Christian  Quadren¬ 
nial  Association  at  Dayton,  Ohio.  This 
paper  is  said  to  be  the  first  distinctively 
religious  newspaper  that  was  ever  publish¬ 
ed  in  America,  having  been  founded  in 
1808.  It  is  now  a  sixteen-page  weekly, 
open  to  free  and  candid  discussions  on  all 
biblical  topics.  It  has  an  efficient  corps 
of  editors  and  a  good  circulation.  Various 
other  periodicals  are  published  in  the  in¬ 
terests  of  the  cause.  See  History  of  the 
Christians ,  by  J.  R.  Freese,  M.  D.,and  the 
writings  of  N.  Summerbell,  D.  D.,  Warren 
Hathaway,  D.  D.,  Austin  Craig,  D.  D., 

and  others.  L.  J.  Aldrich. 

* 

Christian  Endeavor,  The  Young  Peo¬ 
ple’s  Society  of.  This  “latest-born  of 
•the  children  of  the  Church,”  as  the  Society 
of  Christian  Endeavor  has  been  fitly  called, 
was  first  established  in  theWilliston  Church 
in  Portland,  Maine,  on  the  second  day  of 
February,  1881.  It  was  founded  by  the 
pastor  of  that  church  for  the  sake  of  help¬ 
ing  the  young  people  to  become  more  stal¬ 
wart  in  their  Christian  lives,  and  more  de¬ 
voted  to  and  useful  in  the  church  to  which 
they  belonged.  It  was  established,  in  the 
first  place,  with  little  thought  beyond  the 
needs  of  that  one  church,  but  it  has  been 
providentially  used  in  a  marvelous  way,  in 
all  denominations  and  in  all  lands,  for  the 
quickening  of  the  zeal  of  young  disciples, 
and  for  their  establishment  in  the  faith. 
The  following  figures  show  its  remarkable 
growth  in  the  number  of  societies  and 
members: 

Societies.  Members. 


In  1881 .  2  68 

,Ini882 .  7  481 

In  1883 .  56  2,870 

In  1884 .  J56  8,905 

In  1885  .  253  10,964 

In  1886 .  850  50.000 

In  1887 . 2,314  140,000 

In  1888 . 4,879  310.000 

In  1889 .  7,672  485,000 

In  1890  (on  record  to  June  1). .. .  -  660, coo 


There  are  no  doctrinal  tests  imposed, 
since  every  society  is  connected  with  and 


is  absolutely  controlled  by  some  local 
church,  whose  doctrines  and  polity  it  loyal¬ 
ly  accepts.  The  distinguishing  features  of 
the  society  are  the  voluntary  pledges, 
which  bind  the  Active  members  to  attend 
and  participate  in  every  weekly  prayer¬ 
meeting  of  the  society,  “  unless  prevented 
by  some  reason  which  can  conscientiously 
be  given  to  Christ  for  an  excuse”;  the 
monthly  .  consecration  meeting,  when  the 
roll  of  Active  members  is  called  (unexcused 
absence  from  three  consecutive  consecra¬ 
tion  meetings  forfeiting  membership),  and 
the  various  committees,  which  vary  in 
number  from  three  to  twenty ,  according  to 
the  needs  of  the  churches  to  which  the  so¬ 
cieties  belong.  The  Lookout,  Prayer-meet¬ 
ing,  and  Social  Committee,  however,  seem 
essential  to  every  real  Society  of  Christian 
Endeavor. 

Besides  the  Active  members,  who  are 
young  Christians  willing  to  take  the 
pledges  of  the  society,  there  are  Associate 
members,  who  are  those  “  who,  though  not 
yet  ready  to  be  considered  decided  Chris¬ 
tians,  are  willing  to  put  themselves  under 
the  influences  of  the  society,”  and  for 
whom  the  Active  members  especially  prom¬ 
ise  to  labor  and  pray.  The  pledge,  usually 
taken  by  the  Active  members,  reads  as  fol¬ 
lows: 

“Trusting  in  the  Lord  Jesus  Christ  for 
strength,  I  promise  him  that  I  will  strive  to 
do  whatever  he  would  like  to  have  me  do; 
that  I  will  pray  to  him  and  read  the  Bible 
everyday,  and  that,  just  so  far  as  I  know 
how,  throughout  my  whole  life,  I  will  en¬ 
deavor  to  lead  a  Christian  life.  As  an  Act¬ 
ive  member,  I  promise  to  be  true  to  all  my 
duties,  to  be  present  at  and  to  take  some 
part,  aside  from  singing,  in  every  meeting, 
unless  hindered  by  some  reason  which  I 
can  conscientiously  give  to  my  Lord  and 
Master,  Jesus  Christ.  If  obliged  to  be 
absent  from  the  monthly  consecration¬ 
meeting,  I  will,  if  possible,  send  an  excuse 
for  absence  to  the  Society. 

“  Signed . 

“  Date . “  Residence .  - . ” 

That  taken  by  the  Associate  members,  as 
follows: 

“  As  an  Associate  member  I  promise  to 
attend  the  prayer-meetings  of  the  Society 
habitually,  and  declare  my  willingness  to 
do  what  I  may  be  called  upon  to  do,  as  an 
Associate  member,  to  advance  the  interests 
of  the  Society. 

“  Signed . ” 

Besides  these  two  classes,  the  pastor, 
deacons,  Sunday-school  superintendent, 
elders,  and  stewards  are,  ex officiis,  honora¬ 
ry  members  of  the  society;  and  there  are 
also  Affiliated  members,  who  consist  of 
persons  no  longer  young,  but  who  desire 


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to  express  their  interest  in  its  work,  and 
who  are  excused  from  the  obligations  and 
service  of  the  Active  members.  Into 
this  class  the  Active  members  may  be 
“  graduated”  when  other  religious  duties 
press  so  heavily  upon  them  that  they  can¬ 
not  do  the  active  work  of  the  society. 
Thus  provision  is  made  for  keeping  the 
burden  and  responsibility  constantly  upon 
young  shoulders. 

It  cannot  be  insisted  on  too  strongly  that 
the  Society  of  Christian  Endeavor  is,  first 
and  last  and  always,  a  Religious  Society.  It 
has  social  and  literary  and  other  features, 
but  it  is  not  a  social  nor  literary  society. 

In  the  Platform  of  Principles  set  forth 
by  the  President  of  the  United  Society 
when  he  accepted  the  position,  and  since 
very  generally  endorsed  by  the  societies, 
and  adopted  by  their  conventions,  is  the 
following: 

“  The  purely  religious  features  of  the 
organization  shall  always  be  paramount. 
The  Society  of  Christian  Endeavor  centres 
about  the  prayer  -  meeting.  The  strict 
prayer-meeting  pledge,  honestly  interpret¬ 
ed,  is  essential  to  the  continued  success  of  a 
Society  of  Christian  Endeavor.” 

A  society  thus  organized  among  the 
young  people  has  proved  itself  to  be,  in 
many  cases,  a  half-way  house  to  the  Church. 

Into  this  Society  the  new  Christian, 
however  young  or  feeble  he  may  be, 
may  come  at  once.  Here  he  may  at  once 
be  recognized  as  a  Christian,  may  at  once 
have  the  opportunity  and  be  encour¬ 
aged  to  acknowledge  his  Saviour,  and  be 
at  once  set  to  work  for  him.  To  use  an¬ 
other  figure,  this  Society  bridges  the  dan¬ 
gerous  gap  between  conversion  and  church- 
membership,  which  is  often  a  long  one  in 
the  case  of  young  disciples,  an  interval 
when  many  stray  away,  and  are  lost  for¬ 
ever  to  the  Church  and  the  cause  of  Christ. 

This  society  is  also  a  training-school  in 
the  Church.  It  gives  the  young  Christian 
something  to  do  at  once. 

It  accustoms  him  to  the  sound  of  his  own 
voice  in  the  prayer-meeting. 

It  causes  him  to  understand  that  he  has 
a  part  to  perform  in  the  activities  of  the 
Church,  as  well  as  the  oldest  Christian.  It 
sends  him  upon  a  hundred  errands  for 
Christ.  Very  soon  he  learns  that  he  has 
a  duty  in  the  general  church  prayer-meet¬ 
ings,  and  he  becomes  naturally  and  easily 
one  of  the  pastor’s  trusted  helpers.  We 
are  speaking  from  actual  experience  in  this 
matter,  and  are  not  theorizing. 

A  generation  of  Christians,  trained  from 
early  boyhood  and  girlhood  in  this  way, 
patiently,  persistently,  kindly,  would  be  a 
generation  of  working  Christians. 

This  society  is  also  a  watch-tower  for 


the  Church.  The  pastor  ought  always  to 
attend  the  prayer-meetings  and  the  social 
gatherings,  and,  unseen,  keep  his  hands  on 
the  reins  of  the  organization.  If  he  does 
so,  wisely  and  constantly,  he  cannot  help 
knowing  how  the  young  converts  are  pro¬ 
gressing  in  the  Christian  life.  If  they  are 
faithful  to  their  voluntary  vows,  he  knows 
it,  and  can  mark  with  joy  their  growth  in 
grace.  If  they  are  negligent,  he  knows 
that,  and  can  at  once  look  after  and  reclaim 
the  unfaithful  ones. 

No  month  need  ever  go  by  without  the  pas¬ 
tor  knowing  the  religious  status  of  each  of 
his  young  people.  The  various  committees 
are  very  important  features  of  the  Young 
People’s  Society  of  Christian  Endeavor. 
With  faithful,  earnest,  intelligent  commit¬ 
tees,  the  work  can  hardly  fail  to  succeed. 
Perhaps  the  most  important  committee  is 
the  “  Lookout  Committee.”  This  com¬ 
mittee  has  for  part  of  its  work  to  introduce 
new  members  to  the  society,  and  it  needs  to 
take  great  pains  that  only  those  who  have  be¬ 
gun  the  Christian  life  are  thus  introduced  as 
Active  members.  But  its  most  delicate,  and 
at  the  same  time,  important,  duty  is  the 
reclaiming  of  those  who  have  grown  lax 
and  indifferent  to  their  vows.  If  any  Active 
member  is  away  from  the  monthly  conse¬ 
cration  meeting,  the  lookout  committee 
should  know  the  fact,  and  should  find  out 
the  reason  for  the  absence.  The  very  fact 
that  this  committee  is  on  the  “  lookout, 
will  prove  a  salutary  restraint  upon  many. 
There  are  but  few  young  people  who  stay 
away  who  cannot  be  reclaimed  and  brought 
back  to  their  allegiance  by  a  wise  and  faith¬ 
ful  lookout  committee. 

The  other  committees — especially  the 
prayer-meeting  and  social  committees — are 
scarcely  less  important,  but  their  duties 
are  easily  understood,  as  defined  in  the  con¬ 
stitution,  and  we  do  not  need  to  dwell  upon 
their  work. 

All  these  committees,  according  to  their 
zeal  and  devotion,  can  make  much  or  lit¬ 
tle  of  their  office.  Each  one  of  them  affords 
a  grand  opportunity  for  efficient  service,  if 
it  is  rightly  used.  Who  may  become  mem¬ 
bers  ?  Should  there  be  an  age  limit  ?  These 
are  questions  which  are  often  asked.  We 
are  not  in  favor  of  a  strict  age  limit,  since 
youth  and  age  are  such  variable  terms. 
Many  a  man  is  old  at  twenty-five.  Many 
a  man  at  fifty  is  still  young.  This  matter 
can  usually  be  left  to  the  sanctified  common- 
sense  of  Christian  men  and  women.  As  a 
general  rule,  the  older  church-members 
will  feel  that  they  can  do  more  good  by 
praying  for  the  young  people’s  meeting  at 
home.  Their  presence  in  large  numbers 
would  embarrass,  and,  perhaps,  silence 
many  timid  young  Christians.  Still,  there 


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(  175  ) 


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are  exceptions  to  this  rule.  It  is  very  es¬ 
sential  that  there  should  be  in  the  society 
a  number  of  older  young  people,  say  those 
between  twenty  and  forty,  to  give  stability 
to  the  work,  and  to  take  the  lead  in  the 
committees.  While  the  children  should 
always  be  welcomed  and  encouraged  to 
come,  yet  a  society  composed  wholly  of 
children  will  hardly  succeed.  On  the 
younger  side  the  age  limit  easily  takes 
care  of  itself.  Children  whom  their  par¬ 
ents  allow  to  be  out  in  the  evening  are 
not  too  young  to  become  members. 

The  Junior  Society  of  Christian  Endeav¬ 
or  is  a  more  recent  development  of  the 
movement,  and  one  which  promises  greatly 
to  bless  the  children  between  six  and  four¬ 
teen  years  of  age. 

The  United  Society  of  Christian  Endeav¬ 
or  was  founded  in  1885,  and  is  simply  a 
bureau  of  information.  It  exerts  no  au¬ 
thority,  claims  no  allegiance,  and  levies  no 
taxes.  It  answers  nearly  fifty  thousand 
letters  of  inquiry  a  year,  sends  out  explan¬ 
atory  literature  which  is  called  for,  and  is 
governed  by  a  board  of  trustees  represent¬ 
ing  the  various  evangelical  denominations. 

In  the  Northern  and  Western  States  and 
several  Southern  States  the  societies  are 
associated  in  State  “  Christian  Endeavor 
Unions,”  which  hold  annual  conventions  of 
great  size  and  enthusiasm.  Local  county 
and  city  Christian  Endeavor  Unions  are 
also  formed  in  nearly  all  parts  of  the  coun¬ 
try,  and  are  productive  of  much  good.  In 
1886  the  Golden  Rule  newspaper  of  Boston 
was  adopted  as  the  National  representative 
of  the  societies.  It  has  attained  a  very 
large  circulation,  and  is  self-supporting. 
In  1888,  in  consequence  of  a  visit  of  the 
President  of  the  United  Society  to  England, 
a  British  Section  of  the  Christian  Endeavor 
Society  was  established.  There  are  also 
many  branches  of  the  society  in  all  lands 
to  which  American  missionaries  have  gone. 
The  annual  Conventions  of  the  society 
have  been  meetings  of  immense  power  and 
influence.  The  Convention  in  Chicago  in 
1888  called  together  over  4,000  young  peo¬ 
ple  from  all  parts  of  the  land,  and  the  Con¬ 
vention  in  Philadelphia  in  1889  over  6,500. 
It  attracted  much  attention  in  the  religious 
and  secular  press,  and  was  pronounced  in 
many  quarters  “  the  largest  delegated  re¬ 
ligious  convention  ever  held  in  the  world’s 
history.”  F.  E.  Clark. 

Christian  Union,  The.  This  organiza¬ 
tion  was  established  in  1864,  the  prime 
mover  and  founder  being  the  Rev.  J.  F. 
Given,  of  Columbus,  O.  The  first  Coun¬ 
cil  convened  in  Columbus,  O.,  Feb.  3, 
1864,  where  the  following  “basis  of 
union”  was  subscribed: 


“  Having  a  desire  for  a  more  perfect  fel¬ 
lowship  in  Christ  and  a  more  satisfactory 
enjoyment  of  the  means  of  religious  edifi¬ 
cation  and  comfort,  we  do  solemnly  form 
ourselves  into  a  religious  Society  under 
style  of  The  Christian  Union,  in  which  we 
aver  our  true  and  hearty  faith  in  the  re¬ 
ceived  Scriptures  of  the  Old  and  New 
Testaments  as  the  Word  of  God,  and  the 
only  and  sufficient  rule  of  faith  and  practice, 
and  pledge  ourselves,  through  Christ  who 
strengtheneth  us,  to  keep  and  observe  all 
thing  whatsoever  he  hath  commanded  us.” 
The  first  General  Council  convened  June 
the  10th,  1865,  at  Terra  Haute,  Ind.,  em¬ 
bracing  delegates  from  the  State  Unions  of 
Ohio,  Indiana,  Iowa,  and  Illinois. 

They  now  have  two  annual  Councils  in 
Ohio,  one  in  Indiana,  one  in  Illinois,  two  in 
Missouri, one  in  Iowa,  one  in  Kansas,  one  in 
Tennessee  and  Kentucky,  one  in  Colorado, 
and  many  local  churches  scattered  through 
the  other  States.  Each  local  church  is  in¬ 
dependent,  the  government  of  the  body 
being  Congregational.  The  Councils  are 
advisory,  and  have  charge  of  the  literature 
and  publishing  interests  of  the  church. 
The  Christian  Witness,  edited  by  Rev.  H. 
J.  Duckworth,  and  published  by  The  Chris¬ 
tian  Publishing  House,  is  the  acknowledged 
organ  and  authorized  church  paper.  The 
body  now  numbers  about  1,000  ministers, 
1,500  churches,  and  125,000  communi¬ 
cants.  H.  J.  Duckworth. 

Christianity,  the  religion  which  we  pro¬ 
fess,  is  based  upon  a  new  and  specific  rev¬ 
elation  in  the  person  of  Jesus  Christ.  Its 
aim  is  to  restore  to  mankind  the  lost  fel¬ 
lowship  with  God  in  an  eternal  kingdom, 
set  up  here  on  earth,  and  called  the  Church, 
to  be  brought  to  its  full  and  perfect  con¬ 
summation  in  the  world  to  come.  The 
history  of  Christianity,  then,  is  the  record 
of  the  facts  pertaining  to  the  nature  and 
growth  of  the  Kingdom  of  God  upon 
earth,  in  their  external  and  internal  rela¬ 
tions.  This  history  falls  into  three  main 
divisions:  Ancient,  Mediaeval,  and  .Mod¬ 
ern.  The  Ancient  history  of  Christianity 
is  the  narrative  of  the  supremacy  won  by 
the  Church  over  Greek  culture  and  the 
Roman  Empire.  It  closes,  and  Mediaeval 
history  begins,  with  the  epoch  of  the  Car- 
lovingian  dynasty.  The  Mediaeval  period 
comprises  the  victories  of  the  Church  over 
the  Celtic,  Teutonic,  Slavonian,  and  Scan¬ 
dinavian  tribes  in  the  centre  and  north  of 
Europe,  the  conflicts  and  rupture  of  the 
Eastern  and  Western  branches  of  the 
Church,  and  the  contest  between  the  im¬ 
perial  and  papal  powers  for  supremacy. 
This  period  closes  with  the  Reformation. 
The  Modern  history  recites  the  struggles 


Chr 


{  176  ) 


Chr 


between  Catholicism  and  Protestantism, 
and  between  Christianity  and  Philosophy, 
and  the  growth  of  Protestant  civilization. 

I.  Ancient  Christianity .  The  first  sub¬ 
division  in  this  portion  (1)  reaches  from 
Christ  to  the  days  of  the  Antonines.  It 
comprises  the  age  of  the  apostles  and  of 
the  whole  of  the  New  Testament  Script¬ 
ures,  and  is  prior  to  the  most  wide-spread 
persecutions,  and  to  the  more  definite 
formation  of  the  Catholic  polity  and  the¬ 
ology.  The  energy  of  the  Church  is  dis¬ 
played  in  its  zealous  missionary  work,  and 
its  unparalleled  expansion.  During  this 
time  were  also  written  the  works  of  the 
Apostolic  Fathers  and  the  first  Apologists, 
to  which  must  be  added  some  heretical 
writings.  Next  comes  (2)  the  formation 
of  the  Catholic  Church  in  the  midst  of  con¬ 
flicts  and  persecutions  (a.  u.  180—313). 
The  Church,  having  won  her  victory  over 
Judaism  and  the  cruder  forms  of  Gnosti¬ 
cism,  is  in  conflict  with  popular  heathen¬ 
ism,  with  the  philosophic  culture  of  the 
time,  and  with  the  civil  power,  and  passes 
through  each  conflict  with  the  calm  con¬ 
viction  of  final  supremacy.  At  the  begin¬ 
ning  of  this  period  it  is  diffused  beyond 
the  bounds  of  the  Roman  Empire;  at  the 
close,  it  is  firmly  established  as  asocial  and 
moral  power,  its  civil  rights  are  recog¬ 
nized,  and  its  superiority  to  pagan  relig¬ 
ions  and  philosophy  is  conceded.  This  is 
the  period  of  the  severest  persecutions  by 
the  imperial  power,  with  intervals  of  re¬ 
pose.  A  new  philosophy,  neo-Platonism, 
aims  to  supersede  Christianity  by  reform¬ 
ing  heathen  mythology,  and  though  it  fails, 
it  proves  a  large  factor  in  the  formation  of 
Alexandrian  Christian  theology.  (Origen; 
Alexandria.)  Eastern  and  Western  Chris¬ 
tianity  show  divergence  as  regards  method: 
the  Western,  or  Latin,  tendency  is  prac¬ 
tical,  resting  on  authority;  the  other  is 
speculative  and  exegetical.  Doctrinal  con¬ 
troversy  is  chiefly  concerned  with  the 
Person  of  Christ,  starting  from  simple 
faith  in  him  as  a  Divine  Redeemer,  and 
seeking  to  formulate  his  relation  to  the 
Godhead.  As  the  period  closes,  the  strug¬ 
gle  for  supremacy  between  Christianity 
and  heathenism  takes  decisive  form:  the 
latter  put  forth  all  its  strength  to  crush 
the  advancing  faith,  but  so  entirely  failed 
that  the  great  change  under  Constantine 
was  universally  accepted.  During  this 
time  the  diocesan  system  had  become  fully 
developed;  the  canon  of  Scripture  was 
definitely  formed;  but  the  Church  was  af¬ 
flicted  with  the  Novatian  Schism.  (3)  The 
Church  was  now  allied  with  the  State; 
heathenism  was  gradually  rooted  out  in 
East  and  West,  and  the  barbarian  hordes 
which  began  to  desolate  the  Empire  were 


brought  by  degrees  under  Christian  rule. 
Monasticism  had  become  a  powerful  influ¬ 
ence.  The  third  and  fourth  centuries 
were  the  most  marked  period  in  Church 
history  (the  sixteenth  alone  ranking  with 
it)  in  the  development  and  formal  state¬ 
ment  of  fundamental  Christian  doctrines, 
and  the  height  of  Greek  theology  was  now 
reached.  The  formulas  of  the  Trinity  and 
the  Person  of  Christ  were  attained,  and 
have  ever  since  remained  in  the  creed  of 
the  Church.  Gnosticism  was  now  at  an 
end.  The  first  great  controversy  was  the 
Arian,  the  question  at  issue  being  whether 
in  Christ  there  is  absolute  or  only  relative 
Divinity.  (Arius. )  Then  came  the  ques¬ 
tion,  Had  Christ  a  real  human  soul?  (Con¬ 
stantinople,  Council  of.)  This  being 
affirmed,  and  the  Person  of  Christ  declared 
to  be  One ,  with  Two  Natures ,  controver¬ 
sies  arose  on  the  relation  of  these  two  nat¬ 
ures.  (Ephesus  and  Chalcedon,  Coun¬ 
cils  of.)  Now,  too,  appears  the  greatest 
name  in  the  Latin  Church,  Augustine, 
Bishop  of  Hippo.  (Augustine.)  With  him 
is  connected  the  first  great  controversy 
which  began  in  the  Western  Church,  which 
we  may  call  Anthropological:  questions  re¬ 
specting  nature,  grace,  and  their  relations 
— predestination  and  free-will.  Opposed  to 
Augustine  was  Pelagius  ( q .  v. ).  The 
Catholic  idea  of  the  Church,  too,  was 
more  elaborated  by  Augustine  than  it  had 
been  before,  he  insisting  on  unity  and 
episcopal  succession  against  the  Dona- 
TISTS  (i q .  v.). 

(4)  The  West  has  now  become  the  chief 
seat  of  learning  and  culture  in  the  Church, 
the  Empire  is  divided  and  falling  to  pieces, 
when,  under  Leo  the  Great,  begins  that 
transformation  which  makes  Rome  the 
seat  of  the  Papacy,  as  it  had  once  been  of 
paganism.  The  barbarian  incursions  which 
shattered  the  Roman  Empire  in  the  West 
infused  a  new  life-blood  into  the  old  and 
dying  world.  The  terrible  miseries  which 
ensued  were  as  the  labor-pangs  of  a  new 
world.  Chaos  was  brought  into  order  by 
the  power  of  the  Christian  Church.  The 
Eastern  Church  was  comparatively  iso¬ 
lated:  the  Emperors  claimed  power  over 
it,  and  controversies  were  determined 
mostly  by  political  considerations;  the 
Western  Church  had  to  look  to  Rome  as 
its  centre  of  unity,  for  the  Roman  bishop 
was  its  only  metropolitan.  The  barbarian 
tribes  had  nearly  all  been  converted  to 
Christianity  by  Arian  missionaries  expelled 
from  the  Empire;  but,  one  by  one,  they 
were  won  over  to  the  Catholic  faith,  and 
thus  the  Roman  power  was  consolidated, 
and,  while  the  East  was  continually  en¬ 
gaged  in  subtleties  and  distinctions  of  doc¬ 
trines,  the  definiteness  and  concentration 


Chr 


(  177  ) 


Chr 


of  the  Western  mind  made  its  decisions 
obeyed.  But  doctrinal  controversies  still 
continued  with  vehemence,  the  chief  being 
the  Monophysite  (q.  v.).  The  other,  the 
Semi-Pelagian  (q.  v.),  was  left  undecided, 
and  was  one  of  the  foremost  questions  of 
the  Reformation  in  the  sixteenth  century. 
(5)  The  next  division  of  this  period  begins 
with  the  accession  to  the  Papacy  of  Greg¬ 
ory  the  Great,  in  590.  This  period  wit¬ 
nesses  the  most  marked  contrast  between 
the  Eastern  and  Western  Churches.  The 
new  states  of  the  West  are  shaped  more 
and  more  into  a  political  and  religious 
unity;  the  Frankish  Empire  takes  the  lead 
among  the  nations,  and  saves  Europe  from 
Mahometan  subjugation;  Frank  arms  and 
monastic  zeal  combine  in  propagating 
Christianity  in  Northern  Germany;  the 
Greek  Empire  is  riven  by  the  warlike 
fanaticism  of  the  Mahometans,  and  in  less 
than  a  century  Asia  Minor,  Egypt,  Africa, 
and  Spain  are  subdued  to  the  Crescent. 
The  Iconoclastic  dispute  between  East  and 
West  weakens  the  former,  the  former  see¬ 
ing  in  the  use  of  images  the  progress  of 
superstition,  the  latter  following  its  usual 
policy  by  elevating  the  popular  feeling  into 
a  dogma  of  the  faith.  (Iconoclasts.) 

II.  Mediceval  Christianity:  from  Charle¬ 
magne  to  the  Reformation.  (1)  The  end 
of  the  Greek  Exarchate  in  Italy,  in  752 
(Ravenna),  the  destruction  of  the  Lom¬ 
bard  Kingdom,  in  774,  the  alliance  of  the 
Frank  Empire  with  the  Papacy,  the  divis¬ 
ion  of  the  Mahometan  Khalifate,  in  750, 
into  the  Abbasides  of  the  East  and  the 
Ommiades  in  Spain,  and  the  decline  of  the 
Greek  Empire,  all  make  the  reign  of 
Charles  the  Great  a  turning-point  in  hu¬ 
man  history.  (Charlemagne.)  The  Pa¬ 
pacy  pushes  its  claim  to  universal  obedi¬ 
ence,  which  is  tacitly  acquiesced  in  by 
Charlemagne,  though  he  and  his  succes¬ 
sors  assert  imperial  rights  as  to  the  elec¬ 
tion  of  the  popes.  The  papal  claim  is 
greatly  strengthened  by  the  Forged  De¬ 
cretals  ( q .  v.).  The  result  of  the  claim  of 
the  Papacy  was  the  final  separation  of  the 
Eastern  and  Western  Churches.  The  dis¬ 
memberment  of  Charlemagne’s  Empire 
after  his  death  encouraged  the  papal 
claims,  but  the  latter  part  of  the  ninth 
century  saw  the  popes  become  the  puppets 
of  rival  Italian  factions,  and  for  a  while 
the  Papacy  became  the  shame  and  derision 
of  Europe.  Controversies  concerning  the 
Eucharist  began;  monasticism  made  prog¬ 
ress,  and  gradually  exempted  itself  from 
episcopal  jurisdiction,  and  was  made  sub¬ 
ject  to  the  pope  only.  The  best  life  of 
the  Church  was  seen  in  its  northern  mis¬ 
sions.  These  troubles,  and  the  confusions 
and  struggles  of  the  new  nations  bring  us 


to  what  is  known  as  (2)  “  The  Dark  Age” 
(900-1073).  The  old  classical  learning  had 
died  out,  theology  was  at  a  standstill  or 
retrograde,  art  was  unknown,  the  schools 
of  Charlemagne  were  closed;  the  Papacy 
was  under  the  feet  of  a  Roman  faction, 
which  placed  its  tools  on  the  papal  throne. 
Out  of  this  evil  state  Europe  was  dragged 
by  the  establishment  of  the  new  German 
Empire,  under  Otto  the  Gre£t  (936),  which 
gave  to  Germany  a  centre  of  unity,  re¬ 
stored  order  in  North  Italy,  and  for  a  cen¬ 
tury  and  a  half  controlled  the  Papacy.  (3) 
Out  of  this  order — the  work  of  the  secular 
power — came  fresh  claims  from  the  Papacy 
which  it  had  purified.  Pope  Gregory  VII. 
(1073)  declared  that  the  Popedom  was  a 
theocratic  monarchy  to  rule  all  the  nations; 
and  though  this  doctrine  (as  he  formulated 
it)  was  never  admitted,  sufficient  remained 
to  make  the  papal  power  for  a  couple  of 
centuries  the  greatest  power  upon  earth. 
By  the  enforcement  of  celibacy  in  the 
clergy,  Gregory  separated  the  priesthood 
from  sympathy  with  their  own  national 
governments,  and  branded  investiture  with 
ecclesiastical  office  by  the  secular  power 
as  simony.  The  ban  and  interdict  were 
the  terrible  instruments  of  this  vast  usur¬ 
pation.  (Investiture.)  The  other  salient 
characteristics  of  the  Middle  Ages  come 
out  in  bold  relief  within  this  period.  Feud¬ 
alism  belongs  rather  to  secular  than  to  ec¬ 
clesiastical  history,  but  the  Crusades ,  in 
which  the  old  contest  between  Europe  and 
Asia,  between  Islam  and  Christianity,  was 
revived,  were  a  more  distinctly  religious 
movement.  (Crusades.)  Though  they 
were  ineffectual  in  restoring  Christianity 
in  the  lost  countries,  they  kept  the  Mos¬ 
lems  in  check,  brought  back  something  of 
Eastern  learning  to  the  West,  and  helped 
the  Papacy  to  strengthen  its  hold  upon 
popular  impulses.  Christian  theology 
took  a  new  form  in  Scholasticism.  (School¬ 
men.)  Not  as  yet  widely  felt,  but  begin¬ 
ning  a  new  order  of  things,  were  three 
influences:  (a)  The  germs  of  popular  liter¬ 
ature  in  the  native  languages  (minnesing¬ 
ers  and  troubadours);  (h)  the  Third  Es¬ 
tate,  in  the  Lombard  cities  and  in  France; 
(e)  the  protesting  parties  in  the  Church 
(Waldenses,  etc.),  who  cried  for  re¬ 
ligious  reforms.  (4)  The  accession  of 
Pope  Innocent  III.,  in  1198,  raised  the  pa¬ 
pal  system  to  its  height.  He  brought  the 
chief  kings  of  Christendom  to  submission, 
held  the  gates  of  the  East  through  the  new 
Latin  Empire  at  Constantinople,  and  con¬ 
summated  his  plans  at  the  Lateran  Coun¬ 
cil,  in  1215.  But  his  successors  were  un¬ 
able  to  carry  out  his  schemes;  they  were 
exhausted  by  the  long  struggle  with  the 
IIOHENSTAUFENS  (q.  v.),  and  retired  from 


Chr 


(  ws  ) 


Chr 


this  struggle  only  to  become  the  vassals 
of  France.  The  rise  of  the  new  Mendi¬ 
cant  Orders  of  this  period  will  be  described 
under  Mendicant  Orders.  To  the  same 
period  belongs  the  establishment  of  the 
Inquisition  (y.  v. ).  But  now  a  new  power 
appears:  the  mightiest  for  many  ages.  The 
rise  of  fanatical  sects,  both  within  and 
without  the  Church  (Flagellants;  Frat- 
icelli;  Albigenses),  gave  an  indication 
that  Rome  was  losing  its  hold  of  the  com¬ 
mon  people;  so  did  the  tone  of  the  modern 
literature,  which  now  began  to  rise  in  all 
its  glory,  first  in  Italy.  Rome  and  Scho¬ 
lasticism  could  only  use  dead  Latin;  the 
Divine  Comedy  of  Dante,  the  tales  of  Boc¬ 
caccio,  and  the  sonnets  of  Petrarch  were  in 
the  common  tongue.  In  England,  Wyc- 
liffe’s  projected  reforms  touched  the  very 
heart  of  Church  and  State.  (5)  The  Medi¬ 
aeval  Church  had  done  a  good  work  in 
subduing  the  rude  tribes  of  the  North  to 
the  Gospel,  in  keeping  the  Church  from 
being  subject  to  the  State,  in  collecting 
and  transmitting  ancient  learning.  It  was 
a  schoolmaster  to  the  nations,  but  now 
their  pupilage  was  ending.  But  when 
old  weapons  were  found  unavailing,  the 
Church  took  up  those  of  fraud  and  coer¬ 
cion.  Exactions,  simony,  extortions,  were 
multiplied;  the  traffic  in  indulgences  prac¬ 
tically  became  the  purchase  of  the  right  to 
commit  sin.  St.  Bridget,  in  her  time,  had 
declared  that  at  Rome  the  whole  Deca¬ 
logue  had  come  down  to  one  precept: 
“  Givq  gold.”  The  popes  were  men  of 
shameless  lives.  At  the  Councils  of  Con¬ 
stance  and  Basle  attempts  were  made  to 
reform  scandalous  abuses,  but  they  were 
too  deeply  rooted  to  be  thus  cured.  The 
invention  of  printing  diffused  among  the 
people  the  culture  which  hitherto  had  been 
the  monopoly  of  the  clergy,  and  the  re¬ 
vived  study  of  Greek  and  Roman  litera¬ 
ture,  owing  chiefly  to  the  flight  of  the 
Greek  scholars  before  the  Turks,  who  were 
pressing  on  Constantinople,  opened  up  the 
sources  of  Christian  history,  and  drew  back 
the  veil  which  had  long  hidden  primitive 
Christianity  and  the  sacred  Scriptures. 
The  Papacy  was  seen  to  lack  historical 
foundations.  The  balance  of  power  was 
moved  from  the  centre  to  the  west  of 
Europe;  Venice  declined,  and  the  discov¬ 
ery  of  a  new  world  placed  the  future  in  the 
grasp  of  the  commercial  nations.  The 
Greek  Empire  fell  under  Ottoman  domin¬ 
ion,  by  the  capture  of  Constantinople  in 
1453;  but  forty  years  later  the  Moslem  was 
driven  out  of  Spain,  and  in  1462  the  Greek 
Church  was  made  the  standard  of  ortho¬ 
doxy  in  Russia. 

III.  Modern  History.  —  Even  Roman 
Catholic  historians  have  ceased  to  describe 


the  Reformation  as  a  mere  violent  rupture 
with  the  past.  The  causes  of  it  run  back 
into  the  very  heart  of  the  Middle  Ages;  its 
warrant  was  found  not  only  in  the  needs  of 
the  nation,  but  in  the  Holy  Scriptures,  and 
the  earliest  traditions  of  the  Christian 
Church.  The  immediate  cause  was  not  op¬ 
position  to  the  Papacy,  but  a  deeper  spirit¬ 
ual  experience;  a  sense  of  sin,  and  a  need 
of  redemption.  So  wide-spread  was  this 
need  that  in  the  first  period  (1)  of  the  Ref¬ 
ormation  (1517  —  1555)  more  was  gained 
than  was  retained;  a  reaction  then  began  (2) 
under  the  Inquisition  and  the  Jesuits, 
which  brought  back  France  and  Southern 
Germany  to  the  Mediaeval  Church.  No  Celt¬ 
ic  race  finally  accepted  the  Reform.  The 
Council  of  Trent  (1542 — 1562)  committed 
Rome  irretrievably  to  the  Mediaeval  sys¬ 
tem.  (Trent,  Council  of.)  The  Reform¬ 
ed  Churches  on  the  Continent  were  divided 
into  two  main  portions,  the  “  Evangelical  ” 
and  the  “  Reformed,”  or  Lutheran  and 
Calvinistic.  In  England  the  old  order  was 
scrupulously  observed,  and  the  succession 
of  bishops  remained  unbroken.  (3)  The 
Peace  of  Westphalia  (1648)  put  an  end  to 
the  Thirty  Years’  War,  and  established  the 
political  rights  of  the  Reformed  Churches 
and  princes  of  Europe.  All  of  the  great 
Confessions  of  Faith  had  then  been  written. 
The  subsequent  period  saw  the  progress  of 
the  Church  in  the  midst  of  its  conflicts 
with  the  civil  powers,  and  also  with  philos¬ 
ophy.  Its  three  chief  foes  were  the  Deism 
of  England,  the  Atheism  of  France,  and 
the  Pantheism  of  Germany.  The  Angli¬ 
can  theology  was  shaped  by  such  men  as 
Hooker,  Andrewes,  Bull,  and  Waterland. 
In  the  early  part  of  the  eighteenth  century 
a  low  tone  of  theology  prevailed.  Butler, 
in  his  Analogy,  defeated  the  Deists  on  their 
own  grounds.  Whitefield  and  Wesley  rais¬ 
ed  a  religious  fervor  where  there  had  been 
torpor.  The  French  Revolution  came  like 
an  earthquake  upon  Europe,  and  had  a 
powerful  effect,  both  in  humbling  the 
Church  of  Rome,  and  in  creating  a  reaction 
against  the  infidelity  which  was  so  marked 
a  feature  of  the  outbreak.  The  Roman 
Catholic  Church  entered  upon  a  new 
career,  in  alliance  with  absolutism,  at  the 
restoration  of  the  Bourbons,  and  is  still  a 
mighty  influence  in  Europe.  But  in  the 
centre  of  the  reaction,  namely  France,  the 
division  between  Religion  and  Science  is 
growing  stronger  ever)'  day.  —  Benham: 
Dictionary  of  Religion. 

The  progress  of  Christianity  in  the 
United  States  is  given  in  the  historical 
sketches  of  the  various  denominations, 
many  of  which  have  had  a  marvelous 
growth.  The  present  century  has  been 
marked  by  great  activity  in  missionary 


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service,  and  all  forms  of  Christian  philan- 
thopy,  and  the  outlook  of  the  future  was 
never  so  encouraging  as  now. 

Christians,  Bible.  See  Bible  Chris¬ 
tians. 

Christians  of  St.  John.  About  the  mid¬ 
dle  of  the  seventeenth  century  some  Car¬ 
melite  missionaries,  in  the  neighborhood 
of  Basrah  and  Susa,  found  a  body  of  Chris¬ 
tians  who  called  themselves  Nazaraeans,  or 
Mendaeans.  They  claimed  to  be  the  de¬ 
scendants  of  John  the  Baptist,  hence  their 
name,  given  by  the  missionaries.  Their 
holy  books  are  written  in  an  Aramaean 
dialect.  They  are  called  Sabians  by  the 
Mohammedans. 

Christians  of  St.  Thomas,  the  name  of  a 
Christian  sect  living  on  the  Malabar  coast. 
They  claim  to  be  descendants  of  converts 
made  by  St.  Thomas  on  his  visit  to  India. 
Probably  they  are  of  Nestorian  origin. 
When  the  Portuguese  conquered  the  coun¬ 
try,  efforts  were  made  to  convert  them  to 
the  Roman  Church,  but  they  have  kept  a 
separate  existence,  although  often  op¬ 
pressed.  They  are  now  under  British  pro¬ 
tection,  and  number  about  60,000  souls. 

Christlieb,  Theodor,  Ph.  D.  (Tubingen, 
1857),  D.  D.  (Berlin,  1870);  German  Evan¬ 
gelical  preacher  and  theologian;  b.  at  Bir- 
kenfeld,  Wiirtemburg,  March  7,  1833;  d.  at 
Bonn,  Aug.  15,  1S89.  Educated  at  Tubing¬ 
en,  he  became  pastor  of  the  Islington 
German  Church,  London,  1858-1865.  In 
1868  he  was  appointed  professor  of  prac¬ 
tical  theology  and  university  preacher  at 
Bonn,  where  he  remained  until  his  death. 
He  was  the  author  of:  Modern  Doubt  and 
Christian  Belief  (1868;  Eng.  trans.,  Edin¬ 
burgh  and  New  York,  1874);  Protestant 
Foreign  Missions:  their  Present  State  (1879; 
Eng.  trans.,  New  York,  1880). 

Christmas  Day.  “  A  festival  of  the  Chris¬ 
tian  Church,  observed  on  the  25th  of  De¬ 
cember,  in  memory  of  the  birth  of  Jesus 
Christ.  There  is,  however,  a  difficulty  in 
accepting  this  as  the  date  of  the  Nativity, 
December  being  the  height  of  the  rainy 
season  in  Judea,  when  neither  flocks  nor 
shepherds  could  have  been  at  night  in  the 
fields  of  Bethlehem.  Although,  as  regards 
Christmas,  an  ingenious  case  on  behalf  of 
the  month  of  October  has  been  made  out, 
from  what  is  known  concerning  the  course 
of  Abia  (Luke  i.  5)  it  does  not  seem  pos¬ 
sible  to  arrive  at  any  certain  conclusion. 
By  the  fifth  century,  however,  whether 
from  the  influence  of  some  tradition,  or 
from  the  desire  to  supplant  heathen  festi¬ 


vals  of  that  period  of  the  year,  such  as  the 
Saturnalia,  the  25th  of  December  has  been 
generally  agreed  upon.  Augustine  ex¬ 
pressly  mentions  this  date  (De  Sien.  iv.  5); 
and  Chrysostom  seems  to  speak  of  it  as  a 
custom  imported  from  the  West  within  ten 
years.  Before  that  time  it  appears  to  have 
been  kept  conjointly  with  the  feast  of  the 
Epiphany,  on  the  6th  of  January.  It  is 
generally  considered  to  rank  third  among 
the  festivals  of  the  Church  (Easter  and 
Whitsuntide  alone  being  placed  above  it), 
and  to  have  a  joy  peculiarly  its  own.  In 
all  civilized  countries  the  annual  recur¬ 
rence  of  Christmas  has  been  celebrated 
with  festivities  of  various  kinds.” — Ency. 
Britannica.  This  festival  was  in  England 
attended  by  such  revelry  that  the  Puritans 
abolished  it  altogether,  and  it  was  not 
observed  by  the  churches  sprung  from 
them,  both  in  Great  Britain  and  America. 
In  recent  years,  however,  the  custom 
among  them  of  keeping  it  as  a  family  day, 
devoted  especially  to  the  bestowing  of 
gifts  and  the  joy  of  childhood,  has  in¬ 
creased,  and  the  celebration  of  Christmas 
is  now  well-nigh  universal.  See  Chambers: 
Book  of  Days  (Edinburgh,  1864). 

Christology.  Transcending  in  impor¬ 
tance  even  the  teachings  and  the  life  of 
Christ  is  his  unique  personality.  This  was, 
in  fact,  the  central  subject  of  his  teaching, 
as  it  was  the  secret  of  his  incomparable 
life.  He  is  not  only  “  the  author  and 
finisher  of  our  faith,”  he  is  its  object. 
Christology  is,  accordingly,  the  heart  of 
Christianity.  Without  this  it  ceases  to  be 
Christianity.  It  is  the  centre  of  assault 
and  of  defense,  the  foundation  of  Christian 
experience,  as  well  as  of  Christian  theology. 
Salvation  is  the  work  of  the  personal 
Christ — Christ  for  us  and  Christ  in  us. 
All  the  sources  of  light  and  of  life  are  in 
him. 

The  importance  of  Christology  can, 
therefore,  not  be  exaggerated.  The  most 
momentous  question  ever  addressed  to 
human  ears  is,  “  What  think  ye  of  Jesus  ? 
Whose  Son  is  he  ?  ” 

That  Jesus  Christ  is  the  Son  of  God,  be¬ 
gotten  of  the  Father  from  all  eternity,  is  a 
doctrine  properly  discussed  under  the 
Trinity  (which  see).  But  the  Logos  be¬ 
came  flesh.  Christ  is  the  incarnation  of 
deity,  unquestionably  true  man,  born  of  the 
Virgin  Mary.  He  possesses  all  the  attri¬ 
butes  of  our  nature  intact  and  unabridged; 
his  body  subject  to  the  conditions  of  birth, 
nourishment,  growth,  fatigue,  sleep,  suf¬ 
fering,  death,  and  resurrection;  his  soul 
characterized  by  limitations  of  knowledge, 
intellectual  growth,  emotions  of  joy  and 
sorrow,  love,  anger,  wonder,  and  prayer. 


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(  i  So  ) 


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Significantly  he  is  called  in  the  Scriptures 
now  Son  of  God,  now  Son  of  man.  He  is 
at  once  God  and  man — a  theanthropic  sub¬ 
ject,  the  God-man. 

The  advent  of  such  a  composite  person 
is  foreshadowed  in  the  Old  Testament.  A 
divine  Messiah  in  human  form  hovered 
before  prophetic  vision.  The  thought  of 
pGod  visiting  his  people  coincides  with  the 
coming  of  a  deliverer  who  is  to  proceed 
from  the  House  of  David.  Such  instances 
as  that  of  the  Branch  raised  unto  Jehovah 
(Jer.  xxiii.  6),  the  paradox  of  David’s  Son 
being  David’s  Lord  (Matt.  xxii.  41  ff. ) ;  the 
designation  of  this  deliverer,  in  the  earlier 
Isaiah,  by  the  terms  Immanuel,  The  Ever¬ 
lasting  Father,  The  Mighty  God  (Isa.  ix. 
6;  Mai.  iii.  1);  and  his  representation,  in 
the  later  Isaiah,  as  a  despised,  suffering 
servant  of  Jehovah,  offering  up  his  soul  as 
a  vicarious  sacrifice  (Isa.  liii. ) ,  present  col¬ 
lectively  a  portraiture  so  complex  and  so 
contradictory,  that,  without  an  actual  in¬ 
carnation  of  God,  there  is  no  correlative 
fulfillment  of  these  mysterious  prophecies, 
no  solution  to  their  meaning,  and  no  real¬ 
ization  of  the  exalted  hopes  excited  by 
them. 

The  possibility  of  the  infinite  entering 
into  relations  with  the  finite  appears  to  be 
assumed  in  revelation.  It  inheres  in  the 
nature  of  divinity,  and  in  the  nature  of  hu¬ 
manity  created  in  the  image  of  God.  Even 
heathenism  shared  the  conception  of 
such  a  union,  since  it  presents  in  many  of 
its  systems  a  world  of  divine-human  ideals. 
The  doctrine  of  an  incarnation  holds  a 
prominent  place,  especially  in  the  Oriental 
philosophies,  the  unaided  human  mind 
feeling  the  need  of  it,  and  struggling  with 
the  idea.  The  supreme  miracle  of  Chris¬ 
tianity  is  the  consummation  of  the  yearn¬ 
ings  and  anticipations  alike  of  inspired  and 
uninspired  conceptions,  the  centre  of  the 
world’s  history. 

Following  the  light  of  the  Scriptures  and 
the  postulates  of  Christian  consciousness, 
the  primitive  Church  held  fast  both  to  the 
deity  of  the  Redeemer  and  to  his  human¬ 
ity.  They  worshiped  him  as  God.  They 
trusted  to  his  death  on  the  cross  for  salva¬ 
tion.  God  only  could  accomplish  the  work 
of  saving  sinners.  Man  only  could  prop¬ 
erly  represent  man  in  this  office.  When, 
in  the  first  century,  the  Docetae  denied  his 
human  body,  and,  subsequently,  Arians 
and  Apollinarians  disputed  the  complete¬ 
ness  of  his  rational  human  soul,  theology 
soon  triumphed  in  establishing  the  reality 
of  his  body,  as  it  is  confessed  in  the  Apos¬ 
tles’  Creed,  and  declared  fundamental  in 
the  Scriptures  (1  John  iv.  3);  and,  later,  it 
declared  the  completeness  of  his  human¬ 
ity,  as  embracing  the  rational  part  as  well 


as  the  psychical  and  physical.  Nothing 
human,  it  was  seen,  could  be  wanting  to 
him  who  took  his  place  at  the  head  of  hu¬ 
manity,  on  the  cross  and  before  the  throne, 
in  order  to  lift  it  back  to  God.  Thus,  as 
protracted  and  profound  discussions  re¬ 
sulted  in  asserting  the  perfect  divinity  of 
Christ,  similar  controversies  yielded  the 
unalterable  result  of  his  perfect  humanity. 
Both  points  of  the  dogma  are  clearly 
traced  in  the  early  Christian  writers.  That 
the  third  point,  the  union  of  the  two  nat¬ 
ures  in  one  person,  was  also  the  common 
faith,  is  quite  evident,  for,  staggering  as 
was  this  paradox  when  it  first  confronted 
scientific  reflection,  there  is  nowhere  an 
instance  of  Christ  being  viewed  as  divided 
into  two  subjects,  some  things  being  pred¬ 
icated  of  a  divine  Christ,  some  of  a  human 
Christ.  There  never  was  a  time  when  the 
Church  did  not  believe  in  “  one  Christ, 
true  God  and  true  man  “  God,  of  the 
substance  of  the  Father,  begotten  before 
the  worlds;  and  man,  of  the  substance  of 
his  mother,  born  in  the  world.” 

But  the  proper  mutual  relation  of  the 
two  natures,  conditioned  by  their  being 
joined  in  a  personal  and  perfect  union,  the 
part  sustained  by  the  divine,  and  that  by 
the  human,  in  the  life,  experiences,  actions 
and  offices  of  the  God-man,  what  was  to  be 
ascribed  to  either  nature,  what  to  both, 
was  not  clearly  apprehended,  and  a  long 
contest  ensued  before  a  satisfactory  defini¬ 
tion  of  this  profound  mystery  was  formu¬ 
lated.  The  problem  to  be  solved  was  to 
preserve  the  distinction  of  the  two  natures 
without  surrendering  the  unity  of  person, 
and,  conversely,  to  hold  the  unity  of  per¬ 
son  without  confounding  the  twro  natures 
of  which  it  is  composed.  The  appearance 
of  error  impelled  to  a  progressive  unfold¬ 
ing  of  the  truth,  and  aided  in  its  final  and 
fixed  determination.  Misleading  terms  and 
overstatements,  endangering  either  of  the 
elements  essential  to  the  dogma,  were  re¬ 
jected,  and  definitions  were  reached  which 
the  consensus  of  the  Church  has  never 
materially  altered. 

Two  schools  appeared.  The  Antiochi- 
ans,  carefully  separatingand  distinguishing 
in  thought  the  two  natures,  emphasizing 
the  reality,  completeness,  and  unchange¬ 
ableness  of  the  human  nature,  developed 
two  personal  centres — two  subjects,  God 
and  man,  brought,  indeed,  into  a  relation 
of  common  being  and  common  action,  yet 
each  to  be  conceived  as  independent  of  the 
other.  Their  union  is  merely  a  mechanical 
conjunction,  an  indwelling  of  the  Son  of 
God  in  the  son  of  Mary,  analogous  to 
God’s  indwelling  in  believers.  Christ  is 
the  man  with  whom  God  is  united.  Thus, 
deity  in  no  sense  participated  in  the  birth 


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passion,  or  death,  of  the  humanity.  Such  a 
view,  it  was  charged,  would  confuse  the 
two  natures,  and,  therefore,  destroy  them, 
paralyzing  the  action  of  the  finite,  and  de¬ 
grading  the  infinite  to  creaturehood.  The 
current  phrase,  “Mary,  the  mother  of  God,” 
was  repudiated  as  blasphemous.  What 
was  born  of  Mary  is  flesh.  This  may  be 
adored  in  so  far  as  it  is  the  organ  of  the 
redeeming  Logos,  but  not  because  of  shar¬ 
ing,  itself,  in  any  divine  attributes. 

The  Alexandrians, always  rejecting  every 
theory  that  involved  the  mutilation  of 
Christ’s  human  nature,  yet  with  a  predilec¬ 
tion  for  what  is  transcendental  and  incon¬ 
ceivable,  emphasized  the  union  to  a  point 
approximating  the  deification  of  the  human¬ 
ity.  Cyril  broached  a  communication  of 
properties,  whereby  the  “Logos  imparts 
himself  entirely  to  the  flesh,  which  he  as¬ 
sumes,  and  thus  lifts  it  up  into  the  deity.” 
The  term  used  by  this  school  to  express  the 
relation  was  phusike  kenosis.  The  divine 
indwelling  in  Christ  was  altogetherdifferent 
from  his  indwelling  in  good  men.  There 
was  but  one  Son  of  man.  In  him  divinity 
assumed  humanity,  making  flesh  his  own. 
In  the  process  of  the  miraculous  concep¬ 
tion,  the  Son  of  God  assumed  the  human 
nature,  creating  it  for  himself.  The  pred¬ 
icates  of  being  born,  suffering,  dying,  were 
applied  also  to  the  divinity.  The  subject 
of  these  experiences  was  God.  After  the 
incarnation,  and  in  concreto  we  can  speak  of 
only  one  nature,  that  of  the  God-man, 
“  one  nature  of  the  divine  Logos,  incar¬ 
nate  and  to  be  worshiped.”  Mary  was 
the  mother  of  God. 

The  extreme  representation  of  this  view, 
known  as  Eutychianism,  from  Eutychus, 
Presbyter  of  Constantinople,  sacrificed  the 
•distinction  of  natures  to  the  unity  of  per¬ 
son,  the  incarnation  being  regarded  an  ab¬ 
sorption  of  the  human  nature  into  the  di¬ 
vine.  This  was  the  very  opposite  of  the 
extreme  of  the  Antiochians,  called  Nesto- 
rianism,  from  Nestorius,  patriarch  of  Con¬ 
stantinople,  although  this  school  did  not 
admit  that  it  sacrificed  the  unity, and  taught, 
with  the  others,,  that  at  the  incarnation  the 
human  nature  had  lost  its  personality  and 
independence.  By  the  latter  the  union 
was  viewed  as  subjective  in  us,  while  ob¬ 
jectively  the  two  natures  were  separated 
to  the  point  of  two  persons.  By  the  for¬ 
mer  a  distinction  between  the  two  natures  is 
regarded  as  logically  still  existing.  God 
does  not  cease  to  be  God,  nor  man  cease  to 
be  man,  but  in  reality  there  are  no  longer 
two  natures.  As  the  Logos  is  the  prin¬ 
ciple  which  constitutes  the  personality, 
Christ  being  not  a  human  person  with  a 
divine  nature,  but  a  divine  person  with  a 
human  nature,  that  which  is  assumed 


by  this  divine  person  becomes  one  with 
it. 

Thus  the  extremists  confronted  each 
other  with  the  problem  of  a  transformation 
of  the  two  natures,  or  a  division  of  the  one 
person.  Each  party  had,  by  undue  em¬ 
phasis,  carried  one  aspect  of  the  truth  be¬ 
yond  the  limits  of  orthodoxy  into  positive 
error.  To  eliminate  the  error  on  both 
sides,  and  to  combine  the  truth  as  held  by 
both,  to  effect  a  union  of  antagonisms  and 
comprehend  the  truth  in  its  entirety,  be¬ 
came  now  the  task  of  theology. 

Nestorianism  was  shown  to  be  destruc¬ 
tive  of  the  redemptive  activity,  which  is  the 
work  of  the  theanthropic  person.  All  of 
Christ’s  actions  and  sufferings  possess  a 
priestly  and  mediatorial  character,  and  they 
lose  their  significance  when  referred  to  the 
human  Jesus,  or  predicated  only  of  his  hu¬ 
man  nature.  Nothing  that  a  man  may  do 
or  endure  can  effect  human  redemption. 
This  is  the  work  of  the  divine  Son  incar¬ 
nate.  Nestorianism,  in  effect,  precludes 
the  humiliation,  and  annihilates  the  incar¬ 
nation,  thus  taking  away  the  very  basis  for 
redemption.  Such  a  theory  is  as  irrecon¬ 
cilable  with  the  facts  of  Christian  experi¬ 
ence  as  it  is  incompatible  with  “  the  undi¬ 
vided  consciousness  of  the  Christ  pictured 
to  us  in  the  Gospels.”  Christ  always 
speaks  of  himself  as  a  unit.  He  always 
uses  the  personal  pronoun  to  cover  the  ac¬ 
tion  of  both  natures.  (John  viii.  58;  xvii.  5.) 
The  man  and  the  God  never  hold  converse 
with  each  other.  There  is  nothing  in  the 
historic  Christ  implying  a  divided  personal¬ 
ity,  or  a  consciousness  of  two  persons  con¬ 
joined;  but  from  his  birth  the  two  natures 
are  hypostatically  united,  concurring  in  one 
personal  consciousness  which  covers  the 
realities  of  both  the  divine  and  the  human 
natures. 

Eutychianism,  especially  the  error  that, 
since  the  body  of  Christ  was  that  of  deity, 
it  could  not  have  been  of  the  same  nature 
as  ours,  was  likewise  seen  to  be  in  conflict 
with  the  Church’s  traditional  faith,  and  to 
be  substantially  a  reproduction  of  the  her¬ 
esies  of  Docetism  and  Apollinarianism, 
which  had  been  previously  condemned. 
Nestorius  was  excommunicated  by  the 
Council  of  Ephesus,  A.  D.  431,  Eutychus  at 
a  synod  held  in  Constantinople,  A.  D.  448. 

No  final  definition  of  the  boundary-line 
between  Christological  truth  and  Christo- 
logical  error  was,  however,  laid  down 
until  the  assembly  of  the  fourth  (Ecumen¬ 
ical  Council  at  Chalcedon,  A.  D.  451.  Here, 
expanding  the  briefer  forms  of  the  Apos¬ 
tolic  and  the  Nicene  creeds,  guarding 
equally  against  an  abstract  separation  of 
the  divine  and  human,  and  an  absorption  of 
the  human  by  the  divine,  in  clear,  calm. 


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and  balanced  statements,  the  Catholic  faith 
was  pronounced  to  be  “  one  and  the  same 
Son,  our  Lord  Jesus  Christ,  the  same  per¬ 
fect  in  Godhead,  and  also  perfect  in  man¬ 
hood;  truly  God  and  truly  man,  of  a  ra¬ 
tional  soul  and  body;  consubstantial  with 
the  Father  according  to  the  Godhead,  and 
consubstantial  with  us  according  to  the 
Manhood ;  in  all  things  like  unto  us,  without 
sin;  begotten  before  all  ages  of  the  Father, 
according  to  the  Godhead;  and  in  these  lat¬ 
ter  days,  for  us  and  for  our  salvation,  born 
of  the  Virgin  Mary,  the  Mother  of  God, 
according  to  the  Manhood;  One  and  the 
same  Christ,  Son,  Lord,  Only-begotten, 
to  be  acknowledged  in  two  natures,  incon- 
fusedly ,  unchangeably ,  indivisibly ,  insepara¬ 
bly ;  the  distinction  of  natures  being  by  no 
means  taken  away  by  the  union,  but  rather 
the  property  of  each  nature  being  pre¬ 
served,  and  concurring  in  one  Person  and 
one  Subsistence,  not  parted  or  divided  into 
two  persons,  but  one  and  the  same  Son 
and  Only  -  begotten,  God  the  Word,  the 
Lord  Jesus  Christ.” 

The  Athanasian  creed,  in  a  more  con¬ 
densed  form,  reads:  “  Perfect  God  and  per¬ 
fect  Man;  of  a  rational  soul  and  human 
flesh  subsisting  ;  equal  to  the  Father  as 
touching  his  Godhead;  and  inferior  to  the 
Father  as  touching  his  Manhood:  Who, 
although  he  is  God  and  Man,  yet  he  is  not 
two,  but  one  Christ.  One,  not  by  conver¬ 
sion  of  the  Godhead  into  flesh,  but  by  as¬ 
sumption  of  the  Manhood  into  God.  One 
altogether:  not  by  confusion  of  substance, 
but  by  unity  of  Person.  For,  as  the  ra¬ 
tional  soul  and  flesh  is  one  Man,  so  God 
and  Man  is  one  Christ,  who  suffered  for 
our  Salvation,  descended  into  Hell,”  etc. 

Nestorianism  and  Monophysitism  were 
both  excluded  from  the  orthodox  faith. 
The  incarnation,  it  was  recognized,  made 
no  change  in  either  of  the  natures,  while 
it  joined  them  in  the  perfect  individual 
unity  of  one  personality,  whose  ego  is  the 
central  point  of  both  the  divine  nature, 
which  was  proper  to  him,  and  of  the  hu¬ 
man  nature  which  he  took  unto  him,  the 
latter  being,  indeed,  not  personal  of  itself 
prior  to  the  union,  but  being  so  in  and 
with  the  divine  nature.  The  personality 
of  the  hypostatic  union  is  from  the  divine 
side.  The  constitutive  act  for  Christ’s 
composite  person  is,  throughout,  acknowl¬ 
edged  to  have  been  the  assumption  of  the 
human  nature  into  union  with  itself  by  the 
divine  Logos,  through  whom  all  things 
were  made. 

That  this  is  an  inscrutable  mystery  is 
freely  admitted  by  all  who  sit  at  the  feet 
of  revelation.  All  natural  reasoning  is 
dashed  on  this  rock.  Yet  the  necessity  for 
the  undivided  person  of  a  God-man  arises 


from  the  exigency  of  our  fallen  state.  It 
is  the  only  means  of  closing  the  chasm 
which  sin  has  made  between  man  and  God, 
the  absolute  condition  of  the  restoration  of 
real  communion  between  man  and  God. 

Recoiling  from  extremes,  the  Church  has 
generally  been  content  with  the  Chalcedon- 
ese  statement.  It  has  been  practically  ac¬ 
cepted  as  a  final  presentation  by  some, 
indeed,  as  the  ne plus  ultra  of  the  endeavor 
to  unfold  the  mystery  of  Christ’s  complex 
person. 

Extremists  were,  however,  not  silenced 
by  the  decision  of  the  Council.  The 
Monophysites  continued  to  assert  that  nat¬ 
ure  and  person  were  equivalent  concepts; 
that  Christ  had  but  one  composite  nature; 
and  that  the  doctrine  of  two  natures  involv¬ 
ed  the  idea  of  two  persons.  Some  unimpor¬ 
tant  concessions  were  made  to  them  at  the 
Fifth  Council,  A.  d.  553.  When,  later,  the 
Monothelites  argued  that  one  person  could 
have  but  one  will,  since  there  could  not 
be  two  wills  if  they  were  in  perfect  har¬ 
mony,  while  two  inharmonious  wills  would 
destroy  the  unity  of  person;  the  orthodox 
replied  that  will  is  an  attribute  of  nature, 
rather  than  of  person,  and  that  consequent¬ 
ly  Christ  had  two  wills,  the  human  follow¬ 
ing  the  divine  will.  This  view  received  the 
sanction  of  the  Sixth  Council,  A.  d.  680. 

When  the  Reformation  restored  the  per¬ 
sonal  Christ  to  the  centre  of  Christian 
truth  and  life,  a  fresh  impulse  was  given 
to  Christological  study,  and  divergence  on 
this  point  became  a  characteristic  differ¬ 
ence  between  the  Lutheran  and  Reformed 
Churches.  The  former  have  been  charged 
with  a  Eutychian,  the  latter  with  a  Nesto- 
rian  leaning.  The  Reformed,  however,  at¬ 
tempted  no  advance  beyond  the  definitions 
of  Chalcedon,  whereas,  the  Lutherans, 
proceeding  from  the  basis  of  the  ancient 
Christology,  developed  the  doctrine  of  the 
communication  of  properties  under  three 
heads: 

(1)  The  genus  idiomaticum,  according  to 
which  the  properties  of  both  natures  are 
communicated  and  belong  to  the  same 
person.  What  is  peculiar  to  the  divine  or 
the  human  nature  is  truly  and  really 
ascribed  to  the  entire  person,  designated 
by  either  nature,  or  by  both.  “  Those 
properties  which  belong  only  to  one  nature 
are  ascribed  to  the  person,  not  apart  from 
the  other  nature  but  to  the  entire  person, 
who  is,  at  the  same  time,  God  and  man,” 
and  may  be  indifferently  designated  by  di¬ 
vine  or  human  titles.  He  is  God  when 
he  dies  ;  he  is  man  when  he  raises  and 
judges  the  dead.  (Form.  Cone.  cf.  Rom.  i. 
3;  1  Pet.  iii.  18;  iv.  1.)  Any  statement  short 
of  this  destroys  the  true  theanthropic,  un¬ 
divided  consciousness  of  Christ. 


Chr 


(183) 


Chr 


(2)  The  genus  apotelismaticutn ,  according 
to  which  the  redemptive  functions,  which 
belong  to  the  undivided  person,  are  pred¬ 
icated,  not  of  one  nature  only,  but  of  both 
natures.  All  actions  pertaining  to  the 
office  of  Christ  are  common  to  both,  each 
contributing  that  which  is  its  own;  “each 
acting  and  working  what  is  peculiar  to 
each,  with  the  participation  of  the  other.” 
“  The  person  does  not  act  with  one,  or 
through  one,  nature  only,  but  in,  with  and 
according  to,  and  through,  both  natures.” 
All  redemptive  work,  on  earth  and  in 
heaven,  including  the  impartation  of  him¬ 
self  in  the  Supper,  proceeds  from  the  sin¬ 
gle  centre  of  the  Redeemer’s  personality, 
and  is  participated  in  by  both  natures. 
The  sufferings  and  death  of  Christ  consti¬ 
tute  the  decisive  act  of  redemption,  but 
that  it  may  be  this,  both  natures  must  act¬ 
ually  concur,  the  forces  of  both  natures 
be  exercised.  The  Redeemer  acts  in  noth¬ 
ing  as  God  only,  or  as  man  only;  but  in 
all  as  God-man,  unity  of  action  resulting 
from  unity  of  person,  all  action  and  all  suf¬ 
fering  bearing  a  divine-human  character. 
Christ  is  never  for  a  moment  our  Savior, 
Mediator,  or  King,  according  to  one  nature 
only,  but  according  to  both. 

(3)  The  genus  tnajestaticum ,  according  to 
which,  since  the  person  of  the  divine  na¬ 
ture  has  become  also  that  of  the  human, 
there  results  to  the  human  nature  a  par¬ 
ticipation  in  the  attributes  of  the  divine. 
The  human  nature,  by  its  participation  in 
the  divine  person,  becomes  a  participant  in 
the  divine  nature,  and  accordingly  enters 
into  the  possession  and  use  of  properties 
which  are  inseparable  from  the  divine  es¬ 
sence.  No  reciprocal  transfusion  of  prop¬ 
erties  is  admitted,  nor  any  conversion  of 
the  human  into  the  divine,  the  human,  per 
se,  always  remaining  finite  and  circum¬ 
scribed;  but  the  divine  omnipresence, 
power,  majesty,  and  glory,  shining,  mani¬ 
festing  and  exercising  themselves  in,  with, 
and  through  the  assumed,  exalted  human 
nature,  the  person  of  which  it  forms  an 
integral  part  causing  it  to  share  in  such 
attributes.  The  Logos  is  never  and  no¬ 
where  without  or  beyond  his  flesh.  Christ 
is  present  with  his  composite,  undivided 
person,  wherever  he  pleases.  Thus,  at 
least  a  relative  ubiquity  is  predicated  of  his 
humanity,  and  this  view  was  used  in  sup¬ 
port  of  the  “  Real  Presence  ”  in  the  Eucha¬ 
rist.  The  Reformed  rejected  both  the 
doctrine  and  the  sacramental  theory  sought 
to  be  confirmed  by  it. 

Confessional  statements  have  never  gone 
beyond  the  developments  here  briefly 
traced.  But  speculation  has  boldly  sought 
to  sound  yet  other  depths.  Was  the  in¬ 
carnation  due  solely  to  the  catastrophe  of 


sin  ?  is  a  question  which  suggested  itself 
to  some  of  the  early  Greek  Fathers.  Is  the 
supreme  event  of  history  the  result  of  an 
accident  ?  It  has  been  answered,  on  the  one 
side,  that  it  is  but  the  summit  of  creation, 
the  perfecting  of  humanity,  independent  of 
the  fall.  There  is,  in  the  divine  nature,  a 
metaphysical  necessity  for  union  with  the 
human  nature,  which  is  its  complement. 
The  finite,  too,  is  capable  of  the  infinite. 
Others  have  answered  that  the  Bible  ex¬ 
plicitly  declares  the  incarnation  to  have 
occurred  for  the  salvation  of  sinners. 
But  this  objection  is  met  by  the  fact 
that  the  Bible  confines  itself  to  the  his¬ 
tory  of  the  revelation  of  redemption, 
taking  no  cognizance  of  truths  outside  this 
province. 

What  may  be  called  the  modern  kenotic 
theory  has  been  developed,  alike  by  rep¬ 
resentative  Lutheran  and  Reformed  theo¬ 
logians.  Its  distinctive  conception  is  that 
of  “  a  humanized  Logos.”  Resting,  for  the 
most  part,  on  the  old  Christological  foun¬ 
dations,  and  proceeding  from  the  classic 
passage,  Phil.  ii.  8,  the  dominant  idea  of 
this  view  is  that  the  “eternal,  preexistent 
Logos  reduced  himself  to  the  rank  and 
measures  of  humanity.”  The  kenosis  was 
an  abandonment  of  the  divine  attributes, 
omnipotence,  omniscience,  omnipresence, 
during  the  humiliation.  The  assumption 
of  human  nature  involves  this  self-limita¬ 
tion.  The  theory  seems  to  be  the  reverse 
of  the  principle  of  the  communicatio  majes- 
taticum ,  communicating  the  properties  of 
the  humanity  to  the  divinity.  The  infinite 
is  lowered  to  the  finite.  There  is  a  tempo¬ 
rary  exinanition  or  depotentiation.  The 
Logos  passed  from  the  divine  mode  of  ex¬ 
istence  to  the  human  mode.  There  was  a 
metamorphosis  from  the  morphe  Theoii  to 
the  morphe  Thoulon.  He  became  subject  to 
time  and  space,  and  the  laws  of  develop¬ 
ment  and  growth,  although  retaining  the 
essential  attributes  of  truth,  holiness,  and 
love,  which,  indeed,  he  revealed  during  his 
humiliation.  A  copious  and  stimulating 
literature  has  appeared  on  this,  subject, 
which,  however,  reveals  such  a  diversity 
of  view,  that,  while  it  is  a  proof  of  the 
transcendent  and  ever-increasing  interest 
of  the  human  mind  in  the  person  of  the 
Redeemer,  is  also  an  admonition  that  the 
province  of  reason  here  is  not  to  reduce 
the  unknowable  to  finite  terms,  but  to  hold 
all  its  powers  in  adoring  wonder. 

Literature:  Dorner :  The  Person  0 f 

Christ ;  Liddon:  Our  Lords  Divinity ; 
Thomasius:  Christi:  Person  unJ  Werk; 
Marten  sen:  Christian  Dogmatics ;  Bruce: 
Humiliation  of  Christ ;  Krauth:  Conserva¬ 
tive  Pc  formation;  Schmid:  Doctrinal  The¬ 
ology  of  the  Evang.  Luth.  Church ;  Schaff; 


Chr 


(  184  ) 


Chr 


the  people,  and  of  confidence  in  the  favor 
of  God,  notwithstanding  the  punishment 
he  had  inflicted  upon  them  by  captivity. 
For  this  purpose,  nothing  could  be  more 
effectual  than  a  continuous  history  of  the 
nation,  from  David  downward,  represent¬ 
ing  the  Divine  favor  as  dependent  upon 
the  faithfulness  of  rulers  and  people  to  the 
original  covenant,  and  Divine  punishment 
as  the  natural  result  of  unfaithfulness. 
The  Rook  of  Chronicles  (for  it  is  properly 
only  one)  draws  the  picture  which  would 
most  stimulate  hope  and  patriotism.  It 
gives,  in  order,  the  establishment  of  the 
Temple  ritual,  with  its  course  of  priests 
and  officers,  under  David;  its  further  de¬ 
velopment  under  Solomon;  its  restoration 
under  Jehoshaphat,  Hezekiah,  and  Josiah; 
and  the  reappearance  of  Divine  favor  at 
the  final  restoration  of  church  and  nation 
after  the  captivity.  Thus  the  Chronicles 
are  the  beginning  of  the  ecclesiastical  his¬ 
tory  which  continues  in  an  unbroken  thread 
to  the  end  of  the  Book  of  Nehemiah.” — 
“Oxford”  Bible.  See  Commentaries  of 
Bertheau  (2d  ed.,  1873);  C.  F.  Keil  (1870 
translated  in  Clark’s  Foreign  Theo.  Li¬ 
brary). 

Chrys'olite  {golden  stone ),  the  precious 
stone  which  garnished  the  seventh  founda¬ 
tion  of  the  New  Jerusalem,  which  John 
saw  in  his  vision.  (Rev.  xxi.  20.)  The  yel¬ 
low  topaz,  or  the  beryl  of  the  Old  Testa¬ 
ment. 


Christ  and  Christianity ;  Sartorius:  7' he 
Doctrine  of  Divine  Love.  E.  J.  Wolf. 

Christopher,  St.,  according  to  untrust¬ 
worthy  traditions  a  Christian  martyr  of  the 
third  century,  and  a  native  of  Lycia.  The 
well  -  known  legend  connected  with  his 
name  is  as  follows:  “  He  was  very  strong, 
and  of  gigantic  stature,  and,  wishing  to  use 
his  strength  for  the  good  of  others,  he  car¬ 
ried  people  across  a  stream  near  which  he 
lived.  One  night  he  was  aroused  by  hear¬ 
ing  some  one  call  him,  and  going  out 
found  a  child  waiting  to  be  carried  across. 
St.  Christopher  at  first  found  his  burden 
very  light,  but  it  grew  heavier  and  heavier, 
so  that  he  seemed  ready  to  sink  under  it. 
When  they  reached  the  bank  the  child  had 
grown  to  be  a  man,  who  said,  *  Wonder 
not,  my  friend;  I  am  Jesus,  and  you  had 
the  weight  of  the  sins  of  the  whole  world 
on  your  back.’  ”  His  day  is  celebrated  by 
the  Greek  Church,  May  9,  and  by  the 
Latin,  July  25. 

Chronicles,  I., II.  “These  are  united  into 
one  book  in  the  Hebrew,  ‘  The  Diaries,’ 
from  whence  our  title  arises.  In  the  LXX. 
they  are  called  ‘  Things  Omitted  ’  ( Para - 
lipomena),  or  *  Supplement.’  They  con¬ 
tain  much  of  the  matter  of  the  previous 
Books  of  Kings,  but  supply  additional  in¬ 
formation.  The  genealogical  tables  are 
valuable,  since  they  record  the  unbroken 
line  of  the  chosen  people  for  about  3,500 
years. 

“  The  authority  of  these  books  has  been 
unsuccessfully  assailed  by  those  critics 
who  wish  to  maintain  that  the  origin  of  the 
Pentateuch  belongs  to  the  period  subse¬ 
quent  to  the  Captivity.  Jewish  tradition 
and  Christian  writers  agree  in  ascribing 
their  compilation  to  Ezra,  who  obtained 
his  material  from  various  annals  of  the 
monarchy.  The  cause  of  their  compilation 
is  naturally  suggested  by  the  first  difficul¬ 
ties  which  would  present  themselves  to 
the  leaders  of  those  who  returned  from 
captivity,  in  allotting  the  various  portions 
of  territory  to  the  families  entitled  to  them 
according  to  the  Mosaic  Law.  Again,  the 
maintenance  of  the  Temple  service  and  of 
the  payment  of  tithes,  etc.,  required  strict 
legal  proof  of  hereditary  descent  on  the 
part  of  the  officiating  Priests  and  Levites. 
These  two  great  political  questions  neces¬ 
sitated  the  compilation  of  authoritative 
genealogical  tables.  To  this  work  Ezra 
and  Nehemiah  seem  to  have  earnestly  set 
themselves.  In  their  hands,  moreover, 
the  restoration  of  the  Temple  and  its  wor¬ 
ship  became  the  great  feature  in  the  new 
constitution.  They  felt  the  vital  impor¬ 
tance  of  restoring  a  spirit  of  patriotism  in 


Chrysopra'sus(^<?/V/c«  leek)  (Rex.  xxi.  20), 
an  agate  stone  resembling,  in  its  green 
color,  the  juice  of  the  leek,  with  golden 
spots. 

Chrys'ostom,  John  (Gr.  Chrysosto??ios, 
golden-mouth;  so  named  from  the  splendor 
of  his  eloquence),  “  was  b.  at  Antioch,  in 
347  A.  D.  His  mother,  Anthusa,  was  a 
pious  woman,  wholly  devoted  to  her  son, 
who  grew  up,  under  her  loving  instruc¬ 
tions,  into  an  earnest,  gentle,  and  serious 
youth,  passing  through,  as  Neander  sig¬ 
nificantly  observes,  none  of  those  wild, 
dark  struggles  with  sinful  passion  which 
left  an  ineffaceable  impress  on  the  soul  of 
Augustine,  and  gave  a  sombre  coloring  to 
his  whole  theology.  He  studied  oratory 
under  Libanius,  a  heathen  rhetorician; 
soon  excelled  his  teacher;  and,  after  devot¬ 
ing  some  time  to  the  study  of  philosophy, 
retired  to  a  solitary  place  in  Syria,  and 
there  read  the  Holy  Scriptures.  The 
ascetic  severity  of  his  life  and  studies 
brought  on  an  illness  which  forced  him  to 
return  to  Antioch,  where  he  was  ordained 
deacon  by  Bishop  Meletius  in  381,  and 
presbyter  by  Bishop  Flavianus  in  386. 


Chu 


(  185  ) 


Chu 


The  eloquence,  earnestness,  and  practical 
tone  of  his  preaching  excited  the  attention 
of  Jews,  heathens,  and  heretics,  and  se¬ 
cured  for  him  the  reputation  of  the  chief 
orator  of  the  Eastern  Church.  In  397,  the 
eunuch  Eutropius,  minister  of  the  Em¬ 
peror  Arcadius,  who  had  been  struck  by 
his  bold  and  brilliant  preaching,  elevated 
him  to  the  episcopate  of  Constantinople. 
Chrysostom  immediately  began  to  restrict 
the  episcopal  expenditure  in  which  his 
predecessors  had  indulged,  and  bestowed 
so  large  a  portion  of  his  revenues  on  hos¬ 
pitals  and  other  charities,  that  he  gained 
the  surname  of  ‘John  the  Almoner.’  He 
also  endeavored  to  reform  the  lives  of  the 
clergy,  and  sent  missionaries  into  Scythia, 
Persia,  Palestine,  and  other  lands.  His 
faithful  discharge  of  his  duties,  especially 
in  reproof  of  vices,  excited  the  enmity  of 
the  Patriarch  Theophilus,  and  of  the  Em¬ 
press  Eudoxia,  who  succeeded  in  deposing 
and  banishing  him  from  the  capital.  He 
was  soon  recalled,  to  be  banished  again 
shortly  afterward.  He  now  went  to  Nicaea, 
in  Bithynia,  but  was  from  thence  removed 
to  the  little  town  of  Kukusus,  in  the  desert 
parts  of  the  Taurus  mountains.  Even  here 
his  zeal  was  not  abated.  He  labored  for 
the  conversion  of  the  Persians  and  Goths 
in  the  neighborhood,  and  wrote  the  seven¬ 
teen  letters  (or  rather  moral  essays)  to 
Olympias,  to  whom  he  also  addressed  a 
treatise  on  the  proposition — ‘  None  can 
hurt  the  man  who  will  not  hurt  himself.’ 
The  emperor,  enraged  by  the  general  sym¬ 
pathy  expressed  toward  him  by  all  true 
Christians,  gave  orders  that  he  should  be 
more  remotely  banished  to  a  desolate  tract 
on  the  Euxine,  at  the  very  verge  of  the 
eastern  Roman  empire.  Accordingly,  the 
old  man  was  made  to  travel  on  foot,  and 
with  his  bare  head  exposed  to  a  burning 
sun.  This  cruelty  proved  fatal.  Chrys¬ 
ostom  died  on  the  way,  at  Comanum,  in 
Pontus,  Sept.  14,  407  a.  d.,  blessing  God 
with  his  dying  lips.  The  news  of  his  death 
excited  much  sorrow  among  all  pious 
Christians,  for  he  was  a  man  who  drew 
the  hearts  of  his  fellows  after  him — a  lov¬ 
able,  manly  Christian,  hating  lies,  world¬ 
liness,  hypocrisy,  and  all  manner  of  un¬ 
truthfulness  with  that  honest  warmth  of 
temper  which  all  vigorous  people  relish.” 
— Chambers:  Cyclopcedia.  See  W.  A.  W. 
Stephens:  Life  and  Times  of  Chrysostom 
(London,  1872;  2d  ed.,  1880). 

Chubb,  Thomas,  a  well-known  deistical 
writer;  b.  at  East  Harnham,  near  Salis¬ 
bury,  Sept.  29,  1679;  d.  at  Salisbury,  Feb. 
8,  1746.  Under  the  most  adverse  circum¬ 
stances  he  secured  a  fair  education.  His 
first  volume,  The  Supremacy  of  the  Father 


Asserted,  grew  out  of  a  discussion,  with  his 
friends,  of  the  views  presented  by  Whish- 
ton,  in  his  Primitive  Christianity  Revived. 
From  this  time  on,  Chubb  wrote  a  large 
number  of  controversial  tracts  that  attract¬ 
ed  much  attention.  “  He  denied  a  special 
providence,  miracles,  literal  inspiration, 
and,  apparently,  Christ’s  resurrection.” 
— Cairns:  Unbelief  in  the  Eighteenth  Cen¬ 
tury  (Edinburgh  and  N.  Y.,  1881). 

Church  (Greek,  kuriakon ,  the  Lord’s 
house);  some  derive  it  from  the  Celtic 
root,  circus ,  whence  kirk ,  a  circle,  because 
many  of  the  oldest  temples  in  which  Chris¬ 
tians  gathered  were  circular  in  form.  “  In 
the  New  Testament  the  original  word  is 
ecclesia,  which  means  an  assembly,  either 
secular  (Acts  xix.  32),  or  religious  (Acts  ii. 
47),  etc.  It  is  applied  either  to  the  whole 
body  of  believers  in  Christ,  the  Church 
universal  (Matt.  xvi.  18;  Eph.  i.  22),  or  to 
a  particular  congregation  in  a  local  sense, 
as  “  the  Church  at  Jerusalem  ”  (Acts  xv. 
4),  “  at  Antioch  ”  (Acts  xvii.  1),  etc.  The 
original  word  is  used  only  twice  in  the 
Gospels,  each  time  by  Matthew,  xvi.  18, 
where  it  means  the  Church  universal,  and 
xviii.  17,  where  it  means  a  local  congrega¬ 
tion.  The  evangelists  usually  employ  the 
term  “the  kingdom  of  God,”  or  “the 
kingdom  of  heaven,”  for  the  spiritual  sub¬ 
stance  of  the  Church  universal.” — Schaff: 
Bible  Did.  The  definition  of  a  church 
which  is  most  generally  accepted  by  Prot¬ 
estants,  is  that  given  in  the  Nineteenth 
Article  of  the  Church  of  England — “  a  con¬ 
gregation  of  faithful  men  in  the  which  the 
pure  Word  of  God  is  preached,  and  the 
sacraments  be  duly  ministered  according 
to  Christ’s  ordinance,  in  all  those  things 
that  of  necessity  are  requisite  to  the  same.” 
The  Church  is  made  up  of  all  true  Chris¬ 
tians,  but,  in  its  organization,  is  now  di¬ 
vided  either  by  names  that  have  a  local 
significance,  or  by  differences  on  points  of 
doctrine  or  polity.  These  differences  are 
noted  in  the  historical  sketches  of  religious 
bodies  given  under  their  several  names. 

Church-Congress,  an  annual  gathering  of 
clerical  and  lay  members  of  the  Church  of 
England.  The  first  congress  was  held  at 
Cambridge,  in  1861. 

Church-Diet  ( Kirchentag ),  a  name  given 
conventions  of  clergy  and  laity  in  German 
Protestant  churches,  having  for  their  pur¬ 
pose  the  discussion  of  religious  and  social 
questions.  They  have  been  held  since 
1848. 

Church  and  State.  The  primordial  so¬ 
cial  institution  is  the  family.  In  this  both 


Chu 


(  186) 


Chu 


Church  and  State  have  their  prototype  and 
source.  The  former  is  the  organization  of 
society  for  its  spiritual  welfare;  the  latter 
for  its  civil  well-being.  The  former  has 
to  do  with  man’s  conscience;  the  latter 
concerns  his  political  interests.  While  no 
power  exists  but  of  God,  Christ  draws  a 
distinction  between  the  spiritual  and  the 
civil  domain,  as  wide  as  that  between  God 
and  Caesar.  In  accordance  with  this  dis¬ 
tinction,  each  has  its  own  character,  sphere, 
purpose,  and  instrumentalities,  the  one 
being  governed  and  maintained  by  spirit¬ 
ual  agencies,  the  other  wielding  the  sword. 

There  are,  however,  questions,  such  as 
public  morality,  marriage,  and  education, 
where  the  boundaries  of  Church  and  State 
seem  necessarily  to  intersect,  and  often 
produce  a  commingling  or  a  collision  of 
jurisdiction  involving  extreme  perplexity. 

Paganism  blended  politics  and  religion 
under  one  rule.  The  gods  were  national, 
the  sovereign  was  supreme  pontiff,  the 
priests  were  state  officials,  and  war  and 
worship  were  conducted  under  the  same 
authority — were  constituent  parts  of  the 
same  system.  Judaism  was  a  theocracy, 
embracing  Church  and  State  in  immediate 
union,  all  political  and  religious  adminis¬ 
tration  being  vested  in  divinely  appointed 
organs. 

When  Christ  came,  the  chosen  people 
had  lost  their  independence.  They  looked 
to  him  for  national  deliverance,  and  were 
prepared  with  one  mind  to  seat  him  on  the 
throne  of  David.  He  protested  alike  to 
Jews  and  to  their  Roman  rulers  that  his 
kingdom  was  not  of  this  world,  and  his  re¬ 
fusal  of  temporal  power  excited  the  hos¬ 
tility  of  the  leaders,  and  estranged  many 
who  stood  ready  to  enlist  under  his  stand¬ 
ard. 

Christianity  thus  arose  in  absolute  inde¬ 
pendence  of  the  civil  power.  As  it  avowed 
its  purpose,  in  its  rapid  progress,  to  sup¬ 
plant  all  other  religions,  and  as  these  were 
everywhere  institutions  of  the  State,  per¬ 
iling  all  social  and  civic  relations,  an  at¬ 
tack  upon  the  religion  of  the  State  was  an 
attack  upon  the  State  itself.  The  opposi¬ 
tion  of  the  government  was,  therefore,  to  be 
expected,  and  the  more  an  emperor  felt  his 
responsibility  to  guard  all  the  interests  of 
the  empire,  the  more  inexorable  was  his 
purpose  to  exterminate  a  movement  that 
threatened  a  religious  revolution.  For 
centuries,  accordingly,  the  only  relation 
which  the  Church  sustained  to  the  State 
was  its  encountering  a  series  of  bloody 
persecutions  inaugurated  for  its  destruc¬ 
tion.  And  by  common  consent  those  were 
the  golden  centuries  of  Christianity;  the 
period  of  its  greatest  purity  and  vigor; 
the  age  of  its  matchless  triumphs.  Such 


was  the  light  which  shone  out  from  the 
teachings  of  the  Church,  from  its  superior 
morality  and  from  the  flames  of  its  mar¬ 
tyrs,  that  it  converted  the  civilized  world, 
and  one  of  the  greatest  of  rulers  pro¬ 
claimed  it  as  the  religion  of  the  empire,  in 
the  hope  of  arresting  its  civic  dissolution. 

The  cross  became  the  imperial  ensign; 
but  alas!  the  heel  of  secular  power  soon 
defiled  the  altar.  The  sudden  transition 
from  a  detested  and  persecuted  commu¬ 
nity  to  the  exalted  station  of  political  power 
involved  no  immediate  changes  in  the  con¬ 
stitution  and  character  of  the  Church,  yet 
what  was  gained  in  outward  advantage 
was  a  poor  exchange  for  what  was  lost  in 
the  vitiation  of  its  life-blood.  The  strong 
carnal  hand  which  supported  it  presumed 
also,  practically,  to  govern  it.  Laws  were 
enacted  requiring  public  institutions  and 
popular  customs  to  be  conformed  to  Chris¬ 
tian  principles,  maintaining  the  rights  of 
humanity,  providing  special  privileges  for 
the  Church  and  its  officials,  and  giving 
State  sanction  to  ecclesiastical  discipline 
and  conciliar  decisions;  but  on  the  other 
hand,  court-influence  stifled  free  develop¬ 
ment,  force  was  substituted  for  the  weap¬ 
ons  of  the  Spirit,  temporal  advantages  led 
to  the  profession  of  Christianity,  and  the 
influx  of  the  worldly-minded  relaxed  the 
moral  earnestness  of  the  Church  and  as¬ 
similated  it  to  the  world. 

The  emperor,  it  was  understood,  had  no 
jurisdiction  over  internal  questions,  doc¬ 
trine,  worship,  and  discipline;  yet,  as  a 
sort  of  pontifical  character  gradually  at¬ 
tached  to  him,  he  came  to  exercise,  directly 
or  indirectly,  especially  through  the  ap¬ 
pointment  of  bishops,  a  decisive  influence 
upon  the  Church.  The  Donatists,  in  the 
fourth  century,  stood  alone  in  the  repudi¬ 
ation  of  the  usurpation  of  Church  func¬ 
tions  by  the  State. 

The  removal  of  the  seat  of  government 
to  Constantinople  combined,  with  various 
other  circumstances,  to  place  political  au¬ 
thority  in  the  hands  of  the  bishops  of 
Rome,  and  the  founders  of  the  new 
Romano-German  Empire  allowed  them  a 
relative  local  sovereignty  over  a  consider¬ 
able  portion  of  Italy,  from  -which  was  de¬ 
veloped  the  temporal  power  of  the  Papacy 
(the  States  of  the  Church),  which  continued 
until  the  occupation  of  Rome  by  Victor  Em¬ 
manuel  in  1870.  But  not  even  in  ecclesias¬ 
tical  concerns  did  the  Frankish  monarchs 
surrender  their  supremacy.  While  the 
great  ecclesiastics  became  feudal  lords,  and 
civil  and  religious  matters  were  blended 
under  the  rule  of  secular  princes,  the  em¬ 
peror  was  supreme  over  all,  the  head  of  a 
theocratic  monarchy,  with  only  God  and 
his  law  above  him,  the  two  separate  do- 


Chu 


(  i87) 


Chu 


mains  of  Church  and  State  united  in  his 
person. 

Subsequently,  the  popes  asserted  for 
themselves  unlimited  supremacy,  includ¬ 
ing  secular  and  spiritual  sway.  They 
maintained  that  all  power  on  earth  ema¬ 
nated  from  the  Church,  and  centred  in  the 
pope,  its  visible  head.  The  resistance  to 
this  stupendous  claim  on  the  part  of  ener¬ 
getic  sovereigns  forms  the  religious  and 
political  history  of  Europe  through  the 
Middle  Ages.  It  involved  the  overthrow 
of  great  dynasties,  destroyed  the  independ¬ 
ence  of  nations,  made  the  Church  a  ruler 
instead  of  a  preacher,  and  “  stands  in  his¬ 
tory  as  a  ghastly  spectre  from  the  past.” 

The  inordinate  usurpations  and  frightful 
abuse  of  political  government  by  the 
Church  had  much  to  do  with  hastening  the 
Reformation,  and  securing  its  triumph. 
This  great  revolution  was  attended  by  a 
complete  reversal  of  the  relation  of  Church 
and  State.  Ecclesiastical  autonomy  being 
found  impracticable  under  the  changed  con¬ 
ditions,  the  Reformers  had  to  content  them¬ 
selves  with  the  assumption,  by  the  princes, 
of  governmental  functions  in  the  Church. 
The  civil  ruler  became,  in  all  Protestant 
countries,  the  Summus  Episcopus,  the 
master  of  the  Church,  not  only  holding 
and  administering  its  property,  but  author¬ 
izing  its  creed  and  rituals,  and  appointing 
its  ministers  and  teachers. 

This  subordination  of  the  Church  to  the 
civil  magistrate  has  always  been  deplored 
by  men  clearly  apprehending  the  spiritual 
mission  of  Christianity,  and,  like  an  incu¬ 
bus,  it  has  stifled  that  freedom  which  is 
essential  to  its  complete  triumph.  The 
manifest  evils  of  such  an  abnormal  system 
have  been  increasingly  felt,  and  the  ques¬ 
tion  has  given  rise,  especially  in  England, 
to  violent  political  conflicts  and  to  the  with¬ 
drawal  of  multitudes  from  the  Church. 

Europe  still  retains  its  State  Churches, 
but  steady  progress  is  made  toward  a  sys¬ 
tem  more  consonant  with  liberal  principles. 
The  modern  idea,  which  commends  itself 
generally  to  Protestants, is  that  of  full  recip¬ 
rocal  independence  of  Church  and  State. 
This  is  the  American  theory,  which  Dr. 
Schaff  ( Church  and  State )  defines  as  “a 
free  Church  in  a  free  State,  or  a  self-sup¬ 
porting  and  self-governing  Christianity  in 
independent  but  friendly  relation  to  the 
civil  government.”  This  theory  was,  how¬ 
ever,  not  planted  here  by  the  earliest 
European  settlers.  The  New  England 
colonies  were  theocratic  communities,  State 
Churches  or  Church  States,  and,  in  some 
cases,  only  members  of  the  church  enjoyed 
political  rights  in  the  colony.  The  Episco¬ 
pal  Church  was  established  in  New  York, 
Virginia,  and  the  Carolinas.  Even  Pennsyl¬ 


vania  and  Rhode  Island  proscribed  Roman 
Catholics.  With  the  independence  of  the 
country  came  the  assertion  of  absolute  re¬ 
ligious  liberty,  and  the  first  amendment  to 
the  National  Constitution  provides  that 
“  Congress  shall  make  no  law  respecting 
an  establishment  of  religion,  or  prohibiting 
the  free  exercise  thereof.”  But  the  entire 
separation  of  Church  and  State  was  not 
completed  in  Connecticut  till  1818,  and  not 
till  1833  in  Massachusetts. 

Church  property  is  protected  by  the 
State  in  accordance  with  the  regulations  of 
different  church  bodies,  and  is  generally 
exempted  from  taxation.  So,  also,  the  rights 
of  the  individual  under  the  laws  of  the  or¬ 
ganization  to  which  he  belongs  are  enforced 
by  civil  courts.  Vital  questions  which 
still  create  agitation  are  the  legal  enforce¬ 
ment  of  Sunday  observance,  and  the  right 
of  the  State,  the  Church  having  surrender¬ 
ed  the  function  of  education  to  its  control, 
to  impart  religious  instruction. 

E.  J.  Wolf. 

Church  Discipline.  Moral  earnestness 
was,  from  the  first,  a  conspicuous  feature 
of  the  Christian  community.  The  Gospel 
proposes  the  renewal  of  depraved  affec¬ 
tions,  and  with  all  the  freedom  of  the 
Christian  he  is  required  to  conform  his 
conduct  to  the  highest  standard.  The  fun¬ 
damental  authority,  vesting  the  power  of 
discipline  in  the  Church,  is  given  Matt.  xvi. 
18,  19,  and  xviii.  15-18.  The  first  grave  of¬ 
fense  was  instantly  visited  byanawful  judg¬ 
ment.  (Actsv.)  The  apostolic  letters  enjoin 
the  churches  to  guard  strictly  their  purity, 
both  as  an  end  in  itself  and  as  a  condition  of 
preserving  the  vigor  of  the  common  spir¬ 
itual  life.  Those  causing  public  scandal 
by  irregularity  in  conduct  (1  Cor.  v;  2 
Thess.  iii. ,  etc. ),  or  error  in  doctrine  (2  Tim, 
ii.  17;  Tit.  iii.  10,  etc.),  were  accordingly 
formally  cast  out  by  the  judgment  of  the 
congregation,  the  hope  being  cherished  that 
the  reformation  of  the  offender  might  be 
effected. 

At  the  time  of  the  Decian  persecution, 
A.  d.  250,  a  well-defined  order  of  proced¬ 
ure  was  in  force,  called  for  especially  by 
the  considerable  number  of  those  who,  un¬ 
der  the  stress  of  their  trials,  denied  the 
faith.  The  Lapsi  were  required  to  pass 
through  four  stages  of  penance,  extending 
over  as  many  years,  before  they  could  re¬ 
ceive  absolution  and  return  into  full  com¬ 
munion.  Opinions  were  divided  on  the 
question  whether  reconciliation  was  per¬ 
missible  in  the  case  of  any  mortal  sin.  It 
was  wont  to  be  refused,  absolutely,  in  cases 
of  idolatry  and  murder. 

This  disciplinary  rigor  was  maintained 
for  several  centuries,  but,  extreme  as  it 


Chu 


(  188) 


Chu 


was,  several  sects,  the  Montanists  and  the 
Novatians,  went  still  further,  and  denied 
that  the  Church  was  warranted  in  assuring 
forgiveness  to  any  who  had  fallen.  Ex¬ 
cessive  severity  caused  a  rebound  to  the  op¬ 
posite  extreme  of  undue  laxity.  Such  was 
the  influence  enjoyed  by  confessors  that 
commendatory  letters  from  them,  often 
given  recklessly,  brought  about  the  imme¬ 
diate  restoration  of  the  fallen,  and  broke 
down  all  wholesome  discipline,  the  strict¬ 
ness  of  which  was,  at  all  events,  materially 
abated  when  Christianity  became  the  re¬ 
ligion  of  the  State. 

After  the  sixth  century,  penitential  impo¬ 
sitions  were  commuted  for  fines,  church 
punishments  compounded  for  money. 
About  the  same  time  arose  the  doctrine  of 
purgatory,  and  its  correlative,  the  theory  of 
indulgences,  which,  for  a  financial  equiv¬ 
alent,  exempted  the  offender  from  the  pen¬ 
alties  imposed  by  the  Church.  The  scho¬ 
lastic  definition  of  penance  included  three 
parts,  Contritio  cordis ,  confessio  oris ,  and 
satisfactio  operis.  The  extreme  forms  of 
ecclesiastical  punishments  were  the  major 
excommunication,  directed  against  the  indi¬ 
vidual,  and  the  interdict,  against  a  commu¬ 
nity.  The  Inquisition  was  instituted  as  an 
engine  for  searching  out  and  punishing  her¬ 
etics. 

The  Reformation,  in  its  revolt  from 
priestly  rule,  restored  discipline,  “  the 
power  of  the  keys,”  to  the  entire  congre¬ 
gation,  which  administers  it  in  accordance 
with  the  polity  of  the  respective  commu¬ 
nities,  and  always  with  a  view  to  the  rec¬ 
lamation  of  the  offender.  Theoretically, 
the  Reformed  Churches  were  stricter  than 
the  Lutheran  in  the  exercise  of  discipline, 
the  Calvinists,  in  particular,  enforcing  a  le¬ 
galistic  rigor  in  contrast  with  the  evangel¬ 
ical  freedom  of  the  Lutherans;  the  former 
laying  more  stress  upon  a  verifiable  regen¬ 
eration  of  its  membership,  the  latter  keep¬ 
ing  in  mind  the  educational  office  of  the 
Church  and  the  purpose  of  the  means  of 
grace.  In  Europe  the  dependence  of  the 
Church  upon  the  State  has  virtually  par¬ 
alyzed  discipline.  Yet  in  the  American 
Churches,  which  are  entirely  independent, 
it  has  also  largely  fallen  into  disuse. 

E.  J.  Wolf. 

Church  Government.  No  historical 
subject  is  surrounded  by  greater  uncer¬ 
tainty  and  difficulty  than  the  primitive  or¬ 
ganization  of  Christian  society.  With  the 
ascended  Lord  for  its  Head,  the  Spirit 
dwelling  in  its  members,  love  binding  their 
hearts  together,  and  special  gifts  being  im¬ 
parted  for  teaching  and  ruling,  fixed  or 
definite  regulations  were,  at  first  indeed,  not 
called  for;  still,  the  presumption  is  that  the 


apostles,  on  their  departure  from  newly 
formed  congregations,  would  leave  them  in 
an  organized  condition,  especially  as  the 
Church  recognized  from  the  beginning  its 
call  to  missionary  and  humanitarian  ac¬ 
tivity. 

Two  questions  arise  at  the  outset,  (i) 
Can  the  specific  form  of  primitive  Church 
government  be  ascertained?  (2)  If  that 
form  be  determined  is  it  normative  for 
the  Church  in  all  periods  ?  Many  have 
answered  the  first  question  affirmatively, 
and,  as  a  rule,  these  have  made  a  similar 
answer  to  the  second;  but  so  various  have 
been  their  interpretations  that  not  only  the 
papacy  but  all  the  distinctive  polities  that 
were  developed  in  the  Reformation  have 
claimed  authority  from  the  Scriptures.  It 
has  been  taught  by  Protestants  “  that  the 
parts  of  Church  government  are  all  of  them 
exactly  described  in  the  Word  of  God  .  .  . 
so  that  it  is  not  left  in  the  power  of  men 
.  .  .  to  add  or  diminish  or  alter  anything 
in  the  least  measure  therein.” 

The  upholders  of  the  Papacy  cite  Matt, 
xvi.  18,  19  in  support  of  the  theory  that  the 
supremacy  over  the  Church  was  committed 
to  Peter  and  to  his  supposed  successors  in 
the  see  of  Rome.  The  Book  of  Common 
Prayer  says,  “  It  is  evident  unto  all  men 
diligently  reading  the  Holy  Scripture,  and 
ancient  Authors,  that  from  the  Apostles' 
time  there  have  been  these  Orders  of 
Ministers  in  Christ’s  Church;  Bishops, 
Priests,  and  Deacons,”  and  according  to 
Episcopalians  as  well  as  Romanists  the 
bishops  are  the  successors  of  the  apostles 
and  endowed  with  certain  prerogatives. 

Some  kind  of  Episcopal  organization  pre¬ 
vailed,  doubtless,  early  in  the  second  cen¬ 
tury.  The  congregation  of  each  city  had 
its  bishop,  with  presbyters  and  deacons  as 
subordinates.  Various  causes  operated 
gradually  to  concentrate  power  in  episco¬ 
pal  hands,  such  as  the  efficient  administra¬ 
tion  of  the  local  church,  the  appearance  of 
heresies  threatening  division  and  dissolu¬ 
tion,  the  havoc  of  persecution,  the  require¬ 
ments  of  order  and  outward  unity  in  the 
Church  at  large,  the  need  of  bringing  the 
individual  congregations  into  an  organic 
unit  to  meet  the  stress  of  the  times. 
Sacerdotal  ideas  derived  from  the  Old 
Testament  contributed  likewise  to  its  es¬ 
tablishment.  The  development  of  the  claim 
of  apostolical  and  monarchical  prerogatives 
for  the  bishops  was,  in  the  main,  the  work 
of  Cyprian  (1258),  and  the  exigencies  of  the 
Church  in  his  day  show  clearly  enough  that 
“the  development  of  the  Episcopal  Hie¬ 
rarchy  was  the  result  of  an  evolution  which, 
in  existing  circumstances,  was  not  only 
natural  but  almost  necessary.” 

A  gradation  of  rank  among  the  bishops 


Chu 


(  189  ) 


Chu 


followed,  doubtless  in  imitation  of  the 
secular  ranks  which  characterized  the  gov¬ 
ernment  of  the  Roman  Empire,  even  titles 
and  designations  being  borrowed  from  the 
latter.  When  the  Church,  in  313,  came 
under  imperial  protection,  it  had  a  compact 
organization  of  bishops  having  the  over¬ 
sight  of  several  churches;  Metropolitans, 
in  the  larger  cities,  having  a  position  of 
priority,  and  those  occupying  sees  founded 
by  the  apostles — Rome,  Antioch,  and 
Alexandria — holding  precedence  over  all 
others. 

Divers  circumstances  brought  about  the 
colossal  monarchy  of  the  Roman  bishop, 
claiming  authority  over  the  Universal 
Church.  Chief  among  these  were  the 
prestige  of  Rome  as  the  capital  of  the 
world,  the  position  of  its  church  as  the 
most  important  apostolic  see,  the  idea  that 
to  Peter  and  his  successors  Christ  had  as¬ 
signed  the  supremacy,  the  belief  that  tra¬ 
dition  had  been  preserved  there  in  its 
purest  form,  the  appeals  carried  there  of 
issues  whose  solution  was  found  difficult, 
the  general  orthodoxy  of  the  Roman 
bishops  during  the  great  controversies, 
and  their  superior  ability,  especially  the 
Roman  faculty  for  administration  and  or¬ 
der,  which  proved  of  immense  importance 
amid  the  dissolution  of  civil  authority  in 
the  West,  and  the  universal  disorder  oc¬ 
casioned  by  the  irruption  of  the  barbarians. 
For  centuries  the  pope  was  the  one  repre¬ 
sentative  of  government  in  the  western 
world,  the  sole  instrument  of  social  order, 
a  providential  necessity. 

Presbyterianism  has  also  been  regarded 
as  a  divine  institution.  The  synagogue, 
it  is  held,  was  governed  by  a  college  of 
elders,  and  such  synagogues  as  accepted 
the  teachings  of  the  gospel  made  no 
change  of  organization,  while  Christians 
who  withdrew  from  unbelieving  syna¬ 
gogues  adopted  for  their  government  the 
pattern  to  which  they  had  been  accustomed. 
Synagogue  and  church  came  to  be  inter¬ 
changeable  terms.  The  origin  of  the  diac- 
onate  (Acts  vi.  1-6)  is  ascribed  directly  to 
the  apostles,  and  their  practical  sanction  of 
the  presbyterate,  which  had  been  for  a  long 
time  the  usage  of  Israel,  is  equivalent  to 
a  divine  warrant.  (Acts  xiv.  23;  Tit.  i.  5.) 
This  form  of  organization,  it  is  maintained, 
became  the  model  of  the  first  Gentile 
churches,  which  were  founded  by  apostles. 
The  parity  of  the  elders  in  the  early 
Church  is  a  feature  of  Presbyterianism, 
but  whether  it  was  their  office,  originally,  to 
teach  or  to  govern,  whether  there  was  a 
distinction  between  ruling  and  teaching 
elders,  are  questions  upon  which  the  advo¬ 
cates  of  that  system  do  not  agree. 

Kurtz,  in  his  latest  edition,  observes 


the  notion  “  that  the  constitution  of  the 
Apostolic  Church  was  moulded  upon  the 
pattern  of  the  synagogues,  is  now  no  longer 
seriously  entertained.”  And  a  distinction 
between  ruling  and  teaching  elders  vanishes 
before  the  well-established  truth  that  the 
early  Church  knew  of  no  distinction  between 
clergy  and  laity. 

Congregationalism  holds  the  autonomy 
of  the  local  church  to  be  of  divine  right.1 
The  rule  of  the  majority  is  the  best  species 
of  government,  and  it  is  to  be  presumed’ 
that  Christ  has  prescribed  such  a  form  to 
his  churches,  although  this  autonomy  is 
prominent  as  the  basis  of  the  N.  T.  consti¬ 
tution.  The  claim  to  “  a  complete  pre¬ 
scriptive  basis  in  the  Scriptures  ”  is  not 
held  as  rigorously  to-day  as  it  was  former¬ 
ly.  With  the  principle  of  local  independ¬ 
ence  and  self-government  is  combined  the 
duty  of  churches  preserving  church-fellow¬ 
ship  with  each  other.  This  is  secured 
through  the  ecclesiastical  council  and  the 
district  association  of  churches. 

All  other  forms  of  government,  adopted 
by  Lutherans,  Methodists,  and  others,  are 
either  modifications  or  combinations  of 
these  systems.  The  results  of  the  most 
recent  historic  inquiry  are  altogether  favor¬ 
able  to  the  view  of  those  who  believe  that 
it  is  not  the  genius  of  the  gospel  to  pre¬ 
scribe  a  particular  polity. 

All  that  the  New  Testament  yields  cer¬ 
tainly  is  that  the  entire  membership  of  a 
church  took  part  in  consultation,  and  in  the 
election  of  officers  (Acts  vi.  2-6;  xv.  4,  22), 
and  that  at  Jerusalem  seven  persons  thus 
chosen  were  set  apart  by  the  apostles  to 
assist  them  in  the  distribution  of  their 
charities,  and  that  everywhere  they  were 
wont  to  set  apart  men,  now  called  elders, 
now  bishops,  to  preside  over  the  respect¬ 
ive  churches.  “  The  Teaching  of  the 
Twelve,”  the  oldest  uninspired  document, 
urges  likewise,  upon  congregations  en¬ 
joying  the  ministry  of  the  Word,  to  ap¬ 
point  for  themselves  bishops  and  deacons. 
There  seems  to  have  been  a  gradual  devel¬ 
opment  of  offices,  determined  partly  by 
the  natural  course  of  events,  partly  by  the 
policy  of  conforming  to  other  organizations 
countenanced  by  the  State. 

According  to  Hatch,  Harnack,  and  other 
moderns,  the  constitution  of  the  Gentile 
churches  was  modeled  after  the  various 
social  organizations  in  the  empire.  There 
was  a  great  number  of  these.  They  were 
founded  for  various  purposes,  such  as  the 
burial  of  the  dead,  the  study  of  foreign 
modes  of  worship,  etc.  They  had  recog¬ 
nized  privileges.  All  ranks  were  admitted 
on  equal  conditions,  and  all  members  had 
the  same  rights.  “  By  attaching  itself  to 
modes  of  association  already  existing  and 


Chu 


(  190  ) 


Chu 


acknowledged  by  the  State,  the  Church  as¬ 
sumed  a  form  of  existence  which  protected 
it  from  the  suspicion  of  the  Government,” 
and  it  could  do  this  without  any  interfer¬ 
ence  with  the  development  of  its  own  prin¬ 
ciples.  It  is  claimed  that  the  officers  of 
these  guilds  bore  names  identical  with 
those  of  the  church  officials;  that  they  even 
had  mysteries  for  the  initiated  alone,  as  well 
as  exoteric  worship  with  open  doors,  just 
what  we  find  in  the  Christian  community. 
One  must  not  conclude  from  this  that  the 
Church  derived  its  principal  observances 
from  paganism.  These  grew  out  of  the 
inmost  being  of  Christianity,  but  it  appro¬ 
priated  certain  forms  and  names  which  it 
inspired  with  a  Christian  spirit  and  enrich¬ 
ed  with  Christian  contents. 

E.  J.  Wolf. 

Church  History.  The  lines  of  Church 
history  run  so  close  to  the  lines  of  general 
history  that  they  often  intertwine  insepa¬ 
rably.  Christianity  has  for  many  centuries 
been  the  most  powerful  agent  in  the  civil¬ 
ized  world,  and  the  course  of  political 
events  has  been,  in  large  measure,  deter¬ 
mined  by  the  diffusion  and  development  of 
its  ideas.  Church  and  State  have,  besides, 
so  often  been  united  under  one  regime, 
that  the  history  of  the  one  is  necessarily 
connected  with  the  history  of  the  other. 
Yet  the  two  are  distinct  sciences,  just  as 
Church  and  State  are  distinct  institutions, 
representing  different  spheres;  the  latter 
occupied  wholly  with  this  world,  the  for¬ 
mer  including  an  invisible  and  eternal  or¬ 
der  of  things. 

The  Church  deals  primarily  with  man’s 
relation  to  his  Creator,  addresses  itself  to 
the  conscience,  aims  at  the  appropriation 
of  salvation  by  every  individual,  intro¬ 
duces  a  new  spiritual  energy  into  the  lives 
of  men,  and  seeks  to  bind  all  together  in 
the  bonds  of  love.  It  is  under  the  imme¬ 
diate  headship  of  Christ,  the  God-man, 
who  represents  the  fullness  of  the  God¬ 
head  and  the  fullness  of  renewed  human¬ 
ity,  and  under  the  guidance  of  his  indwell¬ 
ing  Spirit.  Church  history  is,  accordingly , 
distinguished  by  the  element  of  the  super¬ 
natural. 

God  is,  indeed,  active  in  all  history. 
Divinity  shapes  the  course  of  human 
events.  The  world  is  a  plan  of  the  Infinite, 
and  Atheists  are  incompetent  to  write  its 
history;  but  Church  history  is  concerned 
with  the  special  interposition  of  God  in  be¬ 
half  of  human  redemption.  It  treats  of  the 
progress  of  an  institution  which  is  so  specif¬ 
ically  divine,  and  whose  human  adminis¬ 
tration  is  so  directly  under  divine  care  and 
guidance,  that  it  is  virtually  a  heavenly 
kingdom,  set  up  in  the  midst  of  the  king¬ 


doms  of  this  world,  in  order  to  permeate 
them  with  a  heaven-born  life,  and  that  by 
means  of  purely  spiritual  activities. 

Although  it  may  be  treated  as  a  branch 
of  the  general  history  of  the  world, Church 
history  has  an  immense  compass  of  its 
own,  with  the  widest  ramifications.  It 
treats  of  both  an  outward  and  an  inward 
progressive  movement,  the  mustard  seed 
and  the  leaven,  the  triumphant  advance¬ 
ment  of  Christianity  amid  opposition,  con¬ 
flict,  and  temporary  failure,  and  the  steady 
development  of  its  doctrine,  constitution, 
discipline,  and  worship;  and  along  with 
these  elements  are  included  its  relation  to 
civil  government,  to  art,  science,  philos¬ 
ophy,  literature,  and  commerce.  All  the 
phenomena  sustaining  dynamic  relations, 
either  to  the  external  fortunes  of  the 
Church  or  its  intrinsic  life  and  thought, 
fall  within  the  province  of  Church  history. 
Some  of  the  subjects  essentially  compre¬ 
hended  in  it  have  been  exhibited  as  inde¬ 
pendent  sciences,  and  there  are  valuable 
treatises  on  the  history  of  dogmas,  of  wor¬ 
ship,  of  missions,  of  heresies,  etc.;  but 
Church  history  is  properly  a  representa¬ 
tion  of  the  Church,  comprehending  the 
progressive  features  of  all  its  various  ele¬ 
ments  and  activities.  It  is,  of  course,  no 
mere  record  of  these,  isolated  from  each 
other,  but  their  presentation  according  to 
historic  perspective,  regarding  the  law  of 
cause  and  effect,  and  the  interdependence 
of  events  and  ideas,  recognizing  the  invis¬ 
ible  life-principle  which  permeates  and 
unifies  the  whole  course  of  development, 
and  produces  uniform  manifestations  un¬ 
der  variant  conditions  and  the  most  widely 
different  people,  and  finally  discovering 
the  convergence  of  all  movements  toward 
a  common  and  glorious  goal. 

The  sources  of  Church  history  are  mon¬ 
uments,  including  works  of  art  and  living 
communities,  original  documents,  accounts 
by  eye-witnesses  or  contemporaries,  and 
historical  writings  following  sources  now 
lost,  acts  of  councils  and  other  legislative 
bodies,  decrees  of  ecclesiastical  and  civil 
rulers,  liturgies  and  confessions.  A  care¬ 
ful  criticism  of  the  sources  is  of  the  first 
importance. 

The  vastness  and  diversity  of  material 
admit  of  different  modes  of  treatment. 
The  distribution  may  be  according  to  sub¬ 
jects,  grouping  those  similar  in  nature. 
The  narrative  may  follow  the  outward  ca¬ 
reer  of  the  Church  and  its  internal  thought 
and  spirit.  It  may  portray  the  Church  as 
a  whole,  or  according  to  its  numerous  di¬ 
visions.  It  may  exhibit  it  under  its  Greek, 
Roman,  and  Protestant  manifestations,  or 
deal  with  national  Churches  and  particular 
communions,  separately  organized  in  view 


Chu 


(  IQI  ) 


Chu 


of  disagreement  in  doctrine,  worship,  or 
polity. 

The  method  generally  adopted  is  an  ar¬ 
rangement  according  to  periods,  which  is 
in  conformity  to  the  very  idea  of  history, 
although  not  altogether  satisfactory,  since, 
while  the  tide  may  for  a  time  set  in  a  par¬ 
ticular  direction,  or  rise  to  an  unusual 
height,  the  general  current  is  never  inter¬ 
rupted,  and  overflows  all  artificial  lines.  No 
period  is  dissevered  from  what  precedes, 
or  what  follows.  Hence  chronological  di¬ 
visions  vary,  according  to  the  writers,  al¬ 
though  certain  clearly  marked  eras,  like  the 
conversion  of  Constantine  and  the  Refor¬ 
mation,  are  recognized  by  all. 

Church  history,  it  is  generally  admitted, 
begins  properly  with  the  close  of  the 
Apostolic  Age,  about  the  year  A.  D.  100. 
By  some,  the  birth  of  the  Redeemer  is 
viewed  as  the  proper  starting  point,  by 
some,  the  Day  of  Pentecost,  when  the 
Church,  filled  with  the  Spirit,  entered 
upon  the  stage  and  manifested  itself  as  a 
distinctly  Christian  community.  As  it 
portrays  the  rise  and  progress  of  God’s 
kingdom,  it  may  begin  with  the  first  mani¬ 
festation  of  the  redemptive  purpose,  and 
present  the  successive  revelations  and  in¬ 
stitutions  of  the  Jewish  theocracy;  but 
those  earlier  features  are  properly  viewed 
as  preparatory  stages,  and  they  are  rightly 
included  in  the  exposition  of  Scripture,  as 
they  were,  likewise,  developed  under  the 
guidance  of  inspired  agents. 

The  division  followed  by  Hase  com¬ 
mends  itself  by  its  natural  and  logical  or¬ 
der,  and  its  conformity  to  the  historic 
progress.  It  comprises  the  whole  in  Three 
Ages ,  each  embracing  Two  Periods.  (1) 
Ancient  Church  History ,  the  first  period 
extending  to  the  establishment  of  the 
Church  under  Constantine,  the  second 
period  to  A.  D.  800,  during  which  the  de¬ 
velopment  of  the  faith  was  completed,  and 
the  barbarian  immigrations  were  brought 
under  the  cross.  (2)  Medioeval  Church  His¬ 
tory ,  to  the  Reformation,  A.  d.  1517;  the 
first  period  bounded  by  the  summit  of 
papal  despotism,  a. ' d.  1215,  the  second 
marked  by  the  gradual  decline  of  Cathol¬ 
icism,  and  futile  struggles  for  reform.  (3) 
Modern  Church  History,  extending  to  the 
present;  the  first  period,  to  a.  d.  1648,  ex¬ 
hibiting  the  victory  of  Protestantism,  the 
second  exhibiting  the  conflict  of  Liberalism 
with  Orthodoxy. 

Eusebius,  Bishop  of  Caesarea  (340),  is 
called  the  Father  of  Church  History.  Em¬ 
inent  names  among  his  successors  are  Soc¬ 
rates,  Sozomen,  Theodoret,  Theodorus, 
and  Sulpicius  Severus.  The  Reforma¬ 
tion  produced  the  Magdeburg  Centiiries,  a 
voluminous  work  of  Lutheran  theologians, 


in  thirteen  folio  volumes,  each  covering  a 
century,  and  the  valuable  work  of  Cardinal 
Baronius,  in  twelve  volumes.  For  a  while 
historical  studies  received  inconsiderable 
attention,  until  a  new  epoch  began  with 
the  magnificent  treatise  of  Mosheim.  Since 
then  illustrious  scholars  have  illuminated 
this  domain.  Gieseler’s  work  is  a  monu¬ 
ment  of  research,  distinguished  by  critical 
merit  and  ample  quotations  from  original 
sources.  Neander’s  deals  especially  with 
the  developments  of  the  inner  life,  Christ’s 
presence  and  power  inhumanity.  Kurtz’s 
is  so  comprehensive,  clear,  and  concise, 
that  it  has  long  been  a  standard  in  the  the¬ 
ological  schools  of  Europe  and  America. 
Schaff’s,  written  in  classic  style,  and  per¬ 
vaded  by  an  evangelic  catholic  spirit,  is 
unsurpassed  in  the  English  language.  A 
compendious  history  of  the  Church  in  this 
country  remains  a  desideratum . 

E.  J.  Wolf. 

Church  Jurisdiction.  See  Jurisdiction. 

Church  Music.  See  Music. 

Church  Polity.  See  Church  Govern¬ 
ment. 

Church  Property.  The  wealth  of  the 
Church  consists  in  a  spiritual  treasury. 
Financial  resources  were  of  little  conse¬ 
quence  to  the  early  Christians.  Looking 
for  a  speedy  termination  of  the  existing  or¬ 
der,  they  felt  a  decided  indifference  to 
earthly  possessions.  The  relief  of  the  poor 
by  the  Church  was,  however,  from  the  first, 
a  characteristic  of  Christianity.  A  warm 
and  ample  charity  provided  for  the  exigen¬ 
cies  of  the  hour,  many  contributing  their 
all,  but  as  long  as  the  Church  was  in  the 
throes  of  persecution  no  institutions  for 
the  future  were  founded,  nothing  in  the 
nature  of  endowment  is  recorded. 

Beyond  this  provision  for  immediate 
distress,  which,  like  the  Collegia  of  the 
poor,  must  have  enjoyed  a  certain  legal 
protection,  there  is  no  evidence  of- Church 
property  with  any  considerable  returns  in 
the  first  centuries.  “  The  accumulation  of 
permanent  Church  property,  at  least  the 
acquisition  of  estates,”  says  Uhlhorn,  “  be¬ 
gins  to  occur,  indeed,  in  the  last  times  of 
the  conflict  (persecution),  but  the  posses¬ 
sions  of  the  Church  were  still  at  any  rate 
very  inconsiderable.” 

By  means  of  collections,  the  extraordi¬ 
nary  gifts  of  the  rich,  and  the  binding  force 
which  was  gradually  accorded  to  the  Old 
Testament  law  of  tithes  and  first-fruits, 
large  sums  came  into  the  Church’s  treas¬ 
ury,  to  be  disbursed  by  the  presbytery  or 
bishop,  through  the  deacons,  among  the 


Chu 


(  192  ) 


Cir 


various  classes  of  the  needy.  Constantine 
gave  the  Church  corporate  rights,  and  him¬ 
self  set  the  example  of  large  donations, 
from  which  time  the  Church  began  rapidly 
to  amass  property  from  legacies  and  from 
the  gifts  of  the  rich  and  great.  It  also  in¬ 
herited  vast  possessions  belonging  to 
heathen  temples  as  well  as  the  accumula¬ 
tions  of  many  of  the  Collegia.  In  a  short 
time  immense  wealth  was  in  the  hands  of 
the  Church.  In  the  fifth  century  it  was 
the  greatest  landowner  in  the  empire, 
whose  rulers  sought  in  vain  to  prevent 
such  an  absorption  of  real  property.  This 
wealth  was  primarily  the  patrimony  of  the 
poor.  The  great  bishops  of  the  time  were 
the  fathers  of  the  poor,  and  the  vast  rev¬ 
enues  at  their  disposal  were  destined  for 
the  relief  of  countless  multitudes  whom 
the  calamities  of  a  dissolving  empire  had 
made  helpless.  They  came,  later,  to  be  ap¬ 
plied  also  to  the  purposes  of  public  wor¬ 
ship,  the  erection  of  Church  buildings,  and 
the  maintenance  of  the  clergy. 

It  was  an  established  principle  that  no 
property  could  be  alienated  from  the 
Church.  Add  to  this  the  claim  that  it  was 
the  proper  heir  of  all  the  clergy,  the  found¬ 
ing  of  numerous  monasteries  which  acquir¬ 
ed  extensive  domains,  and  the  exercise  of 
civil  power  by  prelates,  and  the  Church  in 
the  natural  course  of  things  must  have  a 
continuous  and  vast  increase  of  wealth. 

The  fall  of  the  hierarchy, through  the  Ref¬ 
ormation,  was  followed  in  different  coun¬ 
tries  by  the  confiscation  of  such  property 
as  could  no  longer  serve  its  original  pur¬ 
pose,  on  account  of  the  triumph  of  evan¬ 
gelical  doctrines.  It  was,  as  a  rule,  ap¬ 
plied  to  educational  and  charitable  pur¬ 
poses,  although  in  some  instances  the 
State  appropriated  it  to  purely  secular  ob¬ 
jects.  The  Church  became,  in  fact,  a 
State  institution,  its  functions  were  by  de¬ 
grees  largely  transferred  to  the  State,  and 
even  the  property,  endowments,  etc.,  re¬ 
served  for  purely  religious  uses,  passed 
into  the  ownership  of  the  civil  power. 

In  England,  where  the  Reformation 
made  but  slight  changes  in  the  ecclesiasti¬ 
cal  constitution,  the  bishops  retain  princely 
revenues,  as  they  continue  to  exercise  po¬ 
litical  power  as  lords  spiritual.  In  Amer¬ 
ica  each  denomination  controls  its  own 
property,  although  not  wholly  free  from 
restrictions  by  the  State,  which  protects 
it,  and,  as  a  rule,  exempts  it  from  tax¬ 
ation. 

E.  J.  Wolf. 

Church  Rates,  in  England,  a  tax  or  as¬ 
sessment  laid  on  the  parishioners  and  oc¬ 
cupiers  of  land  within  a  parish,  by  the 
majority  of  their  own  body  in  vestry  assem¬ 


bled,  for  church  repairs  :  the  payment, 
however,  cannot  be  compelled. 

Church,  States  of  the.  See  States  of 
the  Church. 

Church  Wardens,  “  lay-officers  in  the 
Episcopal  Church  in  England  and  America, 
appointed  by  the  united  consent  of  minister 
and  parishioners  (in  the  United  States  they 
are  elected  at  Easter),  whose  duties  are  to 
protect  the  church  building,  and  provide' 
public  worship,  and  see  that  it  be  orderly. '* 
— Schaff-Herzog. 

Church  of  Jesus  Christ  of  the  Latter-Day 
Saints.  See  Mormons. 

Churching  of  Women,  a  religious  usage 
prevailing  in  the  Christian  Church  from  an 
early  period,  of  women,  on  their  recovery 
after  child-bearing,  going  to  church  to  give 
thanks.  It  appears  to  have  been  borrowed 
from  the  Jewish  law.  (Lev.  xii.  6.)  In  the 
Church  of  the  early  ages,  it  was  accompan¬ 
ied  with  various  rites;  and  in  the  Church  of 
Rome  and  Greek  Church,  it  is  imperative. 
In  the  Church  of  England,  also,  a  service 
for  the  Churching  of  Women  finds  a  place 
in  the  liturgy. 

Ciborium,  (1)  the  chalice  or  cup  used  to 
hold  the  host,  or  consecrated  wafer,  in  the 
mass.  (2)  The  name  given  to  a  canopy 
over  the  altar,  which  was  supported  by  four 
columns. 

Cili'cia,  “a  maritime  province  in  the  S.  E. 
of  Asia  Minor,  bordering  on  Pamphylia  in 
the  W.,  Lycaonia  and  Cappadocia  in  the 
N.,  and  Syria  in  the  E.  Lofty  mountain 
chains  separate  it  from  these  provinces, 
Mons  Amanus  from  Syria,  and  Anti-Taurus 
from  Cappadocia.  The  western  portion  of 
the  province  is  intersected  with  the  ridges 
of  Anti-Taurus,  and  was  denominated  Tra- 
chaea,  rough ,  in  contradistinction  to  Pedias, 
the  level  district  in  the  E.  The  connection 
between  the  Jews  and  Cilicia  dates  from 
the  time  when  it  became  part  of  the  Syrian 
kingdom.  In  the  Apostolic  Age  they  were 
still  there  in  considerable  numbers.  (Acts 
vi.  9.)  Cilicia  was,  from  its  geographical 
position,  the  high  road  between  Syria  and 
the  West;  it  was  also  the  native  country  of 
St.  Paul  ;  hence  it  was  visited  by  him, 
firstly,  soon  after  his  conversion  (Gal.  i.  21 ; 
Acts  ix.  30);  and  again  in  his  second  apos¬ 
tolical  journey,  when  he  entered  it  on  the 
side  of  Syria,  and  crossed  Anti-Taurus  by 
the  Pylse  Ciliciae  into  Lycaonia.  (Acts  xv. 
41.)” — Smith:  Diet,  of  the  Bible. 

Circumcellions,  a  fanatical  party  among 


Cir 


(  193  ) 


Cit 


the  Donatists.  The  name  was  also  given 
to  certain  supporters  of  the  Emperor  Fred¬ 
erick  II.  in  his  contest  with  Pope  Inno¬ 
cent  IV.,  early  in  the  thirteenth  century. 
See  Donatists. 

Circumcision,  a  custom  among  many 
Eastern  nations  of  cutting  off  part  of  the 
prepuce  as  a  religious  ceremony.  In  the 
oldest  times  the  operation  was  performed 
with  a  stone  knife  (Ex.  iv.  25;  Josh.  v.  2); 
in  later  times  the  Jews  used  a  steel  knife. 
The  operation  was  dangerous,  especially 
when  performed  upon  adults.  The  third 
day  was  feared  the  most.  (Gen.  xxxiv.  25.) 
Any  Israelite  could  perform  the  rite  of  cir¬ 
cumcision,  but  no  Gentile;  in  general,  it 
was  performed  by  the  father  (Gen.  xvii. 
23);  in  case  of  emergency,  also  by  the 
mother.  (Ex.  iv.  25;  1  Macc.  i.  60.)  After¬ 
ward  the  rite  was  performed  by  a  physi¬ 
cian.  To-day  it  is  performed  by  a  special 
officer,  styled  mohel ,  i.  e.  circumcisor.  Ac¬ 
cording  to  Gen.  xvii.  10-14,  circumcision 
was  made  obligatory  upon  Abraham  and 
his  servants  and  his  seed,  as  well  as  to 
their  own  children,  on  penalty  of  being  cut 
off  from  the  people.  The  usage  thus  in¬ 
troduced  by  Abraham  was  formally  enact¬ 
ed  as  a  legal  institute  by  Moses.  (Lev.  xii. 
3;  comp.  John  vii.  23.)  Slaves,  whether 
home-born  or  purchased,  were  circum¬ 
cised  (Gen.  xvii.  12,  13);  and  foreigners 
must  have  their  males  circumcised  before 
they  could  be  allowed  to  partake  of  the 
passover.  (Ex.  xii.  48.)  The  eighth  day 
after  birth  of  a  male  child  was  appointed 
for  the  performance  of  the  rite,  even  if 
this  day  should  be  a  Sabbath;  in  case  of 
sickness,  a  delay  was  permitted.  The  an¬ 
cient  Egyptians  performed  the  ceremony 
between  the  sixth  and  tenth  year;  the  Mo¬ 
hammedans  of  our  day  often  wait  till  the 
twelfth  or  thirteenth  year.  Among  the 
Israelites  the  child  received  its  name  with 
the  circumcision.  (Luke  i.  59;  ii.  21;  comp. 
Gen.  xvii.  5.) 

The  significance  of  this  symbolical  act 
consisted  in  this:  that  for  the  Israelites 
circumcision  was  an  act  of  purification; 
hence,  the  sign  of  the  covenant  between 
God  and  his  people.  The  introduction  of 
Christianity  was  the  signal  for  the  aboli¬ 
tion  of  this  rite  in  the  Church  of  God  (Gal. 
vi.  15;  Col.  iii.  11),  though  among  the 
Jewish  Christians  were  still  found  many 
who  clung  tenaciously  to  that  rite.  Bap¬ 
tism,  as  the  rite  of  admission  into  the 
Church,  took  the  place  of  circumcision,  but 
in  a  still  higher  sense,  by  requiring  not 
only  the  purification  of  a  certain  part  of 
the  body,  but  a  regeneration  of  the  whole 
man. 

Orelli-Pick. 


Cistercian  Monks,  or  Bernardines,  or 
White  Monks,  an  order  of  monks  who  de¬ 
rived  their  name  from  Cisteaux,  or  Citeaux 
(Lat.  Cistercitim),  a  village  between  Dijon 
and  Chalons,  in  Burgundy.  This  order 
was  originally  founded  in  the  year  1098, 
by  Robert,  Abbot  of  Molesme,  but  the  at¬ 
tempts  of  the  first  founder  to  gather  a 
society  together  at  Citeaux  had  proved  a 
failure,  and  when  he  forsook  it  in  despair, 
his  work  was  taken  up  by  an  Englishman, 
named  Stephen  Harding.  Here,  under 
much  discouragement,  Harding  labored 
for  some  years,  not  wholly  in  sympathy 
with  the  life  of  labor  rather  than  of  study 
and  meditation,  which  the  Cistercians  had 
adopted.  At  length,  in  A.  d.  iii 3,  his 
perseverance  was  rewarded  by  the  arrival 
of  St.  Bernard  of  Clairvaux,  with  a  com¬ 
pany  of  thirty  young  and  zealous  men, 
who  came  to  enlist  themselves  as  monks 
of  the  Cistercian  Order.  From  that  time 
it  began  rapidly  to  flourish;  and  St.  Ber¬ 
nard’s  intellectual  power  and  self-denying 
piety  made  him,  in  his  life-time,  the  mostin- 
fhiential  person  in  Christendom.  Within 
a  little  more  than  a  century  there  were 
about  1,800  abbeys  of  the  Order  founded  in 
England  and  Europe.  The  Cistercians 
were  called  White  Monks,  from  their  dis¬ 
tinctive  dress,  which  was  a  white  frock,  or 
cassock.  By  the  middle  of  the  thirteenth 
century  the  order  came  to  he  period  of 
its  greatest  prosperity,  and  thereafter  be¬ 
gan  to  decay.  The  famous  convent  of 
Port  Royal  belonged  to  the  Cistercians. 
See  Bernard,  St. 

Cities  of  Refuge,  six  Levitical  cities,  into 
which  those  who  had  committed  involun¬ 
tary  homicide  might  flee,  and  dwell  in  se¬ 
curity  until  released  from  banishment  by 
the  death  of  the  high-priest.  (Num.  xxxv. 
4-34;  Deut.  iv.  41,  42;  xix.  1-3;  Josh.  xx. 
2,  7,  8.)  Any  fugitive  who  proved  to  be  a 
willful  murderer  was  given  up  by  the  au¬ 
thorities.  Sign-posts  along  the  principal 
roads  indicated  the  way  to  the  cities  of 
refuge.  Among  other  sacred  places  of 
refuge  were  the  temple  and  the  altar  of 
burnt-offerings.  (Ex.  xxi.  14.) 

Citizenship.  “  The  use  of  this  term  in 
Scripture  has  exclusive  reference  to  the 
usages  of  the  Roman  empire.  The  priv¬ 
ilege  of  Roman  citizenship  was  originally 
acquired  in  various  ways,  as  by  purchase 
(Acts  xxii.  28),  by  military  services,  by 
favor,  or  by  manumission.  The  right  once 
obtained  descended  to  a  man’s  children. 
(Acts  xxii.  28.)  Among  the  privileges  at¬ 
tached  to  citizenship,  we  may  note  that  a 
man  could  not  be  bound  or  imprisoned 
without  a  formal  trial  (Acts  xxii,  29),  still 


Cit 


(  194  ) 


Cla 


less  be  scourged.  (Acts  xvi.  37;  Cic. :  In 
Vcrr.,  v.  63,  66.)  Another  privilege  at¬ 
taching  to  citizenship  was  the  appeal  from 
a  provincial  tribunal  to  the  emperor  at 
Rome.  (Acts  xxv.  11.)” — Smith:  Diet,  of 
the  Bihle. 

City.  Cities  date  from  the  days  of  Cain. 
(Gen.  iv.  17.)  “  We  find  already  in  the 

times  of  the  patriarchs  a  distinction  made 
between  cities  and  villages.  The  latter 
were  not  only  smaller,  but  were  without 
walls,  and  generally  dependent  on  some 
city  near  which  they  stood.  It  is  an  inter¬ 
esting  fact  that  the  Israelites,  for  the  most 
part,  inherited  cities  rather  than  built 
them.  The  land  of  Canaan  is  described  as 
being  full  of  cities  at  the  time  of  the  con¬ 
quest,  and  it  may  be  inferred  that  not  a 
few  of  them  were  of  considerable  size  and 
age.  Such,  at  least,  were  Hazor  and 
Jericho.” — Bissell:  Biblical  Antiquities ,  pp. 
31,  32.  Just  outside  the  gate  of  the  city 
was  an  open  space,  where  councils  and 
public  gatherings  were  held,  and  the  peo¬ 
ple  met  for  social  conversation.  (1  Sam.iv. 
r8;  Job  xxix.  7.)  The  streets  of  most  of 
the  ancient  cities  were  narrow  and  un¬ 
paved.  Some,  as  in  the  case  of  Babylon, 
were  adorned  with  open  squares  and 
beautiful  gardens. 

Clap,  Thomas,  a  president  of  Yale  Col¬ 
lege;  b.  at  Scituate,  Mass.,  June  26,  1703; 
d.  at  New  Haven,  Jan.  7,  1767.  He  was  a 
graduate  of  Harvard  (1722);  pastor  of  the 
Congregational  Church,  Windham,  Conn., 
1726-39;  president  of  Yale  College,  1739- 
1766.  He  was  one  of  the  most  learned 
men  of  his  times.  He  opposed  Whitefield, 
and  wrote  A  Brief  History  and  Vindication 
of  the  Doctrines  received  atid  established  in 
the  Churches  of  New  England ,  loith  a  Spec- 
imen  of  the  New  Scheme  of  Religion  begin¬ 
ning  to  prevail  (1755).  The  conflict  of 
opinion  growing  out  of  this  discussion  led 
him  to  resign  his  office  not  long  before  his 
death.  He  published  Annals  or  History 
of  Yale  College  (1766). 

Clare,  St.  ,  foundress  of  the  order  of  nuns 
known  as  Clarisses;  b.  at  Assisi,  in  1194;  d. 
there,  in  1253.  She  was  a  follower  of  St. 
Francis,  and  her  order  received  its  rule  from 
him  (1224).  It  enjoined  absolute  poverty, 
silence,  fasting,  etc.  This  rule  was  relaxed 
in  the  time  of  Innocent  IV.,  but  revived, 
with  extreme  rigor,  in  the  fifteenth  cen¬ 
tury  by  Colette  of  Corbie.  Several  orders 
have  sprung  from  the  Clarisses.  Clare 
was  canonized  soon  after  her  death. 

Clarke,  Adam,  LL.  D.,  an  English  Wes¬ 
leyan  minister  widely  known  as  a  Bible 


commentator;  b.  near  Londonderry,  Ire¬ 
land,  about  1762;  d.  of  cholera,  in  London, 
Aug. 26, 1832.  He  was  an  itinerant  preacher 
in  the  Wesleyan  connection  from  1782  to 
1805,  and  from  1805  to  1815  was  connected 
with  the  British  and  Foreign  Bible  Soci¬ 
ety,  having  the  charge  of  the  printing  of 
their  Arabic  Bible.  He  was  a  profound 
scholar,  and  gained  wide  recognition,  es¬ 
pecially  for  his  proficiency  in  Oriental 
languages.  Among  his  elaborate  works 
the  best  known  is  his  Commentary  on  the 
Holy  Bible  (London,  1812-26),  to  which  he 
devoted  forty  years  of  labor.  It  has 
passed  through  many  editions.  See  his 
Memoirs  (London,  1833),  3  vols. 

Clarke,  James  Freeman,  D.  D.  (Harvard 
College,  1863),  Unitarian;  b.  at  Hanover, 
N.  H.,  April  4,  1810;  d.  in  Boston,  June  8, 
1888.  He  was  graduated  at  Harvard  College 
1829,  and  at  the  Cambridge  Divinity 
School,  1833;  pastor  at  Louisville,  Ky. , 
1833-40;  and  of  the  Church  of  the  Dis¬ 
ciples,  Boston,  1841-50,  and  from  1853  un¬ 
til  his  death.  He  was  a  prolific  writer, 
and  among  his  published  works  are  Ortho¬ 
doxy:  its  Truths  and  its  Errors  (1866);  The 
Ten  Great  Religions  (1870-83,  2  vols.;  1st 
vol.,  22d  ed.,  1886;  2d  vol. ,  5th  ed.,  1886). 
His  published  sermons  had  a  wide  circula¬ 
tion. 

Clarke,  John,  one  of  the  founders  of 
Rhode  Island;  b.  in  Bedfordshire,  Eng., 
Oct.  8,  1609;  d.  in  Newport,  R.  I.,  April 
20,  1676.  lie  was  sent  with  Roger  Wil¬ 
liams  to  England  in  1651,  as  agent  of  the 
colony.  He  founded  the  second  Baptist 
church  in  Newport  in  1644,  and  was  the 
author  of  a  famous  tract:  III  Nezus  from 
New  England:  or,  a  Narrative  of  New  Eng¬ 
land'  s  Persecution  (1652). 

Clarke,  Samuel,  D.  D.,  Church  of  Eng¬ 
land;  b.  at  Norwich,  Oct.  11,  1675;  d.  in 
London,  May  17,  1729.  Educated  at  Cam¬ 
bridge,  he  was  for  twelve  years  domestic 
chaplain  to  Dr.  More,  Bishop  of  Norwich, 
through  whose  influence  he  became  rector 
of  St.  Benet’s  in  London,  and  then  of  St. 
James’s,  Piccadilly.  He  first  became  known 
through  his  Boyle  lectures,  preached  in 
1704:  Discourses  Concerning  the  Being  and 
Attributes  of  God.  This  work,  and  a  sub¬ 
sequent  one  on  The  Scripture  Doctrine  of 
the  Trinity,  involved  him  in  an  extended 
controversy.  He  was  a  philosopher  of 
considerable  merit,  and  the  reviver  of  mod¬ 
ern  Arianism  in  England.  His  works  were 
collected  in  4  vols.  by  Bishop  Hoadly 
(London,  1738). 

Clarkson,  Thomas,  the  great  English 


Cla 


(  195  ) 


Cle 


.antislavery  leader;  b.  near  Cambridge, 
March  28,  1760;  d.  at  Playford  Hall,  Suf¬ 
folk,  Sept.  26,  1846.  He  won  the  prize  at 
Cambridge  in  1785  for  an  essay  on  this 
question,  “Is  it  right  to  make  slaves  of 
others  against  their  will  ?  ”  This  paper 
had  a  wide  circulation,  and  Clarkson  devot¬ 
ed  his  time  to  bringing  about  the  emanci¬ 
pation  of  the  slaves.  With  Wilberforce 
and  others,  he  labored  unceasingly,  until 
the  British  slave-trade  was  abolished  in 
1807.  The  remainder  of  his  long  life  was 
filled  with  philanthropic  service. 

Classis,  a  term  used  in  the  Reformed 
Church,  and  corresponding  to  the  “  presby¬ 
tery”  in  the  Presbyterian  Church.  See  Pre¬ 
formed  Church. 

Class-Meetings  were  instituted  by  John 
Wesley,  and  are  a  part  of  the  organized 
life  of  Methodist  churches  throughout  the 
world.  Each  congregation  is  divided  into 
classes  that  are  placed  in  charge  of  an  expe¬ 
rienced  leader,  appointed  by  the  pastor. 
In  the  Methodist  Episcopal  Church  it  is 
his  duty  “  t.  To  see  each  person  in  his 
class  once  a  week  at  least,  in  order  (1)  To 
inquire  how  their  souls  prosper.  (2)  To  ad¬ 
vise,  reprove,  comfort,  or  exhort,  as  occa¬ 
sion  may  require.  (3)  To  receive  what  they 
are  willing  to  give  toward  the  relief  of  the 
preachers,  church  and  poor.  ir.  To  meet 
the  ministers  and  the  stewards  of  the  so¬ 
ciety  once  a  week,  in  order  (1)  To  inform 
the  minister  of  any  that  are  sick,  or  of  any 
that  walk  disorderly  and  will  not  be  re¬ 
proved.  (2)  To  pay  the  stewards  what 
they  have  received  of  their  several  classes 
in  the  week  preceding.”  ( Discipline ,  pt.  i. 
ch.  ii.  §  1.)  “  Much  of  the  energy,  unity, 

and  stability  of  Methodism  is  due  to  the 
class  system.” 

Claude,  Jean,  one  of  the  most  eminent 
of  French  Protestant  divines;  b.  at  La 
Sauvetat,  near  Agen,  in  the  south  of 
France,  in  1619;  d.  at  the  Hague,  Jan.  13, 
1687.  He  studied  at  Montauban  and  was 
ordained  in  1645;  became  pastor  at  La 
Treine,  1645;  at  Nismes,  1654;  at  Montau¬ 
ban,  1662;  at  Charenton,  near  Paris,  1666. 
During  these  years  he  was  regarded  as  the 
leader  of  the  French  Protestants,  and  vig¬ 
orously  held  his  ground  in  controversies 
with  Arnauld,  Nicole,  and  Bossuet.  The 
revocation  of  the  Edict  of  Nantes  obliged 
him,  in  1685,  to  seek  refuge  at  the 
Hague.  Several  of  his  works  have  been 
translated  into  English,  among  them  his 
Essay  on  the  Composition  of  a  Sermon 
(London  and  New  York,  1853);  Account  of 
the  Complaints  of  the  Protestants  (London, 

1707). 


Clau'dius,  the  fourth  Roman  emperor 
(excluding  Julius  Caesar),  succeeding  Ca¬ 
ligula,  A.  D.  41-54.  Several  famines  oc¬ 
curred  during  his  reign,  caused  by  unfa¬ 
vorable  harvests,  and  one  of  them  appears 
to  be  that  which  was  foretold  by  Agabus. 
(Acts  xi.  28.)  During  the  reign  of  Clau¬ 
dius  several  persecutions  of  Christians  by 
Jews  took  place  in  the  dominions  of  Her¬ 
od  Agrippa,  in  one  of  which  the  apostle 
James  was  executed.  He  also  banished 
at  one  time  the  Jews  from  Rome,  and  with 
them  the  Christians,  as  a  supposed  sect  of 
the  Jews.  (Acts  xviii.  2.) 

Clean  and  Unclean,  terms  applied  in  the 
Jewish  law  to  persons,  animals,  and  things. 
(Lev.  xi.  to  xv. ;  Num.  xix. ;  Deut.  xiv.)  The 
division  of  animals  into  clean  and  unclean 
existed  before  the  flood  (Gen.  vii.  2),  and 
was  probably  founded  upon  the  practice  of 
animal  sacrifice.  The  design  of  these  reg¬ 
ulations  was  to  distinguish  those  who  ob¬ 
served  them,  as  a  peculiar  people,  to  keep 
them  from  idolatry,  and  from  intercourse 
with  Gentiles.  The  ritual  was  done  away 
by  a  special  revelation  to  Peter.  (Acts  x. 
9-i6.) 

Clearstory  (or  clerestory ),  the  upper  part 
of  the  centre  aisle  of  a  church,  raised  above 
the  roofs  of  the  adjoining  side-aisles,  with 
windows  to  light  the  nave  below. 

Clement  of  Alexandria,  one  of  the  great¬ 
est  and  noblest  of  early  Christian  writers. 
He  was  born  in  the  middle  of  the  second 
century,  and  became  a  disciple  of  Pant^;- 
nus  (y.  v.),  from  whom  he  learned  what 
principles  lay  at  the  root  of  Gnosticism, 
and  by  this  knowledge  was  able  to  do  more 
than  any  one  had  ever  done  to  undermine 
it.  He  saw  that  its  intention  was  to  search 
after  God.  He  had  entered  into  that 
search,  and  in  his  prayers  and  seekings  had 
learned  that  God  had  sought  and  found 
him.  He  gathered  scholars  around  him, 
and  taught  them  to  bow  themselves  to  the 
Divine  will,  to  love  God  and  his  laws,  and 
thus  he  wrought  a  more  practical  effect 
than  any  teacher  that  the  century  produc¬ 
ed.  Three  complete  treatises  of  his  sur¬ 
vive,  and  the  principle  underlying  them  all 
is  the  same:  it  is  not  we,  only,  who  are 
seeking  God;  God  is  also  seeking  us,  and 
when  we  remember  that,  we  find  rest.  The 
works  are  (1)  Logos  Protreptikos ,  an  ex¬ 
hortation  to  the  heathen;  (2)  Pcedagogus , 
“  the  Instructor”  ;  (3)  Stromata ,  miscel¬ 
lanies,  a  collection  of  information  concern¬ 
ing  new  and  current  opinions,  arranged 
and  viewed  by  one  who  had  gone  through 
anxieties  of  his  own,  and  had  learned  sym¬ 
pathy  with  seekers  and  wanderers.  Dr. 


Cle 


(  10  ) 


Cle 


Kaye,  formerly  Bishop  of  Lincoln,  has 
left  a  very  interesting  account  of  his  writ¬ 
ings.  “  He  seems  to  me,”  writes  F.  D. 
Maurice,  “  that  one  of  the  old  Fathers 
whom  we  should  all  have  reverenced  most 
as  a  teacher,  and  loved  best  as  a  friend.” 
—  Benham:  Diet,  of  Religion.  See  Eng. 
trans.  of  his  works  in  Ante-Nicene  Fathers 
(ed.  Coxe,  Christian  Literature  Co.,  New 
York),  vol.  ii. 

Clement  of  Rome,  one  of  the  Apostolic 
Fathers,  and  third  Bishop  of  Rome.  Some 
hold  that  he  is  the  Clement  mentioned  in 
Phil.  iv.  3,  but  this  is  improbable.  No 
details  of  his  life  are  known,  beyond  the 
fact  that  he  is  said  to  have  been  martyred 
in  the  reign  of  Domitian.  Two  Epistles 
written  by  him  to  the  Corinthians  are  ex¬ 
tant.  The  first  is  occasioned,  as  much  of 
St.  Paul’s  first  Epistle  to  the  same  Church 
was,  by  feuds  and  factions  which  had 
arisen.  St.  Clement  exhorts  to  love  and 
unity  in  a  tone  of  childlike  beauty  and 
tenderness.  The  work  is  full  of  quota¬ 
tions  from  the  writings  of  the  apostles, 
and  is  extremely  valuable  for  the  evidence 
it  affords  of  the  genuineness  of  the  New 
Testament.  The  second  epistle  —  the 
genuineness  of  which,  however,  is  in  dis¬ 
pute — is  a  homily  rather  than  an  epistle. 
Both  may  be  read  in  Archbishop  Wake’s 
Apostolic  Fathers.  Other  works  which 
have  been  ascribed  to  him  are  now  recog¬ 
nized  to  be  spurious;  they  are  the  Recog¬ 
nitions,  the  Clementine  Homilies ,  and  the 
Epitome.  The  second  of  these  is  like  a 
fiction,  consisting  partly  of  letters,  partly 
of  a  narrative  of  a  journey  made  by 
Clement,  and  what  befell  him.  But  un¬ 
der  the  romantic  adventure  is  discernible 
an  endeavor  to  teach  Ebionite  doctrine. 
Probably  the  work  is  that  of  an  heretical 
teacher  of  the  second  or  third  century. 
— Benham:  Diet,  of  Religion.  See  Eng. 
trans.  of  Clement’s  works  in  Ante-Nicene 
Fathers  (ed.  Coxe,  Christian  Literature 
Co.,  New  York),  vols.  i.  and  viii. 

Clement,  the  name  of  fourteen  popes. 
See  Popes. 

Clementines  “  is  the  name  generally  ap¬ 
plied  to  a  very  remarkable  group  of  writ¬ 
ings,  closely  related  to  each  other  with  re¬ 
spect  to  their  contents,  and  evidently  drawn 
from  the  same  source, butoften transcribed, 
augmented,  and  variously  remodeled. 
They  have  falsely  been  ascribed  to  Clem¬ 
ent  of  Rome  ( q .  v.)}  and  probably  had  their 
origin  after  the  middle  of  the  second  cen¬ 
tury.  Of  the  group,  three  works  are  still 
extant:  the  Clementine  Homilies,  the  Rec¬ 
ognitions,  and  the  Epitome ,  They  are 


three  independent  elaborations,  perhaps  at 
first  hand,  perhaps  at  second  or  third,  of 
some  older  tract  not  now  at  hand.” — Uhl- 
horn.  See  his  art.  in  Schaff- Herzog:  Ency. 
vol.  i.,  pp.  497-498. 

Clergy  (Gr.  cleros,  a  lot,  an  inheritance), 
“a  term  very  generally  applied  to  the  minis¬ 
ters  of  the  Christian  religion,  in  contradis¬ 
tinction  to  the  laity.  This  use  of  the  term 
is  very  ancient,  and  appears  to  have  grad¬ 
ually  become  prevalent,  as  the  ministers 
of  religion  more  and  more  exclusively,  in¬ 
stead  of  the  members  of  the  Christian 
Church  equally,  began  to  be  regarded  as 
God’s  ‘heritage’  and  ‘priesthood’  (1 
Pet.  ii.  9,  and  v.  3),  consecrated  to  him, 
and  peculiarly  his.  The  distinction  be¬ 
tween  the  clergy  and  the  laity  became  more 
marked  through  the  multiplication  of 
offices  and  titles  among  the  clergy,  the 
ascription  to  them  of  a  place  in  the  Chris¬ 
tian  Church  similar  to  that  of  the  priests 
and  Levites  in  the  Jewish  Church,  with 
peculiar  rights  and  privileges,  their  as¬ 
sumption  of  a  peculiar  dress  and  of  official 
insignia,  the  growth  of  monastic  institu¬ 
tions,  and  the  introduction  of  celibacy.  In 
harmony  with  the  notions  on  which  this 
distinction  is  founded,  is  that  of  an  indel¬ 
ible,  or  almost  indelible,  character  derived 
from  ordination,  so  that  a  renunciation  of 
the  clerical  office  is  either  viewed  as  an 
impossibility,  or  a  sort  of  apostasy.  These 
notions  in  their  highest  degree  belong  to 
the  Church  of  Rome.  In  the  Protestant 
churches,  the  distinction  between  clergv 
and  laity  is  much  less  wide;  and,  although 
the  same  terms  are  often  used,  it  is  rather 
conventionally  than  in  their  full  significa¬ 
tion.  The  employment  of  official  robes  by 
the  clergy  preceded  their  assumption  of  a 
peculiar  ordinary  dress,  and  is  not  so  inti¬ 
mately  connected  with  any  peculiar  preten¬ 
sions.  Among  the  privileges  accorded  to 
the  clergy  by  the  Roman  emperors,  and  in 
the  Middle  Ages,  was  exemption  from  civil 
offices;  among  the  rights  asserted  by  them, 
and  which  caused  much  dispute,  was 
exemption  from  lay  jurisdiction,  even  in 
cases  of  felony.  The  clergy  were  distin¬ 
guished  into  the  higher  clergy  and  the  loiuer 
clergy,  the  latter  including  janitors,  aco¬ 
lytes,  lectors,  exorcists,  etc.  The  term 
secular  clergy  is  the  designation  of  priests 
of  the  Church  of  Rome  who  are  not  of  any 
religious  order,  but  have  the  care  of  par¬ 
ishes.  Monks  who  are  in  holy  orders  are 
designated  regular  clergy .”  —  Chambers: 
Cyclopccdia.  See  Benefit  of  Clergy. 

Clergy,  Benefit  of,  a  mediteval  custom 
which  marked  the  extent  to  which  the  de¬ 
mand  of  the  clergymen  was  acceded  to  in 


Cle 


(  197  ) 


Clu 


England,  for  exemption  from  the  common- 
law  tribunals;  the  privilege  first  granted 
to  them  was  extended  to  all  who  could 
read,  such  persons  being,  in  the  eye  of  the 
law,  clerici  or  clerks.  This  privilege  was 
abridged  and  modified  by  various  statutes, 
and  finally  abolished  in  the  reign  of  George 
IV.  See  Blackstone:  Commentaries,  iv.  28. 

Clerk,  originally  the  name  given  to  those 
in  holy  orders,  and  still  used  by  clergy¬ 
men  of  the  Church  of  England  in  signing 
any  legal  instrument.  It  in  time  came  to 
designate  a  learned  man,  or  one  who  could 
read,  and  is  now  the  name  given  those  who 
lead  the  responses  in  the  parish  churches 
of  England. 

Clerks,  Apostolical.  See  Jesuits. 

Clerks,  Minor.  See  Franciscans. 

Clerks  of  St.  Paul.  See  Barnabites. 

Clerks,  Regular.  See  Canons  and  Reg¬ 
ulars. 

Clinic  Baptism  was  a  term  used  in  the 
early  Church,  to  designate  baptism  on  the 
sick-bed. 

Cloister  (claustrum ,  an  enclosure).  The 
word  originally  was  applied  strictly  to  the 
wall  or  enclosure  of  a  monastery.  It  is  now 
more  commonly  used  to  designate  the 
quadrangle  of  a  monastery,  one  side  of 
which  is  generally  formed  by  the  church, 
and  the  others  by  the  conventual  build¬ 
ings,  and  which  frequently  has  an  arcade 
or  colonnade  running  round  the  sides. 

Clothing  and  Ornaments  of  the  Hebrews. 
“The  collective  name  for  clothes  is  begadim , 
which  were  made  out  of  linen,  wool,  and 
cotton;  although  silk  is  also  mentioned. 
(Ezek.  xvi.  10;  Rev.  xviii.  22.)  Clothing- 
prepared  from  wool  and  linen  was  prohib¬ 
ited.  (Lev.  xix.  iq ;  Deut.  xxii.  11.)  Costly 
clothing  was  of  divers  colors,  and  of  needle¬ 
work.  Luxury  in,  and  imitation  of,  for¬ 
eign  fashions,  are  often  censured.  (Isa.  iii. 
16;  Zeph.  ii.  8.)  The  costume  of  both 
sexes  was  very  similar;  there  was  suffi¬ 
cient  difference,  however,  to  mark  the 
sex. 

“The  articles  of  clothing  common  to  men 
and  women  were:  (1)  The  under-garment, 
which  was  held  together  by  a  girdle,  and 
besides  which  a  linen  shirt  ( sadin )  is  some¬ 
times  mentioned.  A  person  who  had  only 
this  under-garment  on,  was  called  ‘  naked.’ 
(1  Sam.  xix.  24;  Job  xxiv.  10;  Isa.  xx.  2.) 
Persons  in  high  stations  wore  two  under¬ 
garments:  the  outer  one  being  called  met  l, 


a  robe.  (1  Sam.  xv.  27;  xviii.  4;  xxiv.  5; 
Job.  i.  20.)  A  Chaldee  costume  was  the 
pattish,  or  mantle.  (Dan.  iii.  21.)  (2)  The 

over-garment ,  for  which  different  expres¬ 
sions  are  given,  and  which  was  thrown 
around  the  person.  Poor  people,  and  trav¬ 
elers  also,  used  the  outer  garment  as  night¬ 
clothes.  Both  sexes  made  out  of  the  su¬ 
perabundant  folds,  in  front,  a  pocket  or  lap. 
Priests  alone  wore  a  kind  of  drawers.  Be¬ 
sides  these  dresses,  the  women  wore  veils. 
Both  sexes  covered  the  head  with  a  turban 
made  of  divers  articles,  and  in  different 
forms;  hence,  from  its  costliness,  it  is  also 
called  ‘  an  ornament,’  ‘  beauty.’  Gloves 
were  not  unknown,  yet  they  appear  not  to 
have  been  used  as  a  part  of  the  attire,  but 
by  workmen,  as  a  protection  of  the  hands 
from  injury  and  soiling.  (Cf.  Mishna,  Cheli- 
no ,  xvi.  6;  xxiv.  15;  xxvii.  3.)  The  cov¬ 
ering  of  the  feet  was  sandals  of  leather  or 
wood,  bound  to  the  foot  with  thongs;  they 
were  dispensed  with  indoors,  and  put  on 
when  leaving  the  house.  On  entering  of 
sacred  places,  the  sandals  were  cast  off. 

“  As  for  ornaments,  they  were  especially 
common  to  the  female  sex,  although  both 
sexes  wore  bracelets.  (2  Sam.  i.  10;  Num. 
xxi.  50.)  Besides,  we  find  ear-rings,  which 
(according  to  Jobxii.  11)  were  also  worn  by- 
men.  So-called  ear-pendants  (Judg.  viii. 
26;  Isa.  iii.  19)  were  also  attached  to  the 
ear-rings.  Other  ornaments  were  the  nose¬ 
rings,  made  of  precious  metal  or  ivory, 
the  signet,  which  was  suspended  by  a 
siring ;  necklaces,  formed  of  perforated  gold 
drops  strung  together;  to  which  must  be 
added  the  anklets — an  especial  ornament  of 
the  women — which  were  connected  with 
step-chains ,  to  announce  their  coming,  and 
to  attract  or  drive  away  the  opposite  sex.’' 
— Leyrer  in  Schaff-Herzog:  Ency.,  s.  v. 

Clothing,  Clerical.  See  Vestments. 

Clovis,  king  of  the  Franks,  and  founder 
of  the  Frankish  Empire  in  ancient  Gaul. 
He  was  a  heathen  when  he  was  invited  by 
the  Christian  clergy  to  invade  Gaul,  they 
being  moved  by  the  desire  to  extinguish 
the  Arianism  professed  by  the  native 
dwellers.  He  was  baptized  at  Rheims  on 
Christmas  Day,  496. 

Clugny  (clun-yee’),  Congregation  of, 
established  at  Clugny,  in  eastern  France, 
under  the  rule  of  St.  Benedict,  by  Duke 
William,  in  910.  The  monastery  at  Clugny 
was  the  largest  in  Christendom,  and  its 
church  one  of  the  most  magnificent  built  in 
the  Middle  Ages.  For  a  long  period  the 
congregation  exerted  a  reforming  influence 
upon  monastic  life,  but  this  declined,  with 
increase  of  wealth  and  power,  until  it  was 


i 


Coa 


(  19S  ) 


Coc 


closed  by  the  act  of  the  French  Assembly 
in  1790,  which  suppressed  all  convents. 

Coadjutor,  in  the  Roman  Church  the 
assistant  of  an  ecclesiastic  who,  by  reason 
of  sickness  or  age,  is  unable  to  attend  to  his 
duties.  The  appointment  may  be  perpet¬ 
ual  or  temporary. 

Cobb,  Sylvanus,  D.  D.,  a  prominent 
Universalist  minister;  b.  at  Norway,  Me., 
July,  1799:  d.  in  East  Boston,  Mass.,  Oct. 
31 ,  1866.  For  about  twenty  years  he  edited 
a  denominational  paper  and,  among  other 
works,  wrote  a  Commentary  on  the  New  Tes¬ 
tament. 

Cobham,  Lord  (Sir  John  Oldcastle),  b. 
about  1360;  martyred  at  London  for  his 
adherence  to  the  Lollards,  in  1417.  The 
influence  of  his  rank  and  wealth  he  used  in 
behalf  of  the  Lollards,  and  he  wrote  a  book 
in  1395,  in  which  he  exposed  the  corrup¬ 
tions  of  the  Church.  See  Lollards. 

Cocceius  (Koch),  Johannes,  an  eminent 
Dutch  theologian;  b.  at  Bremen,  July  30, 
1603;  appointed  professor  there,  1629;  at 
Franeker,  1636;  at  Leyden,  where  he  d. 
Nov.  4,  1669.  He  was  the  first  to  elaborate 
the  system  of  Federal  Theology,  which 
became  dominant  in  Holland,  and  was 
adopted  in  the  Westminster  Standards. 
(See  his  Summa  Doctrines  de  Foedere  et  Tes- 
tamento  Dei ,  1648.)  Cocceius  “  laid  down 
the  guiding  exegetical  principle,  that  every 
passage  must  be  interpreted  according  to 
its  context,  and  have  only  that  sense  to 
which  the  context  leads.  He  drew  his 
theology  directly  from  the  Bible,  and  from 
it  alone;  and  thus  he  put  himself  in  oppo¬ 
sition  to  the  scholastics  and  the  Cartesians. 

“  And,  since  the  Bible  is  the  history  of 
redemption,  in  the  form  of  a  covenant  be¬ 
tween  God  and  man  after  the  fall,  he  logic¬ 
ally  conceived  of  the  relation  between  the 
parties  before  the  fall  as  also  a  covenant. 
But  this  covenant  is  not,  like  a  human  one, 
an  agreement  for  mutual  service;  rather, 
it  is  one-sided.  The  fundamental  law  of 
every  covenant  of  God  with  men  is,  he  says, 
that  man  is  receiver,  God  giver.  Man 
was  qualified  by  his  creation  to  receive 
it.  He  was  free,  rational,  and  holy.  The 
first  covenant  was  ‘of  works.’  God  gave 
man  the  promise  of  eternal  felicity,  on  con¬ 
dition  that  man  remained  holy,  as  he  was 
able  to  do.  This  was  his  7 vork.  But  he 
fell,  and  accordingly  was  cursed.  After 
the  fall  he  was  still  bound  to  perfect  obe¬ 
dience  and  faith:  God,  however,  who  is  rich 
in  mercy,  put  in  place  of  the  Covenant 
of  Works  the  ‘  Covenant  of  Grace,’  upon 
precisely  similar  principles.  God  yet  stands 


as  free  giver;  man,  as  willing  receiver. 
Cocceius  shows  that  the  fulfillment  of  the 
latter  required  the  sending  of  Jesus  Christ, 
and,  in  the  biblical  way,  handles  the  doc¬ 
trines  of  redemption  under  nine  divisions 
— its  purpose  (the  promised  grace),  its 
mode  (gratuitous),  its  founder  (a  mediator), 
its  means  (faith),  its  recipients  (believers), 
its  cause  (God’s  good  pleasure),  its  revela¬ 
tions  (the  Bible),  the  method  of  its  appli¬ 
cation  (the  operation  of  the  Holy  Spirit), 
its  ultimate  object  (the  glory  of  God).  The 
history  of  the  second  covenant  falls  into 
three  divisions  (economies):  the  ante-legal 
(the  law  under  the  form  of  conscience,  the 
grace  under  which  the  patriarchal  prot- 
evangel  manifested  itself,  and  the  kingdom 
of  God  existed  in  the  form  of  the  family); 
the  legal  (the  written  law,  grace  in  the  form 
of  ceremonial  types  and  prophecy,  the 
kingdom  of  God  existed  in  the  nation);  and 
the  post-legal  economy  (in  which  Christ 
himself  appeared  as  the  completely  fulfilled 
personal  law,  and  as  the  personal  grace, 
as  the  personal  word,  and  in  which  the 
kingdom  of  God  exists  in  universal  form). 
The  effects  of  the  Covenant  of  Grace 
are  the  happiness  of  the  individual  soul, 
the  conversion  of  physical  death  from  a 
punishment  into  a  deliverance  from  the 
body  of  sin,  and,  lastly,  the  resurrection 
of  the  body.  The  Federal  theology  of  Coc¬ 
ceius  does  not  rest  upon  the  doctrine  of 
predestination,  as  did  the  teaching  of  the 
Protestant  scholastics  of  the  sixteenth  cen¬ 
tury.  Man,  he  taught,  was  not  a  machine 
by  which  the  divine  decree  was  carried  out, 
but  a  person  who  received  the  divine  grace 
into  his  heart,  and  by  it  was  led  unto  per¬ 
fection.  (See  Ebrard:  Christliche  Dogmatik, 
§  257.)  As  was  to  be  expected,  the  scholastic 
school  attacked  him,  and  called  him  a  her¬ 
etic.  He  replied  that  ‘  orthodoxy  a  la  mode  ’ 
was  the  ruin  of  the  Reformed  Church,  be¬ 
cause  it  prided  itself  upon  its  orthodoxy,  and 
yet  was  full  of  worldliness.  Cocceius  had 
the  spiritually  minded  upon  his  side.  He 
took  the  substantially  pietistic  ground  that 
one  should  not  listen  to  those  preachers 
who  regarded  the  work  of  teaching  religion 
merely  as  a  profession.  Unhappily  the 
controversy  took  a  political  turn.  The 
aristocratic  party,  which  had  supported 
Arminius,  supported  the  Cocceians;  the 
Oranian  party,  his  opponents.  At  one  time, 
a  deeper  split  than  Arminianism  had  made 
threatened  the  Netherland  Church,  but  by 
pacificatory  measures  peace  was  restored, 
and  it  was  established  by  law  that  one  out 
of  every  three  or  dinar  ii  at  each  university 
should  be  aCocceian.” — A.  Ebrard  it)  Schaff- 
Herzog:  Ency.  vol.  i. ,  p.  503.  Cocceius,  be¬ 
sides  commentaries  on  nearly  the  whole 
Bible,  and  other  works,  was  the  author  of 


Cod 


(  199  ) 


Col 


the  first  complete  Hebrew  lexicon:  Lexicon , 
Heb .  et  Chat.  V.  T.  (Leyden,  1669). 

Codex  (Lat. ,  a  manuscript).  There  are, 
according  to  Mr.  Scrivener,  1,583  Codices 
of  the  New  Testament  known  to  exist. 
Probably  others  will  yet  be  found  in  out- 
of-the-way  Eastern  monasteries.  But  very 
few  of  these  MSS.  contain  the  whole  of 
the  New  Testament.  The  Codices  are 
divided  into  Uncials ,  i.  e.,  those  written  in 
capital  letters,  and  Cursives ,  those  in  run¬ 
ning-hand.  One  of  the  most  valuable,  the 
Codex  Sinaiticus ,  was  found  by  Tischen- 
dorf,  in  the  monastery  on  Mount  Sinai,  in 
1859.  See  Bible;  Textual  Criticism. 

Coelesyria,  the  name  of  the  country 
about  Damascus,  and  also  of  a  large  part 
of  the  country  east  of  the  Jordan.  This 
region,  “celebrated  in  ancient  times  for 
its  fertility,  and  its  numerous  and  warlike 
inhabitants,  large  cities  and  magnificent 
temples,  is  now  merely  an  insignificant 
district  of  the  Turkish  empire.’' — Thom¬ 
son. 

Coenobites.  See  Monasticism. 

Coffin.  See  Burial. 

Coffin,  Charles,  a  distinguished  French 
hymnist;  b.  at  Buzancy,  1676;  d.  in  Paris, 
1749.  From  1712  until  his  death  he  held 
the  position  of  principal  of  the  College  of 
Dormans- Beauvais,  University  of  Paris. 
A  number  of  his  Latin  hymns  are  found 
in  the  translations  of  Mason  Neale  and 
John  Chandler. 

Colarbasians.  See  Gnosticism. 

Coke,  Thomas,  LL.  D.,  first  bishop  of 
the  Methodist  Episcopal  Church;  b.  at 
Brecon,  Wales,  Sept.  9,  1747;  d.  May, 
1814.  A  graduate  of  Oxford,  he  became 
curate  of  South  Petherton,  which  position 
he  resigned  in  1777  to  join  Wesley,  by 
whom  he  was  set  apart,  in  1784,  as  super¬ 
intendent  of  the  work  in  America.  He  dis¬ 
charged  his  duties  with  great  energy.  He 
founded  a  mission  among  the  negroes  in 
the  West  Indies,  and  one  in  the  East  Indies. 
It  was  while  on  the  way  to  the  latter  field 
that  he  died  at  sea.  He  wrote  a  Life  of 
fohn  Wesley ;  Commentary  on  the  Old  and 
New  Testament ,  6  vols. ;  A  History  of  the 
West  Indies ,  3  vols.,  and  several  other 
works.  See  his  Life  by  J.  W.  Etheridge 
(London,  i860). 

Colenso,  John  William,  Church  of 
England,  first  colonial  bishop  of  Natal;  b. 
at  St.  Austell,  Cornwall,  Eng.,  Jan.  24, 


1814;  d.  at  Natal,  South  Africa, June  20,1883. 
He  was  graduated  at  St.  John’s  College, 
Cambridge,  in  1836,  and  became  fellow  anti 
assistant  tutor  of  his  college;  vicar  of 
Forncett  St.  Mary,  Norfolk,  1846;  bishop 
of  Natal,  1853.  The  views  which  he  ex¬ 
pressed  in  his  Commentary  on  St.  Pauls 
Epistle  to  the  Romans  (London,  1861), 
aroused  attention  because  of  his  state¬ 
ments  regarding  the  Atonement  and  the 
doctrine  of  endless  punishment.  The  fol¬ 
lowing  year  he  put  forth  the  first  part  of 
his  work  entitled,  The  Pentateuch  and  the 
Book  of  Joshua  Critically  Examined ,  which 
produced  a  profound  sensation,  for  it  ex¬ 
pressed  the  conclusion  that  much  of  their 
contents  were  unhistorical.  Legal  pro¬ 
ceedings  were  brought  against  him  for  his 
alleged  heresies,  and  he  was  deposed  and 
excommunicated  by  the  metropolitan  of 
Capetown,  but  these  proceedings  were  set 
aside  by  the  law  officers  of  the  crown,  and 
he  kept  his  position,  with  its  salary. 
Though  ostracised  by  the  religious  world, 
he  was  extraordinarily  popular  with  the 
colonists,  who  admired  his  character  and 
ability,  and  flocked  to  hear  him  preach. 
He  was  a  devoted  friend  of  the  Zulus,  and 
did  a  great  work  among  them.  In  the  face 
of  popular  feeling  he  defended  their  cause, 
and  denounced  the  action  of  the  colonists 
against  them  and  their  “  rebel  chief.”  See 
his  Life  by  Rev.  Sir  George  W.  Cox  (Lon¬ 
don,  1888),  2  vols. 

• 

Coleridge,  Samuel  Taylor,  b.  at  Ottery, 
St.  Mary,  Oct.  21,  1772;  d.  at  Highgate, 
July  25,  1834.  As  a  poet  and  critic  his 
productions  have  given  him  a  place  among 
the  great  creative  minds  of  his  age.  But 
it  is  as  a  Christian  philosopher  that  he  de¬ 
serves  special  mention  in  a  work  like  this. 
“  In  this  department  of  thought,”  says  Dr. 
G.  L.  Prentiss  (Schaff- Herzog:  Encyclope¬ 
dia ,  vol.  i.,  p.  507),  “  he  was  without  a  rival 
in  his  generation,  and  his  influence  was 
alike  profound  and  far-reaching.  Having 
fought  his  own  way,  through  much  error 
and  doubt,  to  the  full  light  of  truth,  he 
strove  to  guide  other  minds  to  the  same 
light  by  showing,  to  use  his  own  words, 
that  Christianity,  ‘  though  not  discover¬ 
able  by  human  reason,  is  yet  in  accordance 
with  it;  that  link  follows  link  by  necessary 
consequence;  that  religion  passes  out  of 
the  ken  of  reason,  only  when  the  eye  of 
reason  has  reached  its  own  horizon,  and 
that  faith  is  then  but  its  continuation,  even 
as  the  day  softens  away  into  the  sweet 
twilight,  and  twilight,  hushed  and  breath¬ 
less,  steals  into  the  darkness.’  As  a  phi¬ 
losopher,  he  was  a  power,  rather  than  a 
system  maker;  and  his  power  was  exerted 
almost  as  much  in  conversation  as  by  his 


Col 


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Col 


writings.  When  he  came  upon  the  stage, 
the  mind  of  England  was  fast-bound  in  the 
systems  of  mechanical  thought  and  empir¬ 
icism,  which  ruled  the  last  century.  Locke 
and  Paley  were  the  oracles  of  popular  wis¬ 
dom.  A  subtle  rationalism  was  every¬ 
where  at  work,  sapping  the  ancient  founda¬ 
tions  in  morals  and  religion.  Coleridge 
undertook,  at  first  almost  single-handed, 
to  reassert  the  claims  of  a  spiritual  philos¬ 
ophy.  In  order  to  do  this,  he  laid  the  ut¬ 
most  stress  upon  the  difference  in  kind 
between  reason  and  understanding,  a  dis¬ 
tinction  familiar  already  to  German 
thought,  and  as  old,  indeed,  as  Aristotle. 
A  careful  statement  of  his  views  on  this 
point  may  be  found  in  Aids  to  Reflection , 
the  most  mature  and  complete  of  hisfc 
works.  He  also  revived  the  Platonic 

doctrine  of  ideas;  that  is,  of  the  arche¬ 
typal  forms,  or  eternal  verities,  in  the 
divine  mind.  Upon  these  two  points  his 
battle  with  the  dominant  systems  largely 
hinged.  His  philosophical  method  and 
opinions  were  greatly  influenced  by  Kant, 
of  whom  he  was  an  ardent  admirer.  He 
owed  much,  also,  to  Schelling  and  Jacobi. 
Of  Hegel  he  seems  to  have  known  nothing. 

I  Iis  writings,  while  full  of  seeds  of  the 
highest  thought  and  the  noblest  wisdom, 
are  yet  disciplinary,  rather  than  doctrinal; 
they  contain  no  fully  developed  system. 
For  this  very  reason  they  are,  perhaps, 
even  the  better  fitted  to  aid  inquiring 
minds,  especially  youthful  minds,  in  the 
search  for  truth,  and  in  solving  the  deep 
problem  of  existence,  both  earthward  and 
heavenward.  His  religious  temper  and 
sympathies  are  indicated  by  his  fondness 
for  such  divines  as  Luther,  Hooper,  Leigh¬ 
ton,  Down,  Baxter,  Jeremy  Taylor,  and 
Bunyan.  The  writings  of  Archbishop 
Leighton,  and  Pilgrim  s  Progress,  were 
his  especial  delight.  As  a  theologian,  he 
revered  the  Fathers  of  the  Reformation, 
and  accepted  heartily  the  catholic  doctrines 
of  faith,  substantially  as  contained  in  the 
ancient  creeds  and  in  the  great  Protestant 
symbols.  His  orthodoxy  has  been  warmly 
impugned,  particularly  in  reference  to  in¬ 
spiration  and  the  atonement.  It  can  hardly 
be  denied,  that,  in  the  reaction  from  what 
he  called  bibliolatry,  he  sometimes  ex¬ 
pressed  himself  incautiously,  to  say  the 
least,  on  the  question  of  inspiration.  With 
regard  to  the  atonement,  whatever  may 
be  said  about  certain  passages,  the  general 
tone  of  his  later  writings  favors  the  con¬ 
clusion  that  he  was  in  substantial  accord 
with  the  teachings  of  the  Reformed 
churches  on  this  subject.  In  general,  it 
may  be  said  that  he  anticipated,  and  fur¬ 
nished  pregnant  hints  on,  the  best  way  of 
meeting  most  of  the  objections  to  revealed 


truth,  which  have  been  raised  by  the 
skeptical  science  and  speculation  of  the 
last  fifty  years.  Whatever  his  faults  and 
imperfections,  whether  as  a  man  or  an  au¬ 
thor,  Coleridge  must  still  be  regarded  as 
the  most  original,  profound,  and  many- 
sided  Christian  thinker  who  has  lived  in 
England  in  the  nineteenth  century.”  See 
The  Complete  JVorks  of  Coleridge,  edited 
with  an  introduction  by  Professor  W.  G. 
T.  Shedd,  7  vols  (N.  Y. ,  1854;  with  index 
vol.,  1884). 

• 

Colet,  John,  one  of  the  “  Reformers  be¬ 
fore  the  Reformation;”  b.  in  London, 
1466;  d.  there,  1519.  He  was  made  dean  of 
St.  Paul's,  in  1505,  and  was  active  in  his 
efforts  to  suppress  many  evils  that  had 
grown  up  by  lax  discipline.  This,  with 
his  opposition  to  many  of  the  practices  of 
the  Roman  Church,  made  him  the  victim 
of  persecution,  from  which  he  barely  es¬ 
caped  martyrdom  He  founded  St.  Paul’s 
School  in  1512.  See  Seebohm:  The  Oxford 
Refor?ners  of  14Q8  (London,  1869);  Life,  by 
J.  H.  Lupton  (London,  1887). 

Coligny  {ko-leen 'ye),  Gaspard  de,  French 
admiral  and  Huguenot  martyr;  b.  at  Cha- 
tillon-sur-Loing,  in  the  department  of  Loi- 
ret,  Feb.  16,  1519;  murdered  in  the  mas¬ 
sacre  of  St.  Bartholomew,  in  Paris,  Aug. 
24,  1572.  Of  noble  family,  he  was  early 
introduced  at  court,  and  served  with  brav¬ 
ery  under  Francis  L,  in  Italy.  In  1552  he 
was  made  admiral  by  Henry  II.  After  a 
brave  defense  of  St.  Quentin,  in  1557,  he 
was  compelled  to  surrender,  and  was  taken 
a  prisoner  to  the  Netherlands.  When  he 
returned  to  France  he  espoused  the  Prot¬ 
estant  faith  and  became  their  most  prom¬ 
inent  leader.  Through  the  enmity  of  the 
Guises,  aided  by  the  bigoted  queen-dow¬ 
ager,  he  was  among  the  victims  of  the  hor¬ 
rible  massacre  of  Protestants,  Aug.  24, 
1572.  (See  France, Reformed  Church  of.) 
Baird:  History  of  the  Rise  of  the  Huguenots 
in  France  (N.  Y.,  1S79),  2  vols.;  Besant: 
Lifeof  Coligny{  London  and  N  ew  Y  ork,  1 879). 

Collation,  (1)  the  giving  of  a  benefice 
by  a  bishop,  either  as  a  patron,  or  as  a  gift 
which  has  come  to  him  by  lapse.  (2)  The 
spare  meal,  on  days  of  abstinence,  of  bread 
and  fruit,  without  meat.  (3)  The  practice 
instituted  by  St.  Benedict  in  his  monastery 
of  reading  from  the  lives  or  Collationes  of 
the  Fathers. 

Collect,  a  short  form  of  prayer  in  the 
liturgies  of  the  Roman  Catholic  and  the 
Anglican  Churches.  See  Liturgy. 

Collegiate  Churches,  (1)  In  the  Roman 


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Com 


Church,  a  church  served  by  canons,  reg¬ 
ular  or  secular.  (2)  There  are  several 
collegiate  churches  in  England  served  by  a 
dean  and  a  body  of  canons.  (3)  A  number  of 
churches,  connected  in  one  corporation  be¬ 
longing  to  the  Reformed  (Dutch)  Church 
in  New  York  City,  are  called  the  “  Colle¬ 
giate  Church.”  The  term  is  used  in  a  few 
other  instances  of  this  kind  in  our  country. 

Collegia  Pontificia  {papal  colleges),  insti¬ 
tutions  for  the  training  of  Roman  priests 
for  missionary  service  in  “heretical” 
countries.  A  German  college  was  founded 
at  Rome,  by  Loyola,  in  1552.  Gregory 
XIII.  established  several  for  other  coun¬ 
tries.  An  “  American  college  ”  was  open¬ 
ed  in  1854.  The  students  in  these  insti¬ 
tutions  are  bound  by  the  most  solemn  ob¬ 
ligations  to  go  wherever  sent  by  their  su¬ 
periors. 

Collins,  Anthony.  See  Deists. 

Cologne,  the  seat  of  a  bishopric  since 
the  fourth  century,  and  always  a  prominent 
city  in  the  religious  history  of  Germany. 
The  relics  preserved  in  its  churches  are 
among  the  most  highly  prized  in  the  Ro¬ 
man  Church.  One  of  its  archbishops, 
Hermann,  favored  the  Reformation,  and 
another,  Gebhard  II.,  openly  embraced 
Protestantism,  and  was  deposed.  Serious 
differences  between  the  Archbishop  of  Co¬ 
logne  and  the  Prussian  Government  have 
several  times  arisen  of  late  years.  The 
cathedral  is  one  of  the  finest  in  the  world. 
It  was  begun  in  124S,  and  not  completed 
till  1880. 

Colors.  “The  artificial  colors  named 
in  the  Bible  are  purple,  blue,  scarlet  and 
vermilion.  The  first  three  were  used  in 
the  vestments  of  the  Levitical  priests,  and 
the  curtains  of  the  tabernacle.  Purple 
robes  were  worn  by  kings  and  other  high 
officers.  Scarlet  also  was  a  color  affected 
by  the  rich  and  luxurious.  Babylonian 
idols  were  sometimes  enrobed  in  garments 
of  purple  and  blue.  The  Phoenicians  for 
the  most  part  seem  to  have  provided  the 
materials  for  coloring;  but  the  Egyptians 
displayed  the  most  skill  in  compounding 
and  applying  them.  Besides  the  artificial 
colors  just  mentioned,  the  Bible  recognizes 
as  natural  colors — in  addition  to  white — 
black,  red,  yellow  and  green;  though 
sometimes  without  a  sharp  discrimination 
in  case  of  the  last  two.  It  is  not  to  be 
supposed  that  the  common  people  in  Israel 
ordinarily  indulged  themselves  in  garments 
of  many  colors.  It  was  rather  a  sign  of 
wealth  and  distinction.  Imitating  the 
luxurious  habits  of  foreign  nations  is  a 


frequent  subject  of  censure  on  the  part  of 
the  prophets.” —  Bissell:  Biblical  Antiq¬ 
uities,  p.  88. 

Colos'se  or  Colos'sae,  a  small  town, 
twelve  miles  above  Laodicaea,  situated  near 
the  great  road  which  led  from  Ephesus  to 
the  Euphrates.  The  Church  here  was 
probably  the  smallest  to  which  St.  Paul  sent 
any  of  his  letters.  Philemon  and  Onesimus 
lived  here.  It  was  also  the  home  of  Archip- 
pus  and  Epaphras,  the  latter  of  whom 
probably  founded  the  church  at  Colossae 
while  Paul  was  at  Ephesus  (a.  d.  54-57). 

Colossians,  Epistle  to.  See  Paul. 

Columba,  St.,  a  remarkable  Irish  mis¬ 
sionary;  b.  in  County  Donegal,  521;  d.  at 
Iona,  597.  He  is  best  known  as  “  The 
Apostle  of  the  Piets,  or  the  Western  Isles.” 
With  almost  incredible  zeal  he  prosecuted 
his  work  of  propagating  the  Christian  faith 
in  Ireland  and  Caledonia,  and  made  con¬ 
verts  in  great  numbers.  He  founded  many 
religious  houses  that  were  subordinate  to 
the  mother-house  at  Iona.  See  Reeves’ 
ed.  of  Adamnan’s  (abbot  of  Iona,  679)  Life 
(1857,  new  ed.  by  Skene,  with  Eng.  trans. 
Edinburgh,  1871). 

Columban'us,  one  of  the  most  learned 
and  eloquent  of  the  many  missionaries 
whom  Ireland  sent  forth  to  the  continent 
during  the  dark  ages,  was  b.  in  Leinster 
about  545;  d.  in  Bobbio,  615.  Educated 
at  the  monastery  of  Bangor,  with  twelve 
companions,  when  in  his  forty-fifth  year, 
he  passed  over  to  France  and  founded  the 
monasteries  of  Annegray,  Luxeuil,  and 
Fontaine.  His  adherence  to  the  Irish  rule 
for  calculating  Easter,  involved  him  in 
controversy  with  the  French  bishops,  and 
this,  with  his  open  rebuke  of  the  vices  of 
the  Burgundian  court,  led  to  his  expulsion 
from  France.  He  withdrew  to  Switzerland 
and  then  to  Italy,  where  he  founded  the 
monastery  of  Bobbio,  in  which  he  remained 
until  his  death.  He  was  a  man  of  wide 
learning.  The  order  of  the  Columbans 
merged  in  that  of  the  Benedictines  in  the 
beginning  of  the  eighth  century. 

Combefis,  Francois,  a  learned  Domin¬ 
ican  monk;  b.  1605;  d.  in  Paris,  1679.  His 
life-work  was  the  restoration  of  the  texts 
of  the  works  of  the  Fathers.  His  full  and 
frank  account  of  the  Monotheletic  contro¬ 
versy  did  not  please  the  authorities  at 
Rome. 

Comenius  (properly  Komensky),  the  last 
bishop  of  the  Church  of  the  Bohemian 
Brethren;  b.  in  Moravia,  1592;  d.  in  Am- 


Com 


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Com 


cJ^ 


sterdam,  1670.  Expelled  from  Bohemia  in 
1624,  with  others  of  his  faith,  he  settled 
(1627)  in  Lissa,  Poland.  Driven  from  here, 
in  1654  he  found  a  home  in  Amsterdam.  He 
was  prominent  as  a  leader  and  preacher 
among  his  people,  and  wrote  many  volumes 
which  had  a  wide  circulation. 

Commendam,  a  living  or  parish  com¬ 
mended  by  the  Crown  to  the  care  of  a 
clergyman,  while  destitute  of  a  pastor. 
Livings,  as  a  rule,  were  held  in  connnendam 
by  those  bishops  whose  sees  were  of  little 
value.  The  practice  was  abolished  by  ' 
statute  in  the  Church  of  England  in  : 
1836. 

i 

Commerce  among  the  Hebrews  was  re¬ 
stricted,  as  they  were  not  a  sea-faring  peo 
pie.  They,  however,  carried  on  consider¬ 
able  trade  with  foreign  countries.  (1  Kings 
v.  11 ;  Ezek.  xxvii.  17;  Acts  xii.  20.)  Joppa, 
the  modern  Jaffa ,  was  the  port  of  Jerusa¬ 
lem,  and  had  a  maritime  trade  of  some  ex¬ 
tent.  Oil  was  exported  to  Egypt  (Hos. 
xii.  1),  and  fine  linen  and  ornamental 
girdles,  of  domestic  manufacture,  were 
sold  to  the  merchants.  (Prov.  xxxi.  24.) 
The  internal  trade  of  the  Jews  was  much 
promoted  by  the  annual  festivals  held  at 
Jerusalem.  The  exchangers  carried  their 
traffic  even  into  the  temple  enclosure, 
(John  ii.  14;  Matt.  xxi.  12.) 

I 

Commination,  the  “  denunciation  of 
God’s  anger  and  judgments  against  sin¬ 
ners;”  an  office  in  the  liturgy  of  the  Church 
of  England,  pronounced  on  Ash-Wednes- 
day.  It  was  omitted  in  the  American 
Prayer-book,  but  it  is  ordered  to  be  used 
at  the  end  of  the  Litany  on  Ash-Wednes- 
day. 

Commu'nicatio  Idiom'atum,a  dogmatical 
term  designating  the  relations  of  the  attri¬ 
butes  of  the  human  and  divine  natures  in 
the  one  person  of  Christ.  For  the  Luther¬ 
an  development  of  this  doctrine  see  Chris- 
tology. 

Com'modus,  Roman  emperor  (180-192). 
Profligate  in  character,  he  let  the  Chris¬ 
tians  within  the  empire  enjoy  peace,  simply 
because  he  was  indifferent  to  all  religion. 
Irenseus  says  that  Christians  were  em¬ 
ployed  even  in  the  imperial  household, 
but  the  laws  against  them  were  unrepealed, 
and  some  suffered  martyrdom. 

Common  Life  Brethren.  See  Brethren 
of  the  Common  Life. 

Common  Life,  Brethren  of.  See 
Brethren  of  the  Common  Life. 


Common  Prayer.  See  Liturgy;  Prayer- 
Book. 

Common  Prayer,  Book  of.  So  called 
because  it  instructs  us  to  pray  for  all  men 
in  common,  “  all  sorts  and  conditions  of 
men,”  and  because  it  is  designed  for  the 
use  of  all  descriptions  of  worshipers, 
“  high  and  low,  rich  and  poor,  one  with 
another.” 

The  English  Book  of  Common  Prayer  is 
founded  upon  the  ancient  Service-books  of 
the  Catholic  Church,  of  which  there  were 
many  (Antipkonale,  Breviary ,  Gradual , 
Manual ,  A/issal,  Ordinal ,  Pic,  Sacrament- 
arj);  and  the  principles  on  which  it  is  so 
founded  are  set  forth  in  the  preface  to  the 
book  The  first  beginnings  of  the  English 
Prayer-book  may  be  said  to  date  from  1 542, 
when  it  was  decided  in  Convocation  to  re¬ 
move  the  names  of  popes  and  of  Becket 
from  the  Alissal,  and  also  that  a  chapter 
of  the  Bible  should  be  read  in  English  at 
morning  and  evening  services.  In  1544 
the  revised  Litany  was  put  forth.  The  first 
Book  of  Common  Prayer  was  issued  in 
1549.  ^  was  ordered  to  be  first  used  on 

Whitsunday  of  that  year.  “  The  principal 
differences,”  says  Mr.  Procter  in  his  his¬ 
tory  of  the  Common  Prayer,  “  between  the 
first  Prayer-book  of  Edward  VI.  and  that 
now  in  use  are  as  follows: — Alatins  and 
Evensong  began  with  the  Lord’s  Prayer  and 
ended  with  the  third  Collect;  the  Litany  was 
placed  after  the  Communion  Office  ;  in 
some  early  editions  it  was  added  as  a  sep¬ 
arate  sheet  at  the  end  of  the  volume;  there 
was  no  rubric  to  direct  its  use  as  a  part  of 
the  Morning  Prayer;  the  address  to  the 
Virgin  Mary,  which  had  been  retained  in 
Henry's  Litany,  was  omitted,  together 
with  the  similar  invocations  of  the  angels 
and  patriarchs,  The  Communion  Service 
began  with  an  Introit,  or  Psalm,  sung  as  the 
minister  was  proceeding  to  the  altar;  the 
Commandments  were  not  read ,  the  prayers 
differed  from  our  present  form,  but  chiefly 
in  their  arrangement;  the  name  of  the  Vir¬ 
gin  was  especially  mentioned  in  the  praise 
offered  for  the  saints;  the  Consecration  in¬ 
cluded  a  prayer  for  the  sanctification  of  the 
elements  with  the  Holy  Spirit  and  the 
Word;  water  was  mixed  with  the  wine :  the 
words  used  in  delivering  the  elements  to 
the  communicants  were  only  the  first 
clauses  of  those  now  used.  The  sign  of  the 
cross  was  retained  twice  in  the  consecra¬ 
tion  of  the  elements,  as  it  was  also  in  Con¬ 
firmation  and  Matrimony,  and  in  the  Visita¬ 
tion  of  the  Sick,  if  the  sick  person  desired 
to  be  annointed;  a  form  of  exorcism,  and 
anointing,  and  the  trine  immersion  were 
still  used  in  Baptism ;  the  water  in  the  font 
was  ordered  to  be  changed  once  a  month  at 


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Con 


least  ;  in  the  Burial  Service  prayer  was 
offered  for  the  deceased  person,  and  an  in- 
troit,  collect,  epistle,  and  gospel  were  ap¬ 
pointed  for  a  communion  at  a  burial.”  The 
original  preface  beginning,  “  There  was 
never  anything  by  the  wit  of  man,”  etc., 
forms  the  second  preface  in  our  present 
book.  The  treatise  “  Of  Ceremonies  ”  was 
at  the  end  of  the  Prayer-book. 

But  this  book,  while  it  displeased  the 
Roman  Catholic  party,  headed  by  Bonner, 
also  displeased  the  extreme  Reformers, 
such  as  Hooper,  who  were  more  and  more 
influenced  by  the  foreign  Reformers.  The 
result  was  the  Second  Book  of  Edward  VI. , 
published  in  1552,  a  book  much  less  like 
the  old  Service-books,  and  more  in  accord 
with  the  views  of  the  Continental  Reform¬ 
ers.  In  this  book  were  first  added  the  in¬ 
troductory  sentences  in  the  Morning  and 
Evening  services,  followed  by  the  Exhor¬ 
tation,  Confession,  and  Absolution.  Some 
most  important  changes  were  made  in  the 
Communion  Service. 

In  the  second  book  the  order  was  ar¬ 
ranged  as  it  is  now.  In  the  Administra¬ 
tion,  the  words  “  Take  and  eat  this,”  etc., 
were  substituted  for  those  previously  used. 
Certain  ceremonies  were  omitted  in  bap¬ 
tism,  as  were  the  prayers  for  the  dead  in 
the  burial  service.  The  treatise  “  Of  Cer¬ 
emonies  ”  was  transferred  from  the  end  of 
the  Prayer-book  to  the  beginning. 

In  the  reign  of  Queen  Mary  the  Roman 
Catholic  service  was  restored;  in  that  of 
Elizabeth,  the  second  book  of  Edward 
again  took  its  place  (1559).  In  the  Com¬ 
munion  Service  the  two  sentences  of  the 
first  and  second  books  of  Edward  were 
both  restored,  and  ran  as  now.  A  few  ad¬ 
ditions  were  made,  e.  g.,  the  Occasional 
Prayers  ( q .  v.)  and  some  alterations  in  the 
Lectionary  ( q .  v. ). 

The  next  epoch  in  the  history  of  the  Pray¬ 
er-book  was  the  Hampton  Court  Confer¬ 
ence,  in  1604.  The  alterations  made  then  will 
be  found  in  the  account  of  the  Conference. 
In  1637  came  Laud’s  unfortunate  attempt 
to  enforce  the  Prayer-book  on  Scotland. 
(Scotland.)  In  1643  the  English  Prayer- 
book  was  abolished  by  Parliament  (Di¬ 
rectory),  but  restored  in  1662,  and  once 
more  revised  at  the  Savoy  Conference. 
The  present  preface,  “  It  hath  been  the 
wisdom,”  etc.,  was  added  then.  This  is  the 
last  revision  which  has  taken  effect  until 
the  alteration  of  the  Lectionary  in  1871. 
— Benham:  Did.  of  Religion.  See  Lit¬ 
urgy. 

Common  Service  of  the  Lutheran 
Church.  See  Liturgy. 

Communion.  See  Lord’s  Supper. 


Communion  of  the  Dead.  See  Dead, 

Communion  of. 

Communion  of  Saints,  an  expression  in 
the  third  article  in  the  Apostles’  Creed.  It 
signifies  that  all  Christians  everywhere 
have  fellowship  with  God,  with  each  other 
on  earth,  and  with  the  saints  at  rest. 
Christ,  whose  life  they  have  within  them, 
is  the  Lord  both  of  the  living  and  of  the 
dead;  and,  as  Bishop  Pearson  writes,  “  If 
I  have  communion  with  a  saint  of  God, 
as  such,  while  he  liveth  here,  I  must  still 
have  communion  with  him  when  he  is  de¬ 
parted  hence;  because  the  foundation  of 
that  communion  cannot  be  removed  by 
death.” 

Communism,  “  the  reorganizing  of  so¬ 
ciety,  or  the  doctrine  that  it.  should  be 
reorganized,  by  regulating  property,  in¬ 
dustry,  and  the  sources  of  livelihood,  and 
also  the  domestic  relations  and  social  mor¬ 
als  of  mankind.  Socialism,  especially  the 
doctrine  of  a  community  of  property,  or 
the  negation  of  individual  rights  in  prop¬ 
erty.” — Burton.  The  communistic  charac¬ 
ter  of  the  early  Church  of  Jerusalem  (Acts 
ii.  44,  45)  has  been  the  source  of  much  dis¬ 
cussion.  It  certainly  cannot  be  used  to 
prove  that  communism  is  an  essential  ele¬ 
ment  of  Christian  life.  In  its  relation  to 
principles  of  political  and  national  econ¬ 
omy,  it  simply  illustrates  what  has  often 
been  shown,  that  communities  that  have 
practiced  communism,  according  to  relig¬ 
ious  principles,  have  prospered.  See  Nord- 
hoff:  Communistic  Societies  of  the  United 
States  (New  York,  1874);  T.  D.  Woolsey: 
Communism  and  Socialism.  (New  York, 
1880.) 

Competentes.  See  Catechism. 

Completorium,  the  last  of  the  canonical 
hours  of  prayer.  See  Canonical  Hours. 

Complutensian  Polyglot.  See  Polyglot. 

Compostella,  Order  of  Knights  of  St. 
James.  See  Military  Orders. 

Comte  Auguste.  See  Positivism. 

Conant,  Thomas  Jefferson,  D.  D. 
(Middlebury  College,  1844),  Baptist;  b.  at 
Brandon,  Vt. ,  Dec.  13, 1802;  was  graduated 
at  Middlebury  College,  Vt.,  1823;  professor 
of  languages  in  Colby  University,  1827- 
33;  in  Hamilton  Theological  Institute, 
1835-51;  of  Hebrew  and  biblical  exegesis 
in  Rochester  Theological  Seminary,  1851— 
57;  engaged  in  the  service  of  the  American 
Bible  Union,  1857-75,  and  edited  and  pre- 


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pared  their  revision  of  the  New  Testament 
(1871)  and  part  of  the  Old. 

Conception,  Feast  of  the,  a  festival  of 
the  Roman  Catholic  Church,  celebrated 
Dec.  8,  in  honor  of  the  immaculate  concep¬ 
tion  of  the  Virgin  Mary.  See  Immaculate 
Conception. 

Conclave  (literally,  a  place  that  may  be 
locked  with  a  key),  a  name  applied  both 
to  the  place  where  the  cardinals  meet 
for  the  election  of  a  new  pope,  and  also  to 
the  assembly  itself.  The  election  to  the 
papacy  must  take  place  in  the  city  where 
the  last  pontiff’s  death  occurred.  As  many 
deal  cellules  as  there  are  cardinals  are 
built,  with  lodges  and  places  for  the  con¬ 
clavists,  i.  e.,  personal  attendants,  who 
shut  themselves  in  to  wait  on  and  serve 
the  cardinals.  These  little  chambers  have 
each  their  number,  and  as  the  figures  are 
drawn  at  hazard,  it  often  happens  that  car¬ 
dinals  of  different  factions  lodge  near  one 
another.  The  cellules  are  made  up  during 
the  nine  days  of  the  ceremony  of  the  pope’s 
funeral,  during  which  time  anybody  may 
go  into  the  conclave  and  see  them;  they 
are  hung  on  the  outside  with  green  serge 
or  camlet,  and  over  each  are  the  arms  of 
the  cardinal  who  lives  in  it.  They  all 
open  on  a  corridor.  The  day  after  the 
pope’s  burial — that  is,  the  tenth  after  his 
death — the  cardinals,  having  heard  the 
Mass  of  the  Holy  Ghost,  go  in  procession, 
two  by  two,  to  the  conclave,  there  to  re¬ 
main  shut  out  from  the  world  until  a  pope 
is  elected.  Strict  precautions  are  taken 
that  no  communications  shall  pass  between 
them  and  the  outer  world;  the  object  of 
this  confinement  is  that  the  election  may 
be  free  and  unbiased.  They  all  meet  in 
the  chapel  every  day,  morning  and  even¬ 
ing,  for  a  “scrutiny,”  which  is  done  by 
writing  their  suffrages  in  little  billets,  and 
putting  them  in  a  chalice  that  stands  upon 
the  altar;  when  all  are  put  in,  two  cardi¬ 
nals  are  chosen  by  the  rest  to  read  out  the 
names,  and  keep  an  account  of  the  number 
for  each;  and  this  is  done  until  two-thirds 
join  for  the  same  person.  Popes  are 
usually  chosen  after  this  manner,  but  there 
are  two  other  methods:  acclamation,  or 
quasi-inspiration,  where  all  the  cardinals 
cry  out  with  one  voice;  compromise ,  where 
the  election  is  entrusted  to  a  small  com¬ 
mittee.  On  one  occasion,  in  1799,  at  the 
election  of  Pius  VII.,  the  conclave  was 
confined  six  months  before  the  election  was 
completed.  During  the  conclave  each  car¬ 
dinal  is  allowed  but  two  servants,  or  three 
at  most,  and  this  extension  is  only  permit¬ 
ted  to  princes,  or  as  a  particular  privilege. 
— Benhara:  Diet,  of  Religion, 


Concord,  Formula  of,  the  last  of  the  six 
symbolical  books  of  the  Lutheran  Church, 
adopted  in  1580.  It  consists  of  two  parts, 
the  Epitome,  and  the  Solid  Repetition  and 
Declaration,  each  containing  twelve  arti¬ 
cles.  See  Schaff:  Creeds  of  Christendom , 
vol.  i.,  258-340. 

Concordat  is  an  agreement  between  the 
pope,  as  representing  the  Roman  Catholic 
Church,  and  a  temporal  sovereign,  with 
reference  to  the  rights  of  the  Church  with¬ 
in  the  territory  of  the  latter.  These  agree¬ 
ments  have  played  an  important  part  in 
the  history  of  Europe. 

Concubine.  Among  the  Hebrews  this 
term  denoted  a  lawful  wife  of  inferior 
rank.  There  was  no  such  difference  be¬ 
tween  the  children  of  wife  and  concubine 
as  our  illegitimacy  implies.  They  were 
regarded  as  a  supplementary  family  to  that 
of  the  wife.  The  concubine  could  not  be 
arbitrarily  cast  away  (Ex.  xxi.7-9;  Deut. 
xxi.  10,  11),  and  she  was  protected  by  the 
law  of  Moses.  Christ  restored  the  original 
law  of  marriage  (Gen.  ii.  24;  Matt.  xix.  5; 
1  Cor.  vii.  2);  and  concubinage  is  ranked 
with  fornication  and  adultery. 

Externally,  marriage  and  concubinage 
were  equal,  according  to  the  Roman  law, 
as,  even  for  marriage,  nothing  was  re¬ 
quired  but  the  agreement  of  the  contract¬ 
ing  parties.  It  was,  however,  only  by 
regular  marriage  that  the  wife  obtained  the 
rank  of  the  husband,  and  her  children  were 
legitimate.  This  form  of  concubinage  still 
exists  among  the  Germans  in  what  is 
known  as  morganatic  marriages  between 
persons  of  different  rank,  e.  g.  ,a  prince 
and  a  commoner.  By  this  union  the  wife 
has  no  claim  to  the  husband’s  name  or 
property,  but  the  children  may  take  a 
third  of  their  father’s  estate  if  he  leaves 
no  lawful  children.  It  was  not  until  the 
fifth  century  that  the  Church  condemned 
concubinage.  Up  to  the  sixteenth  century 
the  enforcement  of  celibacy  led  to  much 
concubinage  among  the  clergy.  The  Coun¬ 
cil  of  Trent  (1543-63),  by  its  regulations 
regarding  marriage,  forbade  all  illicit  rela¬ 
tions  on  the  part  of  the  laity  as  well  as 
the  clergy.  Among  Protestants  concubin¬ 
age  has  always  been  condemned,  and  made 
the  ground  of  Church  discipline. 

Condignity  and  Congruity.  Terms  used 
by  the  schoolmen  to  express  their  pecul¬ 
iar  opinions  relative  to  human  merit  and 
deserving. 

The  Scotists  maintained  that  it  is  possible 
for  man,  in  his  natural  state,  so  to  live  as 
to  deserve  the  grace  of  God,  by  which  he 
1  may  be  enabled  to  obtain  salvation,  this 


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natural  ftness  ( congruitas )  for  grace  being 
such  as  to  oblige  the  Deity  to  grant  it. 
Such  is  the  merit  of  congruity. 

The  Thomists ,  on  the  other  hand,  con¬ 
tended  that  man,  by  the  Divine  assistance, 
is  capable  of  so  living  as  to  merit  eternal 
life,  to  be  zvorthy  ( condignus )  of  it  in  the 
sight  of  God.  In  this  hypothesis,  the 
question  of  previous  preparation  for  the 
grace  which  enables  him  to  be  zvorthy  is 
not  introduced.  This  is  the  merit  of  con- 
dignity . — Benham:  Did.  of  Religion. 

Cone,  Spencer  Houghton,  D.  D.,  b.  at 
Princeton,  N.  J.,  April  30,  1785;  d.  in  New 
York,  Aug.  28,  1855.  For  several  years 
he  was  a  successful  actor,  but  in  1812  be¬ 
came  a  journalist,  and  then,  in  1815,  en¬ 
tered  the  ministry  of  the  Baptist  Church, 
officiating  as  chaplain  of  Congress,  1815-16. 
He  was  pastor  of  the  Baptist  church  in 
Alexandria,  D.  C.,  1816-23;  of  the  Oliver 
Street  church,  New  York,  1823-41;  and  of 
the  First  Baptist  church  in  that  city  from 
1841  until  his  death.  He  was  prominent  in 
organizing  the  American  and  Foreign 
Bible  Society  (1836),  and  the  American 
Bible  Union  (1850),  and  held  the  position 
of  president  in  both  societies.  See  Memoir 
by  his  sons  (N.  Y. ,  1857). 

Conference.  I. — This  name  is  used  to 
designate  a  meeting  to  discuss  differ¬ 
ences  of  opinion.  Two  remarkable  confer¬ 
ences  of  this  kind  in  England,  the  Hamp¬ 
ton  Court  and  the  Savoy,  are  described 
under  their  respective  heads. 

II. — In  the  Methodist  Episcopal  Church 
in  America  there  are  four  synods  or  judi¬ 
catories,  styled  conferences.  (1)  The 
Quarterly  Conference  of  each  circuit  or  sta¬ 
tion  consists  of  the  “traveling  and  local 
preachers,  exhorters,  stewards,  and  class- 
leaders  of  the  circuit  or  station.  The 
presiding  elder,  or,  in  his  absence,  the 
preacher-in-charge,  is  president.  The  reg¬ 
ular  business  of  the  Quarterly  Conference 
is  to  hear  complaints,  and  to  receive  and 
try  appeals,  to  superintend  the  interests  of 
Sunday-schools,  to  license  local  preachers, 
to  appoint  stewards.”  ( Discipline . ) 

(2)  The  Annual  Conferencexs,  composed  of 
all  the  ministers  in  a  certain  territory,  and 
presided  over  by  one  of  the  bishops.  It 
takes  cognizance  of  ecclesiastical  matters, 
collects  the  church  statistics,  and  in  its 
annual  minutes  publishes  an  account  of  the 
same,  and  gives  special  attention  to  all 
mission  work  within  its  bounds.  It  in¬ 
quires  regarding  the  character  of  each 
preacher,  and  elects  and  ordains  deacons 
and  elders.  A  certified  copy  of  the  minutes 
is  sent  to  the  General  Conference.  ( Disci¬ 
pline ■,  sec.  73-86.) 


(3)  The  General  Conference ,  which  meets 
once  in  four  years,  is  composed  of  minis¬ 
terial  and  lay  delegates,  in  the  proportion 
of  one  ministerial  for  every  forty-five 
members  of  each  Annual  Conference,  and 
two  lay  for  each  Annual  Conference.  They 
deliberate  together,  but  vote  separately,  if 
so  demanded  by  a  third  of  either  order. 
The  conference  has  full  power  to  make 
rules  and  regulations  for  the  church,  pro¬ 
vided  they  do  not  alter,  in  essentials,  its 
doctrines  and  polity.  Any  restriction,  ex¬ 
cept  in  relation  to  doctrine,  may  be  changed 
by  a  vote  of  two-thirds  of  the  General  Con¬ 
ference,  if  ratified  by  three-fourths  of  the 
members  of  the  Annual  Conferences.  The 
sessions  of  the  General  Conference  are 
presided  over  by  a  bishop.  (Discipline ,  sec. 
63-72.) 

(4)  The  District  Conference  is  composed 
of  the  traveling  and  local  preachers,  the 
exhorters,  the  district  stewards,  and  one 
Sunday-school  superintendent,  and  one 
class-leader  from  each  pastoral  charge  in 
the  district.  It  meets  once  or  twice  a  year, 
and  is  usually  presided  over  by  the  presid¬ 
ing-elder  of  the  district.  It  has  a  general 
superintendence  of  local  church  interests, 
and  may  be  discontinued  if  its  members 
and  the  quarterly  conferences  see  fit. 

III. — The  Wesleyans  of  England  and 
other  countries  have  annual  conferences, at¬ 
tended  by  all  the  ministers;  and  the  name  is 
used  to  designate  the  annual  meetings  of 
various  religious  bodies  having  a  Congre¬ 
gational  polity.  The  Roman  Church  al¬ 
lows  pastoral  conferences,  but  they  must 
be  under  the  entire  control  of  the  ordinar- 
iat. 

Confession  of  Faith.  See  Creed. 

Confession  of  Sins.  Roman  Catholic 
writers  attempt  to  prove  that  private  or 
auricular  confession  dates  back  to  the  ear¬ 
liest  days  of  the  Christian  Church.  Protes¬ 
tants  claim  that  there  is  no  authority  for 
compulsory  private  confession,  and  that 
its  practice,  as  known  in  the  Roman  Church, 
sprang  from  the  monastic  life.  Leo  the 
Great  first  officially  recognized  and  con¬ 
firmed  private  confession  as  a  legal  institu¬ 
tion,  and  the  Synod  of  Liege  (710)  decreed 
that  every  member  of  the  Roman  Church 
should  confess  at  least  once  a  year  to  the 
priest  .of  the  parish. 

Confirmation,  “an  ecclesiastical  term,  de¬ 
noting  the  laying  on  of  hands,  in  the  admis¬ 
sion  of  baptized  persons  to  the  enjoyment 
of  full  Christian  privileges.  The  antiquity 
of  this  ceremony  is,  by  all  the  older  writ¬ 
ers,  carried  as  high  as  the  apostles,  and 
founded  upon  their  example  and  practice. 


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In  the  primitive  church  the  ceremony  was 
performed  immediately  after  baptism,  if 
the  bishop  were  present  at  the  solemnity. 
Among  the  Greeks,  and  throughout  the 
East,  it  still  accompanies  baptism,  but  the 
Roman  Catholics  make  it  a  distinct  and  in¬ 
dependent  sacrament.” — Ency.  Britannica. 

Confucius,  a  famous  Chinese  philos¬ 
opher;  b.  B.  C.  551,  in  the  kingdom  of  Lu, 
now'  called  the  Province  of  Shantung,  of 
an  ancient  and  noble  family.  His  father, 
Sholiam-he,  had  a  considerable  office  in 
the  kingdom  of  Shum,  but  he  died  when 
his  son  wras  three  years  old.  The  widow, 
though  very  poor,  encouraged  her  son  in 
his  love  of  reading,  and  his  great  ability 
and  solid  judgment  got  him  considerable 
reputation  from  his  very  youth;  and  being 
a  mandarin,  and  employed  in  the  govern¬ 
ment  of  the  kingdom  of  Lu,  he  soon 
made  it  appear  how  important  it  was  that 
the  kings  themselves  should  be  philos¬ 
ophers,  or  make  use  of  philosophers  as 
their  ministers.  The  knowledge  of  morals 
and  politics,  whereof  he  was  a  master, 
made  him  much  esteemed  in  the  govern¬ 
ment  of  the  State  and  the  establishment  of 
laws;  and  young  men  came  in  crowds  to 
hear  his  lectures.  On  his  mother’s  death, 
w'hen  he  was  twenty-four,  he  retired  for 
three  years  to  mourn  for  her,  and  his  ex¬ 
ample  is  still  followed.  Yet,  notwith¬ 
standing  his  care,  his  prince’s  court  was 
much  disordered  by  several  young  ladies 
sent  by  the  king  of  Shi  to  effeminate  the 
monarch  of  Lu,  and  make  him  neglect  the 
care  of  his  kingdom.  Confucius,  finding 
the  king  would  not  listen  to  his  advice, 
quitted  his  place  and  the  court,  and  re¬ 
tired  to  the  kingdom  of  Shun,  where  he 
taught  moral  philosophy  with  such  extraor¬ 
dinary  applause  that  he  soon  had  3,000 
scholars;  and  of  these,  seventy-twTo  sur¬ 
passed  the  rest  in  learning  and  virtue:  for 
the  seventy-turn  the  Chinese  still  cherish 
special  veneration.  He  divided  his  doc¬ 
trine  into  four  parts,  and  his  scholars  into 
so  many  classes,  or  schools.  The  first  or¬ 
der  was  of  those  who  studied  to  acquire 
virtue;  the  second,  of  those  who  learned 
eloquence  and  the  art  of  reasoning;  in  the 
third  the  government  of  the  State  and  the 
duty  of  magistrates  wrere  dealt  with;  the 
fourth  was  taken  up  wholly  with  noble 
discourses  of  all  that  concerned  morals. 
This  great  man  wras  extraordinarily  mod¬ 
est,  declaring  openly  that  he  was  not  the 
first  inventor  of  this  doctrine — that  he  only 
collected  it  out  of  his  predecessors’  writ¬ 
ings,  especially  those  of  the  kings  of  Yao 
and  Shun,  who  lived  above  500  years  be¬ 
fore  his  time;  and  he  used  to  say  there 
-was  a  very  holy  man  in  the  western  lands, 


called  Sifam  Zen  Shimguin.  He  died  b.  c. 
478.  His  tomb  at  Shantung  is  held  in 
deep  respect.  It  is  walled-in  like  a  medi¬ 
aeval  town.  This  philosopher  has  been 
held  in  such  veneration  in  China,  for  above 
2,000  years,  that  none  can  come  to  the 
quality  of  a  mandarin  without  passing  as 
doctor  in  the  teaching  of  Confucius.  Each 
town  has  a  palace  consecrated  to  his  mem¬ 
ory,  and  when  any  officers  pass  before  it 
they  quit  their  palanquin,  and  go  some 
way  afoot,  to  show  their  honor  for  his 
memory.  The  fronts  of  these  fine  build¬ 
ings  have  his  great  titles  in  golden  letters, 
as,  To  the  Great  Master ,  the  Famous ,  the 
Wise  King  of  Learning;  and,  in  fact,  the 
veneration  amounts  to  worship. 

The  teaching  of  Confucius  took  for  its 
ultimate  end  the  promotion  of  tranquillity, 
and  he  taught  that  this  was  to  be  done 
through  the  faithful  performance  of  all 
duties.  He  laid  down  laws  for  social  in¬ 
tercourse,  and  made  all  government  a  pa¬ 
ternal  despotism.  He  was  certainly  one 
of  the  finest  and  noblest  of  heathen  teach¬ 
ers — a  man  of  practical  wisdom  rather 
than  a  solver  of  hard  questions  or  a  pro¬ 
found  thinker.  The  intense  conservatism 
of  the  Chinese  character  has  hitherto  re¬ 
fused  to  accept  any  other  text-book  than 
his  writings,  but  probably,  as  the  nation 
is,  in  spite  of  itself,  forced  to  fall  in  with 
the  other  civilizations  of  the  world,  the 
influence  of  Confucius  will  wane. — Ben- 
ham:  Dictionary  of  Religion.  See  Legge: 
The  Religions  of  China ,  Confucianism  and 
Taoism ,  compared  with  Christianity^  London , 
1880);  also  Life ,  by  same  author  (London, 
1886). 

Congregatio  de  Auxiliis  Divinae  Gratiae, 
the  name  given  the  commission  formed  by 
Pope  Clement  VIII.,  in  1598,  to  examine 
Molina’s  ( q .  v. )  work,  Concordia  Liberi  Ar- 
bitrii  cu?n  Gratia.  This  book  had  been  the 
cause  of  a  bitter  dispute  between  the 
Dominicans  and  Jesuits.  The  former  de¬ 
clared  that  it  was  semi-Pelagian  in  its 
teachings.  It  was  this  discussion  that  led 
the  pope  to  order  the  commission.  After 
three  months  and  eleven  meetings,  nine  of 
the  eleven  members  condemned  the  book 
in  strong  terms.  A  second  examination 
had  the  same  result.  The  Jesuits  did  all 
in  their  power  to  sustain  Molina,  and  the 
pope  ordered  a  debate  to  take  place  be¬ 
tween  the  two  parties.  For  years  the  de¬ 
bate  continued  at  various  times,  and  was 
finally  brought  to  a  close,  in  1607,  by  Paul 
V. ,  the  successor  of  Clement,  who  ordered 
that  both  parties  should  have  the  privilege 
of  teaching  as  they  pleased,  so  long  as 
they  did  not  accuse  each  other  of  heresy. 
It  was  a  victory  for  the  Jesuits,  and  the 


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history  of  the  Congregatio  played  an  im¬ 
portant  part  in  the  Jansenist  controversy. 

Congregation,  (1)  Biblical  Usage ,  a  name 
given  the  Hebrews,  regarded  in  their  collec¬ 
tive  capacity  as  a  “  holy”  community,  gath¬ 
ered  in  sacred  assembly  composed  of  the 
home-born  Israelites.  Settlers,  only  if  cir¬ 
cumcised,  were  admitted  to  its  privileges. 
( Ex.  xii.  19. )  Each  Israelite  was  a  member  of 
a  /muse;  the  family  was  a  collection  of  hous¬ 
es;  the  tribe ,  a  collection  of  families;  the 
congregation ,  a  collection  of  tribes.  The 
congregation  was  a  national  parliament,  with 
legislative  and  judicial  powers.  The  con¬ 
vocation  was  restricted  to  religious  meet¬ 
ings.  (Lev.  xxiii.)  Each  house,  family, 
and  tribe  had  its  head;  these  representa¬ 
tive  heads  were  “  the  elders  ”  or  “  princes.  ” 
Moses  selected  seventy  elders  by  God’s 
appointment,  to  share  the  burden  of  gov¬ 
ernment  with  him.  (Num.  xi.  16.)  The 
sounding  of  the  two  silver  trumpets  was 
the  signal  for  the  whole  body  of  the  people 
assembling  at  the  door  of  the  tabernacle, 
which  was  there  called  “  the  tabernacle  of 
the  congregation,”  the  mo'eed,  lit.  place  of 
meeting.  (Num.  x.  2-4.)  The  princes  were 
convened  with  only  one  trumpet.  The 
people  were  bound  to  abide  by  the  acts 
of  their  representatives.  (Josh.  ix.  18.) 
In  later  times  the  Sanhedrim  council 
(answering  to  Moses’  seventy )  represented 
the  congregation.  Synagogue ,  which  orig¬ 
inally  applied  to  the  assembly,  came  to 
mean  the  place  of  worship. — Fausset:  Bible 
Cyclopedia. 

(2)  Ecclesiastical  Usage.  With  the  growth 
of  priestly  authority  the  power  of  the 
congregation  in  the  Roman  Church  is 
now  very  slight.  The  Reformation  re¬ 
stored,  in  part,  the  system  of  the  early 
enurch  among  Protestants.  The  principle 
of  the  independent  authority  of  the  congre¬ 
gation  has  been  most  fully  developed 
among  denominations  who  hold  to  the  Con¬ 
gregational  polity  in  government.  (See 
Congregationalists  and  Baptists.)  In 
the  Roman  Church  the  term  Congregation 
is  applied  (1)  to  committees  of  cardinals 
appointed  by  the  pope  to  expedite  the 
business  of  the  curia.  (2)  To  communities 
bound  by  monastic  vows  for  various  pur¬ 
poses.  In  Scotland  the  name  “  Lords  of 
the  Congregation  ”  is  given  to  the  leading 
parties  who  subscribed  to  the  First  Cov¬ 
enant  at  Edinburgh,  Dec.  3,  1557.  The 
title  came  from  the  frequency  with  which 
the  word  “  congregation  ”  was  mentioned. 

Congregationalism  is  a  form  of  church 
life,  distinguished  by  its  combination  of  the 
two  principles  of  the  self-government  of 
the  local  churches,  and  the  obligation  and 


privilege  of  sustaining  relations  of  fellow¬ 
ship  and  communion  with  churches  of  like 
faith  and  order.  For  further  information 
see  Congregationalists. 

Congregationalists.  It  is  in  the  book  of 
the  Acts  of  the  Apostles,  and  the  Epistles 
that  follow,  that  Congregationalists  find 
the  warrant  for  their  system  of  church 
government  and  fellowship.  In  its  histor¬ 
ical  development  they  trace  the  beginnings 
of  a  distinct  denominational  existence  from 
the  days  that  gave  birth  to  English  Puri¬ 
tanism.  Out  of  the  agitation  and  protest 
against  prevalent  ungodliness  that  marked 
the  period  of  what  is  known  as  the  Eng¬ 
lish  Reformation,  came  influences  that  gave 
impetus  in  Great  Britain  to  the  growth  of 
Presbyterianism,  and  gave  birth  to  Con¬ 
gregational  churches.  However  much  the 
polity  of  the  former  may  have  affected  and 
shaped  the  history  of  the  latter  up  to  the 
present  century,  they  have  worked  out 
their  views  of  polity  along  entirely  distinct 
lines. 

There  are  good  reasons  for  calling  Rob¬ 
ert  Browne  ( q .  v.)  the  founder  of  English 
Congregationalism.  Educated  at  Cambridge 
University,  his  mind  was  early  turned  to 
the  evils  that  had  crept  into  the  Church  of 
England  through  its  alliance  with  the  State, 
and  the  acceptance  of  the  theory  that  all 
who  had  been  baptized  were  in  its  com¬ 
munion.  Learning  that  there  were  those 
like-minded  in  Norfolk,  who  might  be 
led  into  the  views  which  he  had  reached 
through  earnest  prayer  and  meditation, 
he  joined  them  about  1580,  and  here, 
in  the  formation  of  a  church  of  which 
he  became  pastor,  he  developed  many  of 
the  distinctive  principles  of  Congregation¬ 
alism.  Only  those  who  gave  evidence  of 
a  renewed  life  he  deemed  worthy  of  church 
fellowship,  and,  where  such  believers  saw 
fit  to  uniJte,  they  were  competent  to  dis¬ 
charge  the  duties  and  enjoy  the  privileges 
of  a  church.  In  his  protest  against  the 
parish  system,  he  went  so  far  as  to  assert 
that  communion  should  be  withheld  from 
any  who  were  connected  with  it.  This  un¬ 
charitable  position  was  sufficient,  joined 
with  the  views  which  he  disseminated 
regarding  church  government,  to  arouse 
the  opposition  of  Puritans  and  hierarchists 
alike.  The  flame  of  persecution  became 
so  hot  that  Browne  and  his  little  company 
concluded  “  that  the  Lord  did  call  them 
out  of  England,”  and  in  the  autumn  of 
1581  they  emigrated  to  Middelburg,  in  Zea¬ 
land.  It  was  here  that  Browne  published 
several  works,  which  show  how  clearly  he 
recognized  the  fundamental  ideas  upon 
which  Congregationalism  rests.  Under 
Christ  as  the  supreme  head,  the  members, 


Con 


(  208  ) 


Con 


joined  by  mutual  covenant  in  the  local 
church,  controlled  their  affairs,  and  elected 
their  office-bearers — pastors  or  elders  and 
deacons — from  among  themselves.  In  the 
matter  of  fellowship,  it  provided  for  synods 
and  councils,  “  for  redresse  and  deciding 
of  matters  which  cannot  wel  be  otherwise 
taken  vp;”  or  “  when  the  weaker  churches 
seeke  helpe  of  the  stronger.” 

It  is  not  strange,  when  we  consider  the 
times  and  circumstances,  combined  with 
the  lack  of  training  and  education  on  the 
part  of  those  who  formed  this  early  Con¬ 
gregational  Church,  that  it  became  distract¬ 
ed  and  divided  on  matters  of  discipline, 
and  was  finally  disbanded.  Browne  re¬ 
turned  to  England,  worn  by  labor,  disap¬ 
pointment,  and  persecution;  and  broken, 
it  would  appear,  both  in  body  and  mind, 
accepted  the  refuge  offered  him  in  the  care 
of  an  obscure  parish  of  the  Established 
Church,  bestowed  through  the  influence  of 
a  relative. 

Henry  Barrowe  and  John  Greenwood, 
after  a  long  imprisonment,  were  executed, 
April  6,  1593.  During  their  confinement 
in  the  Fleet  prison  they  had  written  tracts, 
printed  at  Dordrecht,  in  which,  while  ear¬ 
nestly  upholding  the  views  disseminated 
by  Browne,  they  pointed  out  what  seemed  to 
them  the  dangers  of  a  practically  democratic 
form  of  government,  and  advised  the  adop¬ 
tion  of  the  Presbyterian  form  of  elder¬ 
ship,  by  which  the  direct  control  of  the 
church  should  be  in  the  hands  of  a  select 
body  of  the  members. 

A  church  on  this  basis  was  formed  in 
London,  but,  after  suffering  the  most  bit¬ 
ter  persecutions,  many  of  its  members  mi¬ 
grated  to  Amsterdam  with  Francis  John¬ 
son,  pastor,  and  Henry  Ainsworth,  teacher. 
The  attempt  to  combine  the  aristocratic 
with  the  democratic  form  of  government 
was  not  altogether  happy  in  its  results, 
and  it  has  been  well  said  that  “  It  grad¬ 
ually  made  itself  obvious  that, whatever  the 
respective  merits  of  Congregationalism 
and  Presbyterianism  when  separate,  the 
two  systems  are  ill-fitted  to  work  happily 
together,  at  the  same  time  and  in  the  same 
church.” — H.  M.  Dexter.  Ainsworth  be¬ 
came  the  leader  of  the  more  purely  Con¬ 
gregational  party,  which  seceded  from  the 
church  which,  under  Johnson,  became  Pres¬ 
byterian  in  everything  but  name. 

When  John  Robinson,  with  the  members 
of  the  Scrooby  church,  came  to  Amster¬ 
dam,  in  1608,  they  found  the  church  there 
in  such  a  condition  that  they  decided  to  re¬ 
move  to  Leyden.  Robinson  sided  with 
Ainsworth  and  his  party , but  he  by  no  means 
favored  a  democracy  that  did  not  accept 
the  controlling  influence  of  those  in  author¬ 
ity.  It  was  a  part  of  his  company  that 


sailed  in  the  Mayflower  for  the  shores  of 
the  New  World  in  1620.  He  hoped,  with 
the  remaining  members  of  his  church,  to 
join  the  colony  at  Plymouth,  but  died  in 
Leyden,  in  1625,  before  they  left. 

Those  who  suffered  under  the  policy 
of  Laud  in  the  reign  of  Charles  I.  were 
Puritans  and  not  Separatists.  It  was  not 
until  the  time  of  the  civil  war  that  Con¬ 
gregationalism  (Independency)  began  to 
take  firm  root  in  England.  Many  churches 
were  formed  in  London  and  its  vicinity, 
and  in  time  numbered  amongtheir  members 
strong  and  influential  men.  Ten  or  eleven 
Congregational  ministers  were  in  the 
Westminster  Assembly.  Cotton,  Hooker, 
and  Davenport  were  invited  from  New 
England,  but  did  not  deem  it  best  to  at¬ 
tend.  Following  the  Restoration,  all  the 
Non  conformist  bodies  passed  through  days 
of  sore  trial.  The  clouds  began  to  lift 
after  the  Revolution  of  1688,  but  it  has 
been  through  much  opposition  and  trial 
that  English  Congregationalism  has  come 
to  its  present  prosperous  growth.  A  re¬ 
cent  Year  Book  reports  in  England  and 
Wales  4,376  churches,  branch  churches, 
and  mission  stations.  Besides  these,  they 
have  in  Scotland  101  churches  and  stations; 
in  Ireland,  123;  Canada,  201;  Australia, 
310;  New  Zealand,  24;  Natal,  etc.,  26; 
South  Africa,  39;  Jamaica,  41;  British 
Guiana,  39;  India,  31;  China,  2;  on  the 
Continent,  4,  and  in  the  Channel  Islands, 
11.  These  aggregate  5,328. 

Congregationalists  in  the  United  States. 

When  the  Mayflower  landed  its  little  band 
of  Pilgrims  at  Plymouth,  in  1620,  they 
represented  a  part  of  John  Robinson's 
company,  and  under  Elder  Brewster 
continued  their  organization  as  a  Congre¬ 
gational  Church.  Their  history  finds  its 
source  in  the  north  of  England,  from  which 
Robinson  and  most  of  those  who  followed 
him,  had  migrated  to  Holland,  in  1608. 
At  this  time  there  were  probably  not  more 
than  five  or  six  Congregational  churches 
in  the  world. 

The  Puritans,  who  settled  the  Massachu¬ 
setts  colony,  in  1630,  were  every  way  dis¬ 
tinct  from  the  Pilgrims.  Their  leaders 
were  men  of  education  and  wealth,  trained 
in  the  management  of  affairs,  who  came  to 
the  shores  of  the  New  World  not  only  to 
secure  freedom  from  religious  persecution, 
but  to  build  up  a  fabric  of  government 
that  would  preserve  their  political  as  well 
as  spiritual  liberties.  “They  were  Pu¬ 
ritans,”  says  Dr.  H.  M.  Dexter,  “  but  not 
Separatists,  and  they  had  a  very  distinct 
prejudice  against  the  Plymouth  men. 
They  left  the  English  Channel  with  a  vague 
notion  that,  somehow,  they  were  going  to 


Con 


(  209  ) 


Con 


reproduce  the  Church  of  England  here,  in 
that  purified  and  beatific  state  for  which  they 
had  long  been  contending  at  home  in  vain. 
But  when  they  came  on  shore  they  were 
confronted  with  the  facts  that  they  had  no 
church,  and  no  bishop  to  arrange  properly 
that  they  should  have  one,  to  ordain  its 
pastor,  and  generally  to  bless  the  move¬ 
ment.  So  that  precisely  that  happened  to 
them  which  John  Robinson  had  foreseen 
and  predicted  when  he  had  said  to  his  own 
departing  company,  *  There  will  be  no 
difference  between  the  unconformable  (i.  e. , 
the  merely  Non-conformist  Puritan)  minis¬ 
ters  and  you,  when  they  come  to  the  prac¬ 
tice  of  the  Ordinances  out  of  the  kingdom.’ 
To  have  a  church  it  was  necessary  for  the 
Mattapan  and  Salem  and  Shawmut  men  to 
make  one  for  themselves,  which,  with 
some  help,  besought  by  themselves  from 
the  Plymouth  men,  they  did.  And  so  they, 
too,  had  a  Congregational  Church  and 
churches,  and  became  Congregationalists.” 
— Jackson:  Did.  of  Religion,  p.  190. 

From  this  point  the  history  of  the  de¬ 
velopment  of  Congregationalism  in  this 
country,  until  early  in  the  present  century, 
is  an  integral  part  of  the  social,  political, 
and  religious  life  of  New  England,  es¬ 
pecially  in  the  Commonwealths  of  Mas¬ 
sachusetts  and  Connecticut.  The  same 
dominant  influences  in  the  Massachusetts 
Colony,  that  sought  to  keep  the  control  of 
public  affairs  in  the  hands  of  a  privileged 
class,  worked  in  the  direction  of  a  church 
government,  that,  while  nominally  Congre¬ 
gational,  was  strongly  leavened  with  Pres¬ 
byterianism.  The  elder  Governor  Win- 
throp  sympathized  with  Cotton,  who 
thought  it  would  be  disastrous  to  trust  the 
conduct  of  affairs  in  the  hands  of  the 
people.  “  Democracy,”  he  declared,  “  I 
do  not  conceive  that  ever  God  did  ordain 
as  a  fit  government,  either  for  church  or 
commonwealth.”  The  history  of  church 
trials  in  those  days  shows  how  little  op¬ 
portunity  was  given  for  the  exercise  of  in¬ 
dependence  upon  the  part  of  local  churches 
and  their  members.  The  relations  of  the 
churches  to  the  State  were  such  that  im¬ 
portant  matters  pertaining  to  their  inter¬ 
ests,  ecclesiastical  and  theological,  were 
frequently  brought  into  the  General  Courts 
for  discussion  and  legislation.  The  com¬ 
mission  of  twelve  ministers  who,  with  four 
lay  deputies,  framed  the  Saybrook  Plat¬ 
form  in  1708,  was  created  by  the  Connect¬ 
icut  Assembly;  and,  after  making  a  report 
of  its  labors,  that  General  Court,  without 
referring  the  matter  to  the  forty  Congre¬ 
gational  churches  then  existing  in  the 
colony,  declared  “  their  great  approbation 
of  such  an  happy  agreement,  and  do  ordain 
that  all  the  churches  within  this  govern¬ 


ment  that  are  or  shall  be  thus  united  in 
doctrine,  worship,  and  discipline,  be,  and 
for  the  future  shall  be,  owned  and  establish¬ 
ed  by  law.” 

The  strong  influence  which  the  English 
system  of  a  national  church  had  upon  the 
minds  of  the  New  England  ministers  in 
working  out  their  views  of  ecclesiastical 
order  is  seen  in  the  history  of  what  is 
known  as  the  Half-Way  Covenant.  This 
was  “  a  system  under  which  the  local 
church,  as  a  covenanted  brotherhood  of 
souls  renewed  by  the  experience  of  God’s 
grace,  was  to  be  merged  in  the  parish;  and 
all  persons  of  good  moral  character,  living 
within  the  parochial  bounds,  were  to  have, 
as  in  England  and  Scotland,  the  privilege 
of  baptism  for  their  households,  and  of  ac¬ 
cess  to  the  Lord’s  table.”  This  “  parish 
way  ”  was  the  source  of  many  evils  that, 
from  the  beginning,  were  discerned  by  John 
Davenport  and  others,  but  it  was  in  time 
generally  adopted;  and  not  until  the  wave 
of  spiritual  life  that  swept  over  the 
churches  in  the  “  Great  Awakening,”  under 
the  leadership  of  Whitefield,  and  the  elder 
Edwards,  did  the  opposition  to  the  Half- 
Way  Covenant  plan  become  strong  enough 
to  do  away  with  it. 

The  trend  of  events  that  culminated  in 
the  Revolution,  the  formation  of  the  Re¬ 
public,  and  the  separation  altogether  of 
Church  and  State,  were  calculated  to  de¬ 
velop  and  strengthen  the  principles  that 
underlie  the  Congregational  polity,  viz., 
the  independence  of  each  local  church,  and 
the  obligation  and  privilege  of  fellowship 
with  sister  churches.  It  was  not  until 
some  time  after  the  tide  of  emigration  be¬ 
gan  to  flow  westward,  early  in  the  present 
century,  that  any  effort  was  made  to 
organize  Congregational  churches  outside 
of  New  England.  In  1801,  a  “  Plan  of 
Union  ”  was  arranged  between  the  Gen¬ 
eral  Association  of  Connecticut,  and  the 
Presbyterian  General  Assembly,  regard¬ 
ing  the  formation  of  churches  in  new 
regions.  This  plan  was  unsatisfactory  in 
its  working,  and  was  abrogated  by  a  Con¬ 
vention  of  Congregationalists  held  at  Al¬ 
bany  in  1852.  A  glance  at  the  following 
table  will  show  how  rapidly  the  churches 
of  the  Congregational  order  have  increas¬ 
ed  since  that  time. 

Churches.  Members.  Ministers. 

1760 . 530 . . ....(41  churches  vacant). 

1845 . 1,471  165,287 . 1,412 

1848 . 1,867 . 177,668 . 1,612 

(No  returns  for  1849.) 

1859 . 2,571 . 250,452 . 2,544 

1869 . 3,043 . 330, 391 . 3,278 

1879 . 3,674 . 382,920 . 3,585 

1889 . 4,569 . 475.6o8 . 4>4°8 

Doctrinally ,  Congregationalists  have 
emphasized the'principle  that  the  Scriptures 


Con 


(  210  ) 


Con 


are  the  only  authoritative  rule  of  faith  and 
practice.  Each  church  adopts  its  own 
creed,  and  is  bound  by  no  other  symbol, 
but,  among  general  standards, the  Westmin¬ 
ster  Confession  and  the  Savoy  Confession 
have  had  the  widest  acceptance  in  the  past. 
As  the  outcome  of  a  prevalent  feeling  that 
these  ancient  confessions  failed  to  fully 
represent  the  beliefs  of  the  churches,  the 
National  Council  at  St.  Louis,  in  1880,  took 
measures  for  the  appointment  of  a  com¬ 
mittee  of  representative  ministers,  who  pre¬ 
pared  and  reported  what  is  known  as  “  the 
Creed  of  1883,”  which  reads  as  follows: 

I.  We  believe  in  one  God,  the  Father  Almighty, 
Maker  of  heaven  and  earth,  and  of  all  things  visible  and 
invisible; 

And  in  Jesus  Christ,  his  only  Son,  our  Lord,  who  is  of 
one  substance  with  the  Father;  by  whom  all  things 
were  made; 

And  in  the  Holy  Spirit,  the  Lord  and  Giver  of  Life, 
who  is  sent  from  the  Father  and  Son,  and  who  together 
with  the  Father  and  Son  is  worshiped  and  glorified. 

II.  We  believe  that  the  Providence  of  God,  by 
which  he  executes  his  eternal  purposes  in  the  govern¬ 
ment  of  the  world,  is  in  and  over  all  events;  yet  so  that 
the  freedom  and  responsibility  of  man  are  not  impaired, 
and  sin  is  the  act  of  the  creature  alone. 

III.  We  believe  that  man  was  made  in  the  image  of 
God,  that  he  might  know,  love,  and  obey  God,  and 
enjoy  him  forever;  that  our  first  parents  by  disobedience 
fell  under  the  righteous  condemnation  ofGod;  and  that 
all  men  are  so  alienated  from  God  that  there  is  no  sal¬ 
vation  from  the  guilt  and  power  of  sin  except  through 
God’s  redeeming  grace. 

IV.  We  believe  that  God  would  have  all  men  return 
to  him;  that  to  this  end  he  has  made  himself  known, 
not  only  through  the  works  of  nature,  the  course  of  his 
providence,  and  the  consciences  of  men,  but  also 
through  supernatural  revelations  made  especially  to  a 
chosen  people,  and  above  all,  when  the  fullness  of  time 
was  come,  through  Jesus  Christ  his  Son. 

V.  We  believe  that  the  Scriptures  of  the  Old  and 
New  Testaments  are  the  record  of  God’s  revelation  of 
himself  in  the  work  of  redemption;  that  they  were 
written  by  men  under  the  special  guidance  of  the  Holy 
Spirit;  that  they  are  able  to  make  wise  unto  salvation; 
and  that  they  constitute  the  authoritative  standard  by 
which  religious  teaching  and  human  conduct  are  to  be 
regulated  and  judged. 

VI.  We  believe  that  the  love  of  God  to  sinful  men 
has  found  its  highest  expression  in  the  redemptive  work 
of  his  Son;  who  became  man,  uniting  his  divine  nature 
with  our  human  nature  in  one  person;  who  was  tempt¬ 
ed  like  other  men,  yet  withoutsin;  who,  by  his  humilia¬ 
tion,  his  holy  obedience,  his  sufferings,  his  death  on  the 
cross,  and  his  resurrection,  became  a  perfect  Redeemer; 
whose  sacrifice  of  himself  for  the  sins  of  the  world  de¬ 
clares  the  righteousness  of  God,  and  is  the  sole  and  suffi¬ 
cient  ground  of  forgiveness  and  of  reconciliation  with 
him. 

VII.  We  believe  that  Jesus  Christ,  after  he  had 
risen  from  the  dead,  ascended  into  heaven,  where,  as 
the  one  Mediator  between  God  and  man,  he  carries 
forward  his  work  of  saving  men;  that  he  sends  the  Holy 
Spirit  to  convict  them  of  sin,  and  to  lead  them  to  re¬ 
pentance  and  faith;  and  that  those  who  through  renew¬ 
ing  grace  turn  to  righteousness,  and  trust  in  Jesus  Christ 
as  their  Redeemer,  receive  for  his  sake  the  forgiveness 
of  their  sins,  and  are  made  the  children  of  God. 

VIII.  We  believe  that  those  who  are  thus  regen¬ 
erated  and  justified  grow  in  sanctified  character 
through  fellowship  with  Christ,  the  indwelling  of  the 
Holy  Spirit,  and  obedience  to  the  truth;  that  a  holy 
life  is  the  fruit  and  evidence  of  saving  faith;  and  that 
the  believer’s  hope  of  continuance  in  such  a  life  is  in  the 
preserving  grace  of  God. 

IX.  We  believe  that  Jesus  Christ  came  to  establish  | 


among  men  the  kingdom  of  God,  the  reign  of  truth  and 
love,  righteousness  and  peace;  that  to  Jesus  Christ,  the 
Head  of  this  kingdom,  Christians  are  directly  responsi¬ 
ble  in  faith  and  conduct;  and  that  to  him  all  have  im¬ 
mediate  access  without  mediatorial  or  priestly  interven¬ 
tion. 

X.  We  believe  that  the  Church  of  Christ,  invisible 
and  spiritual,  comprises  all  true  believers,  whose  duty 
it  is  to  associate  themselves  in  churches,  for  the  main¬ 
tenance  of  worship,  for  the  promotion  of  spiritual 
growth  and  fellowship,  and  for  the  conversion  of  men; 
that  these  churches,  under  the  guidance  of  the  Holy 
Scriptures  and  in  fellowship  with  one  another,  may  de¬ 
termine — each  for  itself — their  organization,  statements 
of  belief,  and  forms  of  worship;  may  appoint  and  set 
apart  their  own  ministers,  and  should  cooperate  in  the 
work  which  Christ  has  committed  to  them  for  the  fur¬ 
therance  of  the  gospel  throughout  the  world. 

XI.  We  believe  in  the  observance  of  the  Lord’s 
Day  as  a  day  of  holy  rest  and  worship;  in  the  ministry 
of  the  Word;  and  in  the  two  Sacraments  which  Christ 
has  appointed  for  his  Church;  Baptism,  to  be  adminis¬ 
tered  to  believers  and  their  children,  as  the  sign  of 
cleansing  from  sin,  of  union  to  Christ,  and  of  the  impar- 
tation  of  the  Holy  Spirit;  and  the  Lord’s  Supper,  as  a 
symbol  of  his  atoning  death,  a  seal  of  its  efficacy,  and 
a  means  whereby  he  confirms  and  strengthens  the  spir¬ 
itual  union  and  communion  of  believers  with  himself. 

XII.  We  believe  in  the  ultimate  prevalence  of  the 
kingdom  of  Christ  over  all  the  earth;  in  the  glorious 
appearing  of  the  great  God  and  our  Saviour  Jesus 
Christ;  in  the  resurrection  of  the  dead;  and  in  a  final 
judgment,  the  issues  of  which  are  everlasting  punish- 
ment  and  everlasting  life. 

The  following  instrumentalities  are 
recognized  among  Congregationalists  in 
furtherance  of  the  obligation  of  fellowship: 
(1)  Ecclesiastical  councils  composed  of 
delegates,  as  a  rule,  from  neighboring 
churches,  who  advise  and  assist  in  the  or¬ 
ganization  of  new  churches,  in  the  ordina¬ 
tion,  settlement,  and  dismission  of  pastors, 
and,  in  cases  of  difficulty,  offer  such  advice 
as  they  deem  wise.  (2)  The  union  of 
Congregational  ministers  of  the  same 
neighborhood  in  associations,  meeting  at 
stated  times  during  each  year,  for  fraternal 
intercourse  and  professional  improvement. 
Students  who  desire  to  enter  the  ministry 
are  usually  examined  by  these  associations, 
and  if  approved  are  accepted  by  the 
churches.  More  .and  more,  membership 
in  these  bodies  is  recognized  as  orderly 
proof  of  good  standing  in  the  Congrega¬ 
tional  ministry.  (3)  The  churches  are  affili¬ 
ated  in  conferences,  which,  under  differ¬ 
ent  plans,  are  represented  by  delegates 
in  state  bodies,  meeting  once  a  year. 
(4)  The  Triennial  National  Council,  com¬ 
posed  of  delegates,  appointed  on  a  careful 
basis  of  enumeration,  from  all  the  Con¬ 
gregational  churches  of  the  country. 
This  Council  was  formed  atOberlin  in  1871, 
and  has  met  at  New  Haven  in  1874,  Detroit 
in  1877,  St.  Louis  in  1880,  Concord,  N.  H., 
in  1883,  Chicago  in  1886,  and  Worcester, 
Mass.,  in  1889. 

In  educational,  benevolent,  and  mission¬ 
ary  activities,  Congregationalists  have 
taken  an  honorable  position.  The  Univer¬ 
sities,  Colleges,  and  Seminaries  founded 


Con 


(  211  ) 


Con 


and  fostered  by  their  care,  are  among  the 
oldest  and  most  widely  known  in  the  land. 
Besides  cooperating  with  other  Christians 
in  sustaining  Bible,  tract,  Sunday-school, 
temperance,  and  kindred  organizations, 
they  work  especially  through  seven  benev¬ 
olent  societies. 

These  are  (i)  The  American  Board  of 
Commissioners  for  Foreign  Missions,  es¬ 
tablished  in  1810.  In  its  twenty-two  mis¬ 
sions  there  are  ninety-three  stations  where 
missionaries  reside,  and  1,023  out-stations 
where  preaching  is  statedly  maintained. 
Five  hundred  and  eight  missionaries  from 
the  United  States  are  now  employed. 
Three  hundred  and  sixty  organized 
churches  have  a  membership  of  over  33,- 
000.  Over  7,500  pupils  of  both  sexes  are 
in  the  higher  schools,  and,  including  the 
common  schools,  43,838  are  receiving 
Christian  instruction.  The  annual  income 
of  the  society  is  over  $600,000. 

(2)  The  American  Home  Missionary 
Society,  organized  in  1826.  It  has  aided  to 
establish  more  than  5,000  churches,  a  large 
proportion  of  whom  have  come  to  self- 
support.  Its  annual  receipts  are  not  far 
from  $550,000  in  cash  and  $70,000  in  sup¬ 
plies. 

(3)  The  American  Missionary  Associa¬ 
tion,  organized  in  1846.  This  society  was 
originally  formed  to  aid  the  slave,  and, 
since  emancipation,  has  engaged  in  labors 
in  the  South  among  the  negroes  and  the 
mountain  whites  ;  in  the  West,  among 
the  Indians  ;  and  in  the  Pacific  States, 
among  the  Chinese.  The  “  Daniel  Hand 
Fund  ”  of  over  $1,000,000,  is  in  the  care  of 
this  society. 

(4)  The  American  College  and  Education 
Society  aids  Christian  colleges  to  become 
self-sustaining,  and  assists  young  men  to 
secure  a  course  of  education  for  the  Chris¬ 
tian  ministry.  In  this  way  it  has  aided 
about  7,500  young  men. 

(5)  The  American  Congregational  Union 
renders  assistance  in  the  erection  of 
churches  and  parsonages. 

(6)  The  Congregational  Sunday-school 
and  Publishing  Society,  but  recently  or¬ 
ganized,  has  been  very  effective  in  its  field 
of  labor. 

(7)  The  New  West  Education  Commis¬ 
sion  seeks  to  promote  Christian  civiliza¬ 
tion  in  Utah  and  adjoining  States  by  organ¬ 
izing  and  sustaining  Christian  schools.  It 
has  over  3,000  pupils  in  its  schools,  about 
one-third  of  whom  are  Mormons. 

Seven  theological  seminaries  are  under 
the  care  of  Congregationalists  in  the  United 
States:  these  are  Andover,  opened  in  1808; 
Bangor,  1816;  Yale,  1822;  Hartford  (form¬ 
erly  East  Windsor), 1834;  Oberlin,i838;  Chi¬ 
cago,  1858;  Pacific  (at  Oakland,  Cal.),  1869. 


It  is  a  cause  for  gratitude  among  Con¬ 
gregationalists  that  the  spirit  of  fellowship 
among  the  churches  is  more  and  more 
bringing  them  into  sympathy  with  organiz¬ 
ed  efforts  in  home  and  foreign  missionary 
work.  An  International  Council,  to  be 
held  for  the  first  time  in  London,  July, 
1891,  will  represent  a  grand  total  of  10,000 
Congregational  churches. 

Literature. — R.  Browne:  A  Booke  which 
sheweth  the  Life  and  Manners  of  all  True 
Christians  and  howe  vnlike  they  are  vnto 
Turkes  and  Papistes,  and  Heathen  Folke. 
Also  the  Pointes  and  Partes  of  all  Diuinitie, 
etc.  (Middelbvrgh,  1582);  H.  Barrowe  and 
J.  Greenwood:  A  Trve  Description ,  out  of 
the  Word  of  God ,  of  the  Visible  Church 
(Dort,  1589);  H.  Barrowe:  A  Brief  Dis- 
couerie  of  the  False  Church ,  etc.  (Dort,  1590); 
F.  Johnson  and  H.  Ainsworth:  A  True 
Confession  of  the  Faith ,  and  Hvmble  Ac¬ 
knowledgment  of  the  A  legeance,  which  wee  hir 
Maiesties  Subjects  falsely  called  Brownists 
doo  hould towards  God ,  etc.  (1596):  F.  Johnson 
and  H.  Ainsworth:  An  Apologie  or  Defense 
of  such  True  Christians  as  are  commonly 
(but  unjustly')  called  Brozvnists  (Amsterdam, 
1604) ;  J.  Robinson  :  A  Justification  of 
Separation  from  the  Church  of  England,  etc. 
(1610;  in  Works,  London,  1851);  J.  Robin¬ 
son:  A  Lust  and  Necessarie  Apologie  of  cer¬ 
tain  Christians ,  no  lesse  contumeliously  then 
conmionly  called  Brownists  or  Barrowists , 
etc.  (1625;  in  Works,  London,  1851);  R. 
Mather:  Church-Govermnent  and  Chtirch- 
Covenant  discussed ,  in  an  Answer  of  the 
Elders ,  etc.  (London,  1643);  J.  Cotton:  The 
Keyes  of  the  Kingdom  of  Heaven ,  and  Power 
thereof ,  etc.  (London,  1644;  4th  ed.,  Boston, 
1852);  T.  Weld:  A  Brief  Narration  of  the 
Practices  of  the  Churches  in  New  England , 
etc.  (London,  1645;  London,  1647)  ;  W. 
Bartlet,  Ichnographia;  or ,  a  Modell  of  the 
Primitive  Congregational  Way ,  etc.  (Lon¬ 
don,  1647);  T.  Hooker:  A  Survey  of  the 
Summe  of  Church-Discipline ,  etc.  (London, 
1648);  A  Platform  of  Church  -  Discipline 
gathered  out  of  the  Word  of  God ,  and  agreed 
upon  by  the  Elders  and  Messengers  of  the 
Churches  assembled  in  the  Synod  at  Cam¬ 
bridge ,  etc.  (Cambridge,  1649  ;  Boston, 
1855);  S.  Stone:  A  Congregational  Church 
is  a  Catholike  Visible  Church ,  etc.  (London, 
1652);  A  Declaration  of  the  Faith  and  Order 
owned  and  practised  in  the  Congregational 
Churches  in  England ,  agreed  upon ,  at  the 
Savoy,  etc.  (London,  1658,  3d  ed.,  1688); 
Propositions  concerning  the  Subject  of  Bap- 
tism  and  Consociation  of  Churches,  etc. 
(Cambridge,  1662);  J.  Eliot,  Communion  of 
Churches:  or  the  Divine  Management  of  Gos¬ 
pel  Churches  by  the  Ordinance  of  Councils, 
etc.  (Cambridge,  1665);  J.  Davenport:  The 
Power  of  Congregational  Churches  Asserted 


Con 


(  212  ) 


Con 


and  Vindicated ,  etc.  (London,  1672)  ;  I. 
Chauncy:  The  Divine  Institution  of  Con¬ 
gregational  Churches ,  etc. ,  asserted  and 
proved ,  etc.  (London,  1697);  I.  Mather: 
The  Order  of  the  Gospel ,  professed  and  prac¬ 
tised  by  the  Churches  of  New  England justi¬ 
fied ,  etc.  (Boston,  1700);  A  Confession  of 
Faith  owned  and  consented  to  at  Say  brook, 
etc.  (New  London,  1710);  S.  Mather:  An 
Apology  for  the  Liberties  of  the  Churches  of 
New  England ,  etc.  (London,  1738) ;  G. 
Punchard:  A  View  of  Congregationalism , 
etc.  (Salem,  1840,  4th  ed.,  Boston,  1856); 
G.  Punchard:  History  of  Congregationalism, 
etc.  (Salem,  1841,  4th  ed.,  greatly  enlarged, 
Boston,  i860);  R.  Vaughan:  Congregation¬ 
alism  viewed  in  relation  to  Modern  Society, 
etc.  (London,  1841);  E.  Pond:  A  Manual 
■of  Congregationalism  (Portland,  1848;  Ban¬ 
gor,  1859);  The  Plan  of  Union  of  1801  be¬ 
tween  Congregationalists  and  Presbyterians , 
and  Reasons  why  it  should  be  abandoned 
(New  York,  1852);  J.  W.  Wellman:  The 
Church  Polity  of  the  Pilgrims  (Boston, 
1857);  J.  E.  Roy:  A  Manual  of  the  Princi¬ 
ples,  etc. ,  of  the  Congregational  Churches 
(Chicago,  1869);  H.  M.  Dexter:  Congrega¬ 
tionalism:  What  it  is;  Whence  it  is;  How  it 
works;  why  it  is  better  than  any  other  polity , 
etc.  (Boston,  1865,  5th  ed.,  1879);  The 
Church  Polity  of  the  Pilgrims  the  Polity  of 
the  RTew  Testament ,  etc.  (Boston,  1870);  L. 
Bacon:  The  Genesis  of  the  New  England 
Churches  (New  York,  1874);  H.  M.  Dexter: 
The  Congregationalism  of  the  last  Three 
Hundred  years  as  seen  hi  its  Literature ,  etc. 
(New  York,  1880);  G.  Punchard:  Congre¬ 
gationalism  in  America  from  1629  to  1879 
(Boston,  1880);  H.  M.  Dexter:  A  Hand- 
Book  of  Congregationalism  (Boston,  1880); 
G.  T.  Ladd  :  The  Principles  of  Church 
Polity,  etc.  (New  York,  1882);  A.  H.  Ross: 
A  Pocket  Manual  of  Congregationalism 
(Chicago,  1883);  R.  W.  Dale:  A  Manual 
of  Congregational  Principles  (London, 
1884);  G.  Huntington:  Outlines  of  Congre¬ 
gational  History  (Boston,  1885)  ;  A.  H. 
Ross:  The  Church  Kingdom,  etc.  (Boston, 
1887). 

Conrad  of  Marburg.  See  Konrad  of 
Marburg. 

Conscience.  The  word  is  derived  from  the 
Latin  conscientia  (consciousness),  but  was 
not  used  either  by  Greeks  or  Romans  in  a 
religious  sense.  It  is  not  found  in  the  Old 
Testament,  and  was  never  used  by  our 
Lord.  As  employed  by  Paul,  “It  is  the 
inborn  sense  of  right  and  wrong,  the  moral 
law  written  on  our  hearts,  which  judges  of 
the  moral  character  of  our  motives  and  ac¬ 
tions,  and  approves  or  censures,  condemns 
or  justifies  accordingly.  (Rom.  ii.  15.)  This 


universal  tribunal  is  established  in  the 
breast  of  every  man,  even  the  heathen.  It 
may  be  weakened,  perverted,  stupefied,  de¬ 
filed,  and  hardened  in  various  ways,  and  its 
decisions  are  more  or  less  clear,  just,  and 
imperative  according  to  the  degree  of 
moral  culture.  (John  viii.  9;  Acts  xxiii. 
1;  xxiv.  16;  Rom.  ix.  1;  1  Tim.  i.  5.)” — 
Schaff:  Bible  Dictionary . 

Consecration.  This  term  means  to  set 
apart  for  holy  uses.  In  the  old  Testament 
it  refers  to  both  persons  and  things.  In 
its  ecclesiastical  use  it  is  applied  to 
churches,  bishops,  and  the  elements  in  the 
Lord’s  Supper.  In  the  Anglican  church 
the  custom  is  still  retained  of  consecrating 
burying  -  grounds.  Even  in  the  Roman 
Church  the  rite  of  consecration  of  church 
edifices  is  commonly  designated  as  a 
“  dedication,”  and  this  is  the  term  used  in 
the  Methodist  Episcopal  and  other  Protes¬ 
tant  denominations  in  setting-apart  build¬ 
ings  for  divine  service. 

Consensus,  (1)  Genevensis,  a  confession 
of  faith  drawn  up  by  Calvin  in  1551,  for 
the  purpose  of  uniting  the  Swiss  churches 
with  regard  to  predestination.  It  never 
gained  symbolical  authority  beyond  Ge¬ 
neva.  (2)  Tigurinus ,  drawn  up  by  Calvin  in 
1549,  f°r  the  purpose  of  effecting  a  union 
among  the  Swiss  Reformed  churches  with 
regard  to  the  doctrine  of  the  Lord’s  Supper. 
It  was  adopted  by  the  churches  of  Zurich, 
Geneva,  St.  Gall,  Schaffhausen,  the  Gri- 
sons,  Neuchatel,  and  Basel,  and  was  favor¬ 
ably  received  elsewhere.  See  Schaff  : 
Creeds,  vol.  i,  pp.  471,  sqq. 

Consilia  Evangelica  is  a  term  used  in 
the  Roman  Church  to  designate  such  moral 
counsels  as  are  not  obligatory  as  precepts 
of  the  law,  but  are  advised  in  order  to  gain 
perfection.  These  “counsels  of  perfec¬ 
tion  ”  are  based  upon  Matt.  xxv.  *21;  Luke 
xvii.  10;  1  Cor.  vii.  10,  25;  Rev.  xiv.  21, 
and  are  applied  to  the  three  monastic  vows 
of  chastity  (celibacy),  poverty,  and  obedi¬ 
ence  to  an  ecclesiastical  superior.  Protes¬ 
tants  do  not  admit  of  any  such  distinction. 
See  Supererogation. 

Consistory  is  the  name  given  in  the 
Roman  Catholic  Church  to  the  assembly 
of  cardinals,  convoked  and  presided  over 
by  the  pope.  In  the  Lutheran  Church  it 
denotes  a  “  mixed  board  of  ecclesiastical 
and  lay  officers,  generally  appointed  by 
the  sovereign  of  the  country.”  In  the  Re¬ 
formed  Church,  Dutch  and  German,  the 
consistory  is  the  lowest  church  court, 
composed  of  the  minister,  elders  and  dea¬ 
cons  of  the  congregation. 


4 


(  213  ) 


CONSTANTINOPLE, 


Con 


(  214  ) 


Con 


Consolamentum.  See  Cathari. 

Constance,  The  Council  of,  held  in  the 
city  of  Constance  from  1414  to  1418,  con¬ 
stituted  itself  the  highest  authority  in  the 
Church;  condemned  to  death  the  reformers 
Huss  and  Jerome,  of  Prague,  expelled  the 
three  rival  popes,  John  XXII.,  Gregory 
XII.,  and  Benedict  XIII.,  and  elected 
Martin  V.  as  the  legitimate  successor  of 
St.  Peter.  See  Hefele:  Historv  of  Coun¬ 
cils ,  Eng.  trans. 

Constantine  the  Great  (274-337).  In  the 
progress  of  his  military  career  he  gained  a 
victory  at  Milvian  Bridge,  near  Rome  (312), 
that  made  him  the  sole  emperor  of  the 
West.  It  was  just  before  this  battle  that  the 
incident  told  by  Eusebius  occurred, which  is 
said  to  have  caused  his  conversion.  This 
was  the  appearance  of  a  flaming  cross  in  the 
sky  at  noonday,  with  the  motto,  “  By  this 
conquer.”  “What  he  did  as  the  founder 
of  the  complex  political  system,  which  ex¬ 
ists  among  all  civilized  nations  down  to 
the  present  day,  and  what  he  did  as  the 
first  Christian  emperor,  had  results  of  the 
most  enduring  and  far-reaching  kind.  As 
to  Christianity,  the  historically  significant 
fact  is  not  his  personal  acceptance  of  it. 
It  is  rather  that,  by  his  policy  as  a  states¬ 
man,  he  endowed  the  new  religion  for  the 
first  time  with  that  instrument  of  worldly 
power  which  has  made  it — whether  for 
good  or  evil,  or  for  both,  is  a  subject  of 
much  discussion — the  strongest  social  and 
political  agent  that  affects  the  destinies  of 
the  human  race.” — IV.  B.  Smith  in  Ency. 
Britannica ,  s.  v. ;  E.  L.  Cutts:  Constan¬ 
tine  the  Great  (N.  Y. ,  1881). 

Constantinople,  formerly  Byzantium, 
derives  its  name  from  Constantine  the 
Great,  who  removed  the  seat  of  the  East¬ 
ern  Empire  here  in  330.  It  was  contin¬ 
ually  convulsed  by  factions  and  religious 
dissensions.  General  ecclesiastical  coun¬ 
cils  were  held  here  in  353,  381,  680,  869. 
Since  1453  Constantinople  has  been  a  Mo¬ 
hammedan  city,  and  the  centre  of  Moslem 
power  and  culture.  In  recent  years  Prot¬ 
estantism  has  been  officially  recognized  as 
one  of  the  religions  of  the  empire.  It  is 
the  seat  of  Robert  College,  an  institution 
that  has  already  exerted  a  strong  Christian 
influence.  For  the  Church  Councils  which 
have  been  held  there  see  Councils. 

Constantinopolitan  Creed.  See  Nicene 
Creed. 

Consubstantiation  is  a  term  used  to  des¬ 
ignate  a  theory  of  the  Holy  Eucharist,  cur¬ 
rent  in  the  Middle  Ages.  It  is  closely 


allied  to  Transubstantiation  (which  see), 
the  distinction  between  the  two  doctrines 
being  marked  by  the  difference  between 
“con”  and  “trans.”  According  to  the 
latter,  the  bread  and  wine  of  the  Sacrament 
are,  by  the  consecration  of  the  priest, 
changed  into  the  substance  of  the  flesh  of 
Christ.  According  to  the  former  view,  the 
bread  and  the  wine  and  our  Lord’s  body 
and  blood  become  united  in  one  substance. 

Some  writers  have  applied  this  term  to 
the  dogma  of  the  Real  Presence  taught  by 
the  Lutheran  Church,  but  that  doctrine 
clearly  and  strenuously  denies  any  and 
every  change  in  the  elements,  although 
holding  that,  in  the  reception  of  these,  there 
is,  at  the  same  time,  a  partaking  of,  or  a 
communion  with,  the  Saviour’s  glorified 
humanity.  Lutheran  writers  have  always 
and  everywhere  repudiated  the  term  Con- 
substantiation  and  the  theory  which  it  is  in¬ 
tended  to  express. 

Convent  denotes  a  society  of  monks  or 
nuns  in  one  establishment,  with  its  rules, 
etc.,  and  the  members  of  the  assembly  en¬ 
titled  to  vote  and  administer  government. 

Conventicle,  in  the  primitive  Church, 
meant  any  gathering  for  religious  worship. 
In  the  reign  of  Charles  II.  it  was  used  in  a 
contemptuous  way  to  designate  the  meet¬ 
ings  of  dissenters,  which  at  the  time  were 
forbidden  by  law. 

Conventicle  Act,  an  act  passed  by  Parlia¬ 
ment  in  1664,  prohibiting  the  meeting  of 
dissenters  under  heavy  penalties.  The  act 
was  revived  in  1670,  but  repealed  by  the 
Toleration  Act,  May  24,  1689. 

Convention,  in  the  Protestant  Episcopal 
Church  of  America,  is  the  name  for  the 
Church  Synod. 

(1)  The  General  Convention  meets  once 
in  three  years.  This  consists  of  two  houses 
— viz. ,  the  House  of  Bishops,  which  “when 
there  shall  be  three  or  more,  shall,  when¬ 
ever  General  Conventions  are  held,  forma 
separate  house,  with  a  right  to  originate 
and  propose  acts,”  etc.  But  in  case  of 
there  not  being  three  or  more  bishops, 
“  any  bishop  attending  a  General  Conven¬ 
tion  shall  be  a  member  ex  officio ,  and  shall 
not  vote  with  the  clerical  deputies  of  the 
diocese  to  which  he  belongs.  The  other 
house  is  that  of  clerical  and  lay  deputies, 
consisting  of  a  representation  of  clergy  and 
laity,  not  to  exceed  four  of  each  for  a  dio¬ 
cese,  chosen  by  the  convention  of  the  dio¬ 
cese  they  represent.”  (2)  Diocesan  Con¬ 
ventions  are  held  annually  in  each  diocese. 
They  consist  of  all  the  clergy,  and  a  lay 
representative  from  each  parish  in  union 


Con 


(  215  ) 


Cop 


with  the  convention,  and  are  presided  over 
by  the  bishop. 

Conversion  ( a  turning  torvards  or  about ; 
Latin  conversio),  “  denotes  the  act  in  which 
the  soul,  estranged  from  God,  turns  back 
to  him,  in  order  that  it  may  share  afresh  in 
his  grace.  It  is  a  return ,  because  man  re¬ 
enters  his  former  position  toward  God, 
which  he  had  lost  by  the  fall.  It  is  also  a 
turning  -  from,  because  former  sins  are 
abandoned  (Acts  xiv.  15),  and,  again,  a 
change  of  mind.  (Acts  xxvi.  20.)  By  nature 
the  ‘  slave  of  sin,’  and,  therefore,  a  ‘child 
of  wrath’  (Eph.  ii.  3),  and  ‘dead’  (Eph. 
ii.  1;  Col.  ii.  13),  he  is  renewed  in  the 
spirit  of  his  mind,  and  puts  on  4  the  new 
man,  which,  after  God,  hath  been  created 
in  righteousness  and  holiness  of  truth.’ 
(Eph.  iv.  24.)  But  how  can  this  radical 
change  be  made  ?  Not  by  his  own  unaided 
will  (John  xv.  5),  nor  any  more  without 
his  will.  (Acts  iii.  19;  2  Pet.  iii.  9.)  The 
condition,  therefore,  is  the  divine  aid;  and 
so  repentance  is  a  gift  of  God  (Acts  xi.  18; 
Phil.  ii.  13),  and,  therefore,  something  to 
be  thankful  for.  Yet  every  Christian 
knows  that  he  has  not  been  forced  to  re¬ 
pent;  rather  he  has  earnestly  desired  the 
altered  life.  In  this  work  of  God,  there¬ 
fore,  the  human  and  the  divine  acts  stand 
side  by  side,  and  both  must  be  equally 
recognized,  not  the  one  at  the  expense  of 
the  other.” — Burger.  Calvinists  have  gen¬ 
erally  maintained  that  grace  works  irresist¬ 
ibly  in  the  elect,  while  Arminians  deny 
this,  at  the  same  time  asserting  that  grace 
is  the  source  of  all  spiritual  good.  See 
Regeneration. 

Convocation,  an  assembly  of  the  bishops 
and  clergy  of  the  Church  of  England, 
summoned  by  the  metropolitan  arch¬ 
bishops  of  Canterbury  and  York,  pursuant 
to  a  royal  writ,  while  Parliament  is  in  ses¬ 
sion.  It  is  composed  of  two  houses — the 
Upper,  which  consists  of  the  bishops;  and 
the  Lower,  of  the  lesser  dignitaries.  Pre¬ 
vious  to  the  time  of  Henry  VIII.  the  action 
of  the  convocation  was  very  important.  In 
this  body  originated,  in  1870,  the  move¬ 
ment  for  the  Anglo-American  Bible  revis¬ 
ion. 

Convulsionists,  the  name  given  to  a 
fanatical  sect  of  Jansenists  who  sprang  up 
in  France  about  1730.  They  first  met  in 
the  church-yard  of  St.  Medardus,  in  a 
suburb  of  Paris,  around  the  tomb  of  a  cer¬ 
tain  Francis  of  Paris,  who  died  in  1727, 
and  was  reputed  very  holy.  Many  miracles 
were  said  to  have  taken  place  here.  The 
fanaticism  of  the  people  broke  forth  into 
strange  physical  contortions  and  convul¬ 


sions.  The  crowds  that  gathered  were  so 
great  that  in  1732  the  king  ordered  the 
gates  of  the  cemetery  shut.  Jansenism  was 
brought  into  great  disrepute  by  the  final 
outcome  of  this  excitement.  See  Jansen¬ 
ists. 

Conybeare,  William  John,  b.  1815;  d. 
at  Weybridge,  Eng.,  1857;  educated  at 
Trinity  College,  Cambridge.  In  connec¬ 
tion  with  the  Rev.  J.  S.  Howson  he  pub¬ 
lished  the  Life  and  Letters  of  St.  Paul ,  2 
vols.,  which  has  had  a  large  sale  in  this 
country. 

Cook,  Charles,  the  founder  of  Method¬ 
ism  in  France  and  Switzerland;  b.  in  Lon¬ 
don,  1787;  d.  at  Lausanne,  1858.  He 
began  his  work  in  France  in  1816,  and  his 
earnest  evangelistic  labors  were  followed 
by  revivals  and  the  gathering  of  many 
small  societies,  some  of  whom  joined  the 
Reformed  Church,  and  others  remained  in¬ 
dependent. 

Cooke,  Henry,  D.  D.,  b.  in  County  Lon¬ 
donderry,  Ireland,  1788;  d.  at  Belfast, 
1868.  A  graduate  of  Glasgow  University, 
he  was  ordained  in  1808.  After  successful 
pastorates  elsewhere,  he  was  called  to  Bel¬ 
fast  in  1829,  where  he  remained  until  his 
death.  He  was  elected  professor  of  sacred 
rhetoric  and  president  of  the  Assembly’s 
College  at  Belfast  in  1847.  He  was  dis¬ 
tinguished  for  his  eloquence  and  learning, 
but  he  is  best  known  as  the  champion  of 
Orthodoxy  against  Arianism  in  the  Irish 
Church.  His  influence  in  this  direction 
was  every  way  remarkable.  See  J.  L. 
Porter:  Life  and  Times  of  Henrv  Cooke , 
D.  D.  (new  ed.  Belfast,  1875). 

Cookman,  George  Grimston,  a  Meth¬ 
odist  preacher,  famed  for  his  eloquence; 
b.  in  England,  1800;  lost  at  sea  in  the 
steamship  President,  1841.  He  came  to 
this  country  in  1825,  and  began  his  min¬ 
istry  first  in  Philadelphia.  His  reputation 
as  a  pulpit  and  platform  orator  soon  ex¬ 
tended.  In  1838  he  was  elected  chaplain 
of  Congress.  His  farewell  sermon  at  the 
Capitol,  a  short  time  before  he  set  sail 
from  New  York,  never  to  be  heard  from 
again,  was  a  wonderful  display  of  orator¬ 
ical  power.  A  few  sermons  and  a  volume 
of  Speeches  (N.  Y.,  1841)  are  his  only  pub¬ 
lished  remains. 

Cope,  a  long  cloak  worn  over  the  sur¬ 
plice,  or  alb,  and  fastened  at  the  neck  by 
an  ornamental  clasp.  It  was  worn,  until 
quite  recently,  in  the  English  Church  by 
bishops  in  parliament,  by  canons  at  cor¬ 
onations  and  other  state  occasions. 


Cop 


(  216  ) 


Cor 


Copping  (Coppin,  Copyn),  John,  a  Con¬ 
gregational  layman  of  Bury  St.  Edmunds, 
who  was  hanged  June  5,  1583,  for  “  dis¬ 
persing  of  Brownes  (Robert)  bookes  and 
Harrisons  bookes.”  He  suffered  impris¬ 
onment  for  seven  years,  and  with  a  fel¬ 
low-prisoner,  Thacker,  was  condemned  to 
death  for  circulating  books  adverse  to 
the  Church  of  England.  See  Dexter: 
Congregationalism  as  seen  in  its  Literature 
(N.  Y.,  1880),  pp.  208-210. 

Copts,  the  name  given  to  those  Chris¬ 
tians  in  Egypt  who,  for  more  than  eleven 
centuries,  have  held  the  patriarchal  chair 
of  Alexandria,  and  have  been  the  dominant 
sect.  The  term  is  a  corruption  of  the 
name  “  Egypt,”  pronounced  in  Greek 
fashion.  When  the  Arabs  conquered  that 
country  they  applied  the  name  “  Ghubt”  to 
all  the  nations  who  strove  to  preserve  their 
religion  and  nationality.  The  Coptic 
language  is  the  old  Egyptian  written  in 
Greek  letters,  and  largely  mixed  with 
Greek.  But  it  is  no  longer  a  vernacular 
tongue;  the  natives  speak  Arabic,  and 
Coptic  is  only  used,  like  Latin  in  the 
Roman  Church,  in  the  performance  of 
Divine  Worship.  Out  of  the  5,000,000 
population  of  Egypt  at  present,  probably 
the  Copts  form  a  tenth. 

They  are  directly  descended  from  the 
Monophysites,  through  their  founder, 
Jacob-el-Baradoi,  whose  zeal  in  preaching 
that  doctrine  was  so  overpowering  that  the 
condemnation  of  it  at  Chalcedon  was  not 
able  to  put  it  down  in  Egypt.  The  Em¬ 
peror’s  edicts  went  forth  against  it,  but  the 
Monophysites  nicknamed  the  orthodox 
Melekites ,  i.e.  “  disciples  of  the  king,”  and 
were,  in  turn,  called  Jacobites ,  a  name  by 
which  they  are  still  known.  So  bitter  was 
the  hatred  between  the  two  sides  that  the 
Monophysites  welcomed  the  Saracen  in¬ 
vasion  as  a  means  of  delivering  them  from 
persecution.  The  Arabs,  in  return,  put 
them  in  possession  of  the  Christian 
churches.  But  when  the  Moslems  had 
gained  full  mastery  of  the  country,  and  be¬ 
gan,  according  to  their  wont,  to  proselytize 
vigorously,  some  of  the  Copts  fell  away 
from  the  faith,  and  the  rest  were,  and  have 
been  since,  much  persecuted.  Though 
comparatively  few  in  numbers,  they  have  a 
large  body  of  clergy,  elaborately  organized. 
They  have  also  many  monasteries,  some 
dating  from  the  very  earliest  times.  Their 
head  is  styled  “  Patriarch  of  Alexandria,” 
and  is  regarded  as  the  successor  of  St. 
Mark.  He  is  always  taken  from  among 
the  monks.  Next  to  him  is  the  abuna  of 
the  Abyssinian  Church,  residing  at  Gondar. 
During  the  Abyssinian  War  of  1867,  it  was 
stated  by  one  of  the  correspondents  that 


this  ecclesiastic  appeared  in  camp  with  a 
basket,  offering  eggs  for  sale.  The  clergy, 
as  a  body,  are  very  poor,  and  very  igno¬ 
rant.  Though  they  recite  Coptic,  most  of 
them  do  not  understand  it,  and  their 
knowledge  of  the  Bible  is  confined  to  the 
Gospels  and  a  few  Psalms.  Many  support 
themselves  by  begging,  some  by  thieving, 
and  they  are  much  given  to  drinking. 

Three  liturgies  are  in  use,  that  of  St. 
Basil  on  fast  days,  of  St.  Cyril  in  Lent, 
and  of  St.  Gregory  on  festivals.  The  ser¬ 
vice  is  very  long  and  elaborate.  As  al¬ 
most  the  whole  of  it  is  performed  standing, 
the  congregation  are  provided  with  crutch¬ 
es  to  lean  upon.  Most  of  the  churches  are 
dirty  and  dilapidated.  There  are  four 
fasting  seasons,  which  are  observed  with 
extreme  strictness.  One  remarkable 
feature  of  the  ritual  is  the  practice  of 
unction,  which  the  priests  administer,  not 
only,  as  in  the  Roman  Catholic  Church,  to 
the  dying,  but  also  when  giving  absolution. 
They  have  adopted  circumcision,  probably 
in  deference  to  Mahomet.  The  oldest 
church  is  at  Cairo.  It  dates  from  the  sixth 
century,  and  is  built  over  a  grotto  in  which 
our  Lord  is  alleged  to  have  been  kept  by 
his  mother  during  their  residence  in  Egypt. 
Much  has  been  done  of  late  years  to  raise 
the  condition  of  the  Coptic  Church.  Some 
have  tried  proselytism,  others  have  taken 
measures  for  training  Coptic  preachers. 
Tbe  movement  was  one  in  which  the  late 
Archbishop  Tait  took  much  interest. — 
Benham:  Dictionary  of  Religion.  See 
Ancient  Coptic  Churches  of  Egypt ,  by  A.  J. 
Butler  (London,  1884),  2  vols. 

Cor.  See  Measures. 

Coran.  See  Mohammed. 

Cor'ban  ( offering ),  the  Hebrew  name  for 
a  gift  or  thing  consecrated  to  God,  es¬ 
pecially  in  fulfillment  of  a  vow.  (Mark  vii. 
11.)  Under  pretence  that  what  they  had 
was  thus  consecrated  to  God,  there  were 
those  who  denied  the  request  of  parents, 
although  they  never  intended  it  to  pass  out 
of  their  possession. 

Cordeliers  ( cora  wearers ),  a  name  given 
in  France  to  the  strictest  branch  of  the 
Franciscans,  on  account  of  the  girdles  of 
knotted  cord  which  they  wore. 

Cordova,  a  Spanish  city,  in  which  (1)  a 
famous  synod  was  held  in  S52,  that,  by  an 
influential  minority,  upheld  the  fanatical 
zeal  of  the  monks  and  others,  who  stirred 
up  the  resentment  of  the  Mohammedans, 
and  thus  gained  the  honor  of  martyrdom. 
(2)  In  qSo  a  school  was  founded  here  which 


Cor 


(  217  ) 


Cor 


became  one  of  the  most  famous  in  Europe. 
It  was  the  principal  seat  of  the  Arabian 
study  of  Aristotle. 

Corea.  The  peninsula  of  Corea,  lying  be¬ 
tween  Japan  and  China,  has  a  total  area  of 
82,000  square  miles,  and  a  population  of 
10,528,937.  “  In  religion  the  primitive 

fetichism  and  worship  of  the  spirits  of  air, 
earth,  and  heaven,  popularly  prevails  over 
all  other  cults. 

“  Though  Buddhism  from  A.  D.  352- 
1392  prevailed,  it  is  now  supplanted  by 
Confucianism.  Priests  and  monks  are  not 
allowed  in  walled  cities,  and  nearly  the 
only  remnants  of  the  once  dominant  faith 
are  mountain  monasteries,  from  which 


frontier,  guarding  the  passes  and  coast, 
and  otherwise  to  isolate  Corea  from  out¬ 
side  influences,  bloody  inquisitions  and 
persecutions,  and  the  outlawry  and  decap¬ 
itation  of  nine  French  priests,  in  1866,  con¬ 
verts  multiplied.  The  pressure  of  Russia, 
Japan,  France,  and  the  United  States,  with 
bloody  reprisals  by  the  three  latter  na¬ 
tions,  became  too  great  for  the  hermit  na¬ 
tion,  and  in  1876,  the  Japanese,  and  in 
1882,  the  Americans,  secured  treaties  and 
commerce.” — IV.  E.  Griffis  in  Jackson’s 
Dictionary  of  Religious  Knowledge. 

American  Presbyterians  opened  the  first 
Protestant  mission  at  Se'oul,  in  1884.  The 
American  Methodist  Episcopal  Church  has 
a  strong  force  in  this  interesting  field,  and 


CORINTH. 


precious  literary  treasures  may  yet  come 
forth,  and  certain  colossal  statues  of  Bud¬ 
dha,  hewn  out  of  natural  rock.  Practically 
the  people  are  without  a  strong  religion 
and  are  waiting  for  one.  It  is  often  sup¬ 
posed  that  Christianity  was  introduced  by 
soldiers  of  the  Japanese  invading  armies  of 
1592-97,  but  of  this  there  is  no  proof.  In 
1777  a  coterie  of  students,  who  had  re¬ 
ceived  from  Peking  through  the  tribute- 
bearers  some  books  from  the  Jesuit  fathers 
there,  were  converted  to  Roman  Christian¬ 
ity.  They  multiplied  so  fast  that,  in  1794, 
a  Chinese,  and  in  1836,  a  French  mission¬ 
ary  priest,  secretly  entered  the  country,  and 
a  powerful  church  was  formed.  Despite 
all  governmental  efforts,  by  desolating  the 


already  (1890)  several  scores  of  converts 
have  been  received  into  organized  church¬ 
es.  The  Roman  Catholics  claim  many 
thousands  of  converts.  The  government 
has  established  a  hospital,  medical  school, 
and  college  of  liberal  arts,  under  American 
teachers. 

Corinth,  the  capital  of  Achaia,  was  one 
of  the  most  famous  cities  of  Greece.  It 
was  beautifully  situated  on  an  isthmus, 
which  connects  the  peninsula  of  Morea 
with  the  Greek  mainland.  In  the  rear  of 
the  city  was  a  rocky  mountain,  called  Acro- 
Corinth,  rising  abruptly  to  the  height  of 
2,000  feet,  upon  the  summit  of  which  was 
a  temple  of  Venus.  Corinth  had  two  sea- 


Cor 


(  218  ) 


Cou 


ports,  Cenchrese,  on  the  Gulf  of  yEgina, 
and  Lechaeum,  on  the  Gulf  of  Corinth. 
Through  these  important  commercial 
routes  it  gained  great  wealth  and  influ¬ 
ence,  but  its  immorality  was  notorious, 
even  in  the  heathen  world.  Destroyed  by 
the  Romans,  b.  c.  146,  it  was  restored  and 
rebuilt  by  Julius  Caesar,  and  regained 
much  of  its  former  splendor  and  prosperity. 
Paul  visited  Corinth  three  times.  About 
A.  d.  53  he  spent  a  year  and  a  half  here, 
during  which  time  he  probably  wrote  the 
two  Epistles  to  the  Thessalonians  (Acts 
xxiii.  1 1 ) ;  then  between  54  and  57  (1  Cor. 
xvi.  7;  2  Cor.  xii.  13,  14;  xiii.  1),  and  the 
three  winter  months  from  57  to  58,  during 
which  he  wrote  the  Epistle  to  the  Romans. 
(Acts  xx.  2,  3;  comp.  1  Cor.  xvi.  6;  Rom. 
xvi.  1.)  He  wrote  two  epistles  to  the 
Christians  at  Corinth.  The  site  of  this 
once  proud  and  dissolute  city  is  now  oc¬ 
cupied  by  the  miserable  little  village  of 
Gortho. 

Corinthians,  Epistles  to  the.  See 
Paul. 

Corporal,  (1)  a  small  square  linen  cloth 
laid  upon  the  larger  one  which  covers  the 
Lord’s  table,  and  upon  which  the  elements 
are  placed  for  consecration.  The  origin 
of  its  use  was  a  primitive  rule  that  conse¬ 
cration  should  be  performed  only  on  linen. 
(2)  The  cloth  used  to  cover  the  remnants 
of  the  consecrated  elements.  The  word  is 
derived  from  the  Latin  corpus ,  “  a  body,” 
and  is  symbolical  of  the  linen  shroud  in 
which  our  Lord’s  body  was  wrapped. 

Corpus  {body)  Catholicorum  {of  the  Cath¬ 
olics ),  and  Corpus  Evangelicorum  {of  the 
Evangelicals ),  terms  which  came  into  use 
about  the  close  of  the  seventeenth  century, 
designating  the  Roman  Catholic  and  Prot¬ 
estant  States  of  Germany,  respectively. 
The  head  of  the  former  was  the  elector  of 
Mayence,  and  that  of  the  latter  the  elector 
of  Saxony,  even  after  that  house  became 
Roman  Catholic,  the  control,  however, 
resting  in  the  Dresden  privy  council, 
which  was  Protestant.  Both  bodies  dis¬ 
appeared  with  the  dissolution  of  the  Ger¬ 
man  Empire  in  1806. 

Corpus  Christi,  a  festival  of  the  Church 
of  Rome,  observed  on  the  first  Thursday 
after  Trinity  Sunday,  in  honor  of  the  doc¬ 
trine  of  the  Eucharist.  It  was  instituted 
by  Pope  Urban  IV.,  in  1264,  and  is  still 
celebrated  as  one  of  the  greatest  feasts  of 
the  Church.  The  special  ceremony  of  the 
day  consists  in  carrying  the  Sacrament  in 
procession,  with  the  singing  of  appropriate 
psalms  and  hymns. 


Corpus  Doctrinae,  a  name  which  German 
Protestants  applied  in  the  sixteenth  cen¬ 
tury  to  various  collections  of  doctrinal 
statements.  The  first  of  these,  compiled 
by  C.  P.  Philippicum  (Leipzig,  1560),  con¬ 
tained  the  principal  doctrinal  and  confes¬ 
sional  statements  of  Melanchthon.  Other 
collections  were  made,  but  they  lost  their 
importance  when  the  Formula  Concordice 
{q.  v.)  was  produced  and  accepted  as  the 
Corpus  Doctrince  of  the  Lutheran  Church. 

Correspondences.  See  Swedenborg. 

Cosmas  and  Damianus,  brothers,  who 
came  from  Arabia  to  Cilicia,  where  they 
practiced  their  profession  as  physicians, 
and  labored  to  advance  the  Christian  faith. 
They  suffered  martyrdom  in  303,  in  the  per¬ 
secution  under  Diocletian.  They  were 
reverenced  in  the  Middle  Ages  as  the  pa¬ 
tron  saints  of  physicians  and  druggists. 
They  are  commemorated  by  the  Roman 
Church  on  Sept.  27. 

Costume.  See  Clothing  Among  the 
Hebrews. 

Cotton,  John,  a  noted  Puritan;  b.  at 
Derby,  Eng.,  1585;  d.  at  Boston,  Mass., 
1652.  A  graduate  of  Cambridge  Univer¬ 
sity,  he  was  vicar  for  twenty  years  of  St. 
Botolph’s,  Boston,  Lincolnshire.  He  was 
cited  by  Laud  for  not  kneeling  at  the  sac¬ 
rament,  and  fled  to  America.  He  landed 
at  Boston,  Sept.  4,  1633,  and  in  the  same 
year  (Oct.  17)  was  ordained  teacher  of  the 
First  Church  there.  His  position  was  a 
commanding  one  in  the  early  history  of 
New  England.  He  was  a  prolific  writer. 
See  Dexter:  Congregationalism  as  seen  in 
its  Literature ;  Cotton  Mather:  Magnolia 
Christi  Americana  (Hartford,  1855),  vol.  i., 
pp.  252-286. 

Council.  In  an  ecclesiastical  sense,  an 
assembly  of  bishops,  with  clergy  attendant 
on  them,  convened  to  decide  questions  be¬ 
longing  to  religion  and  ecclesiastical  dis¬ 
cipline.  A  council  is  called  General  when 
all  the  bishops  of  Christendom  meet,  if 
there  be  no  lawful  cause  for  absence;  it  is 
also  called  C Ecumenical ,  from  the  Greek 
oikotimene ,  which  signifies  “  the  habitable 
earth.”  A  National  Council  is  the  meeting 
of  the  prelates  of  a  kingdom,  or  province, 
under  a  patriarch  or  primate.  A  Provin¬ 
cial  Council  is  held  by  the  bishops  of  that 
diocese,  under  a  Metropolitan.  The  word 
Synod ,  which  in  Greek  and  Latin  signifies 
‘‘a  council,”  is  applied  to  the  assemblies 
of  the  clergy  of  a  diocese,  under  the 
authority  of  their  bishop.  The  precedent 
for  such  assemblies  is  found  in  the  fifteenth 


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chapter  of  the  Acts,  where  it  is  related 
that  a  council  was  convened  about  the 
question  of  keeping  the  Law.  And  though 
it  may  be  said  that  this  was  an  application 
of  the  newly-converted  churches  of  the 
Gentiles  to  the  mother-church,  from 
whence  their  faith  was  derived,  yet,  inas¬ 
much  as  not  only  the  apostles,  elders,  and 
brethren  at  Jerusalem,  but  St.  Paul  and 
Barnabas,  whose  work  lay  in  remote  pla¬ 
ces,  had  a  share  in  the  discussion,  it  may 
properly  be  called  a  council. 

While  Roman  Catholics  count  twenty, 
Protestants  allow  but  six  General  Councils. 
But  even  concerning  these  twenty  there 
are  divergences  of  opinion  in  the  Roman 
Church,  for  while  the  Gallican  Church 
accepts  the  whole  of  the  Council  of  Con¬ 
stance,  Rome  only  receives  the  last  ses¬ 
sions.  We  have  before  us  a  list  of  Pro¬ 
vincial  Councils,  numbering  not  less  than 
1,442.  The  twenty  General  Councils,  recog¬ 
nized  by  the  Roman  Church, are  the  follow¬ 
ing.  We  note,  as  shortly  as  possible,  the 
subjects  of  their  deliberations: 

(1)  Nice ,  A.  D.  325. — Called  by  Constan¬ 
tine  to  determine  the  Arian  controversy, 
and  attended  by  318  bishops;  it  drew  up 
the  Nicene  Creed.  (Creeds;  Homoousion; 
Athanasius;  Arius;  Niclea.)  This  coun¬ 
cil  declared  that  the  Son  was  begotten  of 
the  Father  from  all  eternity,  and  is  of  one 
substance  with  the  Father.  A  vivid  ac¬ 
count  of  this  great  council,  and  of  the 
principal  members  of  it,  is  given  in  Dean 
Stanley’s  Eastern  Church. 

(2)  Constantinople. — In  his  zeal  against 
Arius,  Apollinaris  had  denied  that  our 
Lord  had  a  real  human  soul,  asserting,  in 
fact,  that  the  Divinity  supplied  its  place. 
(Apollinarians.)  And  Macedonius  \q.  v.) 
had  carried  Arianism  on  to  a  denial  of  the 
personality  of  the  Holy  Ghost.  This  coun¬ 
cil  was  called,  in  381,  by  Theodosius  the 
Great,  to  examine  these  questions.  It  re¬ 
affirmed  and  enlarged  the  Nicene  Creed 
(Creeds),  and  declared  “  the  true  body 
and  reasonable  soul  ”  of  Christ.  Constan¬ 
tinople  was  recognizedas  the  second  Metro¬ 
politan  see,  and  arranged  Oriental  affairs 
without  reference  to  the  West.  By  the 
canons  2-6  of  this  council  the  rights  of 
Metropolitans  were  enlarged. 

(3)  Ephesus. — Called  to  settle  the  Nesto- 
rian  Controversy.  (Nestorians;  Cyril.) 
About  200  bishops  were  present.  The 
decision  on  the  word  Theotokos  (q.  v.)  was 
an  affirmation  of  the  truth  that  our  Lord, 
being  God  and  man,  is  “not  two,  but  one 
Christ;”  that  he  is  indivisible,  and  his  two 
natures,  from  his  conception  in  the  womb, 
inseparable. 

(4)  Chalcedon,  A.  D.  451. — Subject,  the 
Eutychian  controversy.  (Eutychians.) 


The  council  affirmed  that  Christ,  being 
one  Person,  is  yet  of  two  distinct  natures, 
inseparable,  but  unmixed.  This  council 
sanctioned  the  Patriarchal  and  Metropol¬ 
itan  constitution  of  the  Catholic  Church. 
The  legates  of  the  Pope  of  Rome,  Leo, 
had  the  presidency,  but  the  council  de¬ 
clared  Constantinople  on  an  equality  with 
Rome,  in  spite  of  Leo’s  protests. 

(5)  Second  Council  of  Constantinople,  A.  D. 
553. — Called  by  the  Emperor  Justinian  to 
put  an  end  to  the  troubles  and  divisions 
occasioned  by  the  “  Three  Chapters  ” 
(Monophysites),  and  also  to  the  Origen- 
istic  controversy. 

(6)  Third  Council  of  Constantinople ,  A.  D. 
680. — Known  as  the  Council  in  Trullo,  be¬ 
cause  held  in  the  chamber  called  Trullus. 
(Monothelites.  ) 

(7)  Second  Council  of  Nice ,  A.  D.  787. — 
(Iconoclastic  Controversy. )  This  coun¬ 
cil,  besides  its  decision  on  the  Iconoclast 
question,  forbade  the  election  of  bishops 
by  princes,  and  enjoined  that  candidates 
for  bishoprics  should  be  examined  in  the 
Psalms,  Gospels,  Pauline  Epistles,  and 
Canon  Law. 

(8)  Fourth  Council  of  Constantinople. — 
We  come  here  to  a  dispute  between  the 
Roman  and  Greek  Churches,  for  there  are 
really  two  councils:  the  first,  held  in  869, 
is  rejected  by  the  Greek  Church;  the  sec¬ 
ond,  held  in  879,  is  rejected  by  the  Roman. 
(Photius;  Filioque  Controversy.) 

(9)  First  Later  an  Council. — So  called  be¬ 
cause  held  in  the  Church  of  St.  John 
Lateran,  at  Rome,  a.  d.  1122.  By  this 
time  the  papal  claims  were  at  their  height. 
The  great  question  of  the  day  was  the 
Investitures  ( q .  v.).  The  council  decided 
it,  and  confirmed  the  Concordat  of  Worms. 

(10)  Second  Lateran,  A.  D.  1139,  of  one 
thousand  bishops.  An  endeavor  to  restore 
the  unity  of  the  Church,  which  was  now 
broken  by  the  schisms  of  East  and  West. 
Arnold  of  Brescia  condemned.  (Arnold- 
ISTS. ) 

(11)  Third  Lateran,  1 179,  enforced  eccle¬ 
siastical  discipline,  and  anathematized  the 
Albigenses  (q.  v.). 

(12)  Fourth  Lateran,  A.  D.  1215,  set  forth 
and  sanctioned  the  whole  scheme  of  papal 
doctrine  and  polity  formulated  by  Innocent 
III.,  in  seventy  decrees.  Permutation  of 
Punishment,  Indulgences,  Works  of  Super¬ 
erogation,  and  Transubstantiation  were 
decreed;  new  Orders  were  forbidden,  the 
extirpation  of  heretics  was  demanded,  and 
fresh  crusades  were  set  on  foot  against  the 
Moslems  and  Albigenses. 

(13)  Lyons,  a.  d.  1245,  to  determine  the 
quarrel  between  Pope  Innocent  IV.  and  the 
Emperor  Frederick  II.  The  emperor, 
having  been  excommunicated  by  Pope 


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Gregory  IX.  in  1239,  had  next  year  carried 
war  to  the  gates  of  Rome.  Innocent  now 
demanded  his  dethronement,  which  was 
pronounced.  In  consequence,  Louis  IX. 
of  France,  and  many  French  and  other 
bishops,  broke  with  the  pope,  and  this 
council  is  not  received  by  the  Gallican 
Church. 

(14)  Second  of  Lyons ,  A.  D.  1274,  passed 
decrees  upon  the  election  of  the  pope  by 
the  Conclave  of  Cardinals;  restricted  the 
Mendicant  Orders  to  four.  The  Greek 
Emperor,  Michael  Palteologus,  sought  for 
union  with  the  Latin  Church;  the  council 
recognized  the  Primacy,  but  retained  the 
Greek  Creed  and  Liturgy.  But  the  hope 
of  union  was  defeated,  and  in  1282  both 
sides  uttered  fresh  anathemas. 

(15)  Vienne  (Gaul),  1311. — Suppression 
of  the  Templars  ( q .  v. ). 

(16)  Constance ,  1414-18. — More  than  150 
high  dignitaries  and  1,800  of  the  clergy 
attended.  The  last  sessions,  under  Pope 
Martin  V. ,  are  received  as  the  sixteenth 
council  by  Rome,  the  whole  by  France. 
Martyrdom  of  Huss  {q.  v.). 

(17)  Basle ,  A.  D.  1431. — Called  to  recon¬ 
cile  the  Hussites,  and  to  reform  abuses. 
Reaffirmed  the  claim  of  the  Council  of 
Constance  to  be  above  the  pope.  The  first 
twenty-five  sessions  only  are  received  by 
Rome.  Pope  Eugene  IV.  adjourned  the 
council  to  Ferrara,  then  to  Florence,  but 
the  majority  remained  at  Basle,  and  the 
councils  mutually  excommunicated  each 
other.  Basle  deposed  Eugene  and  elected 
another  pope,  but  without  avail,  and  the 
council  gradually  died  out.  At  Florence, 
fresh  articles  of  reunion  with  the  Greek 
Church  were  framed,  but  without  avail. 

(18)  Fifth  Later  an,  1512-18. — Convoked 
by  Julius  II.  Useless  attempts  at  Church 
reform  were  made.  A  concordat  between 
Pope  Leo  X.  and  Francis  I.  was  adopted, 
repealing  the  Pragmatic  Sanction.  (Con¬ 
cordat.) 

■(19)  Trent ,  called  by  Paul  III.,  May  22, 
1542;  after  long  delay,  was  at  length  for¬ 
mally  opened  on  Dec.  13,  1545.  The  first 
session  ended  Jan.  7,  1546;  it  was  trans¬ 
ferred  to  Bologna  from  March  12,  1547,  to 
Sept.  17,  1549;  resumed  at  Trent,  May  1, 
1551,  till  April  28,  1552,  when  it  was  sus¬ 
pended  for  ten  years.  The  first  papal  leg¬ 
ates  were  Del  Monte  (afterward  Pope  Julius 
III.),  Corvinus,  and  Reginald  Pole.  The 
votes  were  taken,  not  by  nations,  as  at 
Basle,  but  by  numbers.  The  Protestants 
refused  to  join  it;  the  Italian  bishops  were 
by  far  the  most  numerous,  and  were  often 
violently  opposed  by  the  Spanish  and 
French.  The  objects  were  declared  to  be 
discipline,  peace,  and  the  extermination  of 
heresy.  In  1546  the  Decrees  on  the  Canon 


on  Tradition  were  passed.  The  next  De¬ 
crees  were  on  Original  Sin,  Justification, 
and  the  Sacraments  (in  1547),  the  Eucharist, 
Penance,  etc.  (1551)-  The  result  was  the 
triumph  of  the  Ultramontane  party. 
(Trent.) 

(20)  The  Vatican,  1869-70,  by  which  the 
dogma  of  the  infallibility  of  the  pope  was 
declared.  (Papal  Infallibility;  Vatican.) 
— Benham:  Diet,  of  Religion.  The  best 
collection  of  documents  regarding  the 
councils  is  that  of  Mansi,  31  vols.,  now 
reprinting  in  Berlin.  The  best  history  of 
the  councils  is  that  of  Hefele (Berlin,  1855, 
2d  ed.,  1873;  partial  English  translation, 
Edinburgh,  1871-76),  2  vols. 

Court  and  Legal  Proceedings  Among  the 
Hebrews.  “  Justice  was  administered  by  lo¬ 
cal  judges,  generally  of  the  Levitical  class, 
as  presumably  skilled  in  the  law,  and  they 
exercised  their  office  under  the  sanction  of 
the  supreme  authority ,  to  which  there  was 
liberty  to  appeal,  and  whose  sentence  was 
final.  This  supreme  authority  was  claim¬ 
ed  or  asserted  sometimes  by  the  priest¬ 
hood,  sometimes  by  the  princes  of  the 
congregation, sometimes  by  the  Sanhedrim, 
and  even  sometimes,  though  illegally,  by 
the  king.  The  rule,  according  to  which 
judgment  was  in  every  case  to  be  given, 
must  be  found  written  in  the  law,  which 
was  ever  regarded  as  the  standard  of  all 
authority.  The  judges  referred  to  were 
termed  ‘  elders;’  and  their  institution 
dates  from  the  time  of  the  sojourn  of  the 
children  of  Israel  in  the  wilderness,  when 
Moses,  by  suggestion  of  Jethro  and  at  the 
command  of  the  Lord,  selected  and  set 
apart  seventy  of  the  chief  men  of  the 
tribes  to  assist  him  in  administering  the 
affairs  of  the  congregation.  They  were, 
when  appealed  to,  to  ‘  judge  righteously 
between  every  man  and  his  brother;’  to 
have  ‘  no  respect  to  persons,’  or  any  fear 
of  man,  only  of  God;  and  to  bring  any  mat¬ 
ter  to  Moses  that  was  ‘  too  hard  ’  for 
them.  (Deut.  i.  16,  17.)  These  judges 
had  the  power  of  inflicting  corporal  chas¬ 
tisement,  exacting  fines,  and  even  of  pass¬ 
ing  sentence  of  death  in  capital  offences, 
such  severity  being  regarded  as  required 
of  them  at  the  hands  of  the  holy  God  who 
dwelt  in  the  midst  of  them.  In  primitive 
times  the  judges  held  sittings  in  an  open 
place  of  the  city  daily,  heard  cases  and  de¬ 
cided  disputes  at  the  moment  of  their  oc¬ 
currence,  and  effect  was  given,  on  the  spot, 
to  their  verdict.  It  was  not  till  the  days 
of  David  and  Solomon  that  a  national  sys¬ 
tem  of  judicial  administration  was  organ¬ 
ized,  and  in  the  reign  of  the  former  the 
number  of  judges  over  the  land  amounted 
to  six  thousand,  all  of  the  tribe  of  Levi 


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(i  Chron.  xxiii.  4),  and  they  were  regard¬ 
ed  as  responsible  to  the  king.  (1  Kings 
xxii.  27.) 

“Among  the  Jews,  eventually,  there  were 
three  kinds  of  tribunals,  each  with  its  prov¬ 
ince  clearly  defined:  (1)  Petty  Courts  of 
three  judges,  with  only  civil  jurisdiction, 
including  cognizance  of  such  crimes  as  in¬ 
volved  a  pecuniary  penalty ;  (2)  Provincial 
Sanhedrims  of  twenty-three  judges,  with 
jurisdiction,  as  well,  in  crimes  of  a  more  se¬ 
rious  nature;  and  (3)  the  Great  Sanhedrim 
{q.  v. ),  with  supreme  authority  over  the 
whole  nation.  In  these  courts  the  king 
had  no  authority;  nor  did  he  even  appoint 
the  judges,  that  being  the  privilege  of  the 
people.  The  Petty  Courts  were  consti¬ 
tuted  to  determine  a  particular  case,  and 
were  then  dissolved,  two  judges  being  ap¬ 
pointed,  one  by  each  party,  and  these  two 
naming  a  third.  Townships  consisting  of 
a  hundred  and  twenty  families  possessed  a 
Provincial  Sanhedrim,  which  was  some¬ 
times  of  temporary  and  sometimes  of  per¬ 
manent  institution. 

“As  justice  was  administered  according  to 
the  law,  any  well-educated  Jew  was  eli¬ 
gible  to  be  a  judge,  provided  he  were 
otherwise  qualified.  To  be  a  member  of  a 
sanhedrim  he  required  to  be  a  man  of  tried 
judgment  and  integrity,  as  well  as  knowl¬ 
edge  and  general  ability.  No  man  who 
did  not  earn  his  living  by  some  useful  in¬ 
dustry  or  calling  could  be  a  judge,  such  as 
caterers  for  mere  pleasure,  gamblers,  and 
usurers;  nor  any  man  who  was  not  humane 
as  well  as  just  in  his  dealings  with  other 
people,  such  as  slave-dealers;  nor  any  one 
who  had  been  guilty  of  seduction,  nor  one 
who  had  in  any  way  an  interest  in  the  suit. 
A  judge  must,  before  all,  be  a  modest  man, 
and  in  good  repute  with  his  neighbors,  as 
well  as  a  general  favorite  in  the  commu¬ 
nity. 

“No  conviction  could  be  obtained  without 
witnesses,  and  two  was  the  legal  number 
required.  Evidence  was  not  given  on  oath, 
but  the  penalty  of  false  witness-bearing 
was  severe,  and  on  the  witness  it  devolved 
to  take  the  lead  in  executing  sentence  on 
the  offender.  An  oath  was  sometimes  re¬ 
sorted  to  where  no  witness,  or  where  only 
imperfect  evidence,  could  be  had,  and  by 
means  of  it  an  accused  person  could  clear 
himself  of  suspicion.  Of  oaths  there  were 
two  kinds — one  in  which  Jehovah  was 
merely  taken  to  witness,  and  one  in  which 
imprecation  was  also  involved.  The  oath 
was  administered  by  raising  the  hand,  and 
also  by  putting  the  hand  under  the  thigh 
of  the  person  to  whom  a  promise  was 
made  (Gen.  xxiv.  2),  or  by  dividing  a  vic¬ 
tim  and  passing  between  or  distributing  the 
pieces.  (Gen.  xv.  10,  17;  Jer.  xxxiv.  18.) 


It  was  sometimes  taken  before  the  altar. 
(1  Kings  viii.  31.)  ‘  Casting  the  lot  ’  was 

also  resorted  to  at  times,  but  very  rarely.’' 
— Bagster:  Bible  Helps .  See  Benny:  The 
Criminal  Code  of  the  Jews  (London,  1880). 

Court,  Antoine,  the  “  Restorer  of  Prot¬ 
estantism  in  France;”  b.  at  Villeneuve-de- 
Berg,  in  Vivarais,  1696;  d.  in  Lausanne, 
1760.  He  was  the  child  of  peasant  parents, 
who  were  members  of  the  Reformed 
Church.  He  was  eight  years  old  when  the 
Camisard  revolt  was  suppressed  in  blood, 
and  nineteen  when  Louis  XIV.  issued  the 
decree  that  all  who  professed  the  Reformed 
faith  should  be  treated  as  heretics.  From 
early  youth,  he  cherished  the  purpose  to 
deliver  his  people  from  their  persecutions. 
To  this  end,  he  encouraged  orderly  action 
in  the  establishment  of  conferences  and 
synods,  and  the  careful  training  of  pastors. 
For  fifteen  years  he  labored  in  Languedoc, 
Vivarais,  and  Dauphiny.  The  meetings 
which  he  held  in  “  the  desert  ”  were  first 
attended  by  very  few,  but  in  time  they  in¬ 
creased  to  great  gatherings.  The  attempts 
of  Louis  XV.  to  destroy  the  Protestant 
faith  were  in  vain.  Many  pastors  lost  their 
lives,  and  a  price  was  set  upon  the  head  of 
the  great  reformer.  He  retired  to  Lausanne, 
and  there  established  a  theological  school, 
which  sent  forth  all  the  pastors  of  the  Re¬ 
formed  Church  of  France  till  the  time  of 
Napoleon. 

Covenant,  “  an  agreement  or  mutual 
obligation,  contracted  deliberately  and  with 
solemnity.  (1)  Theological  use.  God’s 
covenant  with  men  signifies  his  solemn  en¬ 
gagement.  (Gen.  xvii.  14;  Ex.  xxxiv.  10; 
Deut.  iv.  13;  Isa.  lix.  21.)  The  Hebrew 
word  for  covenant  (‘  to  cut  ’)  has  reference 
to  the  cutting  animals  in  two,  and  passing 
between  the  parts,  in  ratifying  a  covenant. 
(Gen.  xvii.  14;  Jer.  xxxiv.  18.)  The  term 
‘  the  covenants,’  in  Rom.  ix.  4,  refers  to 
the  various  promises  made  to  Abraham 
and  the  other  patriarchs.  The  most  im¬ 
portant  use  of  the  word  is,  however,  in  re¬ 
lation  to  the  two  great  dispensations,  which 
are  distinguished  as  the  Old  and  New,  or 
as  the  Covenant  of  the  Law  and  the  Cove¬ 
nant  of  the  Gospel.  The  former  was  made 
with  the  children  of  Israel,  through  Moses, 
and  rested  much  in  the  outward  ceremo¬ 
nies  and  observances  which  the  law  enjoined 
(meats  and  drinks,  and  divers  washings, 
and  carnal  ordinances).  The  new  covenant 
was  made  through  Christ,  sealed  by  his 
own  blood,  and  secures  to  every  believer 
the  blessings  of  salvation  and  eternal  life 
(comp.  Ex.  xx.  24;  Gal.  iii.  15,  17;  Heb. 
viii.  6,  sqq.').  The  titles  ‘  Old  and  New 
Testaments  ’  arose  from  the  inaccurate 


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rendering  in  the  Latin  Vulgate  of  the  word 
‘  covenant  ’  ( diatheke )  by  testamentum.  It 
would  be  a  decided  gain  if  the  correct  titles 
could  be  used.  In  the  revised  version  of 
the  New  Testament  the  word  covenant  is 
everywhere  the  translation  of  diatheke  in 
the  text,  with  testament  in  the  margin  (e.  g. , 
Matt.  xxvi.  28).  But  the  American  revisers 
( Classes  of  Passages  x. )  prefer  that  ‘  the 
word  “  testament  ”  be  everywhere  changed 
to  “  covenant”  without  an  alternate  in  the 
margin,  except  in  Heb.  ix.  15-17.’  ” — Schaff- 
Herzog:  Ency. ,  vol.  i.  p.  562.  (2)  The  term 
“  covenant  ”  is  used,  by  Baptists  and  Con- 
gregationalists,  to  denote  the  agreement 
entered  into  by  the  members  of  individual 
churches.  It  follows  the  confession  of  faith. 
(3)  “A  covenant  of  salt  ”  expressed  a  per¬ 
petual  covenant ,  in  the  sealing  or  ratification 
of  which  salt  was  used.  (Num.  xviii.  19; 
2  Chron.  xiii.  5.) 

Covenanters.  See  Scotland,  Church  of. 

Coverdale,  Miles,  “  an  eminent  English 
divine,  was  b.  in  Yorkshire  in  1488.  He 
was  educated  at  Cambridge  by  the  Augus¬ 
tin  friars,  and,  becoming  an  Augustin  monk, 
was  ordained  at  Norwich.  He  appears, 
however,  to  have  soon  changed  his  relig¬ 
ious  opinions,  and  to  have  devoted  himself 
earnestly  to  the  work  of  the  Reformation. 
Being  abroad  in  1532,  he  assisted  Tyndale 
with  his  translation  of  the  Scriptures,  and 
three  years  afterwards  appeared  his  own 
translation  of  the  Bible,  with  a  dedication 
by  himself  to  Henry  VIII.  This  was  the 
first  English  Bible  sanctioned  by  royal 
authority,  as,  indeed,  it  was  the  first  com¬ 
plete  translation  of  the  Bible  printed  in 
the  English  language.  The  Psalms  of  this 
translation  are  those  still  used  in  the  Book 
of  Common  Prayer.  In  1538  Coverdale, 
with  the  consent  of  King  Henry  VIII., 
and  with  the  permission  of  Francis  I., 
went  to  Paris  to  superintend  another  Eng¬ 
lish  edition  of  the  Scriptures — his  reason 
for  going  to  Paris  being  that  paper  and 
workmanship  were  there  cheaper  and  bet¬ 
ter  than  in  England.  The  Inquisition, 
however,  notwithstanding  the  royal  license 
of  Francis,  interfered,  seized  the  whole 
impression,  consisting  of  2,500  copies,  and 
condemned  them  to  the  flames.  But,  through 
the  cupidity  of  one  of  their  executive  offi¬ 
cers,  who  sold  a  considerable  number  of 
the  heretical  books  to  a  haberdasher  as 
waste  paper,  some  copies  were  saved  and 
brought  to  London,  along  with  the  presses, 
types,  etc.,  which  had  been  employed  in 
printing  them.  Several  of  the  workmen, 
also,  came  over  to  London,  and  Grafton 
and  Whitchurch,  the  noted  printers  of  that 
day,  were  thus  enabled  to  bring  out  in  1539, 


under  Coverdale’s  superintendence,  the 
Great  Bible ,  commonly  called  Cranmer' s 
Bible ,  on  account  of  that  prelate  having 
written  a  preface  to  it.  In  1551  he  was 
appointed  to  the  see  of  Exeter,  the  duties 
of  which  high  ecclesiastical  office  he  dis¬ 
charged  with  great  zeal,  until  the  accession 
of  Mary  in  1553,  when  he  was  ejected,  and 
thrown  into  prison,  from  which  he  was 
only  released  after  two  years’  confinement, 
on  the  earnest  intercession  of  the  King  of 
Denmark,  whose  interest  was  evoked  by 
his  chaplain,  Coverdale’s  brother-in-law, 
and  on  the  condition  that  he  should  leave 
the  country.  He  went  to  Denmark,  and 
subsequently  to  Geneva,  where  he  assisted 
in  producing  the  Geneva  Translation  of  the 
Scriptures  (1557-60).  On  the  accession  of 
Elizabeth  he  returned  to  England,  but  cer¬ 
tain  notions  concerning  ecclesiastical  cere¬ 
monies,  imbibed  at  Geneva, operated  against 
his  preferment  in  the  Church;  and  it  was 
not  until  1564  that  he  was  collated  to  the 
rectory  of  St.  Magnus,  London.  Owing 
to  age  and  infirmities,  he  resigned  this  liv¬ 
ing  in  1566,  and  died  about  two  years 
afterwards.  Coverdale  was  the  author  of 
several  tracts  designed  to  promote  the 
Reformation,  and  made  various  transla¬ 
tions  from  the  works  of  the  continental  re¬ 
formers.  The  tri-centenary  of  the  issue 
of  his  Bible  was  celebrated  throughout  the 
English  Church,  Oct.  4,  1835,  and  medals 
were  struck  in  honor  of  the  occasion.” — 
Chambers:  Cyclopcedia. 

Cowl  (Lat.  cticulla),  the  hood  which 
the  monk  draws  over  his  head,  and  which, 
by  entirely  covering  all  but  his  face,  pre¬ 
vents  him  from  seeing  anything  but  what 
is  in  front  of  him.  As  the  hood  was  thus 
the  most  characteristic  part  of  the  monk’s 
dress,  the  phrase  “  taking  the  cowl”  came 
’to  mean  entering  the  monastic  life. 

Cowles,  Henry,  D.  D.,  b.  at  Norfolk, 
Conn.,  April  24,  1803;  d.  at  Janesville, 
Wis.,  Sept.  6,  1881.  After  his  graduation 
at  Yale  University,  in  1826,  he  studied 
theology,  and  from  1828  to  1835  was  en¬ 
gaged  in  missionary  labor  in  Ohio.  From 
1835  to  1843  he  was  professor,  first  of 
Latin  and  Greek,  and  then  of  Hebrew,  in 
Oberlin  College.  In  1843  he  became  edi¬ 
tor  of  The  Oberlin  Evangelist ,  which  place 
he  occupied  until  1863,  when  he  began  the 
preparation  of  his  Commentaries ,  which  ex¬ 
tended  to  sixteen  volumes,  and  were  com¬ 
pleted  in  1881  (D.  Appleton  &  Co.,  pub¬ 
lishers). 

Cowper,  William,  one  of  the  chief  re¬ 
ligious  poets  of  England,  b.  in  Hertford¬ 
shire,  Nov.  15,  1731;  d.  at  East  Dereham, 


Cox 


(  223  ) 


Cra 


Norfolk,  April  25,  1800.  In  connection 
with  his  friend,  John  Newton,  Cowper  was 
the  first  author  of  the  famous  Olney  Hymns 
(!779)*  See  his  Life  by  Southey  (1833). 

Coxe,  Arthur  Cleveland,  D.  D.,  LL. 
D.  (Kenyon  College,  Gambier,  O.,  1868), 
Protestant  Episcopal,  bishop  of  Western 
New  York;  b.  at  Mendham,  N.  J.  ,May  10, 
1818;  was  graduated  at  the  University  of 
the  City  of  New  York,  1838,  and  at  the 
General  Theological  Seminary  in  the  same 
city,  1841;  rector  at  Hartford,  Conn.,  1842; 
at  Baltimore,  Md.,  1854;  in  New  York 
City  (Calvary  Church),  1863;  bishop,  1865. 
He  is  the  editor  of  the  American  reprint  of 
the  Ante-Nicene  Fathers  (New  York,  1885- 
87),  9  vols.,  and  the  author  of  several 
volumes  of  poems  and  prose.  He  has 
been  a  leader  in  the  opposition  to  the 
publication  of  any  text  of  the  Bible  except 
the  Authorized  Version,  by  the  American 
Bible  Society. 

Cramp-rings  were  finger-rings  which  in 
former  times  were  blessed  on  Good  Fri¬ 
day  by  the  English  sovereign,  and  then 
worn  as  a  sure  protection  against  cramp 
and  epilepsy. 

Cranmer,  Thomas,  “  one  of  the  chief  re¬ 
formers  of  the  English  Church,  and  the 
first  Protestant  Archbishop  of  Canterbury, 
was  b.  at  Aslacton,  in  the  county  of  Not¬ 
tingham,  on  the  2d  of  July,  1489.  He  was 
descended  from  an  old  Norman  family, 
which  is  said  to  have  come  into  England 
with  William  the  Conqueror.  In  his  four¬ 
teenth  year  he  went  to  Jesus  College, 
Cambridge,  of  which  he  was  elected  a  fel¬ 
low  in  1510.  He  devoted  himself  diligently 
to  the  study  of  the  learned  languages,  and 
also  to  the  study  of  Scripture.  His  mind 
seems  to  have  been  early  interested  in  the 
writings  of  Erasmus,  Luther,  and  Le 
Fevre,  and  especially  in  their  interpreta¬ 
tions  of  Scripture.  In  his  twenty-third 
year  he  married,  and  so  lost  his  fellowship; 
but  his  wife  dying  about  a  year  after  mar¬ 
riage,  he  was  restored  to  it  by  his  college. 
In  1523  he  was  appointed  lecturer  on  theol¬ 
ogy.  In  1528,  during  the  prevalence  of  the 
sweating-sickness  in  Cambridge,  he  retired 
with  two  pupils  to  Waltham  Abbey;  and 
Henry  VIII.,  in  company  with  Gardiner 
and  Fox,  afterward  bishops  of  Winchester 
and  Hereford,  happening  to  be  in  the 
neighborhood,  the  event  proved  a  turning- 
point  in  the  life  of  Cranmer.  The  king  was 
then  seriously  concerned  about  his  divorce 
from  Catharine  of  Aragon,  and,  in  conversa¬ 
tion  on  the  subject  with  Gardiner  and  Fox, 
Cranmer  suggested  that  the  question 
should  be  ‘  tried  according  to  the  Word  of 


God.’  Fox  having  mentioned  this  sugges¬ 
tion  to  the  king,  he  was  greatly  pleased, 
and  from  this  time  Henry  never  lost  sight 
of  Cranmer.  He  was  asked  to  reduce  his 
suggestion  to  writing,  and  to  have  it  sub¬ 
mitted  to  the  European  universities.  After 
this  he  was  appointed  Archdeacon  of  Taun¬ 
ton,  and  one  of  the  royal  chaplains.  He 
was  also  sent  to  Rome  on  a  special  em¬ 
bassy  about  the  divorce,  but  met  with  lit¬ 
tle  success.  Subsequently,  he  was  dis¬ 
patched  to  the  emperor  on  the  same  errand, 
and  while  in  Germany  he  married  a  second 
time,  a  niece  of  the  German  divine,  Osian- 
der.  This  took  place  in  1532;  and  shortly 
afterward,  on  the  death  of  Archbishop 
Warham,  he  was  recalled  to  fill  the  vacant 
see.  Under  his  auspices,  Henry’s  divorce 
was  speedily  carried  through,  and  he  mar¬ 
ried  the  king  to  Anne  Boleyn,  on  the  28th 
of  May,  1533.  In  Anne’s  subsequent  dis¬ 
grace,  and  again,  in  the  affair  of  Anne  of 
Cleves,  the  archbishop  took  a  part  not 
very  creditable  to  him.  His  position  was, 
no  doubt,  a  difficult  one;  but  his  character 
was  naturally  pliable  and  timid,  rather  than 
resolved  and  consistent.  The  same  spirit 
characterizes  the  measures  of  religious  re¬ 
form  which  were  promoted  by  him.  On 
the  one  hand,  he  joined  actively  with  Henry 
in  restricting  the  power  of  the  pope,  and 
in  suppressing  the  monasteries;  but,  on  the 
other  hand,  he  was  no  less  active  in  perse¬ 
cuting  men  like  Frith,  Forrest,  and  others, 
who,  on  matters  of  religious  faith,  were 
disposed  to  advance  further  than  himself 
or  the  king.  He  did  what  he  could,  how¬ 
ever,  to  resist  the  reactionary  movement 
which  took  place  in  1539,  and  which  is 
known  by  the  institution  of  the  ‘  Six  Ar¬ 
ticles.’  He  was  also  instrumental  in  pro¬ 
moting  the  translation  and  circulation  of 
the  Scriptures.  On  Henry  VIII. ’s  death, 
Cranmer  was  appointed  one  of  the  regents 
of  the  kingdom,  and,  along  with  Latimer 
and  others,  largely  contributed  to  the  ad¬ 
vance  of  the  Protestant  cause  during  the 
reign  of  Edward.  He  assisted  in  the  com¬ 
pilation  of  the  service-book,  and  the  articles 
of  religion.  The  latter  are  said  to  have 
been  chiefly  composed  by  him.  He  was 
also  the  author  of  four  of  the  homilies. 

“On  the  accession  of  Mary,  he  was  com¬ 
mitted  to  the  Tower,  along  with  Latimer 
and  Ridley.  In  March,  1554,  they  were 
removed  to  Oxford,  and  confined  there  in 
the  common  prison,  called  the  Bocardo. 
Latimer  and  Ridley  bore  their  cruel  fate 
with  magnanimous  courage;  but  the  spir¬ 
it  and  principles  of  Cranmer  temporarily 
gave  way  under  the  severity  of  his  suf¬ 
ferings.  He  was  induced,  in  the  hope  of 
saving  his  life,  to  sign  no  fewer  than  six 
recantations;  but  his  enemies  were  de- 


Cre 


(  224  ) 


Cre 


termined  to  be  satisfied  by  nothing  short  of 
his  death.  On  the  21st  of  March,  1556,  he 
suffered  martyrdom,  as  his  fellow-reform¬ 
ers  had  done,  opposite  Balliol  College.  His 
courage  returned  at  the  end,  and  he  died 
protesting  his  repentance  for  his  unworthy 
weakness  in  changing  his  faith,  and  showed 
an  unexpected  fortitude  in  the  midst  of  the 
flames.” — Chambers:  Cyclopedia.  See  Hook: 
Lives  of  the  Archbishops  of  Canterbury 
(1868);  Life  of  Cranmer,  by  Gilpin  (1784), 
Todd  (1831),  and  Le  Bas  (London,  1833; 
reprinted  in  New  York,  1835). 

Creation.  The  Scriptures  teach  that 
God  is  the  Author  of  all  existence.  “  In 
the  beginning  God  created  the  heavens 
and  the  earth.”  In  the  account  given  of 
creation  in  the  first  two  chapters  of  Gen¬ 
esis,  the  six  days  “are  not  necessarily  six 
literal  days,  but  may  be,  and  are  probably, 
periods  of  indefinite  length.  The  question 
is  not  what  God  could  do  (for  one  hour  or 
one  minute  would  suffice  for  his  omnip¬ 
otence),  but  in  what  manner  he  usually 
works.  That  the  word  ‘  day  ’  is  often 
used  in  a  wider  sense  is  evident  from  such 
expressions  as  the  4  day  of  the  wicked,’ 
the  ‘day  of  grace,’  the  ‘day  of  judg¬ 
ment.’  To  God  a  thousand  years  are  as 
one  day.  (Psa.  xc.  4;  2  Pet.  iii.  8.)  The 
narrative  itself  indicates  such  a  wider  use 
of  the  word;  for  the  sun,  that  luminary 
which  determines  the  solar  day,  was  not 
created  before  the  fourth  day,  and 
the  seventh  day,  which  represents  the 
period  of  divine  rest  or  preservation, 
has  no  evening.  (Gen.  ii.  4.)  For 
a  profound,  scholarly  handling  of  this 
matter,  see  Taylor  Lewis’s  Special  Intro¬ 
duction  to  the  first  chapter  of  Genesis ,  partii., 
pp.  131— 135,  in  Lange’s  Commentary  on 
Genesis  (and  his  Six  Days  of  Creation). 
He  says:  ‘  It  is  not  any  duration,  but  the 
phenomenon,  the  appearing  itself,  that  is 
called  day.’  The  Bible  and  divine  nature 
and  revelation,  being  the  products  of  one 
and  the  same  God,  cannot  contradict  each 
other,  and  various  attempts  have  been 
made  to  harmonize  the  Mosaic  cosmogony 
with  modern  geology  and  astronomy  by 
able  Christian  scientists  (such  as  Prof. 
Guyot,  Principal  Dawson,  and  others),  but 
it  should  be  kept  in  mind  that  the  Bible 
does  not  intend  to  teach  science,  but  re¬ 
ligion  and  the  way  of  salvation.  The 
great  truths  taught  by  Moses  in  the  first 
two  chapters  of  Genesis  are  obvious,  and 
independent  of  all  science,  as  Guyot  says: 
A  personal  God,  calling  into  existence  by 
his  free,  almighty  will ,  manifested  by  his 
word ,  executed  by  his  Spirit ,  things  which 
had  no  being;  a  Creator  distinct  from  his 
creation;  a  universe,  not  eternal ,  but 


which  had  a  beginning  in  time;  a  creation 
successive — the  six  days;  and  progressive — 
beginning  with  the  lowest  element,  mat¬ 
ter,  continuing  by  the  plant  and  animal 
life,  terminating  by  man,  made  in  God’s 
image,  thus  marking  the  great  steps 
through  which  God,  in  the  course  of  ages, 
has  gradually  realized  the  vast  organic 
plan  of  the  cosmos  we  now  behold  in  its 
completeness,  and  which  he  declared  to  be 
very  good, — these  are  the  fundamental  spir¬ 
itual  truths  which  have  enlightened  men 
of  all  ages  on  the  true  relations  of  God  to 
his  creation  and  to  man.  To  understand 
them  fully,  to  be  comforted  by  them,  re¬ 
quires  no  astronomy  or  geology.  To  de¬ 
part  from  them  is  to  relapse  into  the  cold, 
unintelligent  fatalism  of  the  old  pantheistic 
religions  and  modern  philosophies,  or  to 
fall  from  the  upper  region  of  light  and 
love  infinite  into  the  dark  abysses  of  an 
unavoidable  skepticism.” — Schaff:  Bible 
Dictionary ,  s.  v. 

The  account  of  creation  given  upon  the 
recently  discovered  Assyrian  tablets  is 
fragmentary  and  confused,  but  is  interest¬ 
ing  in  its  coincidences  with  Genesis,  which 
are  sufficient  to  indicate  its  origin  from 
Hebrew  tradition. 

Creationism  is  a  technical  term  for  a 
theory  concerning  the  origin  of  the  human 
soul.  “  It  derives  not  only  the  soul  of 
Adam,  but  every  rational  soul,  directly 
from  God,  though  not  by  way  of  emanation 
in  a  Gnostic  or  pantheistic  sense,  but  by 
an  act  of  creation;  and  supposes  that  the 
soul  is  united  to  the  body  at  the  moment 
of  its  generation,  or  afterward.  It  differs 
from  traducianism  or  generationism ,  so 
called,  which  teaches  that  the  soul  is  prop¬ 
agated,  together  with  the  body,  through 
the  process  of  generation,  from  age  to  age, 
and  from  the  theory  of  preexistence ,  which 
assumes  that  each  soul  descends  from  an¬ 
other  world,  and  a  previous  mode  of  ex¬ 
istence,  into  the  body,  to  leave  it  again  at 
the  close  of  its  earthly  pilgrimage.” — Mc- 
Clintock  and  Strong:  Encyclopedia ,  s.  v. 
Creationism  is  held  by  most  Roman  Cath¬ 
olic  and  Reformed  theologians,  although 
many  hesitate  to  affirm  any  theory  on  this 
subject. 

Credence  Table,  a  small  side-table  where 
the  bread  and  wine  are  placed  before  their 
consecration.  As  a  separate  article  of 
furniture  it  dates  in  England  from  after 
the  Reformation. 

Creeds  (from  credo,  I  believe),  are  def¬ 
inite  summaries  of  what  is  believed.  The 
word  is  peculiar  to  Christianity,  although 
men  speak  also  of  their  political  creed, 


Cre 


(  225  ) 


Cre 


their  scientific  creed,  and  so  forth.  They 
are  always  designed  for  public  use,  and 
are  standards  of  faith  and  practice.  They 
may  be  of  any  length  and  of  any  form. 
They  may  represent  the  distinctive  tenets 
of  a  separate  communion,  or  the  common 
faith  of  the  Catholic  Church.  Sometimes 
they  contain  only  the  essentials  of  salva¬ 
tion.  Sometimes  they  cover  the  entire 
body  of  Christian  doctrine.  In  one  case 
they  are  restricted  to  brief  and  popular 
statements  of  belief  for  general  instruc¬ 
tion.  In  another  they  include  elaborate 
theological  expositions,  and  are  made  the 
standard  of  public  teaching.  Some  have  a 
polemic  import,  being  intended  to  meet 
disputed  points,  settle  controversy,  and 
guard  against  error;  others  have  an  irenic 
and  apologetic  character,  exhibiting  the 
harmony  of  doctrines  confessed  with  the 
consensus  of  Christendom.  Some  serve  as 
a  basis  of  association  or  bond  of  union. 

Precise ,  dogmatic  definitions  are  a  natural 
result  of  subjecting  to  human  thought  the 
teachings  of  Christ  and  his  apostles.  Con¬ 
flict  with  error  may  be  in  some  instances 
the  occasion  for  creeds,  and  these  may 
mark  the  climax  of  successive  controver¬ 
sial  epochs  ;  but  there  would  have  been 
creeds  if  there  had  been  no  controversies 
and  no  external  occasion.  They  are  the 
crystalline  reflex  of  the  thought  of  the 
Church,  the  expression  of  her  vital  faith, 
the  pulse  of  her  spiritual  life.  The  death¬ 
like  torpor  of  the  Middle  Ages  was  attend¬ 
ed  by  controversies,  but  it  produced  no 
creeds.  Creeds  thus  become  significant 
features — “  milestones  and  finger-boards 
in  the  history,”  both  of  Christian  doctrine 
and  life. 

While  some  of  them  have  proceeded  di¬ 
rectly  from  the  general  consciousness  of 
the  Church,  others  were  brought  forth  by 
oecumenical  or  particular  synods,  or  by  a 
company  of  divines  commissioned  by  ec¬ 
clesiastical  or  civil  rulers,  and  some,  even, 
by  a  single  individual,  their  symbolical 
character  arising  from  the  formal  sanction 
of  the  Church,  or  any  branch  of  it.  In 
churches  of  the  Congregational  polity  no 
creed  has  authority  except  that  formally 
adopted  by  the  individual  congregation, 
having,  as  a  rule,  been  prepared  by  its 
pastor. 

Throughout  the  whole  Protestant  branch 
of  the  Church,  creeds  or  confessions  are 
subordinated  to  the  Scriptures,  these  alone 
possessing  authority.  It  is  the  distin¬ 
guishing  principle  of  Protestantism  that 
the  Bible  is  the  sole  rule  of  faith  and  life. 
Its  authority  is  divine  and  absolute.  That 
of  the  creed  is  human  and  conditioned. 
The  Bible  is  the  rule,  the  creed  is  the  faith 
which  a  church  believes  to  be  contained  in 


the  rule,  the  symbol  embracing  the  tenets 
which  the  body  it  represents  draws  from 
the  Scriptures.  The  Roman  Catholic,  as 
well  as  the  Greek  Church,  assigns  tradition, 
or  the  teaching  of  the  Church,  a  coordi¬ 
nate  authority  with  the  Scriptures.  Hence, 
the  creeds  accepted  by  either  are  infallibly 
correct  and  unalterable. 

Viewing  creeds  in  the  light  of  an  approx¬ 
imate  expression  of  revealed  truth,  an  ex¬ 
hibit  of  the  doctrines  held  by  a  particular 
church,  or  the  testimony  of  a  certain  age, 
Protestants  claim  the  right  of  revising 
their  respective  confessions.  A  wider 
range  of  Christian  experience,  a  fuller 
flood  of  light  bursting  from  the  inexhaust¬ 
ible  Scriptures,  or  marked  revolutions  in 
human  thought,  may  require  a  restate¬ 
ment  or  modification  of  certain  doctrines. 
While  this  may  be  deprecated,  as  produc¬ 
ing  an  inordinate  multiplication  or  un¬ 
happy  diversity  of  creeds,  their  number 
and  diversity  arise  more  from  detail  or 
mode  of  statement  than  from  difference  on 
cardinal  doctrines,  and  they  reveal  an  in¬ 
herent  consensus  in  essentials,  as  well  as 
a  dissensus  in  truths  of  minor  import. 
They  show  Christianity  to  be  unchanging 
in  substance,  while  in  forms  of  thought 
and  expression  it  is  adaptable  to  every 
age,  and  to  every  variety  of  culture. 

Plausible  objections  to  creeds  are  some¬ 
times  voiced.  They  conflict,  it  is  charged, 
with  liberty  of  investigation  and  interpreta¬ 
tion;  they  are  instruments  of  intolerance,, 
they  do  violence  to  conscience,  they  re¬ 
flect  on  the  adequacy  of  Scripture.  But 
these  objections  bear  only  against  the  mis¬ 
use  of  creeds  where  there  is  no  State 
Church,  and  everyone  has  perfect  confes¬ 
sional  freedom;  no  one  who  proposes*  to 
be  a  teacher  in  any  communion  can  prop¬ 
erly  object  if  he  is  required  to  conform  h'is 
teaching  to  the  tenets  of  that  communion. 
The  laity,  as  a  rule,  do  no  more  than  pro¬ 
fess  their  agreement  v/ith  the  simplest  for¬ 
mula  of  vital  truths.  Experience  teaches 
that  creeds  are  a  necessity.  Every  man 
who  has  principles  gives  utterance  to  them; 
and  every  association,  secular  or  religious, 
which  stands  for  anything,  will,  in  some 
way  or  other,  make  formal  declaration  of 
what  it  holds.  Sects  rejecting  creeds  have 
been  organized,  but  they  have  invariably 
and  inevitably  been  moved  to  set  up  some 
sort  of  a  platform  to  distinguish  them  from 
all  others.  And  this  is  a  creed.  There 
can  be  no  Christian  organization  without 
one. 

An  important  question  connected  with 
confessions  is  the  form  of  their  subscrip¬ 
tion,  namely,  quia  or  qua  terms ,  “  because 
they  agree  with  Scripture,”  or,  “  so  far  as 
they  agree  with  Scripture.”  The  former 


Cre 


(  226  ) 


Cro 


implies  that  a  person  believes  the  doctrine 
of  the  creed  to  be  in  full  accord  with  the 
Scriptures;  the  latter  form  of  subscription 
can  be  made  to  any  creed,  by  any  one  who 
claims  to  believe  the  Scriptures.  It 
amounts  simply  to  an  evasion. 

The  earliest  creeds  grew,  undoubtedly, 
out  of  the  summary  of  Christian  truths 
inculcated  on  catechumens,  and  professed 
by  them  at  baptism.  The  baptismal  for¬ 
mula,  “  in  the  name  of  the  Father,  and  of 
the  Son,  and  of  the  Holy  Ghost,”  which 
declared  and  sealed  their  faith,  embodied, 
gradually,  additional  clauses  for  the  exclu¬ 
sion  of  heretical  views  which  had  arisen. 
“The  rule  of  faith”  was,  in  the  early 
Church,  committed  to  memory,  not  to 
writing.  It  was  viewed  as  confidential, 
and,  forming  a  part  of  the  baptismal  ordi¬ 
nance,  it  was  kept  secret,  along  with  the 
celebration  of  the  sacraments,  to  guard 
against  profanation  and  misconstruction. 
Thus,  a  considerable  divergence  in  the 
forms  of  the  confession  came  to  prevail  in 
various  localities,  there  being  a  typical 
difference  between  the  creeds  of  the  East¬ 
ern  and  those  of  the  Western  Church. 

The  present  form  of  the  so-called  Apos¬ 
tles’  Creed  cannot  be  traced  beyond  the 
close  of  the  fifth  century,  and  is,  there¬ 
fore,  more  recent  than  the  Nicene  Creed, 
which,  though  developed  from  an  earlier 
Palestinian  formula,  received  its  final  form 
from  the  first  and  second  CEcumenical 
Councils,  A.  D.  325  and  381,  the  Latin 
Church,  at  a  later  date,  adding  the  Fil- 
ioque. 

With  these  two  is  generally  classified 
the  so-called  Athanasian  Creed,  a  product, 
probably,  of  the  fifth  century,  the  three 
constituting  the  Catholic,  or  CEcumenical, 
symbols,  which  (with  the  exception  of  the 
Filioque),  having  enjoyed  for  ages  the 
unanimous  consent  of  the  entire  Church, 
“  have  far  greater  authority  than  those 
which  have  been  received  only  by  partic¬ 
ular  churches.” 

No  other  creeds  obtained  prior  to  the 
Reformation.  That  outburst  of  new  life 
in  the  Church  produced  new  confessions  of 
faith  in  various  countries.  The  first  of 
these  was  the  Augsburg  Confession,  pre¬ 
pared  by  Melancthon  in  consultation  with 
Luther,  and  presented  by  the  Lutheran 
States  at  the  Diet  of  Augsburg.A.  D.  1530. 
This  not  only  became  the  fundamental 
symbol  of  the  Lutheran  Church,  but  it  was 
the  beginning  of  “  the  clearly  recognized 
life  of  the  Evangelical  Protestant  Church.” 
“  It  struck  the  key-note  to  other  evan¬ 
gelical  confessions,”  says  Dr.  Schaff, 
“  and  strengthened  the  cause  of  the  Refor¬ 
mation  everywhere.” 

The  great  work  of  this  learned  author, 


Creeds  of  Christendom  (Harper  &  Broth¬ 
ers,  N.  Y.),  classifies  this  subject  as  fol¬ 
lows:  The  CEcumenical  Creeds,  the  Creeds 
of  the  Greek  Church,  the  Creeds  of 
the  Roman  Church,  the  Creeds  of  the 
Evangelical  Lutheran  Church,  the  Creeds 
of  the  Evangelical  Reformed  Churches:  (1) 
of  Switzerland,  (2)  of  France  and  the 
Netherlands,  (3)  of  Germany,  (4)  of  Bohe¬ 
mia,  Poland,  and  Hungary,  (5)  the  Angli¬ 
can  Articles  of  Religion,  (6)  the  Presby¬ 
terian  Confessions  of  Scotland,  (7)  the 
Westminster  Standards,  and  the  Creeds  of 
Modern  Evangelical  Denominations. 

E.  J.  Wolf. 

Creighton,  Mandell,  LL.  D.  (Glasgow, 
1884;  Harvard,  1886),  D.  C.  L.  (Durham, 
1885),  Church  of  England;  b.  at  Carlisle, 
Eng.,  July  5,  1843;  graduate  of  Oxford, 
1867;  vicar  of  Embleton,  Northumberland, 
1875;  Dixie  professor  of  ecclesiastical  his¬ 
tory,  Cambridge,  1884.  He  is  the  author 
of  A  History  of  the  Papacy  D  tiring  the  Pe¬ 
riod  of  the  Reformation  (London,  1882-87), 
4  vols.,  and  other  historical  works. 

Cres'-cens,  Paul’s  companion  at  Rome, 
who  had  gone  to  Galatia  when  Paul  wrote. 
(2  Tim.  iv.  10.)  According  to  the  Apostolic 
Constitutions,  he  preached  the  gospel  in 
Galatia. 

Crete,  a  large  island  midway  between 
Syria  and  Malta,  now  called  Candia.  (Acts 
xxvii.  7-21;  Titus  i.  5.) 

Crispin  and  Crispianus,  two  brothers  of 
a  noble  family,  who,  about  the  end  of  the 
third  century,  went  to  Gaul  to  labor  for 
the  conversion  of  the  pagans.  They  lived 
at  Soissons,  and  supported  themseives  at 
their  trade  as  shoemakers,  and  it  was  here 
they  suffered  martyrdom.  They  appear 
to  have  been  very  successful  missionaries, 
and  are  commemorated  by  the  Roman 
Church  on  Oct.  25,  and  venerated  as  the 
patron  saints  of  the  shoemakers. 

Crosby,  Howard,  S.  T.  D.  (Harvard, 
1859),  LL.  D.  (Columbia,  1872),  Presbyte¬ 
rian;  b.  in  New  York  City,  Feb.  27,1826;  was 
graduated  at  New  York  University,  1844; 
professor  of  Greek  in  that  institution,  1851, 
and  at  Rutgers  College,  New  Brunswick, 
N.  J.,  1859;  pastor  of  the  Fourth  Avenue 
Presbyterian  Church,  New  York  City, 
1863.  Dr.  Crosby  has  taken  an  active 
part  in  philanthropic  and  educational  re¬ 
forms,  and  has  written  much  on  subjects 
pertaining  to  biblical  literature. 

Crosier,  or  Crozier,  is  the  title  given  to 
the  official  staff  of  an  archbishop,  which 


Cro 


(  227  ) 


Cro 


has  a  cross-head,  and  so  is  distinguished 
from  the  “pastoral  staff  ”  of  bishops  and 
abbots,  the  head  of  which  is  curved,  and 
resembles  that  of  a  shepherd’s  crook. 

Cross.  This  word  has  so  thoroughly 
acquired  the  meaning  of  two  lines  forming 
angles  with  each  other,  that  it  is  difficult 
to  realize  that  it  does  not  mean  this  of  ne¬ 
cessity.  The  most  ancient  cross  was  a 
stake  to  which  the  malefactor  was  fastened ; 
the  arms  and  feet  were  either  tied  with 
cords  or  nailed  to  the  wood,  or  he  was  im¬ 
paled  upon  it.  Sometimes,  for  despatch, 
persons  were  crucified  on  trees.  There 
are  several  instances  of  this  kind  of  exe¬ 
cution:  the  Emperor  Tiberius,  when  pro- 
consul  in  Africa,  thus  executed  the  priests 
of  Saturn  who  crucified  children.  The 
other  crosses,  which  were  made  of  two 
pieces  of  wood,  were  of  two  sorts;  one  of 
them  was  like  our  X,  or  a  saltire  in  her¬ 
aldry,  and  was  called  Crux  Dccussata.  It 
is  that  which  we  call  St.  Andrew’s  Cross. 
Another,  Crux  Commissa ,  sometimes 
known  as  St.  Anthony’s  Cross,  was  made 
like  a  T,  one  of  the  pieces  of  wood  being 
set  upright,  and  another  being  joined 
crosswise  to  it  upon  the  top.  The  third 
sort,  Crux  Immissa ,  had  the  cross-piece  of 
wood  somewhat  below  the  top  of  that 
which  stood  perpendicularly,  and  this,  ac¬ 
cording  to  the  received  belief  of  Christen¬ 
dom,  was  the  kind  of  cross  upon  which 
the  Saviour  died  for  the  sins  of  the  world. 

It  was  long  before  the  cross  became  the 
formal  and  official  sign  of  Christianity;  but 
when  crucifixion  as  a  criminal  punishment 
was  abolished  by  Constantine,  this  grad¬ 
ually  took  place,  and  as  such,  the  three 
forms  of  its  use  which  have  existed  for 
many  centuries,  and  exist  now,  are  (1)  the 
public  (*.  e.  liturgical)  or  private  marking 
of  the  cross  with  a  manual  gesture,  or  the 
impressing  of  it  on  dedicated  objects, 
known  as  the  Sign  of  the  Cross;  (2)  the 
material  cross  of  marble,  stone,  metal,  or 
wood,  used  for  devotional  purposes,  from 
the  large  churchyard  cross  or  village  or 
market  cross,  through  the  smaller  ones  of 
church  altars  and  chancel  screens,  to  the 
little  “pectoral  crosses,”  originally  the 
mark  of  an  ecclesiastic,  but  now  worn  in¬ 
discriminately;  (3)  the  crucifix,  being  the 
same  cross  bearing  the  Divine  Figure. 
Our  second  section  may  be  briefly  dis¬ 
missed:  from  the  earliest  times  the  cross 
has  been  used  in  all  such  ways  as  have 
been  described.  Constantine,  for  instance, 
set  up  large  crosses  in  the  public  places  of 
Constantinople;  nor  are  altar-crosses  of 
much  later  date.  The  Sign  of  the  Cross, 
however,  requires  a  little  notice.  To  be¬ 
gin  with,  it  is  of  the  most  primitive  antiq¬ 


uity.  In  the  Church  of  England  it  is  only 
prescribed  to  be  used  in  Baptism,  but  it  is 
used  by  some  at  Holy  Communion,  as 
well  as  privately,  its  object  being  “  to  re¬ 
mind  a  Christian  of  his  profession.”  This 
custom  is  spoken  of  by  Tertullian  at  the 
beginning  of  the  third  century  (de  Cor. 
Mil.,  iii. ),  and  his  words  show  that  it  was 
then  a  perfectly  familiar  thing.  Cyril, 
Chrysostom,  Augustine,  and  our  own 
Venerable  Bede,  all  testify  to  the  practice. 
When  used  simply  for  such  a  purpose, 
and  not  as  a  symbol  of  party,  and  there¬ 
fore  of  division,  the  practice  is  defended 
by  the  words  of  Hooker,  in  the  Eccl. 
Polity,  V.,  lxv.  9,  10,  11.  There  are  two 
black-letter  Festivals  of  the  Cross  in  the 
English  Prayer-book: — ( a )  the  Invention 
(Finding)  of  the  Cross,  May  3,  on  which 
is  commemorated  the  alleged  discovery  of 
the  true  cross,  on  the  site  of  the  Crucifix¬ 
ion,  by  the  Empress  Helena  in  326.  She 
came  to  Jerusalem,  so  runs  the  story,  at 
the  age  of  seventy,  bent  on  finding  the  site 
of  the  Passion,  the  heathens  having  done 
what  they  could  to  hide  it  by  throwing 
stones  and  rubbish  over  it,  as  well  as  by 
building  a  temple  to  Venus  on  Calvary. 
But  one  aged  Jew  was  found,  an  antiquary, 
who  possessed  some  historical  memoirs 
which  his  ancestors  had  left  him,  and  by 
the  help  of  these  the  site  was  found.  It 
was  a  regular  custom  among  the  Jews  to 
make  a  great  hole  on  the  site  of  an  execu¬ 
tion,  and  to  cast  into  it  everything  con¬ 
nected  with  the  act.  Accordingly,  the 
empress  had  the  whole  spot  excavated, 
and  at  a  great  depth  the  crosses  were 
found.  One  of  the  most  exhaustive  dis¬ 
sertations  on  this  story  is  that  of  Cardinal 
Newman,  in  his  Essays  on  Ecclesiastical 
Miracles;  it  is,  however,  shown  in  the 
Church  Quarterly  for  July,  1881  (xii.  560), 
that  the  legend  is  but  a  transfer,  and  that 
at  second-hand,  of  an  earlier  myth.  The 
festival  dates  from  the  eighth  century, 
and  is  not  generally  observed  on  this  day 
by  the  Eastern  Church,  which  substitutes 
the  Apparition  of  the  Cross  to  Constantine, 
near  Rome,  in  312;  the  Coptic  branch  of 
this  Church  has  the  Invention  on  March 
6,  and  the  Ethiopic  on  May  4.  In  Eng¬ 
land,  though  it  remains  as  a  “  black-letter 
day,”  its  offices  were  discarded  at  the 
Reformation;  the  Sarum  Epistle  and  Gos¬ 
pel  were  Gal.  v.  10-12;  vi.  12-14,  and  John 
iii.  1-15. 

(h)  The  Exaltation  of  the  Cross,  or 
“  Holy  Cross  Day,”  Sept.  14.  This  is 
connected  with  the  former  feast,  the  Exal¬ 
tation  commemorated  being,  at  first,  that  of 
the  cross,  when  Constantine,  in  335,  ded¬ 
icated  the  church  which  he  built  at  Jerusa¬ 
lem  in  honor  of  the  Invention,  and  the 


Cru 


(  228  ) 


Cru 


feast  being  found  in  the  fifth  century;  but 
more  attention  was  afterward  paid  to  the 
second  Exaltation,  in  629,  of  the  same 
cross,  when  recovered  from  the  hands  of 
the  Persian  invaders.  The  Eastern  Church 
observes  the  Invention  also  on  this  day, 
and  further  commemorates  the  Apparition 
again.  In  England,  the  feast,  like  that  of 
the  Invention,  was  removed  at  the  Refor¬ 
mation,  and  remains  only  as  a  “  black-let¬ 
ter  day.”  As  such,  with  the  Invention 
and  most  others,  it  first  reappeared  on 
Queen  Elizabeth’s  Calendar  of  1561,  and 
King  James’s  Prayer-book  of  1604.  The 
Sarum  Epistle  was  the  same  as  for  the  In¬ 
vention,  the  Gospel,  John  xii.  31-36. — Ben- 
ham:  Diet,  of  Religion. 

Cruden,  Alexander,  the  author  of  the 
famous  Concordance  that  bears  his  name; 
b.  at  Aberdeen,  May  31,  1701;  d.  in  Lon¬ 
don,  Nov.  1.  1770.  Soon  after  graduating 
at  Marischal  College,  he  revealed  the  in¬ 
sanity  that  cast  a  shadow  over  all  his  life. 
He  settled  in  London  as  a  bookseller  and 
corrector  of  the  press,  and  in  1737  issued 
his  Concordance ,  which  has  since  that  time 
passed  through  innumerable  editions. 
While  his  insanity  was  the  cause  of  great 
eccentricities  of  conduct,  his  life  was  that 
of  a  humble  and  devout  Christian.  See 
his  Memoir  by  Blackburn  (10th  London 
ed.,  1824,  reprinted  in  New  York). 

Crusades.  The  mediaeval  wars  between 
the  Christian  nations  of  Western  Europe 
and  the  Mohammedans,  and  so  called  either 
as  being  Wars  of  the  Cross  (Lat.  crux ;  old 
Fr.  crois ),  or  because  all  who  were  en¬ 
gaged  in  them  wore  the  badge  of  the  cross 
on  their  arms. 

(1)  The  system  of  pilgrimages  to  the 
scenes  of  our  Lord’s  life  and  death  had 
been  in  existence  almost,  if  not  quite, 
from  the  beginning  of  Christianity,  but 
especially  so  since  the  persecutions  had 
ceased,  and  the  Church  had  come  into 
favor  with  the  imperial  power  of  Rome. 
From  that  time  Christians  began  to  Visit 
the  holy  places  in  large  numbers,  travel¬ 
ing  together  for  the  sake  of  safety  and  so¬ 
ciety.  Pilgrim  caravans  were  encouraged 
by  some  of  the  emperors,  such  as  Justin¬ 
ian,  and  provision  was  made  for  entertain¬ 
ing  them  hospitably  at  the  public  expense. 
They  became  so  common  that  every  large 
city  in  France  and  Italy  provided  itself 
with  a  hospital  or  hotel  in  Jerusalem  or  its 
neighborhood,  for  its  own  citizens  when 
on  their  visits  there.  In  a.  d.  614  Chosroes 
L,  the  Persian  invader  of  the  Roman  Em¬ 
pire  in  the  East,  took  Jerusalem,  and 
slaughtered  its  inhabitants.  A  few  years 

later  (a.  d.  629),  the  Emperor  Heraclius 

!  .!• 


recovered  it  from  the  hands  of  the  Per¬ 
sians;  but  it  only  remained  seven  years  in 
the  hands  of  the  Christians,  for  the  forces 
of  Mahomet  were  now  spreading  them¬ 
selves  all  over  the  East,  and  in  a.  d.  637 
Jerusalem  was  compelled  again  to  surren¬ 
der  to  the  Caliph  Omar. 

For  about  four  centuries  the  caliphs  and 
their  successors  kept  possession  of  Judaea 
and  Jerusalem.  During  that  period  pil¬ 
grimages  still  continued  to  be  made,  but 
under  what  restrictions  there  is  no  history 
to  tell  us.  About  the  beginning  of  the 
eleventh  century,  however  (a.  d.  ioio), 
Hakim,  the  founder  of  the  Druses  of  the 
Lebanon,  destroyed  the  churches,  and  en¬ 
deavored  to  destroy  the  Holy  Sepulchre 
itself.  He  was  a  fierce  persecutor  of  the 
Christians,  and  died  a  dark  and  mysterious 
death  in  the  year  1021.  Under  his  succes¬ 
sor  the  Church  of  the  Holy  Sepulchre  was 
once  more  rebuilt,  but  in  a.  d.  1077  the 
city  itself  passed  into  the  possession  of 
the  Turks.  This  was  the  period  when 
many  influences  combined  to  originate  the 
crusades,  among  them  the  following: 

(2)  There  was  a  Very  widely  diffused 
opinion,  about  the  time  when  a  thousand 
years  had  elapsed  from  our  Lord’s  first 
advent,  that  he  was  on  the  eve  of  appear¬ 
ing  a  second  time,  and  that  the  millennium 
was  about  to  begin.  In  consequence  of 
this  opinion,  pilgrimages  grew  in  number 
and  frequency,  although  their  danger  had 
increased  greatly  under  Turkish  rule. 
Pilgrims  were  not  admitted  to  the  Holy 
City  at  all  without  the  payment  of  a  by- 
zant  (i.  e.,  about  twenty  shillings)  for  each 
person;  and  very  often,  when  the  money 
had  been  paid,  they  were  refused  admis¬ 
sion,  unless  some  powerful  European  no¬ 
ble  was  among  them  to  protect  them. 
Some  of  the  hardships  which  the  Christians 
had  thus  to  undergo  are  illustrated  by  the 
account  given  of  the  pilgrimage  under¬ 
taken  by  Robert,  Duke  of  Normandy,  the 
father  of  William  the  Conqueror,  in  a.  d. 
1035.  He  set  off  from  home  with  a  train 
of  knights  and  barons,  but  walked  barefoot, 
as  a  pilgrim,  with  a  staff  and  wallet.  For 
greater  humiliation,  he  sent  his  attendants 
forward,  and  followed  by  himself  in  their 
path.  But  on  his  way  through  Asia  Minor 
he  was  taken  so  ill  that  he  was  compelled 
to  use  a  litter,  on  which  he  was  carried  by 
four  Mohammedans,  who  seem  to  have 
treated  him  with  inhumanity,  for  he  sent  a 
message  home  by  a  returning  pilgrim, 
whom  he  met  on  the  way,  in  these  words: 
“  Tell  my  people  thou  hast  met  me  where 
I  was  borne  of  devils  to  Paradise.”  On 
coming  to  the  gates  of  Jerusalem,  he  found 
a  great  crowd  of  poor  pilgrims,  unable  to 
meet  the  expense  of  the  fee  exacted  by  the 


Cru 


(  229  ) 


Cru 


Mohammedans  for  their  entrance.  For  all 
of  these  he  paid  the  byzant  demanded,  and 
then  visited  the  holy  places  himself  with 
devotion  and  reverence,  dying  shortly 
afterward  of  poison,  at  Nicaea,  on  his  re¬ 
turn  to  Europe. 

(3)  At  this  time,  also,  the  Turks  were 
exciting  the  fear,  as  well  as  the  hatred,  of 
Christians;  for  they  were  spreading  their 
dominion  in  the  most  alarming  manner. 
All  over  Asia  and  Africa  the  sign  of  the 
crescent  had  supplanted  the  sign  of  the 
cross;  churches  were  destroyed,  bishops 
murdered,  and  Christianity  all  but  exter¬ 
minated  wherever  they  went.  Having  se¬ 
cured  Cyprus,  Candia,  Sicily,  and  the 
southern  coast  of  Italy,  they  extended 
their  conquests  to  Spain,  and  even  in¬ 
vaded  the  south  of  France.  It  seemed  as 
if  they  would,  before  long,  secure  Rome 
itself,  and  found  a  Western  Empire,  such 
as  had  been  known  under  the  Roman  em¬ 
perors,  but  with  the  religion  of  Mahomet. 

(4)  There  was  one  special  pilgrimage 
which  excited  the  commiseration  of  Chris¬ 
tendom.  The  German  Bishops  of  Mainz, 
Bamburg,  Ratisbon,  and  Utrecht  set  off  in 
1064,  followed  by  seven  thousand  persons, 
of  all  ranks  in  society,  and  including, 
among  others,  Ingulph,  English  Secretary 
to  William  the  Conqueror.  In  the  follow¬ 
ing  year  two  thousand  survivors  alone  re¬ 
turned  to  their  homes,  reduced  to  poverty 
and  misery  by  the  cruelty  of  the  Moham¬ 
medans. 

While  these  circumstances  were  all  pre¬ 
paring  the  way  for  the  Crusades,  an  indi¬ 
vidual  arose  capable  of  giving  them  point 
and  application,  and  of  taking  the  lead  in 
avenging  the  wrongs  of  Christian  pilgrims. 
A  weakly,  unimpressive-looking  man  made 
his  appearance  at  Jerusalem  as  a  pilgrim 
in  1094.  He  had  been  a  soldier,  but  had 
retired  from  the  army;  and,  seen  to  be 
leading  a  secluded  life  at  Amiens,  had  be¬ 
come  known  among  his  neighbors  as  Peter 
the  Hermit.  Arriving  at  Jerusalem  at  the 
time  when  the  Turks  were  in  full  posses¬ 
sion  of  the  city,  his  spirit  was  roused 
within  him  at  the  sight  of  the  sepulchre  of 
Christ  in  the  hands  of  Antichrist,  and  at 
seeing  the  antichristian  crescent  raising 
its  head  where  the  cross  had  such  claims  to 
ascendancy.  He  found  that  extortion  and 
cruelty  were  decimating  the  Christians  who 
came  to  offer  their  penitence  and  their 
prayers,  that  the  churches  lately  rebuilt 
were  again  despoiled,  and  that  nothing  but 
insult  and  violence  could  be  expected  from 
the  infidels.  He  consulted  the  patriarch 
of  Jerusalem,  and  concerted  with  him  a 
plan  for  securing  the  aid  of  European  kings, 
bishops,  and  peoples.  Then,  with  an  elo¬ 
quence  which  excited  all  Europe,  not  only 


to  religious  fervor,  but  to  alarm,  as  the 
real  power  and  character  of  the  Moham¬ 
medans  were  understood,  he  called  all  the 
countries  of  the  West  to  the  rescue,  and 
vast  armies  of  volunteers  appeared,  who 
styled  themselves  the  armies  of  the  Lord. 

The  first  outburst  which  Peter’s  elo¬ 
quent  exhortations,  and  his  denunciation  of 
Mohammedanism  aroused,  resulted  in  an 
expedition  of  an  impatient,  and,  therefore, 
disorganized  character.  An  army  of  eighty 
thousand  men  started  under  his  leadership, 
but,  for  want  of  proper  arrangements,  it 
was  reduced  to  one-third  by  death  and  de¬ 
sertion  on  its  way  through  Hungary,  and 
nearly  the  whole  of  the  remainder  perished 
under  the  walls  of  Nicaea.  But  this  dear- 
bought  experience  led  to  a  regular  and 
efficient  force  being  sent  out,  under  the 
generalship  of  Godfrey  of  Boulogne;  his 
brother,  Baldwin;  Hugo  the  Great,  brother 
of  the  King  of  France;  and  Robert,  son  of 
William  the  Conqueror.  The  number  of 
their  armies  amounted  to  a  hundred  and 
fifty  or  two  hundred  thousand,  and  this  is 
called  the  First  Crusade.  Nicaea,  Laodicea, 
and  Antioch  were  taken,  Christian  rule  was 
established  in  several  important  places,  and 
the  Holy  City  was  recovered.  Godfrey 
was  crowned  king  of  Jerusalem,  and  at  his 
death,  a  year  afterward,  his  brother  Bald¬ 
win  was  elected  to  succeed  him.  But  the 
kingdom  of  Jerusalem  was  a  mere  garrison 
in  an  enemy’s  country. 

St.  Bernard,  in  1147,  endeavored  to 
arouse  the  spirit  of  Europe  to  support  the 
Christian  kingdom  of  Jerusalem,  and  a 
second  expedition  went  forth.  But  treach¬ 
ery  led  to  its  failure,  and  only  a  small 
remnant  returned  to  Europe.  In  1187  the 
Holy  City  was  given  up  to  Saladin,  and 
has  never  since  been  recovered  from  the 
Mohammedans. 

In  the  Third  Crusade  (a.  D.  1187-92) 
Richard  Coeur-de-Lion  and  Saladin  were 
the  most  conspicuous  personages.  The 
Emperor  of  Germany,  the  King  of  France, 
and  the  King  of  England  united  their  forces 
for  the  invasion  of  Palestine;  but  jealous¬ 
ies  and  divisions  arose,  and  everything 
was  ultimately  left  to  Richard.  If  personal 
bravery  could  have  effected  the  object  in 
view,  it  would  not  have  remained  unac¬ 
complished.  As  it  was,  however,  the  ex¬ 
pedition  ended  in  leaving  the  Holy  City,  as 
before,  in  the  hands  of  the  Mohammedans. 

Four  other  crusades  were  undertaken, 
in  1203,  1228,  1244,  and  1270  respectively, 
the  last  two  of  which  were  led  successively 
by  the  good  and  brave  St.  Louis  and  by 
Edward  of  England,  afterward  Edward  I. 
None,  after  the  first,  achieved  any  real  tri¬ 
umph;  and,  as  far  as  the  direct  object  for 
which  they  were  undertaken  is  concerned, 


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all  of  them  must  be  regarded  as  total  and 
signal  failures.  On  the  other  hand,  it  has 
been  pointed  out  that  if  the  Christian  war¬ 
riors  had  not  taken  their  arms  into  Moham¬ 
medan  Asia,  Christian  Europe  might  have 
been  brought  under  slavery.  What  the 
“  Garden  of  the  East”  has  become  under 
the  barbarous  rule  of  Mohammedanism  is 
an  indication  of  what  our  less  fertile  Europe 
would  have  become  under  the  same  dead¬ 
ening  influence.  The  Crusaders  were  also 
the  pioneers  of  commerce,  since  they  open¬ 
ed  up  an  extended  intercourse  between  na¬ 
tion  and  nation.  They  helped  to  diffuse 
knowledge,  and  to  make  known  those  high¬ 
ways  of  travel  which  have  proved  so  great 
an  advantage  to  subsequent  ages.  —  Ben- 
ham:  Dictionary  of  Religion. 

Crypt,  a  vault  or  subterranean  chamber. 
As  a  part  of  a  church  it  had  its  origin  in  the 
subterranean  chapels  known  as  confes- 
sionesy  erected  around  the  tomb  of  a  mar¬ 
tyr  or  the  place  of  his  martyrdom.  These 
were  first  built  under  the  altar,  and  in  the 
Germanic  Church  architecture  extended 
under  the  choir,  and  were  sometimes  so  ex¬ 
tensive  as  to  form  a  subterranean  church, 
and  often  were  used  as  places  of  interment 
for  bishops  and  archbishops. 

Crypto-Calvinists,  a  name  given  to  Me- 
lanchthon  and  his  followers,  who  were  in 
substantial  accord  with  Calvin  in  his  views 
regarding  the  eucharist.  Luther  laid  stress 
upon  the  doctrine  of  the  ubiquity  of  Christ’s 
body  in  the  Supper.  This  difference  of 
opinion  between  the  great  reformers  did 
not  disturb  their  relations,  but  the  two 
views  precipitated  a  controversy  that  made 
serious  trouble  and  divisions.  See  Schaff’s 
Creeds  of  Christendom ,  vol.  i.,  pp.  279-285. 

Cubit.  See  Measures. 

Cudworth,  Ralph,  D.  D.,  Church  of 
England;  b.  at  Aller,  Somersetshire,  1617; 
d.  at  Cambridge,  June  26,  1688.  A  graduate 
and  fellow  of  Cambridge  1639;  master  of 
Clare  Hall,  1645-54:  master  of  Christ’s 
College,  1654;  professor  of  Hebrew,  1645 
till  death.  The  work  by  which  his  name 
is  remembered  is  The  True  Intellectual  Sys¬ 
tem  of  the  Universe :  Wherein  all  the  Reason 
and  Philosophy  of  Atheism  is  Confuted  and 
its  Iffipossibility  Demonstrated  (London, 
1678).  Cudworth  was  one  of  the  Cam¬ 
bridge  Platonists  (y.  v.). 

Culdees.  See  Celtic  Church. 

Cumberland  Presbyterian  Church,  The. 
Nominally  considered,  the  Cumberland 
Presbyterian  Church  is  distinguished  from 


other  Presbyterian  bodies  by  the  term 
“  Cumberland.”  The  name  came  to  be 
applied  from  geographical  and  historical 
reasons.  The  region  of  territory  lying  in 
the  States  of  Kentucky  and  Tennessee,  be¬ 
tween  Green  River  on  the  north  and  the 
Tennessee  ridge  south  of  Nashville  not 
many  miles,  and  reaching  the  Tennessee 
River  on  the  west,  was  called  Cumberland, 
in  the  early  settlement  of  the  country.  In 
this  region  this  church  originated.  Its 
first  presbytery  was  named  Cumberland, 
and  so  was  its  first  synod.  The  steps  lead¬ 
ing  to  these  events  may  be  briefly  stated  in 
what  follows: 

When  the  vast  wilderness,  afterward 
formed  into  the  States  of  Kentucky  and 
Tennessee,  was  settled  by  white  men  from 
Virginia  and  the  Carolinas,  among  the  first 
immigrants  into  this  fertile  land  were  min¬ 
isters  and  members  of  the  Presbyterian 
Church.  They  built  houses  for  homes, 
for  schools,  and  for  churches.  They  be¬ 
lieved  in  morality,  education,  and  good 
order.  They  were  probably  a  better  edu¬ 
cated  class  of  people  than  most  other  new 
settlers,  but  they  held  the  theological 
views  of  strict  Calvinists.  The  character  of 
the  preaching  of  these  pioneers  was  formed 
from  the  stern  articles  of  faith  found  in  the 
third  chapter  of  the  Westminster  Confes¬ 
sion  of  Faith,  and  in  similar  places  in  that 
symbol.  As  a  matter  of  history,  there  was 
little  spiritual  life  or  church  progress 
manifested,  and  as  late  as  1796,  congrega¬ 
tions  which  had  been  formed  in  “  Cumber¬ 
land,”  and  other  regions,  by  people  from 
the  sea-board  on  the  east,  had  received  few 
additions  to  membership  from  the  openly 
wicked  and  unbelieving  world  around  them. 

The  Rev.  James  McGready  of  North 
Carolina,  who  became  famous  in  after 
times,  was  actually  preparing  for  the  min¬ 
istry  for  years  before  he  was  really  con¬ 
verted.  In  his  pastorate  in  North  Caro¬ 
lina,  he  became  deeply  impressed  with  the 
necessity  of  a  spiritual  revival,  and  to  this 
end  he  preached  with  great  power  the  ex¬ 
perimental  doctrines  of  the  gospel,  so  that 
much  interest  was  awakened.  After  a 
time,  he  was  induced  to  follow  some  of  his 
parishioners  who  removed  to  Kentucky, 
then  already  a  State.  He  was,  in  1796, 
settled  over  Gasper  River,  Red  River,  and 
Muddy  River  churches  in  Logan  County. 
Here  he  preached  with  Zealand  great  clear¬ 
ness  of  viewTs,  and  his  Scriptural  exposi¬ 
tion  of  man’s  lost  estate,  the  necessity  of 
the  new  birth,  the  witness  of  the  Spirit, 
and  a  consciousness  of  conversion,  led  to 
a  general  revival  of  spiritual  religion 
throughout  the  Cumberland  country.  This 
began  in  1797  and  continued  to  1800,  and 
even  beyond  that  date.  William  Hodge, 


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William  McGee,  Samuel  Me  Ado  w,  and 
John  Rankin,  ministers  in  the  Presbyterian 
Church  in  that  country,  sympathized  heart¬ 
ily  in  the  revival  work  and  greatly  aided 
its  progress.  Infidelity  was  very  common 
in  the  land,  and  worldliness  was  very  gen¬ 
eral  in  the  church.  These  men  boldly  at¬ 
tacked  the  evils  thus  existing,  not  with  the 
high  doctrines  of  eternal  election  and  repro¬ 
bation  such  as  had  been  usually  proclaimed 
by  Presbyterian  ministers  of  that  age,  but 
with  the  practical  teachings  of  repentance 
for  sin,  and  faith  in  Christ  for  pardon  and 
salvation.  Vice,  immorality,  religious  in¬ 
difference,  as  well  as  open  unbelief,  were 
exposed  in  strong  light,  and  the  denuncia¬ 
tions  of  Bible  truth  laid  against  them. 

The  result  of  these  very  earnest  labors 
was  a  most  gracious  work  of  the  Holy 
Spirit,  in  answer  to  fervent  prayer  con¬ 
nected  therewith.  Many  persons,  who 
had  been  for  years  members  in  fair  stand¬ 
ing  in  churches,  became  convinced  that 
they  were  unconverted,  and  sought  and 
obtained  acceptance  with  Christ.  Scores 
upon  scores  of  ungodly  people  were  led  to 
embrace  religion,  and  the  awakening  be¬ 
came  general,  so  that  in  all  the  region  of 
Cumberland  the  cry  arose,  “  Send  us 
preachers!  send  us  preachers!”  But  col¬ 
lege-bred  preachers  could  not  be  had  in 
sufficient  numbers  to  supply  the  great  de¬ 
mand.  The  Transylvania  presbytery  was 
induced  by  the  voices  of  the  people  to  en¬ 
courage  a  number  of  men  who  were  sound 
in  faith,  intelligent  in  the  Scriptures,  and 
upright  in  life,  and,  moreover,  gifted  in 
speech,  to  present  themselves  for  the  mis¬ 
sion  work  needed  in  this  new  country. 
Alexander  Anderson,  Finis  Ewing  and 
Samuel  King  answered  the  providential 
call,  and  soon  proved  themselves  to  be 
highly  efficient  in  promoting  the  revival, 
and  in  building  up  the  church.  Anderson 
lived  but  a  short  while,  and  yet  it  is  said 
of  him  that  his  spirit  flamed  forth  in  pow¬ 
er  as  a  true  evangel  of  God.  These  men 
were  licensed  by  the  Transylvania  presby¬ 
tery,  but  when  receiving  their  authority 
to  preach  they  adopted  the  Westminster 
Confession  of  Faith,  with  the  exception  of 
the  idea  or  doctrine  of  fatality,  which  they 
understood  to  be  taught  in  the  third  chap¬ 
ter  of  that  book.  There  was  a  party  in  the 
presbytery,  led  by  Thomas  B.  Craighead, 
which  bitterly  opposed  the  whole  pro¬ 
cedure  of  the  revival  party,  and  the  two 
parties  were  popularly  known  as  “  the  re¬ 
vival  party,” and  “the  anti-revival  party.” 

In  1802,  the  Transylvania  presbytery 
was  divided,  and  the  southern  portion,  in¬ 
cluding  the  Cumberland  country,  was  call¬ 
ed  Cumberland  Presbytery.  The  revival 
preachers,  and  the  young  men  under  them 


belonged  to  this  new  presbytery,  but  there 
were  several  opposers  of  the  revival  also 
in  this  body.  Serious  disputes  arose  be¬ 
tween  the  opposing  parties,  and  the  work 
was  greatly  hindered.  Anderson,  Ewing 
and  King  were  ordained  to  the  whole 
work  of  the  ministry,  but  this  act  was 
seriously  opposed  by  the  Craighead  party. 
Complaints  were  made  before  the  Ken¬ 
tucky  Synod  against  the  proceedings  of 
the  Cumberland  Presbytery.  Let  it  be 
borne  in  mind  that  all  these  events  were 
occurring  in  the  Presbyterian  Church 
among  men  possessing  all  the  rights  and 
prerogatives  bestowed  by  the  constitution 
of  that  church.  A  commission,  appointed 
by  the  Synod,  proceeded  to  review  the 
action  of  Cumberland  Presbytery,  and  de¬ 
clared  that  action  null  and  void,  and  pro¬ 
hibited  the  presbytery  from  further  ec¬ 
clesiastical  exercise  as  a  court  of  the 
church.  The  revival  party  composed  the 
majority  of  the  presbytery,  and  it  was 
greatly  aggrieved  by  the  edict  of  the  com¬ 
mission,  which  was  considered,  under 
Presbyterian  government,  clearly  unjusti¬ 
fiable  and  oppressive.  The  revival  party 
formed  themselves  into  a  council  to  con¬ 
sult  on  all  matters  connected  with  the 
welfare  of  the  churches,  but  they  exercised 
for  the  time  no  ecclesiastical  functions, 
and  united  to  secure  a  redress  of  grievances 
before  the  Synod  of  Kentucky,  and  the 
General  Assembly.  In  the  meantime, 
these  earnest  men  of  God  continued  to 
preach  the  gospel  with  large  measures  of 
success.  They  extended  their  labors  into 
distant  neighborhoods,  and  reaped  rich 
harvests.  Robert  Bell,  Thomas  Calhoun 
and  Robert  Donnell,  as  exhorters  or  lay 
preachers,  were  sent  by  the  council  into 
Alabama,  in  1807-1809,  and  they  preached 
there  with  much  success. 

The  members  of  the  council  sought  re¬ 
lief  from  the  action,  which  they  honestly 
believed  to  be  unjust  and  unwarranted, 
and  leading  men  in  the  Presbyterian  Church 
sustained  their  view  of  the  matter.  Ef¬ 
forts  were  made  with  patience  and  due  re¬ 
spect  from  year  to  year,  both  before  the 
Synod  and  the  Assembly,  but  those  efforts 
seem  not  to  have  been  acceptable  in  form, 
and  were  technically  rejected.  As  late  as 
the  fall  of  1809,  an  adjustment  of  difficul¬ 
ties  was  sought.  Discouragement  had  set¬ 
tled  upon  the  hearts  of  McGready,  Hodge, 
and  McGee,  and  they  went  off  to  their  sev¬ 
eral  fields.  Seeing  that  there  was  no  hope 
of  reconciliation  with  the  Synod,  Finis 
Ewing  and  Samuel  King  met  at  the  house 
of  Ephraim  McLean,  a  licentiate,  in  Ken¬ 
tucky,  and  those  three  men  went  to  the 
home  of  the  venerable  Samuel  McAdow, 
in  Dickson  county,  Tennessee,  where,  after 


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most  earnest  and  protracted  prayer  to  God 
for  guidance,  they  organized  an  independ¬ 
ent  presbytery  called  Cumberland,  on  the 
fourth  day  of  February,  1810.  The  first  of¬ 
ficial  act  of  the  presbytery  was  the  ordina¬ 
tion  of  McLean.  The  presbytery  met  in 
March  following,  and  received  a  number  of 
young  men  under  its  care  for  the  ministry. 
It  met  twice  more  before  the  year  closed, 
and  it  was  evident  that  the  Holy  Spirit  was 
with  them.  They  began  with  three  men, 
and  not  one  congregation.  At  their  fifth 
meeting  (1S11),  they  had  eight  congrega¬ 
tions.  William  McGee,  a  regular  graduate 
of  college,  soon  joined  them,  and  other 
strong  men  came  to  them  in  rapid  succes¬ 
sion. 

The  new  organization  naturally  and  pop¬ 
ular  ly  came  to  be  called  the  Cumberland 
Presbyterian  Church,  before  they  named 
themselves  in  form.  In  October,  1813, 
Cumberland  Presbytery  met  at  the  Beech 
Church,  Sumner  County,  Tennessee,  and 
divided  itself  into  three  presbyteries,  Nash¬ 
ville,  Logan,  and  Elk,  and  at  once  formed 
a  general  Synod,  termed  Cumberland. 
Thus  in  three  and  a  half  years  the  very  small 
•body  grew  into  living  proportions.  At 
this  first  meeting,  Finis  Ewing,  William 
McGee,  Robert  Donnell,  and  Thomas  Cal¬ 
houn  were  appointed  a  committee  to  pre¬ 
pare  a  Confession  of  Faith,  and  at  the 
meeting  of  Synod  at  Suggs’  Creek  Church, 
Wilson  Count}',  Tennessee,  1814,  the  com¬ 
mittee  presented  a  modification  of  the 
Westminster  Confession,  which  was  care¬ 
fully  considered  and  adopted.  Thus  and 
then,  and  not  till  then,  were  the  Cumber¬ 
land  Presbyterians  really  separated  from 
the  Presbyterian  Church  by  permanent  in¬ 
dependency.  There  had  all  along  been  a 
desire  and  even  hope  of  reunion.  They 
claimed  that  it  was  not  their  fault  that  the 
reunion  never  occurred;  but  they  could 
return  only  on  honorable  conditions. 

From  this  period  there  was  great  activity 
on  the  part  of  the  growing  body  of  the 
young  church’s  ministers.  They  not  only 
proclaimed  the  gospel  in  Kentucky  and 
Tennessee,  but  extended  their  labors  into 
Indiana,  Illinois,  Missouri,  Arkansas,  Mis¬ 
sissippi,  and  Alabama.  Many  special  mis¬ 
sionaries  were  sent  to  the  Indian  tribes 
east,  south,  and  west  of  the  body  of  the 
Church,  and  in  181S  two  presbyterial 
boards  of  missions  were  organized  to  sup¬ 
port  mission  work  in  all  quarters.  A  Wo¬ 
man's  Board  of  Missions  in  the  Logan 
presbytery  sent  R.  D.  Morrow  as  mission¬ 
ary  to  the  frontier  settlements  in  Missouri, 
in  1819.  In  1820  regular  work  was  begun 
among  the  Choctaw'  and  Chickasaw'  Indians 
in  Mississippi.  There  are  now  two  pres¬ 
byteries  among  the  Indians  in  Indian  Ter¬ 


ritory.  The  spirit  of  the  first  two  genera¬ 
tions  of  these  men  wras  apostolic  and  he¬ 
roic.  Difficulties  did  not  daunt  them,  op¬ 
position  did  not  stop  them.  They  had  a 
pioneer  life,  and  they  were  equal  to  the 
Master’s  demands  by  the  Master’s  grace 
upon  them.  Thousands  of  souls  were  con¬ 
verted  in  a  single  year’s  service,  as  re¬ 
ported  to  Synod.  Their  doctrines  were 
broad  and  evangelical,  their  style  of  preach¬ 
ing  was  fervid,  direct,  and  scriptural,  and 
toward  all  Christian  people  they  were  lib¬ 
eral  and  fraternal.  They  built  largely  for 
God’s  spiritual  kingdom,  while  often  leav¬ 
ing  other  churches  to  gather  the  entire 
fruits  of  extensive  revivals. 

When  the  church  was  but  sixteen  years 
old  (1826),  its  first  college  was  established 
at  Princeton,  Kentucky,  previous  to  which 
time  its  probationers  had  to  use  whatever 
of  providential  opportunity  might  arise  for 
education.  Cumberland  Synod  grew  vig¬ 
orously,  and,  in  1S28,  it  wras  divided  into 
four  synods,  Columbia,  Green  River, 
Franklin,  and  Missouri,  and  the  first  Gen¬ 
eral  Assembly  was  constituted  at  Prince¬ 
ton,  Kentucky,  May,  1829.  There  were 
then  eighteen  presbyteries,  of  which  six¬ 
teen  wrere  represented  in  the  Assembly  by 
sixteen  ministers  and  nine  ruling  elders. 
From  1829  to  1842,  there  was,  according  to 
McDonnold’s  History ,  a  period  of  great  em¬ 
barrassments  and  struggles,  yet  of  much 
valuable  progress.  Churches  w'ere  plant¬ 
ed  in  Pennsylvania,  Ohio,  Louisiana,  Tex¬ 
as,  and  in  many  places  in  States  already  oc¬ 
cupied.  Sumner  Bacon,  a  Cumberland 
Presbyterian,  w'as  the  first  Protestant  wrho 
preached  in  the  Mexican  province  of  Texas, 
whither  he  went  in  1S2S.  ,R.  O.  Watkins, 
still  living,  was  the  first  Protestant  preach¬ 
er  ordained  on  Texas  soil.  In  1830  the 
church’s  first  paper,  the  Religious  and  Lit¬ 
erary  Intelligencer ,  was  started,  since  which 
time  a  number  of  weekly  papers  have  been 
published,  and  the  Assembly  now  owns  the 
Cumberland  Presbyterian,  a  large  weekly 
paper,  besides  a  quarterly  Review,  and  a 
full  series  of  Sabbath-school  papers  for  all 
grades  of  workers  and  scholars.  In  1845 
the  Assembly  organized  and  had  chartered 
boards  of  missions  and  publications;  the 
former  being  at  St.  Louis,  Mo.,  and  the  lat¬ 
ter  at  Nashville,  Tenn.  Since  then,  a  board 
of  ministerial  relief,  of  education,  of  the 
women’s  foreign  missionary  work,  and  a 
branch  board  of  church  extension,  have  all 
been  organized  and  are  in  working  order. 
The  Board  of  Missions  is  doing  admirable 
work  at  home  and  abroad.  The  principal 
foreign  mission  is  in  Japan.  The  Board  of 
Publication  is  enlarging  its  operations  in 
every  useful  line  of  books  and  periodicals. 
There  are  papers  published  by  individuals 


Cum 


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Cur 


indifferent  parts  of  the  church.  The  Wo¬ 
men’s  Foreign  Mission  Board  is  a  decided 
success,  and  so  may  it  be  said  of  the  other 
boards. 

This  church  entered  early  into  the  great 
reformatory  movements  of  the  century, 
and  has  kept  a  steady  course  of  advocacy 
of  all  these  to  the  present  hour.  There 
are  at  present  ten  colleges  under  the  care 
of  the  church:  three  in  Tennessee,  two  in 
Illinois,  two  in  Missouri,  two  in  Texas, 
and  one  in  Pennsylvania,  with  seminaries 
and  academies  in  many  places,  and  others 
projected.  The  principal  institution  of 
learning  is  Cumberland  University,  at  Leb¬ 
anon,  Tennessee,  having  departments  of 
literature,  theology,  law,  and  engineering, 
and  special  courses  amounting  to  ten  lines 
of  instruction. 

It  is  well  to  remark  that  the  church  was 
notdividedby  the  greatCivil  Warof  1861-65, 
and  that  its  work  is  harmonious  and  pro¬ 
gressive,  North  and  South.  In  1882-83,  the 
General  Assembly  having  submitted  the 
question  of  a  thorough  revision  of  the  Con¬ 
fession  of  Faith  to  two  separate  but  co¬ 
operative  committees,  the  presbyteries 
voted  upon  their  work,  after  the  assembly 
had  itself  carefully  revised  the  work  of  the 
committees,  and  it  was  ratified  by  an  al¬ 
most  unanimous  vote.  It  was  a  grave 
movement,  but  nothing  was  ever  done  with 
more  harmony  and  satisfaction.  The 
present  statistics  of  the  church  are  as  fol¬ 
lows:  Presbyteries,  120;  Ordained  minis¬ 
ters,  1,595;  Probationers  for  the  ministry, 
479;  Congregations,  2,689;  Additions  to 
church (1889)  18,086;  Total  communicants, 
160, 1S5;  in  Sunday-school,  90,647;  Contri¬ 
butions  (1889),  8650,234.00.  Besides,  it  is 
to  be  recorded  that  the  church,  after  the 
war,  set  apart  its  colored  members  in  a 
separate  church,  which  has  now,  in  round 
numbers,  380  preachers,  200  candidates  for 
the  ministry,  22  presbyteries,  5  synods,  1 
General  Assembly,  and  15,000  communi¬ 
cants.  There  are  Cumberland  Presbyte¬ 
rian  presbyteries  in  twenty-two  States  and 
the  Indian  Territory,  at  least,  reaching 
from  Pennsylvania  to  California.  Some  of 
the  most  heroic  labors  have  been  performed 
in  the  Pacific  States.  The  last  ten  years 
have  been  a  period  of  most  systematic, 
substantial  growth,  particularly  in  the 
matters  of  church  buildings,  pastoral  effi¬ 
ciency  and  permanency,  and  the  develop¬ 
ment  of  a  powerful  evangelistic  quality. 
Two  young  men  have  had  in  their  meet¬ 
ings  thousands  of  professions  of  faith  with¬ 
in  ten  years,  and  many  other  evangelists 
have  been  at  work  with  success.  Not  less 
than  forty  Cumberland  Presbyterian  evan¬ 
gelists  have  labored  in  such  work  over  all 
the  States,  beginning  as  far  east  as  North 


Carolina  and  Pennsylvania,  and  reaching 
to  the  Pacific  Ocean.  The  revival  tide  of 
1800  is  yet  spreading  along  the  wide  shores 
of  our  vast  American  population. 

M.  B.  De  Witt, 

Editor  Sunday-school  Department,  Cumber¬ 
land  Presbyterian  Church. 

Cumming,  John,  D.  D.,  National  Scot¬ 
tish  Church;  b.  in  the  parish  of  Fintray, 
Aberdeenshire,  Nov.  10,  1807;  d.  in  Lon¬ 
don,  July  5,  1881.  From  1833  until  his 
death  he  was  pastor  of  the  Scotch  Church, 
Covent  Garden,  London.  He  gained  a  wide 
reputation  as  an  expounder  of  prophecy 
and  the  opponent  of  Romanism.  He  pub¬ 
lished  several  volumes  of  discourses  treat¬ 
ing  upon  these  themes. 

Cummins,  George  David,  D.  D.,  Re¬ 
formed  Episcopal;  b.  near  Smyrna,  Kent 
Co.,  Del.,  Dec.  11,  1822;  d.  at  Lutherville, 
near  Baltimore,  Md.,  June  26,  1876.  After 
graduating  at  Dickinson  College,  Carlisle, 
Pa.,  in  1841,  he  first  entered  the  ministry 
of  the  Methodist  Church,  but  in  1845 
changed  to  the  Episcopal.  After  holding 
honored  pastorates  in  Washington,  Balti¬ 
more,  and  Chicago,  he  was  elected  in  1866 
assistant  bishop  of  Kentucky.  In  1873  he 
aided  in  the  establishment  of  the  Reformed 
Episcopal  Church,  and  was  its  first  bishop. 
See  Reformed  Episcopal  Church. 

Cuneiform  Writing.  “  The  cuneiform  or 
‘  wedge-shaped  ’  system  of  writing  takes 
its  name  from  the  wedge-like  form  of  its 
characters,  which  were  once  extensively 
used  over  Western  Asia.  It  has  sometimes 
been  called  ‘  arrow-headed  ’  from  the  sup¬ 
posed  resemblance  of  the  several  strokes 
which  compose  a  character  to  the  head  of 
an  arrow.  The  characters  were  originally 
hieroglyphics,  each  denoting  an  object  or 
idea,  and,  like  the  Chinese,  were  gradually 
corrupted  into  the  forms  we  see  on  the 
Assyrian  monuments.  They  were  invented 
by  the  primitive  Accadian  population  of 
Chaldea,  who  spoke  an  agglutinative  lan¬ 
guage,  and  were  borrowed  from  them  by 
their  Semitic  conquerors,  the  Babylonians 
and  Assyrians.” — E/icy.  Britannica ,  s.  v. 

Curate  “(from  the  Latin  curare ,  to  take 
care  of),  properly  a  presbyter  who  has  the 
cure  of  souls  within  a  parish.  The  term 
curate  is  used  in  this  general  sense  in  cer¬ 
tain  rubrics  of  the  Anglican  Prayer-book, 
in  which  it  is  applied  equally  to  rectors  and 
vicars  as  to  perpetual  curates.  In  a  more 
limited  sense,  it  is  applied  in  the  Church 
of  England  to  the  incumbent  of  a  parish 
who  has  no  endowment  of  tithes,  as  dis¬ 
tinguished  from  a  perpetual  curate,  who 


Cur 


(  234  ) 


Cyp 


has  an  endowment  of  small  tithes,  which 
are  for  that  reason  sometimes  styled  vica¬ 
rial  tithes.  The  term  ‘  curate  ’  in  the  pres¬ 
ent  day  is  almost  exclusively  used  to  sig¬ 
nify  a  clerk  who  is  assistant  to  an  incum¬ 
bent;  and  a  clerk  in  deacon’s  orders  is 
competent  to  be  licensed  by  a  bishop  to  the 
office  of  such  assistant  curate.  The  con¬ 
sequence  of  this  misuse  of  the  term 
‘  curate  ’  has  been  that  the  title  of  ‘  per¬ 
petual  curate  ’  has  fallen  into  desuetude  in 
the  Anglican  Church.” — Ency.  Britannica. 

Curate,  Perpetual.  See  Curate. 

Curia  Romana  is  the  name  given  to  the 
entire  body  of  officials  which  together 
forms  the  papal  government,  and  through 
whom  all  communications  are  carried  on 
between  the  Holy  See  and  Foreign  Powers. 
See  Cardinal. 

Cush,  ‘‘the eldest  son  of  Ham,  from  whom 
seems  to  have  been  derived  the  name  of 
the  Land  of  Cush ,  which  is  commonly  ren¬ 
dered  by  the  Septuagint  and  by  the  Vul¬ 
gate,  Ethiopia.  The  locality  of  the  land 
of  Cush  is  a  question  upon  which  eminent 
authorities  have  been  divided;  for  while 
Bochart  maintained  that  it  was  exclusively 
in  Arabia,  Schulthess  and  Gesenius  held 
that  it  is  to  be  sought  for  nowhere  but  in 
Africa.  Others  again,  such  as  Michaelis 
and  Rosenmiiller,  have  supposed  that  the 
name  Cush  was  applied  to  tracts  of  coun¬ 
try  both  in  Arabia  and  Africa — a  circum¬ 
stance  which  would  be  easily  accounted  for 
on  the  very  probable  supposition  that  the 
descendants  of  the  primitive  Cushite  tribes 
emigrated  across  the  Red  Sea  from  the  one 
continent  to  the  other.  The  existence  of 
an  African  Cush  cannot  reasonably  be 
questioned,  though  the  term  is  employed 
in  Scripture  with  great  latitude,  sometimes 
denoting  an  extensive  but  undefined  coun¬ 
try  (Ethiopia),  and  at  other  times  one  par¬ 
ticular  kingdom  (Meroe).  It  is  expressly 
described  by  Ezekiel  as  lying  to  the  south 
of  Egypt,  beyond  Syene  ;  Mizraim  and 
Cush  (i.  e.,  Egypt  and  Ethiopia)  are  often 
classed  together  by  the  prophets;  the  in¬ 
habitants  are  elsewhere  spoken  of  in  con¬ 
nection  wdth  the  Lubim  and  Sukkiim, 
which  were  certainly  nations  of  Africa, 
for  they  belonged  to  the  vast  army  with 
which  Shishak,  king  of  Egypt,  ‘  came  out’ 
against  Rehoboam,  king  of  Judah;  and, 
finally,  in  the  ancient  Egyptian  inscrip¬ 
tions,  the  country  to  the  south  of  Egypt  is 
called  Keesh,  or  Kesh.  Though  there  is 
a  great  lack  of  evidence  to  show  that  the 
name  of  Cush  was  ever  applied  to  any 
part  of  Arabia,  there  seems  no  reason  to 
doubt  that  a  portion  of  the  Cushite  race 


did  early  settle  there.  In  the  fifth  century 
the  Himyarites,  in  the  south  of  Arabia, 
were  styled  by  Syrian  writers  Cushaeans 
and  Ethiopians.  By  modern  scholars  the 
name  Cushitic  has  been  adopted  as  the  des¬ 
ignation  of  the  early  non-Semitic  language 
of  Babylonia;  and  the  reasoning  of  Canon 
Rawlinson  goes  to  show  that  there  was  a 
close  connection  between  Babylon  and 
Egypt.” — Ency.  Britannica. 

Cuthbert,  St.,  a  famous  monk,  b.  in  the 
north  of  England  in  the  beginning  of  the 
seventh  century;  d.  at  Fame,  687.  He 
was  first  a  monk  at  Melrose,  and  then,  for 
twelve  years,  prior  of  the  monastery  of 
Lindisfarne.  In  676  he  withdrew  to  the  isl¬ 
and  of  Fame,  from  which  retirement  he  ac¬ 
cepted  the  bishopric  of  Hexham.  After  two 
years,  his  health  failing,  he  again  returned 
to  Fame,  where  he  died.  His  life,  written 
by  Bede,  is  full  of  wonderful  stories  of 
miracles  wrought  by  his  saintly  life  and 
power.  His  remains  were  said  to  have  the 
power  of  working  miracles.  His  corpse 
was  brought  to  Lindisfarne,  and  the  monks 
vowed  never  to  desert  it.  True  to  their 
vow,  when  the  monastery  was  taken  by  the 
Danes  (S75),  the  monks,  in  their  flight,  car¬ 
ried  the  remains  with  them  in  all  their 
wanderings,  until  they  found  a  resting- 
place  at  Durham  (992).  See  his  Life  by  A. 
C.  Fryer  (London,  1881). 

Cutty-stool,  the  stool  or  seat  of  repent¬ 
ance  in  the  old  Scotch  kirks,  placed  in  a 
conspicuous  position,  and  painted  black,  on 
which  offenders  against  chastity  sat  during 
three  Sabbath  services,  professing  repent¬ 
ance,  and  receiving  the  minister’s  rebukes. 

Cuyler,  Theodore  Ledyard,  D.  D. 
(Princeton,  1S66),  Presbyterian  ;  b.  at 
Aurora,  N.Y.,  Jan.  10,  1S22;  was  graduated 
at  Princeton  College,  1S41 ;  and  Theological 
Seminary,  1S46;  pastor  of  the  Third  Pres¬ 
byterian  Church,  Trenton,  1S49;  °f  r^e 
Market  Street  Reformed  Church,  N.  Y. 
City,  1S53;  and  of  the  Lafayette  Avenue 
Presbyterian  Church,  Brooklyn,  1S60;  re¬ 
signed  this  long  and  eminently  successful 
pastorate,  1S90.  He  is  the  author  of  sev¬ 
eral  volumes  that  have  had  a  wide  circula¬ 
tion,  but  it  is  as  a  prolific  contributor  to 
leading  religious  papers  that  he  is  best 
known.  Dr.  Cuyler  has  won  honorable 
distinction  for  his  fearless  and  earnest 
advocacy  of  the  cause  of  temperance. 

Cyprian,  St.,  was  born  in  or  near  Car¬ 
thage,  about  the  year  200,  and  became  fa¬ 
mous  as  a  teacher  of  rhetoric  in  that  city. 
He  did  not  embrace  Christianity  until 
somewhat  late  in  life.  At  his  baptism,  he 


Cyp 


(  235  ) 


Cyr 


took,  in  addition  to  his  former  name,  Cyp¬ 
rian  Thascius,  that  of  Caecilius,  who  had 
influenced  his  conversion,  and  who  after¬ 
ward,  on  his  death-bed,  left  his  wife  and 
children  in  Cyprian’s  charge.  The  latter 
was  soon  ordained  to  the  offices  of  deacon 
and  presbyter;  and  three  years  later,  when 
the  see  of  Carthage  fell  vacant,  he  was 
unanimously  elected  bishop  by  the  people, 
though  five  presbyters  were  opposed  to  the 
election.  Cyprian  endeavored,  after  his 
consecration,  to  reform  abuses  which  had 
long  existed  within  the  diocese;  but  after 
two  years  the  persecution  under  Decius 
forced  him  to  take  refuge  at  a  place  not  far 
off,  where  he  remained  for  fourteen 
months.  During  this  time  he  kept  up  a 
constant  communication  with  the  Church, 
encouraging  his  people  to  hold  fast  their 
faith,  and  not  to  renounce  it,  as  many  did, 
with  the  prospect  of  beingallowed,when  the 
storm  was  over,  to  return  to  the  Church. 

Upon  his  return  to  the  city,  in  251,  he 
summoned  a  council  to  decide  the  question 
as  to  the  method  of  dealing  with  the  pen¬ 
itent  apostates  known  as  “the  Lapsed,” 
and  with  Libellatics — those-  who,  by  pay¬ 
ment,  had  obtained  false  certificates  of  hav¬ 
ing  sacrificed  to  the  gods.  The  most  ex¬ 
treme  views  were  taken.  Some  were  for 
re-admitting  them  immediately,  others  for 
refusing  them  finally.  Cyprian  took  a 
middle  view,  that  of  re-admission  after  a 
lengthened  penance,  and  this  view  became 
eventually  that  of  the  whole  Christian 
Church.  Great  disorders  were  at  this  time 
caused  by  the  Novatian  Schism  (</.  v. ), 
against  which  Cyprian  had  to  write  much 
whilst  he  was  fighting  another  evil  that  tor¬ 
mented  his  flock.  For  at  this  time  the 
plague  was  raging  throughout  the  Roman 
Empire,  and  Cyprian  devoted  himself  to 
nursing  the  sick,  burying  the  dead,  and 
encouraging  those  who  were  faint-hearted. 
In  253  he  was  engaged  in  a  controversy 
with  the  bishops  of  Numidia  concerning 
baptism  by  heretics,  in  which  he  maintained 
that  the  sacrament  should  be  re-adminis¬ 
tered  to  those  who  had  not  been  baptized 
by  a  member  of  the  Church.  Stephen,  the 
Bishop  of  Rome,  combated  this  opinion, 
and  indeed  broke  off  communion  with  the 
African  Church;  but  Cyprian  held  his 
ground,  acknowledging  the  honor  due  to 
the  bishop  of  so  great  a  city  as  Rome,  but 
not  acknowleding  any  po*ver  of  the  bishop 
over  himself.  In  257  Valerian  set  on  foot 
a  persecution  of  the  Christians,  and  Cyp¬ 
rian  was  brought  before  the  Proconsul 
Paternus.  He  declared  himself  a  Chris¬ 
tian  and  a  bishop,  steadily  refused  to  sacri¬ 
fice,  or  to  disclose  the  names  of  his  clergy; 
whereupon  he  was  banished  with  Pontius 
to  Curubis,  a  place  at  some  distance  from 


Carthage.  Here  he  remained  for  a  year, 
in  communication  with  his  flock,  until  the 
arrival  of  a  new  proconsul,  Galerius;  he 
was  then  commanded  to  remain  in  his  gar¬ 
dens  near  Carthage.  Thence  he  was  taken 
for  his  trial  to  a  place  about  four  miles 
from  the  city,  on  Sept.  13,  258.  He  again 
refused  to  sacrifice,  in  spite  of  earnest  en¬ 
treaties  from  the  magistrate,  and  was  final¬ 
ly  condemned,  as  being  “  a  ringleader  in 
impiety  against  the  gods  of  Rome,  and 
having  resisted  the  attempts  made  by  the 
emperors  to  reclaim  him.”  He  was  con¬ 
demned  to  be  beheaded,  and  the  sentence 
was  carried  out  at  once,  in  the  presence  of 
his  sorrowing  people.  His  works  are  pub¬ 
lished  in  Clark’s  Ante-Nicene  Christian  Li¬ 
brary.  They  comprise  about  eighty  Epis¬ 
tles  and  some  Discourses,  “  On  the  Van¬ 
ity  of  Idols,”  on  “  Virginity,”  “  On  the 
Lapsed,”  “  On  the  Unity  of  the  Church,” 
“  On  the  Lord’s  Prayer,”  “  On  Mortality,” 
etc.,  etc.  Lactantius  calls  him  “  the  first 
eloquent  Christian  writer.”  His  manner 
is  formed  on  that  of  Tertullian,  but  is  not 
so  rough  and  violent.  But  his  works  are 
chiefly  valuable  for  the  light  which  they 
throw  on  the  government  and  belief  of  the 
Church  of  his  day. — Benham:  Diet,  of  Re¬ 
ligion. 

Cyprus,  a  large  fertile  island  of  the  Med¬ 
iterranean  Sea,  150  miles  long,  and  from 
fifty  to  sixty  miles  broad.  It  was  early 
colonized  by  the  Phoenicians,  and  in  the 
Old  Testament  is  known  as  Chittim  or  Kit- 
tim.  (Num.  xxiv.  24;  Ezek.  xxvii.  6.)  The 
gospel  was  preached  there  at  an  early  day. 
(Acts  xi.  19.)  Barnabas  and  Mnason  were 
natives  of  Cyprus.  (Acts  vi.  36;  xxi.  16.) 
Sergius  Paulus,  proconsul  of  the  island, 
was  converted  by  Paul  on  his  first  mis¬ 
sionary  tour.  (Acts  xiii.  7.)  Cyprus  came 
under  the  control  of  the  English  Govern¬ 
ment  in  1878.  The  excavations  made 
there  by  General  Cesnola  have  been  of 
great  interest.  See  Cesnola:  Cyprus:  its 
Ancient  Cities ,  Tombs ,  and  Temples  (N.  Y., 
1877);  Loher:  Cyprus  (N.  Y.,  1878).' 

Cyre'ne,  the  chief  city  of  Cyrenaica  (now 
Tripoli ),  in  North  Africa,  noted  for  its 
commerce  and  intellectual  activity.  It  was 
the  centre  from  which  the  gospel  went 
forth  into  all  that  region.  (Acts  xi.  20;  xiii. 
1.)  Simeon  who  bore  the  cross  was  of 
Cyrene.  (Luke  xxiii.  26.)  Many  Cyrenians 
were  present  at  Pentecost.  (Acts  ii.  10;  vi. 
9.)  The  city  was  destroyed  by  the  Saracens 
in  the  fourth  century. 

Cyrenius.  See  Quirinius. 

Cyril,  St.,  “bishop  of  Alexandria,  was 


Cyr 


(  236  ) 


Cyr 


one  of  the  most  energetic  but  least  amiable 
of  the  Church  fathers.  The  date  of  his 
birth  is  not  known.  He  was  educated  by 
the  fanatical  monks  of  Nitria,  with  whom 
he  lived  for  five  years,  and  who  probably 
inspired  him  with  that  fiery,  intolerant,  and 
ignorant  zeal  which  characterized  him 
through  life.  Subsequently,  he  went  to 
Alexandria,  where  he  became  a  presbyter, 
and  on  the  death  of  his  uncle,  Theophilus, 
412  a.  d.  ,  obtained  the  episcopal  see.  The 
Alexandrian  Jew’s,  who  were  numerous 
and  wealthy,  were  the  first  to  feel  the 
fierceness  of  his  religious  hate.  Some 
Christian  blood  having  been  shed  by  them 
in  a  city  tumult,  Cyril  put  himself  at  the 
head  of  a  rabble  of  zealots,  attacked  the 
Jewish  quarter  of  Alexandria,  destroyed 
the  houses,  and  banished  the  inhabitants. 
Orestes,  the  prefect  of  Egypt,  having 
drawn  up  an  accusation  against  Cyril,  was 
attacked  in  the  streets  by  500  monks,  who 
had  come  up  from  the  deserts  of  Nitria,  at 
the  call  of  their  old  companion,  eager  for 
the  work  of  destruction.  One  of  these 
monks  having  fallen  in  the  skirmish,  his 
corpse  was  carried  in  procession  to  the 
high  church  of  Alexandria,  where  Cyril  de¬ 
livered  a  sanguinary  discourse,  gave  the 
dead  monk  the  name  of  TJiaumasius ,  and 
pronounced  him  a  martyr  and  a  saint. 
But  perhaps  the  most  barbarous  deed  w'ith 
Avhich  this  persecutor  of  heretics  and  hea¬ 
then  had  to  do,  was  the  murder  of  the 
heathen  maiden  Hypatia  ( q .  v.),  the  daugh¬ 
ter  of  the  mathematician  Theon.  Theod- 
oret  gravely  accuses  him  of  instigating 
the  Alexandrian  populace  to  this  horrid 
act.  But  the  most  important  historical 
event  in  his  career  was  his  controversy 
with  Nestorius  ((/.  v.).  All  the  worst  feat¬ 
ures  of  his  disposition  appeared  in  this 
broil.  Even  the  gentle  Neander  overflow’s 
with  pious  wrath,  and  pursues  Cyril 
through  sixty  pages  of  his  Church  History 
with  the  fiercest  epithets.  In  the  midst  of 
unquietudes,  which  he  himself  had  largely 
occasioned,  he  died,  444  a.  I).  Cyril’s  nu¬ 
merous  writings  consist  of  commentaries, 
treatises,  homilies,  epistles,  etc.  See 
Neander:  Church  History .  ”  —  Chambers: 
Cyclopedia. 

Cyril  Lucar,  a  Greek  patriarch  of  Con¬ 
stantinople;  b.  1568  or  1572  in  Candia 
(Crete),  then  a  prominent  seat  of  Greek 
scholarship.  His  fame  rests  upon  the  ef¬ 
forts  which  he  made  to  introduce  into  the 
Greek  Church  the  doctrines  of  the  Re¬ 
formed  (Calvinistic)  churches.  He  stud¬ 
ied  for  a  time  at  Geneva,  and  was  in  full 
sympathy  with  the  Protestant  Reforma¬ 
tion.  He  aroused  the  implacable  enmity 
of  the  Jesuits,  and  his  views  met  with 


great  opposition  within  his  own  church. 
A  synod  was  convened  at  Constantinople 
to  try  him  in  1638,  but  before  it  completed 
its  labors,  he  was  seized  by  a  band  of  Jan¬ 
issaries,  under  orders  from  the  govern¬ 
ment,  and  strangled  to  death.  He  pub¬ 
lished  a  Confession  of  Faith  in  sympathy 
with  the  views  of  the  Reformers.  In  1628 
he  presented  the  famous  uncial,  codex 
Alexandrinus  (codex  A.),  to  Charles  I.  of 
England 

Cyril,  St.,  “bishop  of  Jerusalem,  an  em¬ 
inent  Church  father;  was  born  at  Jerusa¬ 
lem  about  315  a.  D. ,  and  ordained  a  deacon 
in  334,  a  presbyter  in  345,  and  on  the  death 
of  Maximus  in  351,  was  elected  bishop  of 
his  native  city.  His  metropolitan  was  the 
Arian  bishop,  Acacius  of  Caesarea,  with 
whom  he  was  soon  engaged  in  hot  conflict 
concerning,  originally,  the  rights  of  his 
office,  but  ultimately  their  differences  of 
doctrine.  Acacius  accused  Cyril,  before  a 
council  hastily  ‘  got  up  ’  at  Caesarea,  in 
358,  of  selling  the  treasures  of  his  church 
in  a  time  of  famine  to  feed  the  poor  ! 
Strange  to  say,  Cyril  was  deposed  for  do¬ 
ing  this  praiseworthy  action.  He  now  ap¬ 
pealed  to  a  larger  synod,  which  was  held 
at  Seleucia.  This  synod  restored  him  to 
his  office;  but  once  more,  through  the  per¬ 
severing  hostility  of  Acacius,  he  was  de¬ 
posed  by  a  council  assembled  at  Constan¬ 
tinople  in  360.  On  the  death  of  the  Em¬ 
peror  Constantius,  he  was  again  restored 
to  his  episcopate  in  362.  Soon  after,  his 
old  enemy,  Acacius,  died,  but  Cyril  was 
immediately  involved  in  new  difficulties. 
After  considerable  strife,  Cyril  was  ban¬ 
ished,  by  order  of  the  Emperor  Valens,  in 
367;  nor  did  he  return  till  the  emperor’s 
death  in  378.  He  died  in  386. 

“Cyril’s  writingsareextremely  valuable, 
not  on  account  of  their  vigor,  profundity, 
or  beauty,  but  on  account  of  their  theol¬ 
ogy.  They  consist  of  twenty-three  treat¬ 
ises,  eighteen  of  which  are  addressed  to 
catechumens,  and  five  to  the  newly  bap¬ 
tized.  The  former  are  for  the  most  part 
doctrinal ,  and  present  to  us,  in  a  more  com¬ 
plete  and  systematic  manner  than  the 
writings  of  any  other  father,  the  creed  of 
the  Church;  the  latter  are  ritual ,  and  give 
us  a  minute  account  of  baptism,  chrism, 
and  the  Lord’s  Supper.  Their  style  is 
simple  and  unattractive.”  —  Chambers: 
Cyclopcedia. 

Cyrillus  and  Methodius,  “  the  apostles 
of  the  Slavs.  In  the  sixth,  and  more  espe¬ 
cially  in  the  eighth,  century,  the  Slavs  pen¬ 
etrated  across  the  Danube  and  the  Balkan, 
into  Macedonia  and  the  adjoining  countries 
and  took  permanent  possession.  Toward 


Cyr 


(  237  ) 


Dam 


the  close  of  the  eighth  century  they  were 
Christianized  from  Thessalonica,  in  which 
place  Greek  civilization,  stimulated  by  the 
influx  of  the  Slav  element,  burst  into  a 
fresh  bloom.  It  was  also  from  Thessalo¬ 
nica  that  the  conversion  of  the  Slavs  out¬ 
side  the  Greek  Empire  was  effected.  Cy- 
rillus  and  Methodius  were  born  there  in 
the  first  half  of  the  ninth  century.” — Vogel. 
See  his  art.  in  Schaff- Herzog:  Ency.  for  par¬ 
ticulars  of  the  life  and  services  of  these 
Greek  missionaries. 

Cyrus  the  Great,  founder  of  the.  Persian 
Empire.  In  538  b.  c.  he  took  Babylon,  by 
diverting  the  course  of  the  Euphrates  into 
another  channel,  and  entering  the  city  by 
the  dry  bed  during  a  feast,  at  which  the 
Babylonians  were  reveling,  as  foretold  in 
Isa.  xxi.  5;  xliv.  27;  Jer.  1.  38;  li.  57.  He 
finally  fell  in  a  battle  against  the  Massage- 
teae.  After  the  capture  of  Babylon  he 
treated  with  regard  the  religious  senti¬ 
ments  of  the  Hebrews,  and  restored  to 
them  some  political  and  social  rights,  and 
in  various  ways  proved  their  deliverer 
from  bondage.  His  tomb  is  still  shown 
on  the  plain  of  Murgab,  north  of  Persep- 
olis.  See  Assyria. 

13. 

Da  Costa,  Isaak,  b.  in  Amsterdam,  1798; 
d.  there,  i860.  He  belonged  to  a  wealthy 
and  influential  family  of  Portuguese  Jews, 
but  embraced  the  Christian  faith  in  1821. 
He  was  a  brilliant  poet  and  did  a  noble 
work  as  a  Christian  apologist,  especially  in 
opposing  the  Tubingen  school.  The  Four 
Witnesses,  an  important  work  from  his  pen, 
was  translated  into  English  by  D.  Scott 
(London,  1851). 

Da'gon  (fsh),  the  national  god  of  the 
Philistines.  The  most  famous  temples  of 
Dagon  were  at  Gaza  and  Ashdod.  The 
former  was  destroyed  by  Samson  (Judg. 
xvi.  23-30),  the  latter  by  Jonathan  in  the 
Maccabaean  wars.  Dagon  was  represented 
with  the  face  and  hands  of  a  man  and  the  tail 
of  a  fish  (1  Sam.  v.  5),  the  fish  part  being  a 
sign  of  fruitfulness.  Dagon  corresponds 
to  the  Syrian  female  divinity,  Atargatis,  or 
Derceto,  and  is  probably  the  same  as  the 
Assyrian  fish-god,  Odakon. 

D’Ailli.  See  Ailli. 

Dale,  James  Wilkinson,  D.  D.,  Presby¬ 
terian;  b.  in  New  Castle  Co.,  Del.,  Oct. 
16,  1812;  d.  in  Media,  Penn.,  April  19, 
1881.  A  graduate  of  the  University  of 
Pennsylvania  (1831),  and  Andover  Theo¬ 
logical  Seminary,  he  was  agent  of  the  Bible 


Society  of  Philadelphia  for  seven  years,  and 
pastor,  from  1845  to  1876,  of  Presbyterian 
churches  at  Ridley,  Media,  and  Wayne. 
His  reputation  rests  upon  the  elaborate 
works  which  he  published  in  defence  of 
pedobaptism  :  Classic  Baptism  (Phila. , 
1867)  ;  Jtidaic  (1871)  ;  Johannic  (1872)  ; 
Christie  and  Patristic  (1874). 

Dale,  Robert  William,  D.  D.  (Yale, 
1877),  LL.  D.  (Glasgow,  1883),  Congrega- 
tionalist;  b.  in  London,  Dec.  1,  1829;  was 
graduated  at  the  University  of  London, 
1853;  since  1853  has  been  pastor  of  Carrs’- 
lane  Church,  Birmingham,  first  as  associate 
pastor  with  John  Angell  James,  and  after 
1859  as  s°le  pastor.  Among  his  published 
works  are:  Life  of  John  Angell  James  (Lon¬ 
don,  1861;  5th  ed. ,  1862);  The  Jewish  Tem¬ 
ple  and  the  Christian  Church  (1865;  7th  ed., 
1886);  The  Atonement  (1875,  9th  ed.,  1883); 
Nine  Lectures  on  Preaching  (1877;  5th  ed., 
1886);  Epistle  to  the  Ephesians  (1882;  4th 
ed.,  1886);  The  Laws  of  Christ  for  Common 
Life  (1884;  3d  ed.,  1886);  Lmpressions  of 
Australia  (1889). 

Dalmanu'tha,  a  town  near  Magdala,  on 
the  Sea  of  Galilee.  (Mark  viii.  10;  Matt, 
xv.  39.)  It  is  probably  identical  with  *A in- 
el  Barideh ,  two  miles  from  Tiberias,  near 
the  shore. 

Dalma'tia,  a  mountainous  country  on  the 
eastern  shore  of  the  Adriatic,  visited  by 
Titus.  (2  Tim.  iv.  10.) 

Dalmatic,  the  dress  worn  by  the  Roman 
Catholic  deacon  in  the  administration  of 
the  Eucharist.  It  is  a  white  robe,  reach¬ 
ing  down  to  the  knees,  and  having  two 
longitudinal  stripes  behind.  In  the  Greek 
Church  is  is  called  colobium ,  and  is  covered 
with  a  multitude  of  small  crosses.  Tt  de¬ 
rives  its  name  from  the  province  of  Dal¬ 
matia,  where  they  were  first  made. 

Damas'cus  the  capital  of  Syria,  and  one 
of  the  oldest  cities  in  the  world,'  occupies 
a  site  of  singular  beauty  in  a  beautiful  and 
fertile  plain  on  the  Eastern  side  of  the  An- 
tilibanus  range,  fifty-seven  miles  east  from 
the  seaport  of  Beyrout.  According  to  Jo¬ 
sephus,  it  was  founded  by  Uz,  a  grandson 
of  Shem.  It  was  visited  by  Abraham 
(Gen.  xiv.  15;  xv.  2),  and  David  conquered 
it  after  a  bloody  war.  (2  Sam.  viii.  5,  6.) 
After  various  alliances,  both  for  and  against 
Israel  (1  Kings  xv.  18,  20;  2  Chron.  xvi.  3), 
it  was  taken  by  Tiglath-pileser,  and  the 
prophecy  of  Isaiah  fulfilled.  (Isa.  xvii.  1-3. ) 
Conquered  by  Alexander  the  Great  in  333 
b.  c. ,  it  became  a  Roman  province  in  63 
b.  c.  In  A.  D.  634  the  city  fell  into  the 


Cop 


(  238  ) 


Cor 


hands  of  the  Mohammedans,  who  have  ever 
since  held  it.  The  most  important  event 
connected  with  its  history  is  the  conver¬ 
sion  of  St.  Paul.  (Acts  ix.  1-25.)  Tradi¬ 
tion  marks  as  the  spot  where  this  event 
occurred  a  place  on  the  direct  road  from 
Jerusalem,  some  five  miles  distant  from 
the  city,  whose  minarets  can  be  clearly 
seen.  After  the  conversion  of  St.  Paul 
Christianity  gained  adherents  in  the  city, 
and  it  became  the  seat  of  a  bishop,  but  for 
centuries  past  it  has  been  a  “  hot-bed  of 
Mohammedan  fanaticism.”  In  i860  the 
Moslem  population  arose  against  the 
Christians,  and  massacred  about  3,000 
adult  males,  while  thousands  died  of 


dria.  He  held  views  similar  to  those  of 
Sabellius. 

Damiani  (da-me-a'-nee),  or  Damianus, 
Peter,  cardinal  and  bishop  of  Ostia,  b.  at 
Ravenna,  1007;  d.  at  Faenza,  1072.  He 
belonged  to  the  order  of  Benedictines. 
Stirred  with  indignation  against  the  vices 
that  had  crept  into  the  Church,  and  existed 
among  the  clergy,  he  wrote  powerfully 
against  them,  but  his  MSS.  were  taken 
from  him,  and  suppressed.  He  was  an 
earnest  advocate  of  flagellation  as  a  means 
of  penance.  A  leader  among  the  monks, 
and  devoted  to  an  austere  life,  the  people 
looked  upon  him  as  possessing  the  power 


THE  PLAIN  AND  LAKES  OF  DAMASCUS. 


wounds  and  famine.  Since  1843  the  United 
Presbyterian  Church  of  America  and  the 
Presbyterian  Church  of  Ireland  have 
united  in  sustaining  a  mission,  with  church 
and  schools,  at  Damascus.  The  London 
Society  for  the  conversion  of  the  Jews 
maintain  a  mission  there.  See  Porter: 
Five  Years  in  Damascus  (1855). 

Damasus  is  the  name  of  two  popes. 
Damasus  I.  (366-384)  was  a  native  of 
Rome.  He  was  an  earnest  opponent  of 
Arianism,  and  a  warm  friend  of  Jerome, 
whom  he  induced  to  undertake  a  new 
translation  of  the  Bible.  See  Popes. 

Damianus,  d.  601 ;  patriarch  of  Alexan- 


of  working  miracles.  He  was  sent  on  im¬ 
portant  missions  by  both  Pope  Nicholas 
II.,  and  Alexander  II.  His  complete 
works  were  collected  and  published  by 
Cajetan  (Rome,  1606). 

Damien,  Father  (properly  Joseph 
Deveuster),  Roman  Catholic;  b.  at  Treme- 
loo,  near  Louvain,  Belgium,  Jan.  3,  1840; 
d.  at  Kalawao,  Molokai,  April  15,  1889. 
He  was  connected  with  the  missionary 
congregation  of  the  Sacred  Heart  of  Jesus 
and  Mary  at  Louvain,  Feb.  2,  1859;  and  in 
1863  sailed  for  the  Sandwich  Islands, 
where  he  labored  as  a  missionary  in  dif¬ 
ferent  places  until  1873,  when  he  settled  on 
the  lepers’  island  of  Molokai.  He  gave 


(  239  ) 


DAMASCUS 


Dam 


(  240  ) 


Dan 


himself  to  temporal  and  spiritual  efforts  in 
behalf  of  the  miserable  sufferers  here  iso¬ 
lated  fromthe  world,  until  1883, when  he  was 
struck  down  by  the  loathsome  disease,  and 
even  then  toiled  on  until  death  brought  re¬ 
lease.  See  his  Life  and  Letters  (London, 
Catholic  Truth  Society,  1889). 

Damnation.  See  Punishment,  Future. 

Dan.  See  Tribes  of  Israel. 

Dance.  Among  the  Hebrews  the  dance 
was  an  expression  of  joy  or  gratitude,  and 
at  an  early  period  was  usually  religious  in 
its  character.  (Ex.  xv.  20;  2  Sam.  vi.  14.) 
Sometimes  it  accompanied  secular  festiv¬ 
ities  (Jer.  xxxi.  4,  13;  Matt.  xi.  17),  but 
dancing  by  men  and  women  together  was 
unknown.  As  in  Egypt  at  the  present 
time,  dancing  was  mostly  done  by  women 
alone. 

Dancers,  a  sect  of  wild  enthusiasts  who 
first  appeared  on  the  Lower  Rhine  in  1374. 
Half  naked,  and  with  frantic  exertion  men 
and  women  would  join  hands  in  their  pub¬ 
lic  worship,  and  dance  until  exhausted  or 
falling  in  convulsions.  The  mania  spread 
rapidly,  and  was  stamped  out  with  dif-  I 
ficulty.  It  broke  out  again  at  Strasburg 
in  1418.  The  victims  of  the  mania  were 
taken  to  the  Chapel  of  St.  Vitus  at  Rotes- 
tein,  where  mass  was  celebrated  for  them: 
hence  our  name  for  the  disease  “  St.  Vitus’s 
Dance  ”  ( chorea ). 

Daniel  ( Gods  Judge )  “  was  one  of  the 
princes  of  the  royal  family  of  Judah.  He 
was  made  a  eunuch  in  the  palace  of  the 
king  of  Babylon,  and  rose  to  be  chief  of 
the  wise  men,  and  ‘  ruler  over  the  whole 
province  of  Babylon.’  Carried  captive  at 
the  age  of  from  twelve  to  eighteen,  in  the 
fourth  year  of  Jehoiakim  (eight  years  before 
Ezekiel),  he  prophesied  during  the  whole 
period  of  the  Captivity,  and  even  two  years 
after  the  Return.  He  did  not  accompany 
the  Jews  back  to  Jerusalem,  but  died  in 
exile  when  more  than  ninety  years  of  age. 

In  b.  C.  603  he  interpreted  Nebuchadnez¬ 
zar’s  dream,  which  brought  him  into  notice. 
Twenty-three  years  later,  the  Three  Chil¬ 
dren  were,  in  his  absence,  saved  from  the 
fiery  furnace.  Ten  years  afterward  he  in¬ 
terpreted  the  king’s  second  dream,  and 
acted  as  viceroy  during  the  seven  years  of 
that  monarch’s  madness.  He  lived  in  re¬ 
tirement  during  the  reign  of  Belshazzar, 
who  preferred  younger  counsellors,  till  the 
writing  on  the  wall  called  him  forth  (b.  c. 
538).  Afterward  he  was  promoted  to  the 
highest  post  of  government  by  Darius, 
which  he  retained  under  Cyrus  (536),  thus 


serving  under  three  dynasties — the  Chal¬ 
dean,  the  Median,  and  the  Persian.” — “  Ox¬ 
ford  ”  Teacher's  Bible. 

Daniel,  Book  op,  “consists  of  two  distinct 
volumes,  the  prophecies  of  the  latter  being 
synchronous  with  some  of  the  historical 
events  narrated  in  the  former:  e.  g. ,  the 
first  vision  occurred  in  the  first  year  of  Bel¬ 
shazzar  (b.  c.  555);  the  second  in  553;  the 
third  in  the  first  year  of  Darius  (538);  the 
last  in  the  third  of  Cyrus  (534).  The  his¬ 
torical  part  (chaps. ii.  4  to  vii.)  is  in  Chaldee; 
the  prophetical  in  Hebrew.  In  the  former, 
Daniel  is  spoken  of  in  the  third  person,  in 
the  latter  in  the  first;  but  he  is  believed  to 
have  been  the  author  of  both  portions. 
Our  Lord  speaks  of  him  as  a  prophet.  (Matt, 
xxiv.  15.)  An  allusion  is  made  to  him  in 
Heb.  xi.  33,  34;  and  his  language  is  adopted 
in  the  Revelation  of  John  the  Divine,  which 
is  the  counterpart  of  his  book  in  the  New 
Testament.  Chap.  ii.  predicts  the  course  of 
the  Five  Great  Empires  of  the  world,  which 
should  succeed  each  other  in  supremacy — 
viz.,  the  Babylonian,  Persian,  Grecian,  Ro¬ 
man,  and  Christian.  In  chap.  vii.  the  four 
worldly  empires,  under  the  figure  of  four 
beasts,  are  viewed  in  their  religious  aspect. 
In  chap.  viii.  is  predicted  the  struggle  be¬ 
tween  the  Persian  and  Grecian  powers,  and 
the  rise  of  the  corrupting  influence  of  An- 
tiochus  Epiphanes  (“the  little  horn”), 
which  prepared  the  way  for  the  final  over¬ 
throw  of  the  Jews  by  the  Romans.  Then 
follow  the  precise  prophecies  regarding 
the  Messiah.  In  seven  weeks  (forty-nine 
years)  the  city  would  be  rebuilt;  in  sixtv- 
two  weeks  (434  years)  Christ  would  begin 
his  ministry,  and  in  the  middle  of  one  week 
(three  and  a  half  years)  he  would  be  cut 
off.  Chap.  x.  foretells  the  opposition  of 
the  Persian  power  to  the  restoration  of  the 
Jews;  while  chap.  xi.  more  minutely  pre¬ 
dicts  the  history  of  the  four  Persian  kings, 
that  of  Alexander  and  his  successors,  till 
the  conquest  of  Syria  by  Rome,  followed 
by  a  forecast  of  the  growth  of  the  supremacy 
of  Christ’s  kingdom  to  the  end  of  the  world. 
This  book  is  the  first  of  a  series  of  apoc¬ 
alyptic  writings,  which  culminate  in  the 
Revelation  of  John  the  Divine.  It  has 
exercised  far  greater  influence  on  Christian 
theology  than  any  other  writing  of  the  Old 
Testament,  depicting,  as  it  does,  not  merely 
the  advent  of  the  Messiah,  but  the  effect 
and  influence  of  his  human  existence  upon 
the  whole  future  of  the  human  race. 
Hence,  Daniel’s  writings  are  not  forewarn¬ 
ings  of  coming  events,  or  divine  threats  of 
punishment,  neither  are  they  strictly  pro¬ 
phetic;  but  they  have  a  far  wider  range, 
disclosing  the  philosophy  of  history,  both 
sacred  and  profane,  revealing  to  the  Jews 


Dan 


(  241  ) 


Dan 


the  great  mission  destined  for  them  in  the 
regeneration  of  mankind.  Thus,  with 
Ezekiel,  the  latter  portion  of  the  Book  of 
Daniel  forms  the  connecting  link  between 
the  prophecies  of  the  Jewish  dispensation 
and  the  more  universal  revelation  of 
Christ  and  his  followers.  This  tradi¬ 
tional  interpretation  (which  dates  back 
as  far  as  the  Second  Book  of  Esdras 
and  the  Epistle  of  Barnabas)  is  rejected 
by  some  modern  commentators,  because 
it  is  thought  to  lose  sight  of  the  cyclic 
development  of  history;  so  that  the  divine 
utterance,  which  has  its  first  fulfillment  in 
one  period,  receives  a  further  and  more 
complete  one  in  the  corresponding  part  of 
some  other  period.  According  to  them,  the 
four  empires  are,  the  Babylonian,  Median, 
Persian,  and  Greek;  while  the  fifth  (the 
Christian),  striking  the  feet  of  the  compos¬ 
ite  image,  crushed  the  foundations  of  them 
all  (viz.  heathen  mythology),  and  prepared 
the  way  for  its  own  supremacy  over  all 
future  dominions.  Each  of  these  has  its 
antitype  in  the  Christian  era — Babylon  in 
Rome,  Media  in  Byzantium,  Persia,  with 
its  divided  power,  in  the  Teutonic  races, 
while  the  great  northern  nations  may 
hereafter  rival  the  conquests  of  Alexander 
— all  these  being  eventually  superseded  in 
the  triumph  of  Christ’s  second  Kingdom, 
as  the  former  empires  were  by  his  first  ad¬ 
vent.  In  this  way  the  Book  of  Daniel  is 
both  a  prophecy  and  a  revelation. 

“  Date  and  Authorship. — No  doubt  was 
expressed  as  to  the  authorship  of  Daniel, 
or  as  to  the  reality  of  the  events  narrated 
in  the  book,  until  the  fourth  century  A.  D. , 
when  Porphyry  denied  the  truth  of  the 
prophecies  concerning  Antiochus  Epiph- 
anes  (in  whose  reign  he  supposed  the  work 
to  have  been  written),  while  affirming 
the  historical  accuracy  of  the  preceding 
ones.  A  considerable  number  of  modern 
German  critics  have  rejected  the  whole 
book  as  spurious,  on  the  ground  that  the 
earlier  chapters  record  miracles  surpassing 
belief,  and  that  the  prophetic  portion  rep¬ 
resents  historic  events  in  such  minute  de¬ 
tail  as  to  preclude  the  possibility  of  its 
being  written  before  these  events.  These 
objections  are  founded  on  a  disbelief  in 
miraculous  power  and  in  prophetic  inspi¬ 
ration;  and  those  who  advanced  them  as¬ 
sign  the  composition  of  the  book  to  the 
period  between  b.  c.  170  and  164.  But  it 
is  impossible  to  believe  that  an  impostor 
would  have  written  what  professed  to  be 
one  continuous  book  partly  in  Chaldee 
and  partly  in  Hebrew,  intermingled  with 
Greek  words.  The  tone  of  the  whole  is 
thoroughly  Eastern,  and  the  Jewish  tradi¬ 
tion  is  most  reasonable,  that  each  historical 
event  was  recorded  at  the  time  it  happen¬ 


ed,  and  each  vision  also,  by  Daniel  him¬ 
self:  that  these  documents  were  conveyed, 
with  other  sacred  works,  from  Babylon  to 
Jerusalem,  at  the  time  of  ‘  the  Return,’ 
and  that  they  (as  well  as  the  Visions  of 
Ezekiel)  were  put  together  in  their  later 
form  by  the  ‘  Great  Synagogue.’  Dr. 
Pusey  says,  4  that  neither  its  language,  nor 
its  historical  references,  nor  its  doctrines, 
imply  any  later  date  than  that  of  Daniel 
himself;  but  that,  contrariwise,  the  char¬ 
acter  of  its  Hebrew  exactly  fits  with  the 
period  of  Daniel,  that  of  its  Chaldee  ex¬ 
cludes  any  later  period:  that  the  minute, 
fearless  touches,  involving  details  of  cus¬ 
toms,  state  institutions,  history,  belong  to 
a  contemporary,’  etc. 

“  Canonicity. — This  was  never  doubted 
until  the  last  two  centuries,  though  the 
exceptional  nature  of  the  book  caused  it  to 
be  isolated  by  the  Jewish  canonists,  who 
hesitated  to  give  it  a  place  among  the 
prophets,  but  arranged  it  with  the  Baby¬ 
lonish  documents  between  Esther  and  Ne- 
hemiah.  Its  popularity  in  early  times  was 
so  great  that  large  additions  and  alterations 
were  introduced  into  the  LXX.  version, 
which  became  entirely  discredited,  and 
was  superseded  by  that  of  Theodotion. 
The  latter,  as  well  as  the  Vulgate,  retained 
the  principal  additions,  which  are  relegated 
to  the  Apocrypha  in  the  English  Bible; 
and  the  old  LXX.  was  long  totally  lost,  and 
only  discovered  and  published  in  the  last 
century.” — “Oxford”  Teachers  Bible.  See 
Barnes:  Notes  (N.  Y.,  1853);  Speaker’s 
Com.  (N.Y.,1876);  Zockler.in  Lange’s  Com. 
English  translation  (N.  Y.,  1877);  Pusey 
(London,  1854);  J.  G.  Murphy  (1884);  R. 
P.  Smith  (1886). 

Daniel,  Apocryphal  Additions  to.  See 
Apocrypha.  j 

Dante  ( ddn'ta ),  Alighieri,  b.  at  Flor¬ 
ence,  1265;  d.  at  Ravenna,  1321.  The  po¬ 
litical  career  of  this  remarkable  man  is  too 
intricate  for  mention  here.  It  is.  as  a 
Christian  poet  that  his  name  occupies  a 
foremost  place  in  the  line  of  genius.  His 
immortal  work,  the  Divina  Commedia ,  ex¬ 
presses  such  views  of  religion  and  the 
Church  that  he  has  been  numbered  among 
the  forerunners  of  the  Reformation.  To 
use  his  own  words,  “  The  subject  of  the 
whole  work,  taken  literally,  is  the  state  of 
souls  after  death  regarded  as  a  matter  of 
fact  ;  taken  allegorically,  its  subject  is 
man,  in  so  far  as,  by  merit  or  demerit  in 
the  exercise  of  free-will,  he  is  exposed  to 
the  rewards  or  punishments  of  justice.” 
The  literature  on  the  life  and  works  of 
Dante  is  enormous.  The  first  complete 
American  translation  of  the  Comjnedia. 


4 


Dar  (  242  )  Dav 


was  that  of  Longfellow  (Boston,  1867),  3 
vols. 

Darboy,  Georges,  archbishop  of  Paris; 
b.  at  Fayl- Billot,  in  Haute-Marne,  Jan.  16, 
1813;  put  to  death  by  the  Communists,  in 
Paris,  May  27,  1S71.  He  was  an  earnest 
and  independent  thinker,  and  did  all  that 
he  could  to  suppress  the  Jesuits  and  other 
religious  orders  within  his  diocese.  Dur¬ 
ing  the  Franco- Prussian  war  he  was  untir¬ 
ing  in  his  efforts  to  assist  the  sick  and 
wounded.  He  would  not  forsake  his  post 
when  the  city  came  into  the  control  of  the 
Commune.  He  was  arrested  as  a  hostage, 
April  4,  1S71,  and  confined  in  the  prison  at 
Mazas,  and  then  in  La  Roquette,  where  he 
was  shot.  He  died  with  words  of  blessing 
and  forgiveness  upon  his  lips. 

Darbyites.  See  Plymouth  Brethren. 

Daric.  See  Money. 

Dari'us,  the  name  of  several  kings  men¬ 
tioned  in  the  Old  Testament. 

(1)  Darius  the  Mede  (Dan.  v.  31,  etc.), 
41  the  son  of  Ahasuerus  ”  (ix.  1).  He  slew 
Belshazzar,  and  became  king  of  the  Chal- 
daeans  at  sixty-two  years  of  age,  and  was 
the  immediate  predecessor  of  Cyrus.  His 
name  does  not  appear  in  profane  history. 

(2)  Darius,  son  of  Hystaspes,  the  found¬ 
er  of  the  Perso-Aryan  dynasty,  b.  c.  521- 
486.  Inscriptions,  as  well  as  the  Bible 
record,  show  that  he  was  a  pious  man  and 
had  a  prosperous  reign. 

(3)  Darius  the  Persian  (Neh.  xii.  22),  the 
antagonist  of  Alexander  the  Great:  he 
reigned  from  b.  c.  336  to  330. 

Daub,  Karl,  German  theologian;  b.  at 
Cassel,  March  20,  1765;  studied  at  Mar¬ 
burg,  and  in  1794  was  appointed  profes¬ 
sor  of  theology  at  Heidelberg,  where  he  d. , 
Nov.  22,  1836.  His  name  will  be  remem¬ 
bered  as  the  founder  of  the  speculative 
school  of  theology. 

D’Aubigne.  See  Merle  d’Aubigne. 

Davenport,  John,  Congregationalist;  b. 
at  Coventry,  Eng.,  1597;  d.  at  Boston, 
Mass.,  March  15,  1670.  He  was  educated 
at  Oxford,  and  at  the  age  of  nineeten  be¬ 
gan  to  preach  in  London.  As  rector  of  St. 
Stephen’s  he  was  recognized  as  a  man  of 
piety  and  learning.  He  was  among  those 
who  “  fell  under  the  notice  and  anger  ”  of 
Laud.  In  1633  he  went  to  Amsterdam, 
and  became  colleague  with  Mr.  Paget.  In 
1635  he  returned  to  England,  and  became 
interested  in  the  emigration  of  a  company 
of  Puritans  to  New  England.  Davenport 


arrived  in  Boston  in  the  summer  of  1637, 
and  in  the  following  spring,  with  Eaton, 
Hopkins,  and  others,  started  a  new  colony 
at  Quinnipiac  (now  New  Haven,  Conn.). 
He  was  pastor  here  for  thirty  years.  Dis¬ 
satisfied  with  the  condition  of  affairs  grow¬ 
ing  out  of  the  union  of  the  New  Haven 
colony  with  the  Connecticut  colony,  in 
16G7  he  accepted  an  invitation  to  become 
pastor  of  the  First  Church  in  Boston.  His 
name  will  ever  be  held  in  honor  as  one  of 
the  Puritan  founders  of  the  New  Haven 
colony,  and  a  man  of  marked  ability,  both 
as  a  scholar  and  leader  of  secular  and 
ecclesiastical  affairs.  He  wrote  but  little. 
See  list  in  Dexter  :  Congregationcilistn  as 
seen  in  its  Literature ,  Appendix. 

David  {beloved),  the  youngest  son  of 
Jesse,  of  the  tribe  of  Judah,  was  b.  in  Beth¬ 
lehem,  1085  B.  C.  He  was  anointed  king  of 
Israel  in  the  place  of  Saul,  by  the  prophet 
Samuel,  while  engaged  as  a  shepherd  in 
his  father’s  fields.  (1  Sam.  xvi.  13.)  It  is 
probable  that  neither  David  nor  his  friends 
realized  at  the  time  the  full  significance  of 
his  anointing.  Returning  to  his  shepherd 
life,  he  is  sent  for  by  Saul  to  soothe  his 
troubled  mind  by  his  skillful  playing  upon 
the  harp.  The  lad  gained  favor  in  the 
sight  of  Saul,  who  made  him  one  of  his 
armor-bearers,  and  requested  his  father  to 
allow  him  to  remain  at  his  court.  (1  Sam. 
xvi.  21-23.)  Returning  home  after  a  time 
— Josephus  says  “a  few  years” — we  read 
the  story  of  his  famous  contest  with  Go¬ 
liath.  He  had  changed  so  much  that  Saul 
did  not  recognize,  in  the  slayer  of  the  Phi¬ 
listine  giant,  the  player  upon  the  harp.  (1 
Sam.  xvii.  55.)  While  Saul  finally  kept  his 
promise,  and  gave  David  his  daughter, 
Michal,  in  marriage,  his  jealousy  was  kin¬ 
dled  into  furious  hate,  and  he  sought  to 
kill  him.  David  fled  first  to  Gath,  and  then 
into  the  wilderness,  where  he  became  the 
head  of  a  motley  crowd,  who,  for  various 
reasons,  had  sought  this  place  of  hiding. 
(1  Sam.  xxii.  1,2.)  The  death  of  Saul  and 
his  sons,  at  the  battle  on  Gilboa,  opened 
the  way  for  David  to  come  to  the  throne. 
In  Hebron  he  was  anointed  for  the  second 
time  as  king  of  Judah,  where  he  reigned 
for  seven  and  a  half  years.  At  the  death 
of  Ishbosheth  and  Abner,  he  was  chosen 
king  over  united  Israel,  and  was  again 
anointed.  (2  Sam.'v.  3.)  Under  his  adminis¬ 
tration  of  affairs  the  nation  rapidly  ad¬ 
vanced  in  power  and  wealth.  Having  gain¬ 
ed  possession  of  Jerusalem,  he  made  it  the 
capital  of  the  kingdom,  and  hither  the  ark 
was  brought,  and  the  ordinances  of  religion 
sustained.  He  then  formed  the  design  to 
erect  a  magnificent  temple  for  the  worship 
of  Jehovah,  a  service  which  fell  to  the  let 


Dav 


(  243  ) 


Day 


of  Solomon.  (2  Sam.  vii.)  During  these 
years  of  prosperity,  he  committed  sins 
which  brought  forth  harvests  of  evil  which 
even  repentance  did  not  destroy.  His 
criminal  conduct  toward  Bathsheba  and 
Uriah  involved  him  in  trouble  from  which 
he  never  escaped,  and  was  followed  by 
terrible  family  trials.  (2  Sam.  xiii.  14, 
29.)  The  rebellion  of  Absalom  shadow¬ 
ed  his  last  days  with  unutterable  sorrow; 
but  in  the  midst  of  these  afflictions  he  re¬ 
veals  the  trust  and  hope  of  a  heart  stayed 
upon  God  for  strength  and  salvation.  His 
farewell  address  to  the  leaders  of  the  na¬ 
tion  is  full  of  the  spirit  of  humility  and 
pious  wisdom.  (2  Sam.  xxii.,  xxiii.)  He 
died  b.  C.  1015,  and  was  buried  in  the 
44  City  of  David.”  (1  Kings  ii.  10.)  “  David 
was  a  type  of  Christ.  They  both  inherited 
their  kingdoms  after  suffering.  And  David, 
as  the  ruler  over  temporal  Israel,  was  a 
forerunner  of  the  Son  of  David,  who  was 
to  reign  over  the  spiritual  Israel  forever. 
(Matt.  i.  1;  ix.  27;  xii.  23,  etc.)  When 
David  is  spoken  of  as  a  man  after  God’s 
4  own  heart  ’  (1  Sam.  xiii.  14;  Acts  xiii. 
22),  reference  is  obviously  intended  to  his 
general  character  and  conduct,  and  not  to 
every  particular  instance  of  it.  As  he  was 
human,  he  was  imperfect;  and  when  he 
sinned  God  punished  him,  and  that  with 
great  severity.  But  he  was  remarkable 
for  his  devotion  to  God’s  service,  and  he 
kept  himself  from  idols.  He  established 
the  government  of  Israel,  and  extended  its 
dominion  to  the  full  extent  of  the  promise 
to  Abraham,  and  left  a  compact  and  united 
empire,  stretching  from  Egypt  to  Lebanon, 
and  from  the  Euphrates  to  the  Mediterra¬ 
nean.” — Schaff:  Bible  Dictionary.  For  the 
life  and  character  of  David,  as  revealed  in 
•  his  poetry,  see  Psalms.  See  W.  M.  Tay¬ 
lor:  David ,  King  of  Israel  (N.  Y.,  1875;  H. 
E.  Stone,  London  and  N.  Y.,  1888). 

David,  St.,  the  most  eminent  of  Welsh 
saints;  d.  probably  in  544.  The  story  of 
much  of  his  life  rests  upon  tradition. 
From  his  youth  he  was  of  devout  spirit 
and  an  earnest  student  of  the  Bible.  He 
early  began  to  preach,  and  among  the  mon¬ 
asteries  which  he  founded  was  one  at 
Menevia,  his  birthplace,  where  the  cathe¬ 
dral  of  St.  David’s  now  stands.  Here 
many  disciples  gathered  about  him  and  he 
won  distinction  for  piety  and  theological 
learning.  Retiring  in  disposition,  it  was 
with  difficulty  he  was  constrained  to  at¬ 
tend  the  synod  at  Brefi,  which  met  in  519, 
to  suppress  the  Pelagian  heresy.  He 
proved  so  valiant  a  champion  of  the  faith 
that  not  long  after  he  was  elected  primate 
of  Britain.  At  first  he  declined,  but  ac¬ 
cepted  on  the  condition  that  the  seat  of  the 


archbishopric  should  be  removed  from 
Caerleon  to  Menevia.  He  called  a  second 
synod  that  was  so  successful  in  its  attack 
upon  Pelagianism  that  it  was  known  as  the 
“  Synod  of  Victory.”  His  primacy  was 
marked  by  vigorous  growth,  and  his  saint¬ 
ly  life  by  devotion  and  apostolic  zeal. 

David,  Christian.  See  Moravians. 

David  George.  See  Joris. 

Davidists,  disciples  of  David  Joris.  See 
Joris. 

Davidson,  Andrew  Bruce,  D.  D.,  Free 
Church  of  Scotland;  b.  in  Scotland  about 
1840;  he  was  ordained  in  1863,  and  the 
same  year  became  professor  of  Hebrew 
and  Old  Testament  exegesis,  New  College, 
Edinburgh.  He  was  a  member  of  the  Old 
Testament  Revision  Company.  He  is  the 
author  of  A  Commentary  on  Job  (Edinburgh, 
vol.  i. ,  1862);  An  Introductory  Hebrew  Gram- 
mar  (1874;  4th  ed.,  1881);  The  Epistle  to  the 
Hebrews  ( 1882);  Job  (Cambridge,  1884). 

Davies,  Samuel,  b.  in  New  Castle  Co., 
Del.,  1724;  d.  at  Princeton,  1761.  He  was 
a  very  eloquent  and  successful  Presbyte¬ 
rian  minister.  In  1753  he  visited  Great 
Britain  and  collected  a  large  sum  for 
Princeton  College.  He  succeeded  Jon¬ 
athan  Edwards  in  1759  as  president  of  that 
institution.  An  American  edition  of  his 
sermons  was  published  in  1851  (N.Y.),  with 
Memoir  by  Albert  Barnes. 

Day.  The  Hebrews  reckoned  their  day 
from  evening  to  evening,  probably  from 
their  use  of  a  lunar  calendar.  “  The  Sab¬ 
bath  was  the  only  day  with  a  name:  the 
others  were  simply  numbered.  The  day 
was  divided  into  morning ,  noon ,  and  night 
(Psa.  lv.  17),  and  also  into  six  unequal 
parts,  which  were  again  subdivided  :  (1) 
Dazun,  subdivided  into  gray  dawn  and 
rosy  dawn;  (2)  Sunrise;  (3)  The  heat-  of  the 
day ,  about  9  o’clock  (1  Sam.  xi.  11;  Neh. 
vii.  3,  etc.);  (4)  The  two  noons  (Gen.  xliii. 
16);  (5)  The  cool  (lit.  wind)  of  the  day ,  before 
sunset  (Gen.  iii.  8)  ;  (6)  Evening.  The 
phrase  ‘  between  the  two  evenings  ’  of 
Exod.  xii.  6;  xxx.  8,  probably  means  4  be¬ 
tween  the  beginning  and  end  of  sunset.’ 
Hours  are  first  mentioned  in  the  Bible  in 
Dan.  iii.  6,  and  hence  were  probably  of 
Babylonian  origin.  The  Jews  got  their 
first  sun-dial  from  Babylon.  (2  Kings  xx. 
11.)  In  our  Lord’s  time  the  division  was 
common.  (John  xi.  9.)  The  third,  sixth, 
and  ninth  hours  were  devoted  to  prayer. 
The  Jews,  before  the  captivity,  divided  the 
night  into  three  watches,  from  sunset  to 


Day 


(  244  ) 


Dea 


midnight  (Lam.  ii.  19),  from  midnight  to 
cock-crow  (Judg.  vii.  19),  from  cock-crow 
to  sunrise  (Exod.  xiv.  24).  In  the  New 
Testament,  mention  is  made  of  four 
watches,  because  the  Greek  and  Roman 
division  was  then  adopted.  The  word 
‘  day’  is  used  figuratively,  and  rather  for 
a  period  than  for  a  set  time;  thus,  a  day  of 
ruin  (Job.  xviii.  20),  the  day  of  Christ 
(John  viii.  56),  the  Judgment-day  (Joel  i. 
15).  The  days  of  creation  were  creative 
days,  stages  in  the  process,  but  not  days 
of  twenty-four  hours  each.” — Schaff-Her- 
zog:  Ency.,  s.  v. 

Day,  Jeremiah,  D.  D.,  LL.  D.,  a  pres¬ 
ident  of  Yale  College;  b.  at  New  Preston, 
Conn.,  Aug.  3,  1773;  d.  at  New  Haven, 
Conn.,  Aug.  22,  1867.  He  was  graduated 
at  Yale  in  1795,  and  in  1801  was  elected  pro¬ 
fessor  of  mathematics  and  natural  philos¬ 
ophy.  In  1817  he  entered  upon  his  duties 
as  president,  and  continued  in  this  office 
until  1846.  He  wrote  a  series  of  mathe¬ 
matical  text-books.  His  influence  over  the 
young  men  who  were  in  the  college  during 
the  long  period  of  his  administration  was 
remarkable. 

Day’s  Journey,  a  distance  mentioned  in 
Gen.  xxxi.  23;  Ex.  iii.  18;  Luke  ii.  44.  It 
marked  the  average  space  that  would  be 
traveled  on  camel  or  horseback  in  a  day, 
ordinarily  a  distance  of  twenty -five  to 
thirty  miles. 

Daysman.  At  the  time  the  Bible  was 
translated  a  common  meaning  of  the  word 
was  that  of  “  umpire,”  one  who  shall  act 
as  arbitrator  at  an  appointed  day. 

Day-spring,  the  first  dawning  of  the  light 
(Job.  xxxviii.  12;  Luke  i.  78). 

Day-star  or  Morning-star  (2  Peter  i. 
19),  a  figurative  expression  denoting  the 
light  which  shines  on  the  soul  of  the  be¬ 
liever,  and  reveals  the  inner  spiritual  mean¬ 
ing  of  the  truth. 

Deacon  (servant).  As  the  title  of  an  office 
this  name  was  first  given  to  the  seven  men 
who  were  appointed  to  serve  tables,  and 
thus  relieve  the  apostles,  so  that  they  could 
give  themselves  more  fully  to  the  work  of 
the  ministry.  They  were  set  apart  by 
prayer,  and  the  laying-on  of  hands.  (Acts 
vi.  1-6.)  Two  of  these  men,  Stephen  and 
Philip,  afterward  labored  as  evangelists. 
The  qualifications  and  duties  of  the  office 
of  deacon  are  laid  down  in  Acts.  vi.  1-6, 
and  1  Tim.  iii.  8-12.  The  churches  of 
Christendom  give  very  different  mean¬ 
ings  and  functions  to  this  office.  (1)  In 


the  Church  of  England  and  the  Protestant 
Episcopal  Church  of  the  United  States  they 
form  one  of  the  three  sacred  orders,  as  in 
the  Greek  and  Roman  Churches.  (2)  In 
the  Lutheran  Church  the  “  diaconus  ”  is 
merely  the  title  of  an  assistant  clergyman, 
or  chaplain  of  subordinate  rank.  (3)  In  the 
Dutch  and  German  Refor?ned  churches  the 
deacons  have  special  care  of  the  contribu¬ 
tions  for  the  poor,  and  also  provide  for 
the  support  of  the  ministry.  The  Presby¬ 
terian  Church  recognizes  the  office,  but  in 
practice  its  duties  in  caring  for  the  tem¬ 
poralities  of  the  Church  are  often  given 
in  charge  of  the  lay  elders  or  the  board  of 
trustees.  (4)  In  the  Congregational  churches 
the  office  of  deacon  is  very  important,  and 
takes  the  place  of  lay  elders  in  the  Pres¬ 
byterian  churches.  (5)  In  the  Methodist 
Episcopal  Church  the  deacons  constitute  an 
order  in  the  ministry.  They  are  elected 
by  the  annual  conferences  and  ordained  by 
the  bishop.  Their  duties  are:  “  (1)  toad- 
minister  baptism  and  to  solemnize  matri¬ 
mony.  (2)  To  assist  the  elder  in  adminis¬ 
tering  the  Lord’s  Supper.  (3)  To  do  all 
the  duties  of  a  traveling  preacher.”  They 
must  exercise  their  office  for  two  years 
before  they  are  eligible  for  the  office  of 
elder.  Local  deacons  may  become  elders 
after  preaching  four  years. 

Deaconesses.  The  English  word  “  dea¬ 
coness  ”  is  derived  from  the  Greek  word  e 
diakonos ,  meaning  servant  or  helper.  The 
idea  may  be  traced  back  to  the  second 
chapter  of  Genesis,  in  which  woman  is 
called  by  the  noblest  of  titles,  a  help. 

(1)  Deaconesses  in  the  Apostolic  Church. — 
The  first  deaconess  called  by  the  name 
e  diakonos  is  Phoebe.  Nearly  all  author¬ 
ities  agree  that  the  proper  translation  of 
the  celebrated  passage,  Romans  xvi.  1, 
should  be,  “  Phoebe,  ...  a  deaconess,” 
instead  of  “  Phoebe,  .  .  .  a  servant.”  The 
revisers  of  the  New  Testament  have  re¬ 
tained  the  word  “  servant  ”  in  the  text,  but 
have  given  Phoebe  her  due  in  the  margin, 
where  they  call  her  a  “  deaconess.”  Ow¬ 
ing  to  several  like  unfortunate  translations 
of  the  words  e  diakonos  and  e  guni 
(woman),  it  is  difficult  to  prove  that  the 
Order  of  deaconesses  is  apostolic,  but  the 
New  Testament  is  exceedingly  reticent 
concerning  all  details  of  ecclesiastical  or¬ 
ganization. 

(2)  Deaconesses  in  the  Early  Church. — 
There  is  no  doubt  as  to  the  existence  of  the 
order  in  very  early  times.  Pliny  the 
Younger,  governor  of  Bithynia,  in  his 
celebrated  letter  concerning  the  Chris¬ 
tians  to  the  Emperor  Trajan,  a.  d.  107, 
speaks  of  two  deaconesses,  whom  he  calls 
“  ministrae  ;  ”  while  Tertullian,  Origen, 


Dea 


(  245  ) 


Dea 


Basil,  Chrysostom,  and  many  others,  fre¬ 
quently  mention  deaconesses,  calling  them 
e  diakonos,  or  using,  later,  the  feminine 
form,  e  diakonissa.  Chrysostom  lived  in 
the  last  half  of  the  fourth  century.  He 
was  much  interested  in  the  order,  and  had 
many  devoted  friends  among  deaconesses. 
Among  his  writings  are  seventeen  letters 
addressed  to  Olympias,  a  lady  of  wealth 
and  rank,  who  for  many  years  was  a  dea¬ 
coness  in  Constantinople. 

The  early  Church,  like  its  great  Founder, 
reckoned  the  care  of  the  poor  a  religious 
service,  and  this  was,  undoubtedly,  the 
first  work  of  the  deaconesses,  as  it  was 
•certainly  the  first  work  of  deacons,  accord¬ 
ing  to  the  sixth  chapter  of  Acts.  As  the 
organization  of  the  Church  became  more 
complicated,  the  duties  of  deaconesses  in¬ 
creased.  The  women  of  the  Church  were 
•secluded  from  the  ministrations  of  the 
deacons  in  many  countries  where  Chris¬ 
tianity  was  preached,  and  in  all  countries 
there  were  duties  pertaining  to  the  sick 
and  destitute  that  only  women  could 
do. 

Thus  the  order  increased  rapidly  in  im¬ 
portance,  and  the  duties  of  the  deacon¬ 
esses  became  more  numerous.  They  in¬ 
structed  female  and  youthful  catechumens 
in  the  doctrine  of  the  Church,  and  when 
the  looked-for  time  came  that  these  cate¬ 
chumens  were  to  be  baptized,  they  ren¬ 
dered  needed  assistance  at  that  ceremony, 
which  was  often  longer  and  more  formal 
than  the  simple  baptism  of  the  modern 
Church.  Another  sad  duty  became  theirs 
when  it  was  found  that  women  more  easily 
than  men  could  gain  access  to  those  im¬ 
prisoned  for  their  faith,  and  especially 
those  soon  to  receive  a  martyr’s  crown. 
Deaconesses  are  especially  mentioned  as 
visiting  such,  and  administering  to  them 
the  consolations  and  encouragements  of 
the  Gospel.  Later,  we  find  them  doing 
regular  systematic  church  visitation,  and 
bringing  personal  womanly  influence  to 
bear  in  every  possible  way  in  gaining  con¬ 
verts  to  the  new  faith. 

Deaconesses  were  at  first  ordained  with 
solemn  ceremony,  by  the  laying-on  of  the 
hands  of  the  bishop,  or  some  ecclesiastical 
authority.  We  find,  however,  in  later 
times,  nearly  as  much  of  a  battle  raging 
around  this  question  as  at  the  present 
time,  some  of  the  councils  bitterly  de¬ 
nouncing  it  as  allied  to  the  ceremonies  by 
which  heathen  priestesses  were  consecrat¬ 
ed.  Others  declared  that  the  early  custom 
of  laying-on  of  hands  was  only  a  benedic¬ 
tion,  and  not  for  ordination.  The  facts  are, 
probably,  that  the  sharp  distinctions  be¬ 
tween  benediction  and  ordination  did  not 
exist  in  very  early  times  as  they  did  a  few 


centuries  later,  and  as  they  do  at  the  pres¬ 
ent  time. 

In  early  times  a  great  number  of  women 
were  found  in  the  ranks  of  the  deaconess 
order.  Even  women  of  wealth  and  noble 
birth  are  mentioned  as  applicants.  A  single 
church  in  Constantinople  had,  at  one  time, 
forty  deaconesses  pushing  its  work,  and  a 
smaller  church  in  the  same  city  had  six  of 
these  assistants.  But  from  the  time  of 
Constantine  down,  the  order  declined, 
doubtless  because  of  the  spirit  of  monasti- 
cism  that  had  invaded  the  Church.  The 
Eastern  or  Greek  Church  was  not  so  early 
affected  by  this  spirit  as  was  the  Western 
or  Latin,  and  we  are  therefore  not  sur¬ 
prised  to  find  that  while  in  the  Western 
Church  the  Order  became  extinct  in  the 
sixth  century,  in  the  Eastern  it  lingered 
until  the  twelfth. 

(3)  Deaconesses  of  the  Reformation.  — 

With  the  Reformation  came  an  effort  to 
again  establish  the  order  in  the  Church. 
In  the  Bohemian  and  Anabaptist  churches 
deaconesses  arose  informally;  and  in  the 
Netherlands  special  legislation  in  their 
favor  was  almost  effected.  In  1851  the 
tide  turned,  and  they  were  formally  disap¬ 
proved.  In  a  Puritan  church  in  Amster¬ 
dam,  however,  we  find  an  “  ancient  widow  ” 
acting  as  deaconess  as  late  as  1606.  In 
England,  also,  the  Puritans  heartily  ap¬ 
proved  of  deaconesses,  but  in  spite  of 
ecclesiastical  approval  the  order  did  not 
flourish. 

(4)  Deaconesses  of  the  Modern  Church. — 
To  Theodore  Fliedner  belongs  the  honor 
of  having  brought  again  into  prominence 
the  primitive  order  of  deaconesses,  after 
an  almost  total  lapse  of  a  thousand  years. 
He  earnestly  believed  in  the  scripturalness 
of  the  order.  He  perceived  that  women 
had  a  special  gift  for  service,  and  was 
greatly  impressed  with  the  need  of  such 
service  in  Germany,  and  these  convictions 
worked  out  gradually  into  the  Kaiserswerth 
Deaconess  System,  so  called  because  its 
headquarters  are  at  Kaiserswerth,  on  the 
Rhine.  The  beginning  of  his  great  system 
of  work  was  very  simple,  and  though  he 
was  opposed  by  many  Protestants,  and  all 
Romanists, his  work  gradually  grew.  There 
was  soon  an  urgent  demand  for  trained 
nurses  and  other  deaconesses  and  they 
were  sent  far  and  near.  The  king  and 
queen  became  patrons  of  the  institution, 
and  money  was  liberally  given.  Schools 
and  reformatories  were  opened,  also  or¬ 
phanages,  lunatic  asylums,  and  servant 
girls’  training  schools.  A  farm,  a  drug 
store,  bakeries,  and  bath-houses  were  add¬ 
ed,  indeed  all  things  necessary  to  an  im¬ 
mense  establishment.  This  institution  has 
now  (1S90)  an  income  of  $1,000,000  yearly. 


Dea 


(  246  ) 


Dea 


Florence  Nightingale  and  Agnes  Jones 
received  much  of  their  training  at  Kaisers¬ 
werth,  though  they  were  never  deacon¬ 
esses. 

The  Kaiserswerth  deaconesses  are  large¬ 
ly  made  up  from  the  lower  classes  of 
German  women.  They  serve  a  probation 
of  three  or  four  months,  and  are  afterward 
received,  promising  to  remain  five  years. 
There  is  nothing  rigid  about  this  promise, 
however,  and  it  is  understood  that  urgent 
family  calls  shall  take  precedence  of  it. 
This  work  is  by  no  means  confined  to 
Kaiserswerth.  There  are  twenty  -  five 
“Affiliated  Houses”  scattered  over  not 
only  Germany,  but  Italy,  England,  Asia 
Minor,  Syria,  Northern  Africa,  and  even 
America;  besides  these  there  are  many 
stations  where  the  work  is  carried  on  in  a 
smaller  way.  The  property  held  in  all 
these  centres  of  work  is  owned  by  an  as¬ 
sociation  with  headquarters  at  Kaisers¬ 
werth. 

Pastor  Fliednerdied  in  1864,  but  his  wife 
and  son-in-law  carry  on  the  work. 

There  are  other  deaconess  establish¬ 
ments  in  Europe,  all  later  than,  and  all 
largely  modeled  after,  the  Kaiserswerth 
establishment.  In  Paris,  in  1841,  Rev. 
Antoine  Vermeil  founded  the  Mother- 
House  which  in  turn  has  its  affiliated 
houses  and  stations.  In  1842  Pastor  Har¬ 
ter  founded  a  Mother-House  at  Strasburg, 
and,  very  soon  after,  Pastor  Germond 
founded  the  St.  Loup  Mother-House  in 
Switzerland.  Other  institutions  are  found 
at  Riehen,  near  Basle,  and  at  Zurich. 

In  1874  the  Methodist  Episcopal  Church 
in  Germany  established  a  deaconess  in¬ 
stitution,  which  has  one  hundred  and  ten 
deaconesses  under  its  auspices,  with 
stations  at  Frankfort,  Berlin,  Hamburg, 
Zurich  and  St.  Gallens. 

There  are  now  (1890)  7,500  deaconesses, 
of  all  denominations,  in  Germany. 

About  twenty-five  years  ago  several 
deaconess  institutions  were  started  in 
England.  Like  those  on  the  Continent 
they  were  largely  patterned  after  Kaisers¬ 
werth.  Some  of  them  are  in  the  “  Low 
Church  ”  or  supported  by  Non-conformists. 
The  celebrated  Deaconess  House  founded 
at  Mildmay  by  the  Rev.  William  Penne- 
father,  has  at  present  one  hundred  deacon¬ 
esses.  Mr.  Pennefather  was  pastor  in  the 
Established  Church,  but  his  deaconesses’ 
work  was  undenominational. 

There  are  some  eight  or  ten  “  High- 
Church  ”  Episcopal  deaconess  institutions 
in  England,  but  none  of  them  are  in  a  very 
flourishing  condition. 

In  1849  Pastor  Fliedner,  in  response  to 
frequent  calls  from  America,  sent  four 
deaconesses  to  Pittsburg,  Pa.,  to  establish 


a  Mother -House  in  connection  with  the 
German  Hospital  in  that  place.  The  out¬ 
look  for  this  venture  was  for  a  time  most 
promising,  but  for  some  reason  the  num¬ 
ber  of  deaconesses  decreased  instead  of 
multiplying. 

In  1864  there  was  a  deaconess  organiza¬ 
tion  in  the  Protestant  Episcopal  Church. 
Since  that  date  there  have  been  various 
centres  for  the  order  in  that  denomination, 
but  they  have  not  flourished,  and  their 
deaconesses  now  number  less  than  twenty. 

In  1887  a  deaconess  organization  was 
formed  in  Philadelphia  under  the  auspices 
of  the  Evangelical  Lutheran  Church.  A 
magnificent  gift  from  Mr.  John  D.  Lanke- 
nau,  has  enabled  this  denomination  to 
build  a  beautiful  Home  for  Deaconesses 
which  they  have  named  the  Mary  J. 
Drexel  Deaconess  House  in  sonor  of  Mr. 
Lankenau’s  wife.  There  are  in  this  in¬ 
stitution  twenty-five  deaconesses,  fifteen  of 
whom  have  been  licensed,  leaving  ten  pro¬ 
bationers. 

The  Presbyterians  and  Congregational- 
ists  of  America  are  becoming  interested  in 
the  movement,  as  indicated  by  strongly 
commendatory  resolutions  in  synods  and 
councils. 

The  Methodist  Episcopal  Church  has 
moved  with  more  energy  in  this  work  than 
any  other  denomination  in  our  country. 
In  the  spring  of  1888  the  General  Con¬ 
ference  authorized  the  establishment  of  an 
Order  of  Deaconesses.  The  recognition 
and  organization  of  this  order  in  the  de¬ 
nomination  was  doubtless  due  to  the  fact 
that  a  Home  for  women  who  were  in¬ 
formally  called  “  deaconesses  ”  had  been  in 
successful  operation  in  Chicago  for  nearly 
a  year,  under  the  management  of  Rev.  J. 
S.  Meyer  and  his  wife,  Lucy  Rider  Meyer. 

This  denomination  requires  the  women, 
preparing  for  the  deaconess  work,  to  pass 
two  years  in  study  and  practical  work,  after 
which  they  are  licensed  by  the  conference 
in  which  they  work.  This  denomination  has 
three  licensed  deaconesses  and  sixty  proba¬ 
tioners  in  various  stages  of  preparation  for 
license.  So  rapidly  has  this  work  grown 
that  there  are  now  Homes  in  Chicago,  Cin¬ 
cinnati,  Minneapolis,  New  York,  Boston,  St. 
Louis,  Detroit,  Colorado  Springs,  Phila¬ 
delphia,  Cleveland,  Buffalo,  and  Washing¬ 
ton,  D.  C.  They  have  not  confined  them¬ 
selves  to  the  home  fields. 

Through  the  efforts  of  Bishop  J.  M. 
Thoburnand  others,  there  are  now,  in  India, 
Deaconess  Homes  in  Muttra,  Calcutta,  and 
Lucknow,  and  two  others  projected,  one  to 
be  located  in  Tokio,  Japan,  and  the  other 
in  Nankin,  China. 

The  deaconess  of  this  denomination 
takes  no  vows  and  is  free  to  leave  the  or- 


Dea 


(  247  ) 


Ded 


der  at  any  time  during  her  probation,  or 
after.  No  discredit  or  dishonor  attaches 
to  her  in  any  way  if  she  marries,  or  for  any 
reason  leaves  the  work.  She  is  under  no 
restrictions  or  special  directions  except 
such  as  is  immediately  connected  with  her 
work.  If  she  has  any  property,  it  is  her 
own  unless  she  chooses  to  give  it,  or  a 
part  of  it,  to  the  cause. 

All  deaconesses  in  all  countries  wear 
uniforms  which  differ  in  color  and  make, 
but  there  is  absolute  uniformity  in  the  mat¬ 
ter  of  support.  All  work  without  salary, 
content  with  such  support  as  may  be  fur¬ 
nished  them  and  a  small  sum  of  pocket 
money  each  month.  They  are  promised 
the  best  of  care  in  times  of  sickness,  and  a 
sure  support  in  old  age. 

The  work  of  the  deaconess  is  to  simply 
supplement  the  work  of  the  pastor.  They 
are  to  care  for  the  sick  and  suffering,  dis¬ 
tribute  such  clothing  and  supplies  as  may 
be  sent  them  for  the  poor,  care  for  the 
children,  visit  the  prisoners,  and,  in  short, 
do  “  whatsoever  their  hands  find  to  do.” 

E.  E.  H. 

Dead,  Baptism  for  the.  Among  some 
ancient  heretical  parties  the  custom  pre¬ 
vailed  of  vicarious  baptism.  When  an  un¬ 
baptized  convert  died  they  baptized  a  liv¬ 
ing  person  in  his  stead.  This  practice 
they  justified  by  a  perverted  interpretation 
of  1  Cor.  xv.  29. 

Dead,  Communion  of  the.  In  the  an¬ 
cient  Church  the  practice  prevailed  of  ad¬ 
ministering  the  Eucharist  before  burial,  in 
the  case  of  those  who,  by  sudden  death, 
were  prevented  from  receiving  it.  For  a 
time,  it  was  the  custom  to  place  a  small 
piece  of  bread  in  the  mouth  of  the  corpse. 
Later  it  was  simply  laid  on  his  breast,  and 
buried  with  the  body.  The  Third  Council 
of  Carthage  forbade  the  superstition,  but 
traces  of  it  are  found  in  the  Greek  Church 
in  the  days  of  Chrysostom. 

Dead,  Prayers  for  the.  See  Purga¬ 
tory. 

Dean,  (1)  a  presbyter  appointed  to  pre¬ 
side  as  the  bishop’s  deputy  over  a  division 
of  his  diocese.  (2)  The  chief  officer  of  a 
cathedral. 

Death  is  spoken  of  in  the  Scriptures  in 
three  senses:  (1)  Physical  death,  the  separa¬ 
tion  of  soul  and  body,  in  which  the  spirit 
takes  its  flight  (Eccl.  xii.  7),  and  the  body 
returns  to  dust.  (Gen.  iii.  19;  Eccl.  iii.  20.) 
(2)  Spiritual  death,  the  result  of  sin  alien¬ 
ating  the  soul  from  God.  (1  John  i.  5.)  All 
men  are  dead  in  trespasses  and  sins.  (Eph. 


ii.  1,  5;  Col.  ii.  13;  comp.  Luke  xv.  32.)  (3) 
The  second  or  eternal  death.  (Rev.  xx.  14; 
xxi.  8.)  Those  who  overcome  (Rev.  ii.  11), 
and  are  partakers  of  the  “  first  resurrec¬ 
tion  ”  shall  not  suffer  from  it.  (Rev.  xx.  6.) 
Death  is  the  penalty  of  Adam’s  transgres¬ 
sion,  but  Christ  has  destroyed  its  power 
over  those  who  are  quickened  by  his  divine 
life.  To  the  believer,  death  is  a  falling 
asleep  in  Jesus  (1  Thess.  iv.  14),  and  an 
entering  into  eternal  rest  and  blessedness. 
(Rev.  xiv.  13.) 

Deb'orah,  (1)  the  nurse  of  Rebekah. 
(Gen.  xxxv.  8.)  (2)  A  judge  and  prophetess. 
Through  her  influence  Barak  led  Israel 
into  battle  against  the  Canaanites,  and 
completely  routed  them.  The  triumphal 
song,  in  which  Deborah  celebrates  the  vic¬ 
tory,  is  remarkable  for  its  beauty  and  sub¬ 
limity.  All  that  we  know  of  this  heroic 
woman  is  found  in  Judges  iv.  and  v. 

Decalogue.  See  Ten  Commandments. 

Decap'olis  (ten  cities ),  a  region  near  the 
Sea  of  Galilee,  probably  on  both  sides  of 
the  Jordan.  It  is  noticed  three  times  in 
the  Bible.  (Matt.  iv.  25;  Mark  v.  20;  vii. 
31.)  The  ten  cities,  according  to  Pliny, 
were  Scythopolis,  Hippos,  Gadara,  Pella, 
Philadelphia,  Gerasa,  Dion,  Canatha,  Ra- 
phana,  Damascus.  They  were  rebuilt  by 
the  Romans,  b.  c.  65.  All  but  six  are  now 
deserted,  and  Damascus  is  the  only  one  of 
any  importance. 

Decius,  Roman  Emperor  (249-251).  He 
issued  the  edict  in  250  against  the  Chris¬ 
tians,  that  was  followed  by  the  most  bitter 
persecution.  Multitudes  were  martyred, 
among  them,  Origen.  See  Persecutions. 

Decretals,  letters  from  the  popes  of  Rome 
deciding  ecclesiastical  law. 

Decretals,  Isidorian.  See  Pseudo-Is- 
idorian  Decretals. 

Decretum,  Gratiani.  See  Canon  Law. 

Dedication,  “  a  religious  ceremony  by 
which  a  person,  place,  or  thing  was  set 
apart  for  the  service  of  God,  or  a  sacred1 
use.  (Num.  vii;  2  Sam.  viii.  11;  1  Kings 
viii.)  Cities,  walls,  gates,  and  private 
houses  were  thus  dedicated.  (Neh.  xii.  27.) 
The  practice  of  consecration  was  very  com¬ 
mon  among  the  Jews,  and  was  suited  to 
the  peculiar  dispensation  under  which  they 
lived.” — Schaff:  Bible  Did.  The  “  Feast  of 
the  Dedication  ”  was  instituted  to  com¬ 
memorate  the  purging  of  the  temple  and 
the  rebuilding  of  the  altar,  under  Judas 


Maccabseus.  It  is  referred  to  in  John  x. 
22.  The  feast  lasted  eight  days,  and  the 
Hallel  (Psa.  cxiii  to  cxviii),  was  sung  every 
day.  The  modern  Jews  keep  it  on  Dec.  12. 
See  Consecration. 

Deems,  Charles  Force,  b.  D.  (Ran- 
dolph-Macon  College,  Ashland,  Va. ,  1850), 
LL.  D.  (University  of  North  Carolina, 
Chapel  Hill,  1877);  b.  at  Baltimore,  Md., 
Dec.  4,  1820;  was  graduated  at  Dickinson 
College,  Carlisle,  Pa.,  1839;  professor  of 
logic  and  rhetoric,  University  of  North 
Carolina,  1842-45;  of  chemistry,  Randolph- 
Macon  College,  Virginia,  1845-46;  Pres¬ 
ident  of  Greensborough  Female  College, 
1850-55;  since  1866  has  been  pastor  of  the 
Church  of  the  Strangers,  New  York  City. 
He  founded  the  American  Institute  of 
Christian  Philosophy,  1881,  of  which  he 
has  since  been  the  President.  He  is  the 
author  of  a  Life  of  Jesus  (New  York,  1872; 
new  ed.,  1880;  The  Gospel  of  Common-Sense , 
as  Contained  in  the  Canonical  Epistle  of 
fames  (1889),  and  other  volumes. 

Defender  of  the  Faith,  a  title  given  to 
the  sovereigns  of  England.  It  was  orig¬ 
inally  conferred  by  Leo  X.  on  Henry  VIII. , 
for  his  work  against  Luther.  After  the 
pope  deposed  Henry,  he  deprived  him  of 
the  title,  but  Parliament  restored  it  by  spe¬ 
cial  act. 

Defensor  Matrimonii,  an  officer  in  the 
Roman  Catholic  Church,  whose  duty  it  is 
to  prevent,  if  possible,  the  granting  of 
divorces  in  matrimonial  suits.  The  law 
which  governs  their  action  is  found  in  the 
bull  Dei  Miseratione  of  Benedict  XIV. 
(I74i)- 

Degradation,  in  the  ancient  church,  de¬ 
noted  the  punishment  by  which  the  offender 
was  removed  from  a  higher  to  a  lower 
office.  Before  the  twelfth  century  it  was 
an  act  that  deprived  the  condemned  of  all 
clerical  dignities.  Those  stripped  of  their 
orders  were  turned  over  to  the  secular 
court  for  punishment,  or  confined  in  monas¬ 
teries  for  the  rest  of  their  life.  A  degraded 
priest  was  publicly  stripped  of  his  vest¬ 
ments  by  the  bishop,  and  his  head  was 
shaved  to  obliterate  the  mark  of  the  ton- 
sure. 

Degrees,  Songs  of.  See  Psalms. 

Dei  Gratia  (by  the  grace  of  God).  This 
expression,  first  used  by  St.  Paul,  was 
early  adopted  by  the  bishops  as  successors 
of  the  apostles,  and  then  by  the  clergy 
generally.  By  the  Frankish  emperors, 
and  afterward  by  persons  of  high  rank,  it 


was  employed  to  express  that  it  was  by- 
God’s  will  they  held  their  exalted  position. 

Deism  represents  the  views  of  those 
who  believe  in  the  existence  of  God,  but 
deny  that  he  has  made  any  revelation  of 
himself  beyond  that  afforded  by  reason  and 
the  works  of  nature.  There  are  so-called 
Deists  who  deny  the  providence  of  God  in 
the  affairs  of  men,  while  some  find  in  ihe 
Scriptures  the  highest  expression  of  moral¬ 
ity,  and  others  deny  the  immortality  of  the 
soul  and  impugn  the  character  of  Christ. 

Deism  had  its  rise  in  the  seventeenth 
century,  out  of  the  strifes  of  parties  in  the 
Church  of  England,  and  the  intellectual 
ferment  of  thought  that  was  aroused  by 
the  philosophical  principles  suggested  by 
Bacon,  Hobbes,  and  Locke.  For  an  out¬ 
line  of  the  views  held  by  the  Deists,  prop¬ 
erly  so  called,  see  Herbert  of  Cherbury; 
Blout,  Charles  ;  Collins,  Anthony; 
Woolston,  Thomas;  Tindel,  Matthew; 
Chubb,  Thomas;  Bolingbroke. 

Delitzsch,  Franz,  Ph.  D.,  D.  D.,  German 
Lutheran  theologian;  b.  at  Leipzig,  Feb. 
23,  1813,  of  Hebrew  descent;  d.  there, 
March  4,  1890.  He  studied  at  Leipzig  and 
became  privat-docent ,  1842;  ordinary  pro¬ 
fessor  of  theology  at  Rostock,  1846;  at 
Erlangen,  1850;  Leipzig,  1867.  His  ac¬ 
quirements  were  profound  in  biblical  and 
post-biblical  Hebrew,  and  he  was  often 
called  “  the  Christian  Talmudist.”  Deeply 
interested  in  the  welfare  and  conversion  of 
the  Jews,  from  1S63  he  edited  a  paper  hav¬ 
ing  this  object  in  view,  and  translated  the 
New  Testament  into  Hebrew  (London, 
1877;  8th  ed.  1889).  In  1880  he  reorganized 
the  “  Institutum  Judaicum,”  and  in  1886 
opened  a  school  for  the  training  of  mis¬ 
sionaries  among  the  Jews.  His  commen¬ 
taries  on  the  Old  Testament  are  of  great 
value.  The  complete  list  of  his  works, 
down  to  1886,  is  given  in  the  Encyclopedia 
of  Living  Divines ,  edited  by  Schaff  and 
Jackson  (New  York,  1887).  Among  his 
works  that  have  since  appeared  in  transla¬ 
tions  are:  Commentary  on  Genesis  (Edin¬ 
burgh,  1888);  Psalms  ( London,  1887-89),  3 
vols. ;  A  Day  in  Capernaum  (New  York, 
1887);  Behold  the  Man  !  (New  York,  1889). 
Delitzsch  was  a  remarkable  example  of 
fruit-bearing  even  into  old  age. 

De  Koven,  James,  D.  D.,  prominent  as  a 
leader  of  the  High-Church  party  in  the 
Episcopal  Church;  b.  at  Middletown, 
Conn.,  Sept.  19,  1831;  d.  at  Racine,  Wis., 
March  19,  1879.  From  1859  to  the  time 
of  his  death  he  was  warden  of  Racine  Col¬ 
lege.  He  was  elected  bishop  of  Illinois  in 
1875,  but  failed  of  confirmation  on  account 


Del 


(  249  ) 


Dem 


of  his  extreme  High-Church  views.  He 
was  an  earnest  and  able  preacher,  devout 
in  spirit  and  life. 

Deluge.  See  Noah. 

Demarest,  David  D.,  D.  D.  (College  of 
New  Jersey,  1857),  Reformed  (Dutch);  b. 
in  Harrington,  N.  J. ,  July  30,  1819;  was 
graduated  at  Rutgers  College,  New  Bruns¬ 
wick,  N.  J.,  1837,  and  at  the  Theolog¬ 
ical  Seminary  there,  1840.  Pastor  of  Re¬ 
formed  Church,  Flatbush,  N.  Y.,  1841; 
Brunwick,  N.  J. ,  1843;  Hudson,  N .  Y. ,  1852. 
Since  1865  professor  of  pastoral  theology 
and  sacred  rhetoric  in  the  Theological 
Seminary  of  New  Brunswick.  He  is  the 
author  of  History  and  Characteristics  of  the 
1 Reformed  Dutch  Church  (New  York,  1856), 
3  ed.;  Practical  Catechetics  (1882). 

Demetrius,  bishop  of  Alexandria  from 
189  to  231.  He  appointed  Origen  succes¬ 
sor  to  Clement  (203)  in  the  catechetical 
school,  when  the  latter  resigned  his  place 
as  teacher.  He  also  sent  him  on  an  im¬ 
portant  and  successful  mission  to  the 
Roman  Governor  of  Arabia.  Ecclesiasti¬ 
cal  jealousies  aroused  the  enmity  of 
Demetrius,  and  wher  Origen  was  ordained 
priest  in  Caesarea,  he  accused  his  former 
friend  of  heresy,  and  excommunicated  him 
(231).  See  Origen. 

Demission,  the  term  used  in  the  Presby¬ 
terian  Church  of  Scotland  for  the  resigna¬ 
tion  of  a  minister. 

Demiurge.  See  Gnosticism. 

Demon  (Greek,  daimon),  incorrectly 
rendered  “  devil”  in  the  Authorized  Ver¬ 
sion,  is  a  spirit  of  the  kingdom  of  darkness. 
Demons  are  spoken  of  in  the  Gospels  as 
having  power  to  afflict  men,  both  with  dis¬ 
ease  and  spiritual  pollution.  They  “be¬ 
lieve  ”  the  power  of  God,  “  and  tremble” 
(James  ii.  19);  they  recognize  the  Lord  as 
the  Son  of  God  (Matt.  viii.  29;  Luke  iv. 
41),  and  acknowledge  the  power  of  his 
name  used  in  exorcism  (Acts  xix.  15),  and 
look  forward  with  terror  to  the  coming 
judgment.  (Matt.  viii.  29.)  The  name  is 
given  several  times,  in  a  general  sense,  to 
heathen  deities.  (Acts  xvii.  18;  1  Cor.  x. 
20.)  Josephus  defines  demons  to  be  the 
spirits  of  the  wicked. 

Demms,  Charles  Rudolph,  D.  D.,  a 
distinguished  Lutheran  minister;  b.  at 
Miihlhausen,  Thuringia,  April  10,1795;  d. 
in  Philadelphia,  Sept.  1,  1863.  In  early 
life  a  soldier,  he  was  wounded  in  the  bat¬ 
tle  of  Waterloo,  and  on  his  recovery 


studied  for  the  ministry.  In  1818  he  came 
to  this  country,  and  from  1825  to  1859  he 
was  pastor  of  St.  Michael’s  and  St.  Zion’s 
churches,  Philadelphia.  He  edited  a  Ger¬ 
man  edition  of  Josephus ,  with  copious  and 
learned  notes. 

Demoniacal  Possession.  “  The  demo¬ 
niacs  of  Scripture  are  persons  described  as 
possessed  of  a  demon — an  evil  spirit — so 
that  their  will  and  reason  are  overborne, 
and  they  are  plunged  in  a  state  of  lunacy. 
This  condition  is  sometimes  associated 
with  dumbness  (Matt.  ix.  32),  blindness 
(Matt.  xii.  22),  and  epilepsy  (Mark  ix.  17- 
27).  It  is  generally  associated  with  symp¬ 
toms  of  mania  (Matt.  viii.  28;  Mark  v.  1- 
5),  and  the  expression  ‘  to  have  a  demon,’ 
is  frequently  taken  as  the  equivalent  of 
the  expression  ‘  to  be  mad.’  Hence,  it 
has  been  suggested  that  what  is  called 
possession  by  a  demon  is  simply  insanity, 
and  a  mere  brain  disease,  accompanied, 
sometimes,  by  other  bodily  diseases.  In 
favor  of  this  view  it  has  been  urged  that 
our  Lord  accommodated  himself  to  the 
prejudices  of  his  hearers  when  he  spoke  as 
though  he  were  expelling  demons.  It  is 
known  that  mad  people  cannot  be  reasoned 
out  of  their  delusions.  A  direct  appeal 
along  the  line  of  the  delusions  would  be 
the  wisest  and  kindest  way  of  saving  the 
afflicted  lunatics.  Thus,  it  is  said  that  Christ 
cured  mad  people  who  thought  themselves 
possessed  by  demons,  by  influencing  their 
own  insane  minds  through  a  command  to 
the  supposed  demons  to  depart.  On  the 
other  hand,  it  is  argued  that  the  narrative 
says  nothing  of  any  such  accommodation. 
It  is  plain,  simple,  and  straightforward; 
and  it  records  the  events  referred  to  as  if 
the  possession  were  real,  and  not  a  subject 
of  insane  hallucination.  Furthermore,  it 
is  observed,  we  do  not  know  the  limits 
and  powers  of  the  inhabitants  of  the  spir¬ 
itual  world.  There  is  nothing  in  experi¬ 
ence  to  contradict  the  idea  of  actual  de¬ 
moniacal  possession.  We  do  not  know 
whether  insanity  and  disease,  even  in  the 
present  day,  may  not  be  in  some  way  con¬ 
nected  with  Satanic  influence.” — Bagster: 
Bible  Helps. 

Dempster,  John,  D.  D.,  an  eminent 
Methodist  minister  and  theological  teacher; 
b.  Jan.  2,  1794,  at  Florida,  N.  Y. ;  d.  in 
Chicago,  Nov.  28,  1863.  It  was  not  until 
his  conversion  at  a  Methodist  camp¬ 
meeting  in  1812  that  he  began  a  system¬ 
atic  course  of  study.  He  entered  the 
ministry  in  1816,  and  in  1845  he  was  a 
laborious  itinerant  preacher.  From  1845 
to  1854  he  was  professor  in  the  Biblical 
Institute,  Newbury,  Vt. ,  and  Concord, 


Den 


(  250  ) 


Des 


N.  H.;  and  1855  to  1863  in  Garrett  Biblical 
Institute,  Evanston,  Ill.  The  organization 
and  building  up  of  these  theological  sem¬ 
inaries  was  the  great  work  of  his  life. 

Denarius.  See  Money. 

Denis,  St.,  acording  to  tradition  the 
apostle  of  France,  and  first  bishop  of  Paris; 
suffered  martyrdom  in  the  third  century. 
Having  made  many  converts  in  Paris,  he 
was  brought  before  the  Roman  governor 
with  two  other  Christians,  and  after  cruel 
tortures  they  were  beheaded.  The  tradi¬ 
tion  is  that  their  bodies,  which  were  thrown 
into  the  Seine,  were  taken  up  by  a  pious 
woman,  and  interred  near  the  place  of  their 
martyrdom.  On  this  spot,  in  636,  King 
Dagobert  founded  the  abbey  of  St.  Denis, 
which  grew  to  be  one  of  the  richest  and 
most  important  in  the  kingdom. 

Denmark.  Christianity  was  first  intro¬ 
duced  into  the  country  by  Willibrord,  a 
missionary  from  Rome,  about  700.  In 
1536  the  Reformation  brought  in  a  change 
that  established  the  Danish  (Lutheran) 
Church.  The  Romish  bishops  were  de¬ 
posed,  and  the  property  of  the  Church  in¬ 
corporated  with  that  of  the  Crown.  By  the 
constitution  of  1849,  complete  toleration  is 
granted  to  those  of  every  religious  faith. 
Denmark  is  divided  into  seven  dioceses 
(besides  those  in  the  West  Indian  colonies), 
in  charge  of  bishops  nominated  by  the 
king.  Most  of  the  population  are  con¬ 
nected  with  the  Lutheran  Church. 

Deposition,  (1)  in  the  Roman  Church, 
is  the  depriving  of  a  priest  of  his  official 
privileges  and  functions,  but  not  of  orders. 
It  can  be  inflicted  by  any  diocesan  bishop. 
(2)  In  the  Presbyterian  Church,  any  minis¬ 
ter  found  guilty  of  immoral  and  scandal¬ 
ous  conduct,  or  of  preaching  or  publish¬ 
ing  doctrines  contrary  to  the  standards  of 
the  church,  maybe  deposed  by  the  church- 
courts.  In  the  Protestant  Episcopal 
Church  deposition  is  the  same  as  degrada¬ 
tion. 

Deprivation  is  the  taking  away  from  an 
ecclesiastic  any  benefice  or  other  spiritual 
preferment  which  he  may  hold. 

Deputatus,  the  name  for  an  acolyte  in 
the  Greek  Church.  See  Acolyte. 

Dervish,  a  name  derived  from  a  Persian 
word  meaning  “a  door-sill.”  It  is  applied 
to  a  party  of  Mohammedan  monks  who  gain 
a  living  by  begging  from  door  to  door. 
They  live  together  in  communities,  under 
the  headship  of  a  sheik,  and  are  bound  by 


oaths  of  poverty,  chastity,  and  humility. 
They  are  permitted,  however,  under  some 
circumstances,  to  marry.  Every  Friday 
and  Tuesday  they  gather  in  the  presence 
of  their  leader,  and  to  the  music  of  a 
flute  they  turn  round  with  great  swift¬ 
ness,  in  imitation  of  their  founder,  who, 
after  continuing  this  exercise  for  fourteen 
days,  received  the  revelation  of  the  order. 
This  strange  dance,  when  held  in  pub¬ 
lic  each  week,  draws  great  crowds,  who 
witness  it  with  deep  interest  and  solemnity 
of  demeanor.  The  Dervishes  are  divided 
into  two  classes,  the  “  dancers  ”  and  the 
“  howlers.”  Persons  of  high  rank  often 
belong  to  the  former,  but  if  they  attain  to 
full  membership  they  have  to  undergo 
1,001  days  of  menial  service,  after  which 
they  receive  a  woolen  belt  set  with  a  magic 
stone,  the  rosary  with  the  ninety-nine 
names  of  God,  and  the  taj  (white  cap).  The 
“howling”  Dervishes,  either  in  line  or 
ring,  sway  themselves  backward  and  for¬ 
ward,  shouting  “  There  is  no  God  but 
God,”  until  they  sink  exhausted  to  the 
ground.  Some  dervishes  wander  through 
the  country  performing  tricks  of  legerde¬ 
main.  As  a  class  they  are  held  in  awe  by 
the  people,  and  feared  by  the  officials. 

De  Sacy.  See  Sacy,  De. 

De  Sales.  See  Sales,  De. 

Des  Cartes,  Rene,  a  famous  French 
philosopher;  b.  at  La  Haye,  in  Touraine, 
March  30,  1596;  d.  at  Stockholm,  Feb.  11, 
1650.  He  was  connected  with  the  army  for 
a  time,  and  during  the  later  part  of  his 
life  traveled  extensively.  The  year  before 
he  died  he  made  his  home  in  Stockholm,  at 
the  invitation  of  Queen  Christina. 

“  In  pursuance  of  the  principle  de  o?tini- 
bus  est  dubitandum  (‘  you  shall  doubt  about 
everything’),  Des  Cartes  arrived  at  his 
cogito  ergo  sum  (‘  I  am,  because  I  think’) 
as  an  ultimate  fact  of  consciousness  which 
cannot  be  doubted.  From  this  point  of 
primary  unity  between  thought  and  being 
— the  corner-stone  of  the  ontological  evi¬ 
dence  of  the  existence  of  God — he  devel¬ 
oped  a  system  of  unmitigated  dualism.  In 
man,  for  instance,  soul  and  body  touch 
each  other  only  at  one  single  point,  the 
pineal  gland  of  the  brain,  and  animals  are 
mere  machines.” — Schaff-Herzog. 

The  philosophy  of  Des  Cartes  attracted 
wide  attention,  and  was  accepted  by  many 
leaders  of  the  Gallican  Church,  while  con¬ 
demned  by  the  Jesuits.  Superseded  by 
the  theories  of  Newton,  Hobbes,  and 
Locke,  his  views  in  recent  times  have 
found  expression  only  through  Leibnitz, 
Wolff,  etc. 


Des 


(  251  ) 


Dia 


Desert,  Church  of  the.  See  Cami- 
sards;  Huguenots. 

Destructionists.  See  Annihilationism. 

Determinism,  the  name  given  those  the¬ 
ories  of  the  human  will,  according  to  which 
it  is  absolutely  determined  by  external  or 
internal  motives  not  belonging  to  it,  and 
which,  therefore,  denies  its  freedom. 

Deutero-Canonical.  See  Apocrypha. 

Deuteronomy.  See  Pentateuch. 

Deutsch,  Emanuel  Oscar  Menahem,  an 
eminent  Oriental  scholar;  b.  1829,  at  Prus¬ 
sian  Silesia;  d.  at  Alexandria,  1873.  He 
studied  at  Berlin,  and  from  1855  until  his 
death  was  assistant  in  the  library  of  the 
British  Museum.  He  published  an  article 
on  the  Talmud  in  1867  that  gave  him  a  wide 
reputation  as  a  scholar. 

Devay,  MatyAs  Biro,  a  Hungarian  re¬ 
former;  d.  about  1547.  In  1529  he  went 
to  Wittenberg,  and  was  with  Luther  for  a 
year  and  a  half.  Upon  returning  home,  he 
preached  and  wrote  in  favor  of  the  doc¬ 
trines  of  the  Reformation.  He  was  twice 
imprisoned.  The  last  time  he  was  kept  in 
prison  for  nearly  three  years  (1531  to  1534). 
After  his  release  he  settled  at  Sarvar 
under  the  protection  of  a  powerful  Hun¬ 
garian  nobleman.  Here  he  published  a 
grammar  with  extracts  from  Luther’s  cate¬ 
chism,  the  first  book  printed  in  Hungary. 
Driven  into  Switzerland  by  the  invasion  of 
the  Turks,  he  became  acquainted  with 
Zwingli’s  views  of  the  Lord’s  Supper,  and 
adopted  them. 

Development  of  Doctrine.  A  term  used 
to  express  (1)  the  opinion  that  while  Chris¬ 
tianity  is  fully  contained  in  Christ  and  the 
New  Testament,  yet  there  is  a  progressive 
unfolding  and  clearer  understanding  of  its 
truth,  as  time  goes  on.  This  theory  is  held 
by  most  Protestants.  (2)  Cardinal  New¬ 
man,  just  before  leaving  the  Church  of 
England  for  that  of  Rome,  published  his 
celebrated  Essay  on  the  Development  of 
Christian  Doctrine ,  in  which  he  argued  that, 
by  the  continuity  of  its  historical  record, 
and  the  development  of  doctrine  from  the 
apostolic  times  within  its  pale,  the  Roman 
Catholic  Church  must  be  the  true  Church. 
(3)  Some  rationalists  hold  that,  in  time, 
Christianity  will  be  superseded  by  a  relig¬ 
ion  of  humanity,  in  which  the  Bible  will  no 
longer  hold  its  place  as  the  rule  of  faith 
and  conduct. 

Development, Scientific.  See  Evolution. 


Devil.  See  Satan. 

Devotion,  a  fervent  exercise  of  the  pri¬ 
vate  and  public  offices  of  religion,  or  a 
temper  and  disposition  of  the  mind  rightly 
affected  with  such  exercises.  The  litera¬ 
ture  of  books  of  devotion  is  very  exten¬ 
sive,  but  they  should  never  be  used  as 
a  substitute  for  the  Bible.  “A  spirit  of 
devotion  is  one  of  the  greatest  bless¬ 
ings,  and  the  want  of  it  one  of  the  great¬ 
est  misfortunes,  which  a  Christian  can 
experience.” 

Dewid,  St.  See  St.  David. 

De  Wette.  See  Wette,  De. 

DeWitt,  Thomas,  D.  D.,  b.  at  Kingston, 
N.  Y.,  Sept.  13,  1791;  d.  in  New  York  City, 
May  18,  1874.  He  was  a  graduate  of  Union 
College,  1808,  and  the  New  Brunswick 
Theological  Seminary,  1812.  He  was  pas¬ 
tor  of  the  Reformed  Dutch  churches  at 
Hopewell  and  New  Hackensack,  N.  Y., 
1812-1825;  and  of  Hopewell  alone  until 
1827.  He  then  became  one  of  the  pastors 
of  the  Collegiate  Church  in  New  York  City, 
where  he  continued  until  his  death.  He 
edited  The  Christian  Intelligencer ,  1831- 
1843.  Honored  and  beloved,  he  exerted  a 
marked  influence  in  the  life  of  the  city,  and 
was  a  favorite  pastor  and  preacher. 

Dexter,  Henry  Martyn,  D.  D.  (Iowa  Col¬ 
lege,  Grinnell,  la.,  1865),  S.  T.  D.  (Yale, 
1880),  Congregationalist;  b.  at  Plympton, 
Mass. ,  Aug.  13, 1821 ;  was  graduated  at  Yale 
College,  1840,  and  at  Andover  Theological 
Seminary,  1844;  became  pastor  at  Man¬ 
chester,  N.  H.,  1844;  in  Boston,  1849,  but 
since  1867  has  been  editor  of  the  Congrega¬ 
tionalist, ,  having  been  previously  connected 
with  the  paper  since  1851.  Among  the 
volumes  he  has  published  are:  Congrega- 
tionalistn  (Boston,  1865,  5th  ed.,  1879);  As 
to  Roger  Williams  (1876);  The  Congrega¬ 
tionalism  of  the  Last  Three  Hundred  Years, 
as  Seen  in  its  Literature  (New  York,  1880); 
The  True  Story  of  John  Smyth ,  The  Se- 
Baptist  (1881). 

Diab'olus.  See  Satan.  ! 

i 

Diaconium  means,  sometimes,  the  place 
at  the  rail  of  the  altar,  where  the  deacons 
were  accustomed  to  sit  in  the  ancient 
church,  also  the  building  adjoining  the 
church,  in  which  the  sacred  vessels  and 
vestments  were  kept;  the  ecclesiastical 
book  which  contained  the  rules  of  the  office 
of  deacon  in  the  Greek  Church,  and  that 
part  of  the  public  prayers  which  the  dea¬ 
cons  recited. 


Dia 


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Dim 


Dian'a,  a  goddess  whose  temple  at  Eph¬ 
esus  was  one  of  the  wonders  of  the  world. 
(Acts  xix.)  The  image  was  regarded  as  an 
object  of  peculiar  sanctity,  and  was  believed 
to  have  fallen  down  from  heaven. 

Diaspora',  a  term  used  to  denote  the  dis¬ 
persion  of  the  Jews  through  the  Roman 
world.  (James  i.  1;  Pet.  i.  1.)  See  Cap¬ 
tivity. 

Diates'saron,  the  name  given  to  the  at¬ 
tempts  made  to  combine  the  four  gospels 
in  one  narrative.  See  Harmony  of  the 
Gospels;  Tatian. 

Dick,  John,  D.  D.,  an  eminent  Scotch 
theologian;  b.  in  Aberdeen,  Oct.  10,  1764; 
d.  in  Glasgow,  Jan.  25,  1833.  He  was  con¬ 
nected  with  the  Secession  Church,  and  after 
a  pastorate  at  Slateford,  near  Edinburgh, 
he  was  settled  over  the  Grayfriars  Church, 
Glasgow.  In  1819  he  was  elected  profess¬ 
or  of  theology  in  the  seminary  of  the  Se¬ 
cession  Church.  He  prepared  Lectures  on 
Theology ,  which  became  a  favorite  text¬ 
book,  and  was  republished  in  this  country 
with  a  biography. 

Dick,  Thomas,  LL.  D.,  a  well-known 
writer  on  themes  pertaining  to  Christian 
philosophy;  b.  at  Dundee,  Scotland,  Nov. 

24,  1774;  d.  at  Edinburgh,  July  29,  1857. 
He  entered  the  ministry  of  the  United 
Presbyterian  Church  of  Scotland,  but  after 
a  service  of  two  years  (1803-1805)  retired, 
and  devoted  the  rest  of  his  long  life  to 
teaching  and  literary  labors.  His  first  book, 
published  in  1825,  The  Christian  Philos¬ 
opher:  or ,  the  Connection  of  Science  with 
Religion ,  met  with  great  success.  Some  of 
his  best-known  works  treat  of  the  subject 
of  astronomy.  They  are  written  in  a  clear 
and  popular  style,  and  have  had  a  large 
circulation.  There  are  two  American  edi¬ 
tions  of  his  works. 

Dickinson,  Jonathan,  an  eminent  Pres¬ 
byterian  minister,  and  the  first  president  of 
Princeton  College;  b.  at  Hatfield,  Mass., 
April  22,  16S8;  d.  at  Elizabeth,  N.  J. ,  Oct. 

7,  1747.  After  graduating  at  Yale  College 
(1706),  he  was  settled  at  Elizabeth.  He 
took  a  prominent  part  in  theological  dis¬ 
cussion,  and  was  active  in  forming  new 
churches.  Although  a  strong  advocate  of 
Calvinism,  he  opposed  the  binding  author¬ 
ity  of  creeds.  He  was  interested  in  the 
•work  among  the  Indians,  and  aided  David 
Brainerd  in  many  ways.  Having  taken  a 
prominent  part  in  founding  Nassau  Hall 
(Princeton  College),  he  was  elected  its 
first  president,  but  died  before  the  close  of 
his  first  year  of  service.  His  writings  are  I 


mostly  an  exposition  of  Calvinistic  views 
of  doctrine. 

Didache'.  See  Teaching  of  the  Apos¬ 
tles. 

Diderot,  Denis.  See  Encyclopaedists. 

Didymus,  called  “  the  Blind;”  b.  in  Al¬ 
exandria,  308;  d.  there,  395.  Although 
blind  from  his  fourth  year,  he  became  one 
of  the  most  learned  men  of  his  time.  He 
was  a  prolific  writer,  and  a  director  of  the 
catechetical  school  of  Alexandria. 

Dies  Irae,  the  name  given  to  the  opening 
words  of  a  famous  Latin  hymn  of  the  Mid¬ 
dle  Ages.  It  was  probably  written  by 
Thomas  of  Celano  in  the  middle  of  the 
thirteenth  century.  Many  hundreds  of 
translations  have  been  made  into  various 
languages.  The  best  English  translations 
are  by  Alford,  Trench,  Cole,  and  Dix.  The 
hymn  is  still  sung  in  the  Roman  Catholic 
Church  at  funerals. 

Diet,  the  assembly  of  the  States  of  Ger¬ 
many,  which  shared,  in  most  cases,  with 
the  emperor  the  rights  of  sovereignty.  It 
consisted  of  three  colleges,  which  met  and 
voted  separately:  (1)  electors;  (2)  the 
princes,  temporal  and  spiritual;  (3)  the 
free  imperial  cities.  The  emperor  could 
not  change  the  united  action  of  the  Diet. 
Among  the  Diets  of  importance  were  that 
at  Worms  ( 1521),  which  condemned  Luther; 
Spires  (1529),  in  which  the  protest  of  six 
Lutheran  princes  originated  the  name 
“  Protestant;”  Augsburg  ( 1530),  where  the 
famous  Augsburg  Confession  was  present¬ 
ed;  Augsburg  (1555),  where  the  “  Relig¬ 
ious  Peace  of  Augsburg  ”  was  concluded, 
and  the  civil  relations  of  the  Lutherans 
regulated. 

Dillmann  (Christian  Friedrich)  Au¬ 
gust,  Ph.  D.  (Tubingen,  1846),  D.  D. 
(Leipzig,  1862),  Evangelical  Lutheran;  b. 
at  Illingen,  Wiirtemburg,  April  25,  1823; 
became  privat  -  docent  of  Old  Testament 
exegesis  there  in  1852;  professor  extraor¬ 
dinary  of  theology,  1S53;  professor  of  the 
Oriental  languages  at  Kiel,  1S54;  professor 
of  theology  at  Giessen,  1S64  ;  at  Berlin, 
1869.  In  biblical  and  Ethiopic  scholarship 
he  has  gained  a  great  reputation,  Among 
the  most  noted  of  his  publications  are  his 
Cofnmentaries  on  the  Hexateuch  (Leipzig, 
1S75-S6),  3  vols.,  and  Job  (1869). 

Diman,  Jeremiah  Lewis,  D.  D.,  b.  at 
Bristol,  R.  I.,  May  1,  1831;  d.  at  Prov¬ 
idence,  R.  I.,  Feb.  3, 1SS1.  He  was  graduat¬ 
ed  at  Brown  University,  Providence,  1S51 


Dio 


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Dio 


After  studying  theology  at  Andover,  Mass. , 
and  then  in  Europe  at  Halle  and  Berlin,  he 
was  ordained  as  pastor  of  the  Congrega¬ 
tional  Church,  at  Fall  River  Mass.,  1856- 
60.  From  1860-64  he  was  pastor  at  Brook¬ 
line,  Mass.  In  1864  he  entered  upon  the 
duties  of  the  professorship  of  history  and 
political  economy  in  Brown  University, 
where  he  remained  until  his  death.  He 
was  a  ripe  scholar  and  eloquent  preacher. 
Two  books,  made  up  of  his  lectures  and  ser¬ 
mons,  were  published  after  his  death:  The 
Theistic  Argument  and  Orations  and  Essays. 

Diocese.  Constantine  the  Great  divided 
the  Roman  Empire  into  four  dioceses,  each 
of  which  was  subdivided  into  several  prov¬ 
inces.  The  term  diocese  was  then  adopted 
to  denote  the  great  patriarchal  divisions  of 
the  Church,  but  in  the  early  part  of  the 
fourth  century  it  passed  into  its  present 
use  as  designating  a  single  bishopric,  and 
thus  took  the  place  of  the  earlier  name  of 
parochia. 

Diocletian  Persecution.  Diocletian  was 
Emperor  of  Rome  from  about  284  to  305. 
In  the  early  part  of  his  reign  he  paid  little 
attention  to  the  Christians.  An  edict  was 
promulgated  that  all  those  connected  with 
the  army  who  would  not  sacrifice  at  the 
festivals  in  honor  of  the  gods  should  be  de¬ 
prived  of  their  dignity.  The  refusal  of 
Marcellus,  a  centurion  at  Tangier,  and 
others,  to  obey  this  order,  gave  an  excuse 
to  the  enemies  of  the  Christians  to  insti¬ 
gate  the  persecution,  in  which  Galerius, 
who  held  the  rank  of  Caesar,  was  most 
prominent.  Twice  the  emperor’s  palace 
was  set  on  fire  and  the  charge  laid  to 
the  Christians.  In  this  and  other  ways 
the  rage  of  Diocletian  was  kindled,  and  he 
engaged  with  furious  hate  in  the  work  of 
destroying  and  torturing  all  who  avowed 
their  faith  in  Christ.  Numbers  gave  up 
their  copies  of  the  Sciiptures  (afterwards 
called  Tradiiores ),  and  sacrificed  to  the 
idols,  but  multitudes  remained  faithful  and 
suffered  martyrdom.  The  persecution 
continued  after  the  abdication  of  Diocle¬ 
tian  (305).  Galerius,  stricken  with  a  loath¬ 
some  disease,  finally  issued  an  edict  per¬ 
mitting  the  Christians  to  worship  in  peace. 
The  persecution  lasted  for  ten  years,  and 
Gibbon  estimates  the  number  of  those  who 
were  martyred  at  2,000. 

Diodati,  John,  b.  at  Geneva,  1576;  d. 
there  in  1649.  He  was  professor  of  He¬ 
brew  in  Geneva,  1597;  of  theology  in  1609, 
and  resigned  in  1645.  He  was  a  delegate 
to  the  Synod  of  Dort,  and  in  1607  publish¬ 
ed  a  translation  of  the  Bible  into  Italian, 
with  annotations,  which  is  still  used  to 


some  extent.  He  translated  the  Bible  into 
French  and  also  Sarpi’s  History  of  the  Coun- 
cil  of  Trent.  Of  his  theological  works  his 
Annotations  upon  the  Bible  was  translated 
into  English. 

Diodo'rus,  presbyter  of  Antioch,  conse¬ 
crated  bishop  of  Tarsus  378;  d.  in  394. 
He  has  been  called  “  the  father  of  biblical 
interpretation.”  As  a  priest  and  monk  of 
Antioch  he  conducted  the  affairs  of  the 
Church  with  such  discretion  that  he  was 
made  bishop  of  Tarsus.  He  wrote  many 
commentaries  in  which  he  discarded  the  al¬ 
legorical  for  a  more  literal  and  grammat¬ 
ical  interpretation.  He  is  the  founder  of 
the  cosmological  argument  for  the  exist¬ 
ence  of  God,  and  he  opposed  the  doctrine 
of  everlasting  punishment.  John  (Chrys¬ 
ostom)  and  Theodore  (of  Mopsuestia)  were 
among  his  pupils. 

Diogne'tus,  The  Epistle  to,  “  one  of  the 
most  precious  relics  from  Christian  antiq¬ 
uity,  hardly  equalled,  either  in  spirit  or 
form,  by  any  other  work  from  the  post- 
apostolic  age.  The  extraordinary  charm 
which  it  exercises  springs  from  the  noble 
simplicity  of  a  faith  which  grasps  the  di¬ 
vine  truth  of  Christianity  as  an  inner  ex¬ 
perience,  and  from  the  perfect  classical 
education,  which,  in  bold  and  striking  but- 
fully  harmonious  expressions,  bears  wit¬ 
ness  to  this  fact.  His  theological  stand¬ 
point  is  that  of  the  transition  when  faith 
and  knowledge,  though  still  essentially  one, 
are  just  about  to  break  away  from  each 
other.  The  epistle  was  first  published  by 
H.  Stephanus  (Strasburg,  1592).” — Dr. 
Semisch  in  Schaff- Herzog:  Ency . ,  vol.  1., 
p.  641.)  An  English  translation  of  the 
epistle  is  in  the  Ante-Nicene  Library,  1.,  p. 
303  (Edin.,  1868). 

Diony'sius  the  Areopagite,  an  Athenian 
eminent  for  his  literary  attainments,  and  a 
member  of  the  Areopagus.  Converted  to 
Christianity  (Acts  xvii.  34),  according  to 
Eusebius,  he  was  the  first  bishop  of 
Athens,  and  tradition  says  that  he  suffered 
martyrdom  there.  His  name  has  prom¬ 
inence  in  history  because  of  the  attempt  of 
a  writer  in  later  times  to  pass  his  produc¬ 
tions  upon  the  Christian  world  as  from  the 
pen  of  the  Areopagite.  These  treatises  on 
The  Heavenly  and  Ecclesiastical  Hierarchies 
and  The  Names  of  God  were  quoted  with 
marked  effect  against  the  Severians.  Crit¬ 
ical  examination  has  clearly  shown  that  they 
must  be  of  much  later  date  than  the  first 
century.  Probably  they  are  not  of  earlier 
date  than  the  fifth  century. 

Dionysius  of  Alexandria,  a  pupil  of  Ori- 


Dio 


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Dis 


gen,  succeeded  Heraclas  in  232  as  director 
of  the  catechetical  school,  and  in  247  as 
bishop.  He  was  the  friend  and  correspond¬ 
ent  of  the  leading  bishops  and  theologians 
of  his  time  and,  with  a  naturally  gentle  and 
kind  temper,  he  acted  the  part  of  a  media¬ 
tor  in  the  controversies  growing  out  of  the 
schism  of  Novatian,  and  other  matters. 
Only  fragments  of  his  works  have  come 
down  to  us. 

Dionysius,  bishop  of  Corinth  (170).  He 
was  distinguished  for  piety,  learning,  and 
eloquence.  He  wrote  letters,  fragments 
of  which  were  preserved  by  Eusebius. 

Dionysius  Exig'uus,  a  Scythian  by  birth, 
and  abbot  of  a  monastery  at  Rome,  where 
he  died  about  556.  He  gained  a  great 
reputation  for  profound  learning.  The 
work  by  which  he  is  best  known  is  a  col¬ 
lection  of  canons  and  decretals,  and  his 
Cyclus  Paschalis ,  which  is  the  basis  of  the 
Christian  chronology. 

Dios'corus.  See  Ephesus,  Robber 
Council  of. 

Diptychs,  originally,  tablets  folded  in 
two  leaves,  upon  which  were  written  the 
names  of  persons,  living  or  dead,  who  were 
entitled  to  have  their  names  mentioned  in 
the  prayer  preceding  consecration,  from 
having  rendered  some  special  service  to 
the  Church.  They  are  still  in  use  in  the 
Greek  Church. 

Directory  of  Worship,  (1)  a  set  of  rules 
for  worship  drawn  up  to  take  the  place  of 
the  Book  of  Common  Prayer  by  the  West¬ 
minster  Assembly  of  Divines,  in  1643. 
(2)  The  Presbyterian  Church  in  the 
United  States  has  a  Directory  of  Worship 
adopted  by  the  General  Assembly  in  1821. 

Discalcea'ti,  or  Barefooted  Monks  and 
Nuns,  is  the  common  name  of  the  relig¬ 
ious  orders  whose  members  wear  only  san¬ 
dals  or  nothing. 

Dirge,  a  hymn  of  mourning  for  the 
dead.  The  word  is  derived  from  Dirige , 
Domine ,  nos ,  the  opening  words  of  the 
antiphon  in  the  Roman  Catholic  service  for 
the  dead. 

Disciples,  The,  or  Christians.  Thomas 
Campbell  (1763-1854),  a  devout  and  schol¬ 
arly  Seceder  minister,  was  recognized  in 
Ireland  as  a  man  of  influence  and  liberality 
by  his  leadership  in  a  movement  before  the 
Synods  of  Belfast  and  Glasgow,  in  the  in¬ 
terests  of  Christian  Union.  Manifesting 
his  liberal  spirit  in  Pennsylvania  in  1807, 


by  inviting  to  the  Communion  table  mem¬ 
bers  of  different  religious  bodies,  he 
brought  upon  himself  the  censure  of  the 
Presbytery  of  Chartiers,  and  of  the  Synod 
to  which  he  appealed  his  case,  for  not  ad¬ 
hering  to  the  “  Secession  Testimony.” 
After  submitting  for  a  time,  he  withdrew, 
announcing  to  the  Synod  that  he  abandoned 
“all  ministerial  connection”  with  it,  and 
intended  to  be  “  utterly  unaffected  by  its 
decisions.”  Continuing  to  plead  for  Chris¬ 
tian  Union,  he  attracted  much  attention, 
and  men  and  women  of  liberal  minds  gath¬ 
ered  about  him.  When  he  announced  on  a 
special  occasion  to  a  general  assembly  of 
his  friends,  as  a  rule  to  be  followed, 
“  Where  the  Scriptures  speak  we  speak, 
and  where  the  Scriptures  are  silent  we  are 
silent,”  his  words  were  received  by  his 
hearers  with  great  enthusiasm,  and  their 
deliverance  from  human  standards  was  ac¬ 
complished.  Under  his  leadership,  a  relig¬ 
ious  association  was  formed  in  the  fall  of 
1809,  bearing  the  name  of  the  “  Christian 
Association  of  Washington,”  declaring  that 
it  existed  “  for  the  sole  purpose  of  pro¬ 
moting  simple,  evangelical  Christianity, 
free  from  all  mixture  of  human  opinions 
and  inventions  of  men.”  About  this  time, 
Thomas  Campbell  wrote  and  published  a 
Declaration  and  Address ,  which  was  far 
in  advance  of  the  thought  of  his  times. 
The  present  views  and  purposes  of  the 
people  known  as  Disciples  are  nowhere 
else  more  strongly,  or  more  comprehen¬ 
sively  stated  in  such  brief  space.  We  will, 
therefore,  make  some  extracts  from  this 
document.  Addressing  “  all  his  brethren 
in  all  the  churches,”  by  which  he  meant  all 
the  evangelical  bodies,  he  said:  “Dearly 
beloved  brethren,  why  should  we  deem  it 
a  thing  incredible  that  the  Church  of 
Christ  in  this  highly  favored  country, 
should  resume  that  original  unity,  peace, 
and  purity  which  belong  to  its  constitution, 
and  constitute  its  glory  ?  Or,  is  there  any¬ 
thing  that  can  be  justly  deemed  necessary 
for  this  desirable  purpose,  but  to  conform 
to  the  model,  and  adopt  the  practice  of  the 
primitive  Church,  expressly  exhibited  in 
the  New  Testament  ?  Whatever  alterations 
this  might  produce  in  any,  or  in  all,  of  the 
churches,  should,  we  think,  be  deemed 

neither  inadmissible,  nor  ineligible . 

With  you  all,  we  desire  to  unite  in  the 
bonds  of  an  entire  Christian  unity — Christ 
alone  being  the  head ,  the  centre;  his  word 
the  rule ,  and  explicit  belief  of  and  manifest 
conformity  to  it  in  all  things  the  terms." 
It  was  proposed  by  him  that  all  Christians 
of  every  name  “come  fairly  to  original 
ground  upon  clear  and  certain  premises, 
and  take  up  things  just  as  the  apostles  left 
them,  that  thus  disentangled  from  the  ac- 


Dis 


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Dis 


cruing  embarrassments  of  intervening 
ages,  we  may  stand  with  evidence  upon 
the  same  ground  on  which  the  Church 
stood  at  the  beginning.”  The  Disciples 
continue  to  insist  upon  this  as  the  imme¬ 
diate  duty  of  believers. 

Alexander  Campbell,  the  son  of  Thomas 
Campbell,  who  had  been  attending  college 
in  Glasgow,  Scotland,  joined  his  father  in 
Washington  County,  Pennsylvania,  in  Oc¬ 
tober,  1809,  in  time  to  read  the  Declaration 
and  Address ,  as  it  was  going  through  the 
press.  The  son  approved  of  the  document, 
and  it  was  not  many  years  before  he  was 
the  leader  in  the  movement  which  it  in¬ 
augurated.  In  studying  the  Scriptures 
with  open  minds,  both  father  and  son,  as 
well  as  others  of  their  little  body,  soon  be¬ 
came  convinced  that  the  ordinance  of  bap¬ 
tism  involves  the  immersion  of  a  believer 
in  Christ,  and,  nothing  doubting,  they 
promptly  carried  out  their  convictions. 
This  change  of  views  occurred  in  1812. 

They  soon  gave  up  the  doctrine  of  re¬ 
generation  by  the  Holy  Spirit  before  faith 
to  make  faith  possible,  and  preached  the 
gospel  as  the  power  of  God  to  renew  the 
heart  through  faith.  Regeneration  by  re¬ 
ceiving  the  word  of  truth,  not  regeneration 
to  make  its  reception  possible,  was  their 
thought.  This,  together  with  their  protest 
against  sectarian  divisions  in  the  Church 
of  Christ,  led  to  antagonisms  with  other 
religious  bodies.  Notwithstanding  this 
fact,  Alexander  Campbell’s  great  ability 
being  recognized,  he  was  constantly  urged 
to  preach  at  different  points  for  Baptist 
churches,  which  he  frequently  did.  As  a 
result,  the  church  at  Brush  Run,  Pa.,  of 
which  he  and  his  father  were  members, 
united  with  the  Baptist  Redstone  Associa¬ 
tion  in  1812.  The  preaching  of  Alexander 
Campbell  being  calm  and  argumentative, 
and  directly  opposed  to  everything  in  the 
way  of  miraculous  and  rhapsodical  expe¬ 
riences,  soon  stirred  up  opposition  in  the 
minds  of  those  who  gloried  in  the  expe¬ 
riences  that  characterized  the  revival  meet¬ 
ings  of  that  time. 

In  1823  Alexander  Campbell  started  the 
Christian  Baptist  at  Bethany,  West  Va. ,  a 
monthly  which  he  continued  under  this 
name  for  seven  years.  He  then  began  the 
Millennial  Harbinger ,  which  he  edited  till 
within  a  few  years  of  his  death — in  1866. 
By  his  able  editorials,  his  views  spread 
rapidly  in  the  Baptist  body.  The  lines 
became  closely  drawn.  There  was  much 
discussion.  Then  came  a  division.  The 
Mahoning  Association  in  Ohio  gradually 
went  over  to  the  views  of  the  Campbells. 
Formal  divisions  began  in  1827,  and  con¬ 
tinued  in  different  States  for  several  years, 
and  so  the  people  known  as  the  Disciples 


of  Christ  became  a  separate  religious  body, 
and  grew  exceedingly. 

In  common  with  other  religious  bodies 
regarded  as  evangelical,  the  Disciples  find 
in  the  Bible  a  revelation  from  God.  In  it 
they  discover  that  God  sent  his  Son, 
Jesus  Christ,  into  the  world  to  reveal  the 
Father,  and,  finally,  to  die  for  all  men,  and 
so  make  salvation  possible  to  all.  That  he 
who  thus  came  and  died  for  sinners  is  “  the 
Christ,  the  Son  of  the  living  God,”  they 
regard  as  the  central  truth  of  the  New 
Testament  —  the  foundation  truth  of  the 
Church.  They,  therefore,  teach  the  deity 
as  well  as  the  humanity  of  Christ.  They 
also  believe  in  the  divinity  and  personality 
of  the  Holy  Spirit,  through  whose  inspira¬ 
tion  the  Word  of  God  came  to  men,  and 
who  is  promised  as  a  perpetual  Comforter 
to  them  that  believe  in  Christ.  They  see 
in  the  New  Testament  the  doctrine  of 
election,  but  it  is  not  the  election  of 
sinners  to  a  life  of  faith;  but  the  election 
of  believers  to  life  everlasting  through 
a  faithful  endurance  to  the  end.  The 
doctrine  of  the  perseverance  of  the  saints 
is  with  them  the  doctrine  of  the  perse¬ 
verance  of  them  that  persevere.  They 
see  in  the  Bible  the  doctrine  of  divine 
sovereignty,  but  it  is  a  sovereignty  that 
leaves  the  sovereign  free  to  determine  to 
deal  with  men  in  view  of  their  foreseen 
conduct — their  acceptance  or  non-accept¬ 
ance  of  the  truth  which  they  possess — not 
a  sovereignty  that  necessitates  uncondi¬ 
tional  election.  But  their  plea  is  practical 
rather  than  doctrinal. 

“  The  original  preaching  of  the  gospel 
was  not  an  exposition  of  a  system  of  doc¬ 
trines,  but  the  presentation  of  a  Divine 
Person  as  the  object  of  faith  and  love. 
Who  Jesus  was,  what  he  had  done  for 
man’s  salvation,  why  we  should  trust  in 
and  submit  to  him  as  our  Lord  and  Saviour, 
the  terms  on  which  he  would  receive  sin¬ 
ners,  these  formed  the  subject  of  apostolic 
preaching.  When  they  had  thus  preached, 
they  called  on  their  hearers  to  submit  to 
Jesus,  and  as  many  as  voluntarily  accepted 
him  as  the  Christ,  the  Son  of  God,  and 
were  willing  to  renounce  all  other  lord- 
ships  and  walk  in  his  commandments,  were 
at  once  admitted,  through  baptism,  into 
Christian  fellowship.” 

These  words,  from  the  pen  of  Isaac  Er- 
rett,  LL.  D.,  the  late  editor  of  the  Chris¬ 
tian  Standard,  of  Cincinnati,  O.,  well  set 
forth  the  practical  character  of  the  best 
teaching  among  the  Disciples. 

As  a  rule,  their  churches  partake  of  the 
Lord’s  Supper  every  Lord’s  Day.  While 
they  do  not  receive  into  church  fellowship 
any  who  are  not  immersed,  they  do  not 
debar  Christians  of  other  religious  bodies 


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from  uniting  with  them  in  honoring  the 
Lord  in  this  institution — though  there  are 
not  a  few  of  their  number  that  express 
doubts  about  the  scripturalness  of  this  lib¬ 
erality. 

While  they  apply  to  themselves  the 
names,  Disciples  of  Christ,  and  Christians, 
and  speak  of  the  whole  people  as  the 
Church  of  Christ,  they  do  not  by  any 
means  claim  that  they  are  the  only  disci¬ 
ples  of  Christ,  or  Christians,  in  the  world; 
or  that  they  constitute  the  whole  Church 
of  Christ  on  the  earth.  They  are  to  be 
distinguished  from  another  people  called 
“  Christians,”  nicknamed  “New  Lights” 
— a  people  of  Unitarian  tendencies. 

As  to  church  government,  the  Disciples 
are  Congregational,  each  church  settling 
its  own  affairs.  The  New  Testament  eld¬ 
ers,  deacons,  ministers,  and  evangelists, 
find  a  place,  but  officers  not  known  to  the 
New  Testament  are  not  recognized. 

The  Disciples  number  about  700,000. 
They  have  a  Foreign  Christian  Missionary 
Society,  with  headquarters  in  Cincinnati, 
O.  It  has  missionaries  in  India,  Japan, 
China,  Asia  Minor,  Denmark,  and  in  other 
foreign  countries.  There  are,  also,  a  Gen¬ 
eral  Christian  Missionary  Convention,  with 
headquarters  in  the  same  city,  and  a  Chris¬ 
tian  Woman’s  Board  of  Missions,  with 
headquarters  in  Indianapolis,  Ind.,  besides 
State  societies  in  most  of  the  States  of  the 
Union.  They  have  about  forty  institutions 
of  learning  —  universities,  colleges,  and 
other  schools.  Their  religious  weeklies 
contain  abundant  evidence  of  their  aggres¬ 
sive  and  progressive  character,  and  of  their 
rapid  increase.  Their  chief  thought  is  a 
return  to  the  teaching  of  the  New  Testa¬ 
ment  in  its  letter  and  spirit,  as  a  sufficient 
rule  of  faith  and  life,  without  the  aid  of 
human  standards  that  too  often  misrepre¬ 
sent  the  Word  of  God.  By  the  way  of  such 
a  return  they  see  the  only  open  way  to 
Christian  Union. 

See  Memoirs  of  A .  Campbell ,  by  Dr. 
Robert  Richardson;  Christian  Baptism:  Its 
Antecedents  and  Consequents ,  by  A.  Campbell; 
Declaration  and  Address,  by  Thomas  Camp¬ 
bell;  Evenings  with  the  Bible:  New  Testa¬ 
ment  Studies ,  by  Isaac  Errett,  LL.  D. 
(Standard  Publishing  Co.,  Cincinnati,  O). 

H.  McDiarmid. 


Discipline.  See  Church  Discipline. 

Discipline,  Book  of,  in  the  Methodist 
Episcopal  Church,  is  a  small  volume  re¬ 
vised  and  published  after  the  meeting  of 
the  General  Conference.  (See  Confer¬ 


ence).  It  contains  six  parts:  I.  Origin, 
Doctrine,  and  Rules;  II.  Government  of 
the  Church;  III.  Administration  of  Disci¬ 
pline;  IV.  Educational  and  Benevolent 
Institutions;  V.  Temporal  Economy;  VI. 
Ritual  of  the  Church. 

Dispensation  signifies,  in  the  Roman 
Church,  the  authority  of  the  pope  to  do  or 
leave  undone  something  which  otherwise 
is  not  allowed.  This  right  of  dispensation 
in  difficult  cases,  especially  of  marriage, 
has  been  a  source  of  great  influence  and 
revenue.  The  bishops  have  this  power  only 
in  a  few  and  unimportant  cases. 

Dispersed.  See  Captivity. 

Dissenter  is  properly  used  only  of  those 
who  dissent  from  the  doctrine  or  order  of 
an  established  church.  In  England  the 
word  is  synonymous  with  Non-conformist. 

Distaff  Day,  the  day  after  the  Epiph¬ 
any,  so  called  because  on  that  day  weav¬ 
ing  was  resumed  after  the  close  of  the 
Christmas  Festival. 

Divination.  See  Magic. 

Divorce.  The  separation  between  man 
and  wife  was  at  one  time  a  rare  thing  with 
the  ancient  Romans.  It  was  only  allowed, 
apparently,  on  account  of  unfaithfulness, 
and  there  were  strict  formalities  to  be  ob¬ 
served,  showing  how  sacred  the  law  of  mar¬ 
riage  was  regarded.  But  with  the  growth 
of  luxury  came  laxity  of  principle,  and  di¬ 
vorce  for  frivolous  reasons  became  com¬ 
mon.  It  seems  that  it  was  even  thus  among 
the  Jews.  Though  Moses,  for  the  hardness 
of  their  hearts,  allowed  the  husband  to  give 
“  awriting  of  divorcement,”  there  is  no  act¬ 
ual  mention  of  such  instruments  being 
used  before  the  days  of  Isaiah.  In  Jere¬ 
miah,  and  also  in  Malachi,  they  are  spoken 
of  as  not  uncommon.  Our  Saviour  dis¬ 
allowed  them  all,  except  on  the  score  of 
adultery.  But  a  question  has  arisen  in  the 
ChristianChurchwhether.even  in  this  case, 
a  full  divorce  is  warrantable.  That  a  sepa¬ 
ration  as  to  living  together  is  allowable  is 
plain,  but  it  is  not  so  plain  whether,  when 
a  husband  has  parted  from  his  wife  for  un¬ 
faithfulness,  she  is  at  liberty  to  marry 
again.  St.  Augustine  confesses  that  the 
question  is  not  clearly  determined  by  the 
words  of  our  Saviour.  The  Greek  Church 
allows  this,  and  it  has  been  allowed  by  the 
laws  of  Christian  emperors  ( e.  g . ,  Constan¬ 
tine),  nor  did  the  Council  of  Florence, 
though  the  Roman  Canon  Law”  is  different, 
regard  this  difference  as  a  sufficient  reason 
to  hinder  the  coalition  of  the  Eastern  and 


Disciplina  Arcani.  See  Arcani,  Disci- 
PLINA. 


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(  257  ) 


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Western  churches.  The  Roman  Church, 
however,  is  most  strict  in  its  rules:  the 
very  fact  that  marriage  is  made  a  sacrament 
necessitates  such  strictness,  and  the  broad 
principle  is  laid  down  that  “no  human 
power  can  dissolve  the  bond  of  marriage 
when  ratified  and  consummated  between 
baptized  persons.”  If  two  unbaptized  per¬ 
sons  have  married,  and  one  afterward  be¬ 
come  Christian,  and  the  other  refuses  to 
live  peaceably,  and  without  insult  to  the 
Christian  religion,  this  marriage  may  be 
dissolved.  So  may  that  contracted  by  per¬ 
sons  who  afterward  agree  to  take  up  the 
monastic  life. 

In  Protestant  countries,  where  the  relig¬ 
ious  bodies  have  come  more  under  the  civil 
powers,  these  powers  claimed  the  right  of 
regulating  marriage  and  divorce. .  In  Eng¬ 
land  the  old  law  remained  for  a  long  time; 
in  other  lands  legislation  on  this  subject 
soon  began.  Then  in  England,  about  a 
century  and  a  half  after  the  Reformation, 
the  law  was  altered  so  that  divorce  for 
proved  adultery  was  to  be  granted  by  Act 
of  Parliament  in  each  separate  case,  while 
judicial  separations  were  pronounced  by 
the  ecclesiastical  courts.  But  this  law  was 
felt  to  be  unsatisfactory,  for,  by  making 
divorce  possible  only  through  the  spending 
of  a  very  large  sum  of  money,  it  was  per¬ 
missible  to  the  rich  and  not  to  the  poor. 
A  celebrated  sentence  of  Justice  Maule,  in 
which  he  bitterly  satirized  the  existing  law, 
had  a  great  effect  on  public  opinion,  and  in 
1857  a  new  Divorce  Court  was  established, 
with  jurisdiction  over  all  such  matters. 
Divorce  was  made  possible  for  adultery  of 
the  wife,  and  for  adultery,  with  certain 
other  offenses,  of  the  husband,  and  judicial 
separation  was  allowed  for  cruelty,  or  two 
years’  desertion.  Divorce  might  be  fol¬ 
lowed  by  re-marriage.  In  other  countries 
facilities  for  divorce  are  much  greater;  in¬ 
compatibility  of  temper,  and  even  mutual 
consent,  are  held  to  be  admissible  grounds. 
The  result  has  been  to  lower  the  moral 
tone  to  such  a  terrible  extent  as  to  create  a 
reaction  toward  better  things. — Benham: 
Diet,  of  Religion. 

Dr.  Theodore  D.  Woolsey,  in  his  article 
on  Divorce  (Schaff-Herzog:  Ency.,  p.  649), 
says:  “  Nowhere  is  the  problem  of  divorce 
so  poorly  solved,  or  so  charged  with 
danger,  as  in  the  United  States.  It  is  cer¬ 
tainly  ?.n  alarming  fact  that  the  ratio  of 
divorce  to  marriage  is  as  one  to  ten,  or 
even  greater,  in  some  States;  and  that  in 
another  State  it  has  sunk,  within  twenty 
years,  from  the  ratio  of  one  to  fifty-one 
down  to  the  ratio  of  one  to  twenty-one. 
Happily,  these  and  similar  indications  of 
a  greater  ratio  than  is  elsewhere  known 
are  now  exciting  the  attention  of  many 


Christian  people.”  The  work  of  the  Di¬ 
vorce  Reform  League  has  done  much  in 
the  last  few  years  to  enlighten  the  public 
regarding  the  evils  that  threaten  the  life  of 
the  family  by  the  increase  of  divorces  under 
the  laws  that  now  prevail  in  the  different 
States.  See  Marriage. 

Dix,  Morgan,  S.  T.  D.  (Columbia  Col¬ 
lege,  New  York,  1S62),  D.  C.  L.  (Univer¬ 
sity  of  the  South,  Sewanee,  Tenn.,  1885) 
Episcopalian;  b.  in  New  York  City,  Nov.  i, 
1827;  was  graduated  at  Columbia  College, 
1848,  and  at  the  General  Theological  Sem¬ 
inary,  1852;  assistantminister  of  St.  Mark’s, 
Philadelphia,  1853;  and  of  Trinity  Church, 
New  York,  1855;  assistant  rector  of  Trin¬ 
ity,  1859;  rector,  1862.  Among  his  pub¬ 
lished  volumes  are  a  Manual  of  the  Chris¬ 
tian  Life  (New  York,  1857,16th  thousand 
1864);  Memoir  of  John  A.  Dix  [his  father], 
(1883),  2  vols. ;  The  Gospel  and  Philosophy 
(1886);  Christ  at  the  Door  of  the  Heart,  and 
other  Sermons  (1887);  Seven  Deadly  Sins 
(1888). 

Doane,  George  Washington,  D.  D., 
LL.  D. ,  b.  May  27,  1799,  in  Trenton,  N.  J. ; 
d.  at  Burlington,  N.  J.,  April  27,  1859. 
He  was  graduated  at  Union  College,  N.  Y. , 
1818,  and  was  admitted  to  holy  orders 
1821.  He  was  elected  Protestant  Episco¬ 
pal  Bishop  of  New  Jersey  in  1832.  He 
was  a  tireless  worker,  and  wrote  much  on 
controversial  subjects.  He  is  the  author  of 
several  hymns  that  are  well  known:  among 
them  are  “  Softly  now  the  light  of  day,”  and 
“  Thou  art  the  way:  to  thee  alone.” 

Docetae,  a  branch  of  the  Gnostics  which 
“  held  that  Christ  had  no  real  body  or  hu¬ 
man  soul.  His  earthly  manifestation  in 
human  form  was  a  phantasm,  a  mere  ap¬ 
pearance  without  substance  or  reality. 
Hence  they  were  called  Docetae,  from  the 
Greek  verb  dotted,  which  means  to  ap¬ 
pear,  to  seem  to  be.  According  to  this  class 
of  the  Gnostics,  Christ’s  whole  earthly  life 
was  an  illusion.  He  was  not  born,  nor  did 
he  suffer  or  die.” — Hodge:  Sys.  Theology, 
vol.  ii,  p.  400.  This  theory  had  its  origin 
chiefly  in  the  conception  of  matter  as  the 
cause  of  evil.  The  Docetae  contended  that 
Christ  as  a  divine  being  could  never  have 
been  united  to  what  was  earthly  and  there¬ 
fore  impure.  This  sect  flourished  near 
the  close  of  the  second  century. 

Doctor  {teacher),  (1)  The  “doctors  of 
the  law  ”  mentioned  in  the  New  Testament 
(Luke  v.  17;  Acts  v.  34,  etc.),  also  called 
“  scribes,”  were  learned  expounders  of  the 
law  of  Moses  and  the  traditions  of  the  eld¬ 
ers.  As  a  rule  they  were  Pharisees,  and 


0 


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(  258  ) 


Doe 


were  addressed  as  Rabbi  {master).  They 
received  presents  but  no  salary  from  their 
pupils.  (2)  The  now  usually  honorary  de¬ 
gree  of  Doctor  of  Divinity  was  given  in  the 
Middle  Ages  only  to  those  who  had  passed 
the  degrees  of  bachelor,  licentiate,  and 
master,  and  was  bestowed  by  the  chancel¬ 
lor  of  the  university  in  the  name  of  the 
pope.  Protestants  who  bore  this  title  in 
the  seventeenth  century  were  addressed 
as  “  Your  excellency.”  The  most  famous 
of  the  mediaeval  teachers  received  degrees 
to  which  were  affixed  terms  expressing 
some  quality  of  scholarship  in  which  they 
were  preeminent. 

Doctors  of  the  Church.  The  following 
Fathers  received  this  title  in  a  distinctive 
sense:  (Greek)  Athanasius,  Basil,  Chrysos¬ 
tom,  and  Gregory  of  Nazienzen;  (Latin) 
Ambrose,  Augustine,  Gregory  the  Great, 
and  Jerome.  In  the  Roman  Church  the 
title  is  also  given  to  Anselm  of  Canter¬ 
bury,  St.  Bernard,  Bonaventura,  Francis 
of  Sales,  Hilary  of  Poitiers,  Isidore  of  Se¬ 
ville,  John  of  Damascus,  Leo  the  Great, 
(Alphonso  de)  Liguori,  Peter  Chrysologus, 
and  Peter  Damiani. 

Doddridge,  Philip,  D.  D.,  an  eminent 
dissenting  minister  and  writer;  b.  in  Lon¬ 
don,  June  26,  1702;  d.  at  Lisbon,  Oct.  26, 
1751.  He  early  entered  the  ministry,  and 
was  first  settled  at  Kibworth  in  1723.  In 
1729  he  entered  upon  his  duties  as  teacher 
of  the  school  at  Northampton,  where  he 
continued  to  preach,  and  train  students  for 
the  ministry  until  declining  health  com¬ 
pelled  him  to  seek  relief  in  a  milder  climate. 
He  died  at  Lisbon,  and  was  buried  in  the 
English  graveyard.  Dr.  Doddridge  was 
a  prolific  author  of  hymns,  some  of  which 
still  continue  to  find  favor.  His  best- 
known  work  is  The  Rise  and  Progress  of  Re¬ 
ligion  in  the  Soul  (1745). 

Dods,  Marcus,  D.  D.  (Edinburgh,  1872), 
Free  Church  of  Scotland  ;  b.  at  Belford, 
Northumberland,  Eng. ,  April  11,1834;  was 
graduated  at  Edinburgh,  1S54,  and  studied 
theology  at  New  College  in  the  same  city, 
(1854-58);  pastor,  from  1864  to  1889,  of  Ren- 
field  Free  Church,  Glasgow,  when  he  be¬ 
came  professor  of  New  Testament  exe¬ 
gesis  in  New  College,  Edinburgh.  Among 
his  published  works  are:  The  Prayer  that 
Teaches  to  Pray  (Edinburgh,  1863,  6th  ed., 
18S9)  ;  Mohammed ,  Buddha ,  and  Christ 
(1877);  The  Parables  of  our  Lord  (3  series, 
1883—85);  An  Introduction  to  the  New  Tes¬ 
tament  (1888);  The  First  Epistle  to  the  Corin¬ 
thians  (1889). 

Do'eg.  See  Aiiimelech. 


Doellinger  (dol-ling-er),  Johann  Joseph 
Ignatius,  Ph.  D.  (Vienna  and  Marburg, 
1873),  IT  D.  (Oxford,  1881),  LL.  D.  (Ox¬ 
ford  and  Edinburgh,  1873),  the  famous 
theologian,  and  the  leader  of  the  “  Old 
Catholic  ”  movement,  was  b.  in  Bamberg, 
Bavaria,  Feb.  28,  1799;  d.  in  Munich,  Jan. 
10,  1890.  He  received  priestly  orders  in 
1822,  and  became  chaplain  of  the  diocese  of 
Bamberg.  His  treatise  on  The  Doctrine  of 
the  Eucharist  came  out  in  1826;  and  in  that 
year  he  was  invited  to  lecture  on  church 
history  before  the  University  of  Munich. 
The  substance  of  these  discourses  was 
printed  in  one  volume  that  appeared  in  1828, 
and  in  another  more  elaborate,  ten  years 
later.  In  1845  he  began  to  give  attention 
to  politics,  and  went  into  the  Bavarian 
Parliament  as  a  representative  of  the  Uni¬ 
versity  of  Munich.  Four  years  after  this, 
in  the  Diet  of  Frankfort,  he  voted  for  the 
total  separation  of  Church  and  State;  and 
in  1861  he  delivered  a  series  of  lectures 
advocating  the  abandonment  of  its  tem¬ 
poral  power  by  the  Holy  See.  Up  to  this 
time  he  had  published  Origins  of  Christian¬ 
ity;  The  Refor7nation :  Its  Interior  Develop¬ 
ments  and  Effects;  1'he  Religion  of  Mo  ha  771- 
77ied;  A  Sketch  of  Luther;  Paga7iism  a7id 
Judaism;  and  Christianity  in  the  Church. 
And  these  were  followed  by  Papal  Lege7ids 
of  the  Middle  Ages  (1863)  and  A  History  of 
the  Religious  Sects  of  the  Middle  Ages  (1870). 

Dr.  Doellinger  obtained  wide  fame  by  his 
opposition  to  the  decrees  of  the  Vatican 
Council,  and,  in  particular,  to  that  one  de¬ 
claring  the  infallibility  of  the  pope  when 
addressing  the  Church  ex  cathedra  on 
questions  of  faith  and  morals.  He  pub¬ 
lished  on  this  subject  the  pamphlets, 
A  Few  Words  on  the  Bifallibility  Address, 
and  The  New  By  -  Laws  of  the  Cou7icil 
(1870),  and  he  was  believed  to  be  one  of 
the  authors  of  the  Janus ,  one  of  the  most 
important  works  published  against  papal 
infallibility.  As  he  emphatically  declined 
to  submit  to  the  decrees  of  the  Vatican 
Council,  he  was,  on  April  17,  1871,  form¬ 
ally  excommunicated  by  the  Archbishop  of 
Munich.  On  July  29,  1871,  he  was  elected 
rector  of  the  University  of  Munich,  receiv¬ 
ing  fifty-four  out  of  sixty-three  votes  cast. 
He  took  a  leading  part  in  the  Old  Catholic 
congresses  of  Munich  (1S71)  and  Cologne 
(1872).  In  the  former  he  showed  himself 
opposed  to  the  measures  adopted  by  the 
majority  for  effecting  a  permanent  eccle¬ 
siastical  organization  of  the  Old  Catholics; 
in  the  latter,  he  was  elected  chairman  of 
a  special  committee  on  the  reunion  of  the 
Christian  Churches,  a  subject  to  which  for 
years  he  devoted  especial  attention.  For 
a  long  time  he  was  a  member  of  the  first 
Chamber  of  the  Bavarian  Diet.  In  1873 


Dog 


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Dol 


he  was  appointed  president  of  the  Royal 
Academy  of  Science.  His  last  work,  pub¬ 
lished  in  1889,  2  vols.,  was  a  history  of  the 
ethical  controversies  in  the  Roman  Catho¬ 
lic  Church  since  the  sixteenth  century,  pre¬ 
pared  in  connection  with  Professor  Reusch. 
See  Old  Catholics. 

Dogma.  In  its  orginal  meaning  dogma 
from  Gr.  dokein ,  “  to  seem,”  signified  that 
which  seemed  true  to  any  one.  It  finally 
came  into  use  to  denote  the  opinions  ex¬ 
pressed  by  philosophers,  and  then  gained 
the  sense  of  authoritative  decrees.  Both 
in  the  LXX.  and  the  New  Testament  it  is 
used  with  reference  to  decrees  issued  by 
the  State  (Dan.  ii.  13;  iii.  10;  Luke  ii.  1), 
and  in  Acts  xvi.  4  to  the  decrees  passed  by 
the  Council  of  Jerusalem  and  also  for  the 
Mosaic  decrees.  (Col.  ii.  14;  Eph.  ii.  15.) 
Dogma,  as  employed  in  the  writings  of 
Protestant  theologians  has  been  defined  as, 
"“a  truth  of  faith ,  derived  from  the 
authority  of  the  Word  and  Revelation  of 
God;  a  positive  truth,  therefore — positive, 
not  merely  by  virtue  of  the  positiveness 
with  which  it  is  laid  down,  but  also  by 
virtue  of  the  authority  by  which  it  is 
sealed.” — Martensen. 

Dogmatics  is  the  science  which  treats 
of  Christian  doctrine,  and  is,  therefore,  an¬ 
other  term  for  systematic  theology.  As 
to  the  sources  from  which  dogmatics  draws 
its  chief  materials,  the  Roman  Catholic 
and  Protestant  churches  radically  differ. 
Evangelical  theologians  contend  that  the 
Bible  alone  is  the  source  from  which  we 
derive  our  religious  beliefs.  On  this  basis 
of  a  Divine  revelation ,  the  truth  of  Chris¬ 
tianity  is  assumed  independently  of  all  spec¬ 
ulation,  and  theological  investigation  is 
confined  to  the  elucidation  and  under¬ 
standing  of  this  accepted  Word  of  God. 
Outside  the  Scriptures  there  is  no  ultimate 
authority  for  religious  beliefs.  The 
Roman  Catholic  Church  holds  an  entirely 
different  position  from  this.  It  claims, 
through  an  abiding  inspiration  continued 
to  its  living  head,  that  the  decisions  of 
councils,  and  the  official  utterances  of  the 
pope  have  an  authority  as  infallible  as 
that  of  the  apostles.  “  The  Protestant 
theology,  on  the  other  hand,  declares  that 
only  that  religion  is  genuine  which  can  be 
shown  to  be  apostolic.  Protestantism  re¬ 
gards  Christianity  as  a  gospel  of  free 
grace  offered  to  all  men  alike;  the  Roman 
Catholic  theology  regards  it  as  a  new  law, 
an  authoritative,  external  authority  to 
which  all  must  bow,  with  a  hierarchy  en¬ 
dowed  with  power  to  settle,  once  and  for 
all,  the  precepts  of  the  faith.  It  makes  no 
appeal  to  inward  conviction,  but  rests  all 


on  the  external  canon.  It,  therefore,  sup¬ 
plements  the  teaching  of  the  New  Testa¬ 
ment  by  tradition ,  i.  e.,  the  handing  down 
through  all  time  of  the  manner  in  which 
succeeding  ages  received  the  Gospel,  and 
the  form  in  which  they  held  it.” 

In  Germany,  especially,  it  must  be  ad¬ 
mitted  that  Protestant  dogmatics  received 
into  its  contents  much  of  the  traditional 
material  of  the  Roman  Catholic  Church. 
This  led  to  criticism  which,  under  the  form 
of  rationalism,  “  rejected  the  doctrine  of 
the  inspiration  of  Scripture;  it  denied  that 
Scripture  is  itself  a  divine  revelation:  it 
accepted  Scripture  only  as  the  first,  the 
most  authentic,  and  consequently  the  most 
authoritative  testimony  to  the  divine  rev¬ 
elation  in  Christ.  By  degrees  its  own  posi¬ 
tion  became  perfectly  clear;  it  assumed 
human  reason  as  the  highest  norm  for  re¬ 
vealed  truths  ( D .  F.  Strauss ),  a  self-con¬ 
tradiction  which  must  lead  to  the  denial 
of  all  revelation,  that  is,  out  of  Christian¬ 
ity.  The  lasting  result,  however,  of  the 
rationalistic  criticism,  was  the  distinction 
between  a  purely  scriptural  dogmatics  de¬ 
veloped  into  an  independent  branch  of  the 
theological  system,  under  the  name  of 
Biblical  Theology,  and  the  whole  sum  of 
Christian  truth,  such  as  it  has  grown  up 
from  Scripture  in  Christendom  during  a 
period  of  nearly  two  thousand  years.” — 
J.  Kostlin .  The  literature  of  this  subject 
is  enormous.  Some  of  the  more  impor¬ 
tant  titles  are  given  in  Schaff  -  Herzog: 
Ency.,  vol.  I,  pp.  654-656. 

Literature. — Roman  Catholic:  Mohler 
(1832),  Perrone  (1835).  Lutheran:  Me- 
lanchthon  (1521),  Chemnitz  (1592),  Knapp 
(1827),  Martensen  (1849),  Thomasius  (1853), 
Luthardt  (18G5).  Reformed:  Turretin 
(1682),  Witsius  (1687),  Pictet  (1696),  Eb- 
rard  (1851),  Muller  (1870),  Dorner  (1879). 
Anglican:  Hooker  (1594),  Pearson  (1659), 
Bull  (1685),  Harold  Browne  (1850).  Scotch: 
Hill  (1821),  Dick  (1833),  Chalmers  (1849). 
American:  Edwards  (Works,  1809),  Dwight 
(1818),  Hodge  (1872),  Dabney  .(1874), 
Strong  (1887),  Shedd  (1889). 

Dogs  were  regarded  with  contempt  by 
the  Jews,  as  an  unclean  animal.  (Ex.  xxii. 
31;  Deut.  xxiii.  18;  Rev.  xxii.  15.)  Al¬ 
though  numerous  in  the  cities,  they  prowl 
about  and  pick  up  their  living  in  the 
streets,  but  are  not  kept  in  the  houses. 
The  Eastern  people  to  this  day  can  apply 
no  stronger  opprobrious  epithets  than  in 
the  use  of  the  word  “  dog.” 

Dolcino,  the  successor  of  Segrarelli  as 
the  leader  of  the  Apostolic  Brethren  or 
Dulcinists  (1300);  b.  in  the  diocese  of 
Novara.  Attempts  were  made  to  arrest 


Dom 


(  260  ) 


Don 


him,  but  it  was  not  until  1307  that  he  was 
defeated  and  burned.  He  was  a  well- 
meaning  religious  enthusiast,  but  fanatical 
and  ill-balanced  in  mind. 

Dominic,  St.  See  Dominicans. 

Dominicans,  the  first  order  of  Preaching 
Friars ,  founded  by  Domingo  de  Guzman, 
who  was  b.  in  Old  Castile  in  1170,  and  d. 
at  Bologna,  Aug.  6,  1221.  Dominic  was 
made  a  canon  in  1194,  and  afterward  sub¬ 
prior  of  the  chapter  of  Osman.  While 
here  he  labored  with  success  among  the 
Mohammedans  who  lived  in  that  region. 
Visiting  the  south  of  France  in  1204,  he 
became  interested  in  plans  for  the  con¬ 
version  of  the  Albigenses.  Little  progress 
was  made  in  this  work,  but  an  asylum  for 
girls  was  founded  at  Prouille,  where 
Dominic  and  his  followers  found  refuge 
until  presented  with  a  house  at  Toulouse. 
When,  under  the  directions  of  Innocent  III. , 
a  crusade  was  declared  against  the  Al¬ 
bigenses,  Dominic  and  his  associates  were 
active  in  seizing  and  convicting  heretics. 
It  was  at  this  time  that  he  began  to  plan 
the  organization  of  an  order  of  preaching 
monks.  They  adopted  the  rules  of  St. 
Augustine,  which  enjoined  poverty  and  the 
severest  restrictions.  The  order  did  not 
grow  rapidly  until  after  1219,  when  the 
possession  of  property  in  every  form  was 
renounced,  and  the  members  were  to  seek 
their  living  by  begging.  From  this  time 
forward  the  Dominicans  increased  rapidly. 
“  Christendom,”  says  Dean  Milman  “  was 
overspread  with  a  host  of  zealous,  active, 
devoted  men,  whose  function  was  popular 
instruction.  They  were  gathered  from 
every  country,  and  spoke,  therefore,  every 
language  and  dialect.  In  a  few  years, 
from  the  sierras  of  Spain  to  the  steppes  of 
Russia,  from  the  Tiber  to  the  Thames, 
the  Trent,  the  Baltic  Sea,  the  old  faith  in 
its  fullest  mediaeval,  imaginative,  inflexible 
vigor  was  preached  in  almost  every  town 
and  hamlet.”  In  1425  by  order  of  Martin 
V.  they  were  again  permitted  to  hold 
property.  With  the  increase  of  wealth 
the  Dominicans  began  to  exercise  great  in¬ 
fluence,  both  in  art  and  education.  They 
gained  a  strong  foothold  in  the  University 
of  Paris  and  other  seats  of  learning,  and 
became  the  earnest  opponents  of  the 
Franciscans  in  the  discussions  that  were 
waged  between  the  Thomists  and  the 
Scotists  regarding  points  of  historical, 
scientific,  and  theological  difference. 
Among  the  eminent  men  who  have  be¬ 
longed  to  the  order  are  found  the  names 
of  St.  Thomas  Aquinas,  Savonarola,  Las 
Casas,  Albertus  Magnus,  Tauler,  Cardinal 
Cajetan,  etc.  Four  popes,  sixty  cardinals, 


and  over  eight  hundred  bishops  have  come 
from  the  ranks  of  the  Dominicans.  In 
Paris  the  order  early  received  the  name  of 
Jacobins,  from  the  fact  that  their  monastery, 
founded  there  in  1218,  was  in  the  Rue  St. 
Jacques.  An  order  of  nuns  was  also  es¬ 
tablished  by  St.  Dominic,  that  followed  the 
strict  Dominican  rule.  It  is  a  matter  of 
historic  interest  that  the  dogma  of  the  im¬ 
maculate  conception,  up  to  the  time  of  its 
promulgation  in  1854,  had  always  been  op¬ 
posed  by  the  Dominicans. 

Dominica  in  Albis,  the  first  Sunday  after 
Easter. 

Dominical  Letter,  a  letter  (one  of  the 
first  seven  in  the  alphabet)  which  is  used  in 
ecclesiastical  almanacs  to  represent  Sunday. 

Dominicale,  either  a  linen  veil  worn  at 
communion  by  women,  or  a  fair  linen 
cloth,  in  which  they  received  the  bread, 
instead  of  the  hand.  This  custom  is  still 
seen  in  the  north  of  Italy. 

Domitian,  Roman  emperor,  81-96.  Dur¬ 
ing  his  reign  many  Christians  suffered 
martyrdom.  It  would  appear  that  he  per¬ 
secuted  the  Christians  only  as  he  thought 
they  were  politically  dangerous,  and  not 
because  of  their  peculiar  religious  opinions. 

Donation  of  Constantine,  an  alleged  im¬ 
perial  edict,  by  which  Constantine  the  Great 
is  said  to  bestow  Rome  and  Italy  on  the 
Papacy.  The  forgery,  which  for  a  long 
time  was  accepted  as  true,  was  committed 
about  the  middle  of  the  eighth  century.  It 
was  fully  exposed  by  Laurentius  Valla 
(1440). 

Donatists.  The  persecution  of  the  Chris¬ 
tians  in  the  time  of  Diocletian  developed 
an  intense  loyalty  to  their  faith  that  led 
many  to  detest  in  the  strongest  manner 
those  who  surrendered  their  Bibles  to  the 
secular  authorities.  They  called  such 
traditores.  This  feeling  was  carried  so  far 
that  it  was  condemned  by  Mensurius,  bish¬ 
op  of  Carthage.  This  only  added  fuel  to 
the  flame.  As  a  synod  was  about  to  open 
at  Cirta  in  395,  Secundus,  primate  of  Nu- 
midia,  asked  that  inquiry  be  made  if  there 
were  any  traditores  in  the  assembly.  The 
investigation  implicated  most  of  the  bish¬ 
ops,  and  cast  suspicion  upon  Secundus 
himself,  who  then  dropped  the  matter,  but 
sent  a  warning  to  Mensurius  and  his  arch¬ 
deacon,  Caeclianus,  who  was  in  sympathy 
with  him.  Upon  the  death  of  Mensurius 
(311)  Caeclianus  was  at  once  elected  bishop, 
without  waiting  for  the  coming  of  the  Nu- 
midian  bishops,  or  asking  Secundus  to  con- 


Don 


(  261  )' 


Dor 


secrate  him  to  the  office.  A  synod  was 
called,  and  Caeclianus  refusing  to  appear, 
it  proceeded  to  elect  Majorinus  bishop  of 
Carthage,  and  upon  his  death  soon  after 
(313),  Donatus  became  his  successor. 

This  was  the  beginning  of  the  schism 
which  for  so  long  a  time  distracted  the 
churches  of  North  Africa.  At  first  the 
country  people  and  many  bishops  favored 
the  claims  of  Donatus.  Caeclianus  was, 
however,  recognized  by  the  authorities  of 
the  Church  outside  of  Africa.  Constantine 
the  Great  refused  his  protection  to  the 
Donatists,  but  finally  consented  to  appoint 
a  board  of  bishops  to  examine  the  merits 
of  the  controversy.  Donatus  was  deposed, 
but  his  followers  refused  to  submit.  They 
asked  to  have  the  case  reopened,  which 
was  done,  but  the  commission  again  gave 
a  verdict  in  favor  of  Caeclianus.  Appealing 
directly  to  the  emperor,  Constantine  sum¬ 
moned  Caeclianus  and  his  accusers  to 
Milan  (316),  and  again  the  decision  was 
against  the  Donatists.  They  still  refused 
to  submit,  and  after  Constans  succeeded 
his  father,  he  treated  them  with  great  se¬ 
verity.  The  Donatists,  by  the  aid  of  a 
fanatical  party  known  as  Circumcelliones , 
aroused  a  tumult,  that  was  suppressed  by 
•  severe  measures  in  345.  The  death  of 
Caeclianus  did  not  heal  the  schism,  although 
Constans  made  strenuous  efforts  to  gain 
the  good-will  of  the  Donatists,  most  of 
whom  were  very  poor,  by  promises  of 
financial  assistance.  Donatus  was  able  to 
arouse  a  strong  opposition,  and  with  the 
help  of  the  Circumcelliones  armed  resistance 
was  made.  This  uprising  was  soon  put 
down.  Donatus  was  deposed  and  banished, 
and  the  churches  closed.  When  Julian 
came  to  the  throne  he  ordered  them  to  be 
reopened,  and  their  bishops  were  rein¬ 
stated.  For  a  short  time  they  used  their 
power  in  retaliating  upon  their  enemies, 
but  the  successors  of  Julian  enforced  the 
law  against  them.  Internal  dissensions 
broke  out  that  weakened  them  more  than 
the  attacks  of  opponents.  The  party  which 
held  to  the  most  extreme  views  of  the  sect, 
upon  an  attempt  to  depose  their  leader, 
Maximianus,  convened  a  synod  and  elected 
him  bishop.  During  this  period  of  dissen¬ 
sion,  Augustine  began  his  attacks  upon  the 
sect.  A  disputation  was  held  in  Carthage 
(41 1),  at  the  close  of  which  the  imperial 
commissioner  decided  against  the  Dona¬ 
tists.  In  414-15  they  were  deprived  of 
civil  rights,  and  forbidden  to  assemble  for 
worship.  Remnants  of  the  sect  existed  as 
late  as  the  seventh  century,  when  the 
country  was  overrun  by  the  Saracens. 

Donne,  John,  D.  D.,  a  celebrated  divine 
and  admired  poet  of  his  times;  b.  in  Lon¬ 


don,  1573;  d.  March  31,  1631.  Educated 
at  Oxford,  and  reared  in  the  Roman  Cath¬ 
olic  Church,  after  careful  consideration  he 
united  with  the  English  Church.  A  secret 
marriage  with  the  niece  of  the  Lord  Chan¬ 
cellor,  whom  he  was  serving  as  secretary, 
incensed  his  wife’s  relatives,  as  well  as 
Queen  Elizabeth,  and  he  was  thrown  into 
prison.  He  gained  the  good-will  of  James 
I.,  under  whose  patronage  he  wrote  The 
Tseudo-Marlyr.  After  long  hesitation,  he 
was  finally  ordained  about  1615.  From  this 
time  forward,  until  his  death,  he  labored 
with  great  diligence  in  and  about  London. 
He  has  been  called  the  “  Great  Poet 
Preacher”  of  the  Church  of  England.  His 
Sermons ,  with  a  Life  by  Izaak  Walton,  were 
published  in  1640. 

Donnell,  Robert,  one  of  the  early  lead¬ 
ers  of  the  Cumberland  Presbyterian 
Church;  b.  in  Guilford  County,  N.  C., 
April,  1784;  d.  in  Athens,  Ala.,  May  24, 
1854.  Without  the  advantages  of  an  early 
education,  but  revealing  peculiar  gifts,  he 
was  encouraged  by  the  “  Council  ”  of  the 
Cumberland  Presbytery,  in  1806,  to  under¬ 
take  the  work  of  an  evangelist.  In  1811 
he  became  connected  with  the  recently  or¬ 
ganized  Cumberland  Presbyterian  body, 
and  soon  became  a  leader  in  the  denomina¬ 
tion.  He  published  Thoughts  on  Various 
Subjects  ( Nashville,  last  ed.  1880).  See  his 
Life  by  Lowry  (Nashville,  Tenn.,  1867). 

Donnellan  Lectures,  six  lectures  given 
annually  in  the  Chapel  of  Trinity  College, 
Dublin.  They  are  provided  by  a  legacy 
of  Miss  Anne  Donnellan,  given  in  1794, 
“  for  the  encouragement  of  religion,  learn¬ 
ing,  and  good  manners.”  Many  well- 
known  works  have  come  from  this  founda¬ 
tion,  among  others  Dr.  Graves’s  Lectures  on 
the  Pentateuch  ;  Magee:  On  Prophecy ,  etc. 

Doolittle,  Justus,  Presbyterian;  b.  at 
Rutland,  N.  Y. ,  June  23,  1824;  d.  at  Clin¬ 
ton,  N.  Y.,  June  15,  1880;  was  graduated  at 
Hamilton  College,  1846,  and  Auburn  Sem¬ 
inary,  1849;  from  1849  to  1869  and  from 
1872  to  1873,  missionary  in  China,  at  Foo¬ 
chow,  Tientzin,  and  Shanghai.  He  pub¬ 
lished  The  Social  Life  of  the  Chinese  (New 
York,  1865),  2  vols. ;  V ocabulary  and  Hand¬ 
book  of  the  Chinese  Language ,  Romanized  in 
the  Mandarin  Dialect  (1872-73),  2  vols. 

Dora,  Sister  (Dorothy  Wyndlow  Pat- 
tison);  b.  at  Hauxwell,  Yorkshire,  Jan.  16, 
1832;  d.  at  Walsall,  South  Staffordshire, 
Dec.  24,  1878.  Her  father  was  rector  of 
Hauxwell,  and  by  inheritance  a  man  of 
wealth.  From  a  sincere  desire  to  help 
those  who  were  in  suffering,  his  daughter 


Dor 


(  262  ) 


Dow 


left  the  comforts  of  her  father’s  home,  and 
after  an  experience  of  three  years  in  teach¬ 
ing,  in  1864  she  joined  the  Church  of  Eng¬ 
land  “  Sisterhood  of  the  Good  Samaritans.” 
In  1865  she  was  sent  to  the  Cottage  Hos¬ 
pital  at  Walsall,  where  she  labored  with 
wonderful  success  until  1876,  when  she 
was  compelled,  on  account  of  illness,  to 
give  up  the  work.  Her  wonderful  skill, 
courage,  and  devotion  won  the  admiration 
and  love  of  all  who  were  brought  in  contact 
with  her.  Her  life  reads  like  a  romance, 
and  is  a  beautiful  and  touching  revelation 
of  service  in  the  name  of  the  Master.  See 
her  Life  by  Margaret  Lonsdale  (Boston, 
1880). 

Dorcas  Society,  a  name  taken  from  the 
Christian  woman,  mentioned  in  Acts  ix.  36, 
who  was  a  kind  friend  of  the  poor,  and  was 
restored  to  life  by  Peter.  Societies  organ¬ 
ized  to  look  after  and  prepare  clothing  for 
the  poor  have  been  fifty  called  Dorcas  So¬ 
cieties. 

Dorner,  Isaac  August,  D.  D. ,  an  eminent 
German  divine  and  theologian;  b.  at  Neu- 
hausen,  June  20,  1809;  d.  at  Wiesbaden, 
July  8,  1884.  He  studied  at  the  University 
of  Tubingen  (1827),  where,  in  1835,  he  be¬ 
came  professor  extraordinary  of  theology. 
In  this  year  he  began  the  publication  of  his 
great  work,  the  History  of  the  Development 
of  the  Doctrine  of  the  Person  of  Christ . 
From  1839  to  1843  he  was  professor  at  the 
University  of  Kiel,  where  he  wrote  his 
treatise  upon  The  Foundation  Ideas  of  the 
Protestant  Church.  In  1843  he  was  called 
to  the  chair  of  theology  at  Konigsberg,  in 
1847  to  Bonn,  in  1853  to  Gottingen,  and  in 
1862  became  professor  and  consistorial 
councilor  at  Berlin.  Dr.  Philip  Schaff 
( Living  Divines ,  p.  58)  says:  “  Dr.  Dor¬ 
ner  was  one  of  the  profoundest  and  most 
learned  theologians  of  the  nineteenth  cen¬ 
tury,  and  ranks  with  Schleiermacher,  Ne- 
ander,  Nitzsch,  Julius  Muller,  and  Richard 
Rothe.  He  mastered  the  theology  of 
Schleiermacher,  and  the  philosophy  of  He¬ 
gel,  appropriated  the  best  elements  of  both, 
and  infused  into  them  a  positive  evangel¬ 
ical  faith  and  a  historical  spirit.  The  cen¬ 
tral  idea  of  his  system  was  the  divine-hu¬ 
man  personality  of  Christ,  as  the  highest 
revealer  of  God,  the  perfect  ideal  of  hu¬ 
manity,  and  the  Saviour  from  sin  and  death. 
His  theology  is  preeminently  Christolog- 
ical,  and  his  monumental  history  of  Chris- 
tology  will  long  remain  the  richest  mine  of 
study  in  that  department.”  Dr.  Dorner 
visited  the  United  States  in  1873,  as  a  del¬ 
egate  to  the  meeting  of  the  Evangelical  Al¬ 
liance  held  in  New  York.  In  the  long  list 
of  his  publications,  besides  those  already 


mentioned,  is  A  System  of  Christian  Doc¬ 
trine  (English  translation,  Edinburgh,  1880- 
82),  4  vols. 

Dorothea,  (1)  a  Christian  maiden,  mar¬ 
tyred  in  the  persecution  of  Diocletian.  (2) 
A  Prussian  lady  who,  at  the  age  of  forty- 
four,  and  the  mother  of  nine  children,  de¬ 
voted  herself  to  an  ascetic  life  (1394).  After 
her  death  many  miracles  were  reported  at 
her  grave,  and  she  was  popularly  regarded 
as  the  patron  saint  of  Prussia. 

Dort,  Synod  of,  the  largest  synod  ever 
held  within  the  bounds  of  the  Reformed 
churches.  It  was  convened  by  the  States- 
General  at  Dort  (Dordrecht),  Nov.  13,. 
1618,  and  adjourned  May  9,  1619.  The 
leaders  on  the  Arminian  side  were  Simon 
Episcopius,  professor  at  Leyden,  John  of 
Barneveld,  and  Hugo  Grotius.  At  the 
head  of  the  Calvinists  was  Prince  Maurice , 
of  Orange.  The  synod  had  its  origin  in 
the  charge  of  disloyalty  brought  against 
the  Arminians,  or  Remonstrants,  because  of 
the  action  of  Grotius  and  Barneveld  in  con¬ 
cluding  a  twelve  years’  truce  with  Spain, 
in  1609.  The  discussion  led  to  an  open 
religious  and  political  conflict  between  the 
two  parties.  “  The  canons  of  the  Synod 
of  Dort  are  infralapsarian,  and  do  not  ex¬ 
press  the  deepest  and  ultimate  conclusion 
of  the  Calvinistic  system.  The  synod 
ignored  the  spirit  of  union  embodied  in  the 
Second  Helvetic  Confession,  and  incorpo¬ 
rated  the  old  predestinarianism  into  its  can¬ 
ons.” — Heppe.  See  Schaff:  Creeds  of  Chris¬ 
tendom,  vol.  i,  pp.  508,  sqq.  (N.  Y.,  1881). 

Dositheus,  an  impostor  who  claimed 
to  be  the  Messiah.  He  had  but  a  small 
following,  but  the  sect  lived  on  as  late  as 
the  sixth  century.  The  peculiarity  of  his 
teaching  was  the  stress  laid  upon  the  legal 
observance  of  the  Sabbath. 

Douai,  or  Douay,  a  town  of  France,  in 
the  department  of  Le  Nord,  on  the  Scarpe. 
In  the  Middle  Ages  it  was  a  place  of  some 
commercial  importance.  Here,  in  1568, 
William  Allen  founded  a  seminary  for  the 
education  of  Roman  Catholic  priests  who 
were  preparing  for  missionary  service  in 
England.  It  became  the  headquarters  of 
Roman  Catholic  Englishmen  living  on  the 
Continent,  and  owing  to  their  intrigues 
after  the  Huguenot  troubles,  the  college 
was  removed  to  Rheims,  in  1578,  but  in 
1593  was  again  established  at  Douay.  The 
town  is  best  known  as  the  place  where  the 
Old  Testament  of  the  so-called  Douay  Bible 
was  printed  in  1602.  See  Bible,  p.  109. 

Dow,  Lorenzo,  an  eccentric  Methodist 


Dow 


(  263  ) 


Dre 


preacher;  b.  at  Coventry,  Conn.,  Oct.  16, 
1777;  d.  at  Georgetown,  D.  C.,  Feb.  2, 
1834.  He  commenced  his  labors  as  an 
itinerant  preacher  in  1798,  but  was  dropped 
by  his  conference  for  leaving  his  appoint¬ 
ment,  and  going  to  Europe  on  what  he 
conceived  to  be  a  special  mission.  From 
this  time  he  preached  independent  of  ec¬ 
clesiastical  authority.  Riding  on  horse¬ 
back  from  forty  to  fifty  miles,  he  often 
spoke  four  or  five  times  in  a  day.  He  was 
eccentric  in  dress,  manner,  and  speech,  but 
his  native  ability  and  eloquence  won  many 
listeners  and  converts.  See  Dealings  of 
God,  Man ,  and  the  Devil ,  as  exemplified  in 
the  Life  of  L.  Dow ,  with  his  Writings  (N. 
Y.  1854,  new  ed.  1875). 

Dowling,  John,  Baptist  ;  b.  in  Sussex, 
Eng.,  May  12,  1807:  d.  at  Middletown,  N. 
Y.,  July  4,  1878.  For  many  years  he  was 
pastor  of  the  Berean  Baptist  Church  in 
New  York  City.  He  is  best  known  by 
his  History  of  Romanism  (1845,  new  ed. 
1871). 

Doxology,  a  hymn  of  glorification  to 
God.  It  originally  consisted  of  the  words 
found  in  Luke  ii.  14.  Additions  were  early 
made  to  it,  first  in  the  Greek  Church  and 
then  in  the  Latin,  probably  by  Hilary, 
Bishop  of  Poitiers  (d.  366),  and  in  the  fifth 
century  what  is  known  as  the  Doxologia 
major  read  as  follows:  “  Glory  to  God  on 
high,  and  on  earth  peace  to  men  of  his  good¬ 
will.  We  praise  thee,  we  bless  thee,  we 
worship  thee,  we  glorify  thee,  we  give 
thanks  to  thee  for  thy  great  glory.  O 
Lord  God,  heavenly  king,  God  the  Father 
Almighty:  O  Lord,  the  only-begotten  Son, 
Jesus  Christ;  O  Lord  God,  Lamb  of  God, 
Son  of  the  Father,  that  takest  away  the 
sins  of  the  world,  have  mercy  upon  us; 
Thou  that  takest  away  the  sins  of  the  world , 
receive  our  prayer;  Thou  that  sittest  at  the 
right  hand  of  the  Father,  have  mercy  upon 
us;  For  thou  alone  art  holy,  thou  only, 
Jesus  Christ,  with  the  Holy  Ghost,  art 
most  high  in  the  glory  of  God  the  Father. 
Amen.” 

Down  to  the  twelfth  century  this  Dox¬ 
ology  was  used  alone  by  the  bishops  and 
by  the  priests  at  Easter.  It  is  still,  to 
some  extent,  in  use  among  the  Lutherans, 
and  in  the  English  version  it  is  regularly 
employed  in  the  service  of  the  Episcopal 
Church.  The  Doxologia  minor  consisted 
at  first  of  the  words,  Gloria  Patri  et  Filio 
et  Spiritui  Sancto  in  scecala  sceculorum ,  to 
which,  growing  out  of  the  Arian  contro¬ 
versy,  was  added,  “  as  it  was  in  the  begin¬ 
ning,  is  now,  and  ever  shall  be,  world  with¬ 
out  end.”  This  was  used  at  the  end  of 
each  hymn.  The  term  “doxology”  is 


used  also  to  designate  certain  passages  of 
glorification  found  in  the  Scriptures,  and 
the  verse  or  verses  sung  at  the  opening  or 
close  of  religious  services.  The  most 
familar  is  the  stanza  which  closes  both  the 
Morning  and  Evening  hymns  of  Bishop 
Ken,  “  Praise  God  from  whom  all  bless¬ 
ings  flow.” 

Drachma.  See  Money. 

Dream.  “  The  revelation  of  God’s  will 
in  drea?7is  is  characteristic  of  the  early  and 
less  perfect  patriarchal  times  (Gen.  xxviii. 
12;  xxxi.  24;  xxxvii.  5-10) — to  Solomon 
(1  Kings  iii.  5),  in  commencing  his  reign; 
the  beginnings  of  the  New  Testament  dis¬ 
pensation  (Matt.  i.  20;  ii.  13,  19,  22);  and 
the  communications  from  God  to  the  rulers 
of  the  heathen-world  powers,  Philistia, 
Egypt,  Babylon  (Gen.  xx.  3;  xl.  5;  xli.  1); 
Elihu  (Job  xxxiii.  15;  Dan.  ii. ;  iv.  5,  etc.). 
The  dream  form  of  revelation  is  that  most 
appropriate  to  those  oiitside  the  kingdom  of 
God.  So  the  Midianite  (Judg.  vii.  13);  Pi¬ 
late’s  wife.  (Matt,  xxvii.  19.)  But  it  is  the 
Israelites, Joseph  and  Daniel,  who  interpret; 
for  heathendom  is  passive,  Israel  active, 
in  Divine  things,  to  the  glory  of  the  God  of 
Israel.  Dreams  were  a  frequent  means  of 
imposture  and  idolatry.  (Deut.  xiii.  1-3; 
Zech.  x.  2.)  The  dream  form  of  revelation 
is  placed  below  that  of  prophecy ,  and  even 
divination.  (Num.  xii.  6;  Joel  ii.  28;  1  Sam. 
xxviii.  6.)  ‘Trances’  and  ‘visions’  are 
mentioned  in  the  Christian  church,  but  not 
dreams.  Whilst  God  has  acted,  and  can 
act,  on  the  mind  in  a  dream  (wherein  the 
reason  and  judgment  are  dormant,  but  the 
sensations  and  imaginations  active  and  un¬ 
controlled  by  the  judgment),  his  higher 
mode  of  revelation  is  that  wherein  the  un¬ 
derstanding  is  active  and  conscious;  con¬ 
sequently  the  former  mode  appears  more 
in  imperfect  stages  of  the  development  of 
God’s  scheme  than  in  the  advanced  stages.” 
— Fausset:  Bible  Cyclopcedia. 

Drelincourt  ( dra-lin-cour ),  Charles,  Re¬ 
formed  Church  of  France;  b.  at  Sedan, 
July  10,  1595;  d.  Nov.  3,  1669,  at  Charen- 
ton,  near  Paris,  where  he  had  been  pastor 
since  1620.  He  was  a  prolific  writer,  but 
is  now  remembered  by  his  Christian' s  De¬ 
fence  Against ;  the  Fear  of  Death  (1651), 
which,  in  its  English  translation,  has  passed 
through  more  than  a  score  of  editions.  It 
was  to  the  edition  of  this  work,  published 
in  1705,  that  De  Foe  attached,  in  the  intro¬ 
duction,  his  fiction  of  Mrs.  Veal ,  in  which 
he  makes  that  lady  to  return  from  the  dead 
to  recommend  the  work  of  Drelincourt. 

Dress.  See  Clothing, 


Dri 


(  264  ) 


Dru 


Driver,  Samuel  Rolles,  D.  D.  (by  decree 
of  Convocation,  1883),  Churchof  England;  b. 
at  Southampton,  Oct.  2,  1846;  was  graduat¬ 
ed  at  Oxford,  1869;  succeeded  Dr.  Pusey  as 
regius  professor  of  Hebrew  and  canon  of 
Christ  Church,  Oxford,  1882.  He  was  a 
member  of  the  Old  Testament  Revision 
Company.  Among  his  published  works  are: 
A  Treatise  on  the  Use  of  the  Tenses  in  He¬ 
brew  (Oxford,  1874,  2d  ed.,  1S81);  Isaiah 
(New  York,  1S8S). 

Druidism,  the  name  generally  given  to 
the  religious  system  of  the  ancient  Gauls 
and  Britons.  The  word  Druid,  one  form 
or  other  of  which  is  used  in  early  Celtic 
records  to  designate  a  class  of  priests  cor¬ 
responding  to  the  Magi  or  wise  men  of  the 
ancient  Persians,  is  of  uncertain  etymology. 
The  derivation  from  the  Greek  drus ,  an 
oak,  though  as  old  as  the  elder  Pliny,  is 
fanciful.  The  Druids,  as  the  religious 
guides  of  the  people,  were  put  under  a  se¬ 
vere  course  of  training  for  their  duties. 
They  were  taught  orally,  and  the  president 
of  the  order  had  supreme  authority.  They 
believed  in  the  immortality  of  the  soul. 
Groves  of  oak  were  their  chosen  retreat, 
and  whatever  grew  on  that  tree  was 
thought  to  be  a  gift  from  heaven,  especially 
the  mistletoe.  In  spite  of  their  boasted 
civilization,  many  of  their  rites  were  bar¬ 
barous  in  the  extreme.  In  mechanics  they 
attained  to  no  mean  skill,  since  the  ponder¬ 
ous  megalithic  remains  of  Britain  and 
France  could  have  been  set  up  only  by 
them.  Stone  circles,  like  Stannis  and  Cal- 
lernish,  were  ancient  temples,  once  sur¬ 
rounding  groves  sacred  to  Druidism.  After 
long  and  severe  conflicts,  this  semi-barba¬ 
rous  faith  disappeared  before  the  advance 
of  Christianity. 

Drummond,  Henry,  Free  Church  of 
Scotland,  layman;  b.  at  Stirling,  Scotland, 
in  1852;  studied  at  Edinburgh;  became  pro¬ 
fessor  of  natural  history  and  science  in  the 
Free  Church  College,  Glasgow,  1S79.  He 
is  the  author  of  Natural  Law  in  the  Spir¬ 
itual  World  (London  and  New  York,  1883, 
23d  ed.,  1888);  Tropical  Africa  (1888). 

Druses,  a  peculiar  Syrian  sect  who  in¬ 
habit  the  ranges  of  Lebanon,  and  from  the 
Mediterranean  are  scattered  as  far  east  as 
Damascus.  They  are  under  Turkish  rule, 
but  enjoy  considerable  political  freedom. 
With  the  Mohammedans  they  hold  that 
there  is  no  god  but  God,  but  they  assert 
that  he  is  unknowable  and  has  revealed 
himself  to  man  by  incarnations.  The  last 
of  these  incarnations,  and  the  only  one  that 
will  ever  again  occur,  is  that  of  Hakim, 
the  third  of  the  Fatimite  caliphs,  who  was 


born  at  Cairo  in  985.  Hakim  was  a  mis¬ 
erable  tyrant,  whose  cruel  disposition 
found  vent  in  the  murder  of  thousands  of 
victims,  and  in  the  oppression  of  Chris¬ 
tians  and  Jews,  whom  he  compelled  to 
wear  garbs  that  should  distinguish  them 
from  Mohammedans.  He  belonged  to  the 
Batiniya,  an  extreme  sect  of  the  Shiites. 
In  1040  one  of  his  principal  adherents, 
Ismael  Darasi,  appeared  in  the  mosque  of 
Cairo  and  announced  that  Hakim  was  Al¬ 
lah  incarnated.  A  riot  followed  this  mes¬ 
sage,  and  Darasi  fled  to  Damascus  and 
there  sought  to  gain  disciples  among  the 
mountaineers.  Another  favorite  of  Ha¬ 
kim,  Hamsa,  in  a  more  quiet  way,  in  the 
outskirts  of  Cairo,  taught  the  incarnation 
of  his  master.  He  gained  adherents,  but 
in  time  a  fresh  revolt  broke  out  and  he  es¬ 
caped  with  difficulty,  and,  soon  after  (1044), 
Hakim  was  killed.  Meanwhile  Darasi 
had  gathered  converts  to  the  new  faith 
among  the  Druses.  A  quarrel  with  Ham¬ 
sa,  who  had  joined  the  Druses,  ended  in 
the  assassination  of  Darasi.  From  this 
time  Hamsa  became  the  leader  of  the  sect, 
and  wrote  the  books  of  doctrine  which,  like 
their  rites,  were  long  kept  a  profound  se¬ 
cret.  They  believe  that  Hakim  is  still  the 
source  and  channel  of  all  knowledge  and 
grace.  They  look  for  his  second  advent, 
when  he  will  distribute  rewards  and  pun¬ 
ishments.  They  believe  that  there  is  al¬ 
ways  the  same  number  of  people  living  in 
the  world,  and  they  also  hold  the  doctrine 
of  transmigration  of  souls.  For  a  long  pe¬ 
riod  the  relations  between  the  Maronites 
and  Druses  were  comparatively  amicable, 
but  since  1840  the  increased  power  of  the 
Druses  has  been  the  cause  of  constant 
feuds.  An  attack  by  the  Maronites  on  a 
Druse  village  was  the  beginning  of  the 
terrible  massacre,  in  i860,  of  Christians 
at  Damascus  and  throughout  Syria.  Earl 
of  Carnarvon:  Recollections  of  the  Druses  of 
the  Lebanon  (1880).  See  Maronites. 

Drusil'la,  the  third  daughter  of  Herod 
Agrippa  (Acts  xii.),  who  was  first  married 
to  Azizus,  the  king  of  Emesa,  and  after¬ 
ward  to  Felix,  procurator  of  Judaea.  She 
was  present  when  Paul  was  brought  be¬ 
fore  Felix  at  Caesarea.  (Acts  xxiv.  24.) 
According  to  Josephus,  she  perished  with 
her  son  Agrippa  in  the  eruption  of 
Vesuvius  (79  A.  d.). 

Druthmar,  Christian,  a  learned  monk 
who  lived  about  the  middle  of  the  ninth 
century.  While  in  the  monastery  at 
Stavelo,  in  the  diocese  of  Liege  he  pre¬ 
pared  a  famous  commentary  on  the  Gospel 
of  Matthew.  Laying  stress  upon  the  his¬ 
torical  sense,  and  following  true  exeget- 


Dua 


(  265  ) 


Dun 


ical  principles  he  appears  to  have  rejected 
the  doctrine  of  transubstantiation. 

Dualism  is  the  name  given  to  a  philosoph¬ 
ical  theory  according  to  which  existence 
in  all  forms  is  based  on  two  principles  con¬ 
trary  to  each  other.  This  condition  of 
opposition  is  seen  in  good  and  evil,  God 
and  the  world,  spirit  and  matter,  soul  and 
body.  This  theory  in  its  crudest  form 
was  held  by  the  Manichseans,  and  it  exert¬ 
ed  a  marked  influence  upon  the  thought 
and  life  of  the  early  centuries  of  Christian¬ 
ity.  The  opposite  of  dualism  is  monism. 

Duchobortzi,  a  Russian  sect  which  orig¬ 
inated  about  the  middle  of  the  eighteenth 
century.  Their  doctrinal  views  appear  to 
be  in  substantial  accord  with  those  of  the 
Russian  Church,  but  are  developed  in  a 
form  of  mysticism  marked  by  singular 
fancies.  They  refuse  to  take  oaths  or  to 
serve  in  the  army.  They  discard  sacra¬ 
ments,  liturgies, and  the  priesthood.  They 
first  arose  among  the  Molokans,  and  suf¬ 
fered  persecution  from  Catherine  II. 
Alexander  I.  granted  them  toleration,  and 
they  were  permitted  to  settle  near  the  Sea 
of  Azov.  In  consequence  of  disputes  that 
arose  through  the  influence  of  an  impostor, 
named  Kapustine,  they  were  transferred,  in 
1837,  to  the  Caucasus. 

Duchowny  Christians.  See  Molokani. 

Duff,  Alexander,  D.  D.;  b.  near  Mou¬ 
lin,  Perthshire,  Scotland,  April  25,  1806; 
d.  in  Edinburgh,  Feb.  12,  1878.  After 
graduating  at  the  University  of  St.  An¬ 
drew’s,  where  he  came  under  the  influence 
of  Dr.  Chalmers,  he  was  licensed  to  preach 
in  1829,  and  at  the  age  of  twenty-three  was 
appointed  missionary  to  India,  the  first 
sent  out  to  that  country  by  the  Church  of 
Scotland.  On  the  passage  he  was  ship¬ 
wrecked,  and  it  was  eight  months  before 
he  arrived  at  Calcutta.  In  the  face  of 
much  opposition  he  laid  the  foundations  of 
a  school  in  which  the  Hindoo  scholars, 
through  the  English  language,  were  taught 
the  Scriptures, and  given  a  knowledge  of  the 
sciences.  Along  these  lines  of  instruction 
he  labored  for  spiritual  results,  and  among 
the  converts  were  young  men  of  promise, 
whose  lives  have  been,  in  many  cases,  em¬ 
inently  useful.  Ill-health  compelled  Duff 
to  return  home  in  1834,  but  his  visit  proved 
providential  in  the  great  interest  which  his 
earnest  appeals  created  for  the  cause  of 
missions.  At  the  disruption  of  the  Scot¬ 
tish  Church  in  1843,  he  cast  in  his  lot  with 
the  Free  Church.  Compelled  to  relinquish 
the  mission  property,  he  laid  the  founda¬ 
tions  of  a  new  school.  His  work  was 


abundantly  prospered.  In  1850  he  again 
returned  to  Scotland,  and  the  following 
year  he  was  elected  chairman  of  the  Gen¬ 
eral  Assembly.  He  visited  the  United 
States,  and  here,  as  in  his  native  land,  his 
addresses  made  a  deep  impression  by  their 
fervid  eloquence  and  power.  After  his 
return  to  India  he  labored  with  his  accus¬ 
tomed  vigor  until  1864,  when,  broken  in 
health,  he  retired  from  active  service,  and 
spent  the  remainder  of  his  life  in  Scotland. 
In  1867  he  was  appointed  professor  of 
evangelistic  theology  in  the  Free  Church, 
and  in  many  ways  he  interested  himself,  as 
strength  permitted,  in  the  cause  of  Christ, 
at  home  and  abroad.  See  his  Life ,  by 
George  Smith  (Edinburgh  and  N.  Y. ,  18S0). 

Dulcinists.  See  Dolcino. 

Dulia.  See  Adoration. 

Du  Moulin,  Pierre,  a  celebrated  contro¬ 
versialist  of  the  French  Protestant  Church, 
b.  at  Buhy,  Oct.  16,  1568;  d.  at  Sedan, 
March  10,  1658.  Educated  at  Paris,  Cam¬ 
bridge,  and  Leyden,  in  1559  he  became 
pastor  at  Charenton,  and  chaplain  to  Cath¬ 
arine  of  Bourbon.  The  efforts  made, 
through  the  influence  of  the  pope,  to  se¬ 
cure  the  conversion  of  this  princess  to  the 
Roman  faith,  led  to  a  vigorous  controversy, 
which  Du  Moulin  sustained,  in  behalf  of 
Protestantism,  with  great  ability.  Several 
universities — among  them  that  at  Leyden 
— urged  him  to  fill  their  chair  of  theology, 
but  he  would  not  leave  his  church  at  Paris. 
For  many  years  he  was  an  intimate  adviser 
of  James  I.,  of  England,  and  some  of  his 
controversial  works  were  written  at  his 
request.  In  1620,  while  absent  from  Paris, 
he  learned  that  it  would  not  be  safe  for  him 
to  return.  He  accepted  the  professorship 
of  theology  at  Sedan,  where  he  spent  the 
rest  of  his  life  in  teaching  and  writing. 

Duncan,  John,  LL.  D.,  a  Scotch  Orient¬ 
alist;  b.  at  Gilcomston,  near  Aberdeen, 
1796;  d.  in  Edinburgh,  Feb.  26,  1870.  He 
was  graduated  at  Marischal  College,  Aber¬ 
deen,  and  studied  divinity  in  Edinburgh, 
receiving  his  license  in  1825.  In  1831  he 
was  settled  in  Glasgow;  became  a  mission¬ 
ary  to  the  Jews  in  Pesth,  1840;  professor 
of  Oriental  languages,  New  College,  Edin¬ 
burgh,  1843.  He  is  remembered  for  the 
remarkable  influence  which  he  exerted  in 
the  spiritual  inspiration  of  his  pupils.  See 
his  Life,  by  David  Brown  (Edinburgh,  1872); 
and  his  Colloquia  Peripatetica  (1870;  5th  ed. 
1879). 

Dunkers,  or  Tunkers,  “a  sect  of  American 
Baptists,  originating  in  Germany.  The 


Dun 


(  266  ) 


Dup 


name,  as  its  second  form  indicates,  is  a 
nickname,  meaning  dippers ,  from  the  Ger¬ 
man  ttinken,  to  dip.  From  the  first,  the 
members  recognized  no  other  name  than 
‘Brethren.’  The  founder  of  the  sect  was 
Alexander  Mack,  of  Schwartzenau,  who, 
along  with  one  or  two  companions,  was  led 
to  adopt  anti-paedobaptist  views,  about  the 
year  1708.  It  had  scarcely  assumed  organ¬ 
ized  existence  in  Germany,  when  its  mem¬ 
bers  were  compelled,  by  persecution,  to 
take  refuge  in  Holland,  from  which  they 
emigrated  to  Pennsylvania  in  small  com¬ 
panies,  in  the  years  between  1720  and  1729. 
Their  first  community  was  established  at 
Germantown,  not  far  from  Philadelphia, 
and  other  settlements  were  gradually  form¬ 
ed  in  New  England,  Maryland,  Virginia, 
Ohio,  and  Indiana.  In  the  early  history  of 
the  sect  the  sexes  dwelt  apart;  and  mar¬ 
riage,  while  not  forbidden,  was  discour¬ 
aged.  Similarly,  while  the  holding  of 
private  property  was  not  absolutely  pro¬ 
hibited,  a  certain  community  of  goods  was 
established  and  maintained  by  the  volun¬ 
tary  action  of  the  members,  and  it  was 
considered  unlawful  to  take  interest  for 
money.  These  features  have  now  disap¬ 
peared;  but  in  other  respects  the  sect  re¬ 
tains  much  of  its  original  character.  Every 
member  has  the  right  to  exhort,  and  take 
part  in  the  religious  services,  and  for  a 
considerable  period  no  special  provision 
was  made  for  the  conduct  of  worship. 
There  is  now,  however,  a  recognized  un¬ 
paid  ministry  of  bishops  and  teachers. 
There  are,  also,  deacons  and  deaconesses. 
In  baptism  trine  immersion  is  used.  The 
Lord’s  Supper  is  observed  in  the  evening 
only,  and  connected  with  it  are  the  lavipe- 
dium>  or  ceremonial  feet-washing,  and  the 
apostolic  ‘  love-feasts.’  Putting  a  literal 
interpretation  on  James  v.  14,  they  prac¬ 
tice  the  anointing  with  oil  for  the  healing 
of  the  sick,  and  many  of  them  will  not 
adopt  any  other  means  of  recovery.  They 
resemble  the  Quakers  in  their  plainness  of 
speech  and  dress,  and  their  refusal  to  take 
oaths,  or  to  serve  in  war.  Their  number, 
which  at  one  time  was  estimated  at  30,000, 
has  very  considerably  declined,  and  the 
latest  account  states  it  at  less  than  8,000. 
An  early  offshoot  from  the  general  body 
of  Dunkers  were  the  Seventh-Day  Dunk- 
ers,  whose  distinctive  principle,  as  their 
name  imports,  was  that  the  seventh  day, 
and  not  the  first  day,  of  the  week  was  the 
true  Sabbath,  intended  to  be  perpetually 
and  universally  observed.  Their  founder 
was  Conrad  Beissel,  one  of  the  first  em¬ 
igrants,  who  established  a  settlement  at 
‘  Ephrata,’  about  fifty  miles  from  Philadel¬ 
phia,  in  1773.  This  branch  of  the  sect  has 
almost  died  out.” — Ency.  Britannica. 


Duns  Scotus,  one  of  the  most  famous 
and  influential  of  the  scholastics  of  the  four¬ 
teenth  century.  The  place  and  time  of  his 
birth  are  uncertain.  He  became  a  member 
of  the  order  of  Franciscans  in  early  life,  and 
studied  at  Oxford,  where  he  became  pro¬ 
fessor  of  theology  and  drew  crowds  of  stu¬ 
dents.  In  1304  he  removed  to  Paris,  and 
repeated  there  his  great  success  as  a 
teacher.  Against  Thomas  Aquinas  he  de¬ 
fended  the  immaculate  conception  of  the 
Virgin.  In  his  famous  discussions  with 
Aquinas,  he  held  the  doctrine  of  “  the  ab¬ 
solute  freedom  of  the  will,  from  whose 
spontaneous  exercise  he  derived  all  moral¬ 
ity.”  He  was  a  realist  in  philosophy.  His 
acuteness  won  for  him  the  name  of  Doctor 
Subtilis.  In  1308  he  was  called  to  Cologne 
to  oppose  the  heresies  of  the  Beguin  breth¬ 
ren,  where  he  suddenly  died.  Besides  com¬ 
mentaries  on  the  Bible  and  Aristotle,  he 
wrote  other  books,  a  chief  edition  of  which 
was  edited  by  Luke  Wadding,  12  vols- 
(Lyons,  1639).  The  controversy  between 
the  Scotists  and  Thomists  was  carried  on 
with  much  bitterness  by  the  rival  orders  of 
the  Franciscans  and  Dominicans. 

Dunstan,  St.,  archbishop  of  Canterbury, 
b.  at  Glastonbury,  924;  d.  May  19,  988. 
He  was  educated  by  Irish  monks,  and  King 
Edmund  made  him  abbot  of  Glastonbury 
and  treasurer  of  his  kingdom.  During  the 
reign  of  Edred  (946-955),  he  seems  to  have 
been  the  real  head  of  affairs.  Besides  his 
character  as  a  statesman,  he  is  described 
as  a  reformer  of  the  Saxon  clergy,  and  a 
worker  of  miracles.  See  Hook:  Lives  of 
the  Archbishops  of  Canterbury. 

Dunster,  Henry,  first  president  of  Har¬ 
vard  University;  b.  in  England;  d.  at  Scit- 
uate,  Mass.,  Feb.  27,  1659.  Educated  at 
Emanuel  College,  Cambridge,  he  emi¬ 
grated  to  New  England,  where  he  was  made 
president  of  the  college  just  established  at 
Cambridge  (1640).  He  discharged  the 
duties  of  his  office  with  great  acceptance 
for  fourteen  years,  when  he  became  con¬ 
vinced  that  the  doctrine  of  paedobaptism 
was  not  contained  in  Scripture,  and  as  this 
view  was  not  shared  by  the  governing  au¬ 
thorities,  he  deemed  it  best  and  wise  to 
resign  his  position.  He  removed  to  Scit- 
uate,  where  he  was  engaged  in  the  work 
of  the  ministry  until  the  time  of  his  death. 
He  was  an  excellent  scholar,  and  aided  in 
revising  the  version  of  the  Psalms  by 
Eliot,  Wilde,  and  Mather.  See  Jeremiah 
Chaplin:  Life  of  Henry  Dunster  (Boston, 
1872). 

Dupanloup,  Felix  Antoine  Philippe, 
bishop  of  Orleans,  and  eminent  for  his 


Dup 


(  267  ) 


Dur 


pulpit  eloquence;  b.  at  St.  Felix,  Savoy, 
Jan.  3,  1802;  d.  at  Laincey  in  Loiret,  Oct. 
11,  1878.  He  was  ordained  priest  in  1825, 
and  at  the  Revolution  (1830)  was  almoner 
to  the  Dauphin.  In  1841  he  became  one 
of  the  professors  of  theology  at  the  College 
of  the  Sorbonne,  and  in  1849  Bishop  of  Or¬ 
leans.  He  was  a  member  of  the  French 
Academy,  and  earnestly  opposed  the  dogma 
of  papal  infallibility.  Among  his  works 
one  of  the  most  important  is  L' Education 
(Paris,  1855-1857),  3  vols.  He  wrote  se¬ 
verely  against  the  Life  of  Jesus  by  Renan, 
his  former  pupil. 

Dupin  ( dii-pan ),  Louis  Ellies,  Jansenist; 
b.  in  Paris,  June  17,  1657;  d.  there,  June  6, 
1719.  Educated  at  Paris,  he  became  pro¬ 
fessor  of  philosophy  in  the  College  of 
France  there,  1686,  but  was  removed  on 
account  of  his  action  as  a  Jansenist,  in  op¬ 
posing  the  bull  Unigenitus.  He  took  an 
active  interest  in  the  attempted  union  be¬ 
tween  the  Greek  and  Latin,  also  the  An¬ 
glican  and  Gallican,  churches.  His  great 
work  was:  A  Ne%v  History  of  Ecclesiastical 
Writers  (original  French  ed. ,  Paris,  1686- 
1714,  47  vols.;  Eng.  trans.,  London,  1693- 
1707,  17  vols.). 

Du  Plessis-Morney,  Philip,  a  prominent 
leader  of  the  French  Protestants;  b.  at 
Buhy,  Normandy,  Nov.  5,  1549.  Study 
and  travel  gave  him  an  excellent  educa¬ 
tion.  A  pamphlet,  in  which  he  described 
the  Spanish  oppression  in  the  Netherlands, 
brought  him  under  the  condemnation  of 
the  Roman  Catholics,  and  he  barely  es¬ 
caped  death  in  the  massacre  of  Aug.  24, 
1572.  He  fled  to  England,  and  engaged  in 
literary  work  and  diplomatic  service  that 
was  now  and  then  exchanged  for  service  in 
the  army.  He  became  an  intimate  friend 
and  adviser  of  Henry  of  Navarre,  and  was 
instrumental,  after  the  death  of  the  Duke 
of  Guise,  in  bringing  about  a  reconciliation 
between  that  monarch  and  Henry  III. 
Appointed  governor  of  Saumur,  he  gained 
permission  to  found  a  university  there. 
When  Henry  succeeded  to  the  French 
throne  he  was  unsuccessful  in  dissuading 
him  from  changing  his  religion,  but  gained 
certain  edicts  protecting  the  Protestants. 
In  1598  he  published  abookon  the  Institu¬ 
tion  of  the  Lord j  Supper,  opposing  the 
Mass.  A  plan  on  the  part  of  the  Jesuits 
to  bring  about  a  public  discussion  of  the 
tenets  of  the  work  was  arranged  in  such  a 
way  that  an  unfair  advantage  was  taken  of 
Du  Plessis-Morney,  in  giving  him  only  a 
few  hours  in  which  to  prepare  a  reply  to 
the  assertions  of  his  opponents.  Late  in 
life  he  wrote  The  Mystery  of  Iniquity ,  an 
attack  on  the  papacy.  When  the  religious 


war  broke  out  afresh  in  1621,  he  retired  to 
his  estates,  La  Foret-sur-Sevre,  where  he 
died,  Nov.  11,  1623. 

Durand,  William,  of  St.  Pou^ain,  one 
of  the  most  remarkable  of  the  schoolmen 
of  the  fourteenth  century;  d.  1332.  He  was 
called  Doctor  Resolutissimus ,  from  the  ear¬ 
nestness  with  which  he  asserted  that  there 
is  no  human  authority  above  the  human 
reason.  Breaking  with  the  schools  of 
Anselm  and  Aquinas,  he  made  man  the 
centre  of  his  theology,  and  the  Scriptures 
a  help  to  gain  a  better  life,  by  instruction 
in  good  works.  He  denied  that  the  sacra¬ 
ments  had  any  inherent  efficacy,  but  held 
that  they  were  only  conditions  of  grace. 
Along  this  line  his  views  prepared  the  way 
for  the  Reformation.  A  number  of  his 
works,  in  manuscript,  are  preserved  in  the 
National  Library  in  Paris. 

Durbin,  John  Price,  D.  D.,  a  Methodist 
preacher  famed  for  his  eloquence;  b.  in 
Bourbon  County,  Kentucky,  1800;  d.  in 
New  York  City,  Oct.  17,  1876.  From  1834 
to  1845  he  was  president  of  Dickinson  Col¬ 
lege.  From  1850  to  1872  he  was  secretary 
of  the  Missionary  Society  of  the  Methodist 
Episcopal  Church.  He  wrote  Observations 
in  Europe  (N.  Y.,  1844),  2  vols.,  and  Obser¬ 
vations  in  Egypt ,  Palestine ,  Syria,  and  Asia 
Minor  (N.  Y.,  1845),  2  vols.  See  his  Life 
by  J.  A.  Roche  (N.  Y.,  1889). 

Durham  Cathedral.  In  995  Bishop 
Ealdhun,  fleeing  from  the  Danes,  came  to 
Durham  and  built  a  stone  church  to  en¬ 
shrine  the  remains  of  St.  Cuthbert  (q.  v.), 
which  he  brought  with  him.  On  the  site 
of  this  church,  Bishop  Carileph,  in  1093, 
began  the  present  magnificent  cathedral,  a 
Romanesque  structure  in  the  form  of  a 
Latin  cross,  to  which  additions  continued 
to  be  made  till  about  1500.  It  thus  exhib¬ 
its  the  gradual  changes  of  style  between 
these  periods.  It  is  507  by  200  feet,  with 
a  central  tower  214  feet  high  and  two  west 
towers,  138  feet  high.  Extensive'restora- 
tions  were  undertaken  in  the  last  century, 
and  it  was  not  finished  until  1840.  The 
site  of  the  cathedral  is  one  of  the  most  im¬ 
posing  in  England,  standing,  as  it  does, 
sheer  upon  the  face  of  the  cliff  above  the 
river  Wear. 

Durie,  or  Dury,  John,  Protestant;  b.  in 
Edinburgh,  1596;  d.  at  Cassel,  Germany, 
Sept.  26,  1680.  Most  of  his  life  was  spent 
on  the  Continent,  and  was  devoted  to  the 
cause  of  Church  union,  which  he  urged  in 
every  possible  way.  He  acted  as  chaplain 
to  Charles  I.  and  to  Mary,  and  was  a  mem¬ 
ber  of  the  Westminster  Assembly  of  Di- 


Dut 


(  268  ) 


Dwi 


vines.  See  Schaff-Herzog:  Encv.;  Diet. 
Nat.  Biog. ,  s.  v. 

Dutch.  See  Holland  Reformed 
Church. 

Duvergier.  See  Port  Royalists. 

D.  V.  ( Deo  Volente ),  “  God  willing.” 

Dwight,  Timothy,  eminent  as  a  theolo¬ 
gian,  preacher,  and  teacher;  b.  in  North- 


remained  until  his  death.  His  influence  as 
a  teacher  and  preacher  was  remarkable. 
In  1818  he  published  a  volume  of  sermons 
under  the  title  of  Theology  Explained  and 
Defended ,  which  met  with  great  favor  both 
in  this  country  and  Great  Britain.  His 
other  works  are  'Travels  in  New  England 
(1822),  4  vols. ;  Ser?nons  on  Miscellaneous 
Subjects  (1828),  2  vols.  The  well-known 
hymn,  “  I  love  thy  kingdom,  Lord,”  was 
from  his  pen.  Dr.  Dwight’s  mother  was  a 
daughter  of  Jonathan  Edwards,  and  his 


DURHAM  CATHEDRAL. 


ampton,  Mass.,  May  14,  1752;  d.  at  New 
Haven,  Jan.  11,  1817.  He  was  graduated 
at  Yale  College  in  1769,  where  he  held  a 
tutorship  from  1771  to  1777 ,  when  he  re¬ 
signed,  and  for  more  than  a  year  acted  as 
chaplain  in  the  Revolutionary  army.  From 
1783  to  1795  he  was  principal  of  an  academy 
at  Greenfield  Hill,  Conn.  While  here  he 
published  two  elaborate  poems,  The  Con¬ 
quest  of  Canaan  (1785),  and  Greenfield  Hill 
(1794).  In  1795  he  entered  upon  the  duties 
of  the  presidency  of  Yale  College  where  he 


views  were  in  substantial  accord  with  those 
of  his  illustrious  grandfather.  See  Sprague: 
Annals  of  the  American  Pulpit ,  and  Memoir 
prefixed  to  his  System  of  Theology. 

Dwight,  Sereno  Edwards,  son  of  Pres¬ 
ident  Dwight;  b.  at  Greenfield,  Conn.,  May 
18,  1786;  d.  at  Philadelphia,  Nov.  30,  1850. 
After  graduating  at  Yale  College  in  1803, 
he  taught  there  as  tutor  in  1S06-10,  and 
then  practiced  law  for  five  years.  Enter¬ 
ing  the  ministry  in  1S16  he  was  pastor  of 


Dwi 


(  269  ) 


Eas 


the  Park  Street  Congregational  Church, 
Boston,  1817-26.  Resigning  on  account  of 
impaired  health,  he  taught  in  New  Haven 
for  a  time,  until  he  became  president  of 
Hamilton  College,  N.  Y,,  1833-35.  His 
best-known  work  was  The  Hebrew  Wife , 
an  argument  on  the  lawfulness  of  marriage 
with  a  deceased  wife’s  sister,  published  in 
1836.  He  wrote  a  Life  of  his  great-grand¬ 
father,  Jonathan  Edwards,  introductory  to 
his  edition  of  Edwards’s  works  (N.  Y., 
1830).  See  Select  Discourses ,  with  Memoir , 
by  W.  T.  Dwight  (1851). 

Dwight,  Timothy,  D.  D.  (Chicago  The¬ 
ological  Seminary,  Ill.,  1869),  LL.  D. 
(Harvard,  1886),  Congregationalist;  b.  at 
Norwich,  Conn. ,  Nov.  16,1828;  was  graduat¬ 
ed  at  Yale  College,  1849;  studied  at  Yale  Di¬ 
vinity  School;  tutor  in  the  college,  1851- 
55;  studied  at  Bonn  and  Berlin,  1856-58, 
and  became  professor  of  sacred  literature 
in  the  Divinity  School,  1858;  president  of 
Yale  University,  1886.  He  was  a  member 
of  the  New  Testament  Bible  Revision 
Company. 

Dykes,  James  Oswald,  D.  D.  (Edin¬ 
burgh,  1873),  Presbyterian;  b.  at  Port 
Glasgow, near  Greenock,  Scotland,  Aug.  14, 
1835;  was  graduated  at  Edinburgh  Univer¬ 
sity,  1854;  studied  theology  at  New  Col¬ 
lege,  Edinburgh,  1854-58,  and  at  Heidel¬ 
berg  and  Erlangen,  1856;  pastor  at  East 
Kilbride,  County  Lanark,  Scotland,  1859; 
co-pastor  of  Free  St.  George’s,  Edinburgh, 
1861;  in  Australia  on  account  of  health, 
1864-67;  pastor  of  Regent’s  Square  Pres¬ 
byterian  Church,  London,  1869;  principal 
of  English  Presbyterian  Theological  Col¬ 
lege,  London,  1889.  He  is  the  author  of: 
Fro?7i  Jerusale?7i  to  Antioch  (London,  1875); 
Abraham  (1877);  The  Law  of  the  Ten 
Words  (1884);  The  Gospel  According  to 
Paul  (1888),  and  other  volumes. 

K. 

Eadie,  John,  D.  D.,  born  at  Alva,  Scot¬ 
land,  May  9,  1810;  d.  at  Glasgow,  June  3, 
1876.  From  1835  until  the  time  of  his 
death  he  was  pastor  of  a  Presbyterian 
church  in  Glasgow.  For  thirty-three  years 
he  filled  the  professorship  of  biblical  liter¬ 
ature  in  the  theological  seminary  of  the 
United  Presbyterian  Church.  During  these 
years  he  wrote  extensively.  His  com¬ 
mentaries  on  Ephesia7is  (1854),  Colossia7is 
(1856),  Philippians  (1859),  Galatia7is  (1869), 
and  First  Thessalonians  (1877),  met  with  a 
favorable  reception.  He  was  a  member  of 
the  New  Testament  company  of  revisers. 

Eadward.or  Edward  III., the  Confess¬ 


or,  king  of  the  Anglo-Saxons;  b.  1004; 
d.  1066.  He  dedicated  Westminster  Ab¬ 
bey  in  1065.  For  sketch  of  his  life  see 
Green:  Short  Histo7'y  of  the  English  People\ 
Freeman:  History  of  the  Norman  Conquest 
(vol.  ii.). 

East,  Praying  toward  the.  This  custom 
of  the  early  Church  has  been  explained  in 
many  ways.  The  most  prominent  reason 
given  is  that  as  “  the  rising  sun  was  the 
symbol  of  Christ,  the  Sun  of  Righteous¬ 
ness;  and,  since  people  must  worship 
toward  some  quarter  of  the  heavens,  they 
chose  that  which  led  them  to  Christ  by  sym¬ 
bolical  representation.”  (Tertullian,  Apol. 
i.  16.)  This  practice  has  been  revived  by 
some  of  the  extreme  ritualists  of  the  Epis¬ 
copal  Church. 

Easter,  the  greatest  festival  of  Chris¬ 
tendom,  observed  in  commemoration  of 
the  Resurrection  of  our  Lord  Jesus  Christ. 
According  to  Bede,  the  name  is  derived 
from  Eostre,  a  Saxon  goddess,  whose  fes¬ 
tival  was  celebrated  in  the  spring,  from 
whence  April  was  called  Eostur-77ionath. 
Its  ancient  name  was  Pascha  (i.  e.,  Pass- 
over),  the  “  Pascha  of  the  Resurrection.” 
The  first  Christians  naturally  observed  the 
Jewish  festivals  with  a  new  interpretation 
in  accord  with  their  faith,  and  in  this  spirit 
the  ancient  Passover  brought  to  mind 
Christ  as  the  Paschal  Lamb  and  the  first- 
fruits  from  the  dead.  It  was  not  until 
after  apostolic  times  that  this  festival  be¬ 
came  an  instituted  observance  of  the  Chris¬ 
tian  Church.  A  long  and  bitter  contro¬ 
versy  was  waged,  between  Christians  of 
Jewish  and  Gentile  descent,  as  to  the  date 
of  the  festival,  the  Jewish  Christians,  in 
accord  with  their  early  training  and  educa¬ 
tion,  holding  that  the  fast  should  come  to 
an  end  on  the  evening  of  the  fourteenth 
day  of  the  moon,  celebrated  the  Easter 
festival  immediately,  without  regard  to 
the  day  of  the  week.  The  Gentile  Chris¬ 
tians,  free  from  Jewish  traditions,  insisted 
upon  commemorating  Friday  as  the  date  of 
the  Crucifixion,  so  that  the  Easter  festival 
always  came  upon  the  first  day  of  the  week. 
The  controversy  was  finally  settled  by  the 
Council  of  Nicaea  (325),  which  decided  that 
Easter  should  always  be  the  Sunday  near¬ 
est  to  the  calculated  anniversary  of  the 
actual  Resurrection,  “  being  determined 
by  the  Paschal  moon,  the  full  moon  next 
after  or  upon  March  21.  The  earliest 
date,  therefore,  for  Easter  Day  is  March 
21,  and  latest,  April  25.”  During  many 
centuries  much  discussion  arose  as  to 
the  proper  date.  The  present  reformed 
calendar  is  in  use  in  the  Western  Church, 
while  the  unreformed  calendar  is  made 


Eas 


(  270  ) 


Ecc 


the  basis  of  calculation  in  the  Eastern 
Church.  The  festival  is  celebrated  by 
elaborate  services  in  the  Roman  and  Epis¬ 
copal  churches,  and  is  more  and  more  ob¬ 
served  by  Christians  of  every  name. 

Eastern  Church,  formerly  designated 
the  Greek  Church,  in  distinction  from  the 
Western  (or  Latin)  Church.  The  name  is 
now  given  to  Eastern  Christendom,  and 
includes,  besides  the  Greek  Church,  the 
Arminian  Church,  the  Nestorians,  the 
Jacobites,  and  the  Copts  and  Abyssinians. 
See  Greek  Church. 

E'bal  ( stone ),  a  mountain  opposite  Mt. 
Gerizim.  At  their  base  they  are  separated 
by  a  narrow  valley,  some  500  feet  wide,  in 
which  lies  the  town  of  Shechem.*  From 
Ebal  the  curse  of  the  law  was  pronounced. 
(Deut.  xxvii.  13.)  The  summits  of  Ebal 
and  Gerizim  are  a  mile  and  a  half  apart, 
but  repeated  experiments  have  shown  that 
the  voice  can  be  heard  from  one  mountain 
to  the  other,  and  in  the  valley  below.  See 
Gerizim  and  Shechem. 

Ebel,  Johannes  Wilhelm,  a  German 
mystic  and  theosophist;  b.  in  1784  at  Pas- 
senheim;  d.  at  Hoheneck,  in  Wiirtemburg, 
in  1861.  His  pronounced  evangelical  views 
aroused  opposition  early  in  his  ministry. 
This  continued  after  he  was  chosen  pastor 
of  the  Old  Town  Church  at  Konigsberg  in 
1816.  Having  adopted  the  views  of 
Schonherr,  (y.  v. )  his  position  was  made 
the  excuse  for  a  bitter  persecution.  He 
was  accused  with  others  of  founding  a  sect 
which  held  secret  meetings  and  advocated 
principles  of  an  immoral  tendency.  In  the 
most  arbitrary  and  illegal  manner  he  was 
suspended  by  the  consistory  in  1835.  This 
action  led  to  a  long  criminal  suit.  Ebel 
was  acquitted  from  the  charge  of  founding 
a  new  sect,  but  condemned  for  wrong  teach¬ 
ing,  and  deposed  from  the  ministry.  His 
name  will  live  as  a  noble  man  and  eloquent 
teacher,  the  victim  of  theological  hatred 
and  processes  of  law  that  would  not  now  be 
possible  in  Germany.  See  Life  of  Ebel  by 
J.  I.  Mombert  (N.  Y.,  1882). 

Ebionites,  a  sect  of  heretics  which  sprang 
up  near  the  close  of  the  second  century. 
The  best  authorities  agree  that  the  name  is 
probably  from  the  Hebrew  word  meaning 
“  poor.”  Like  most  of  the  early  Christians, 
they  were  in  lowly  circumstances  and  what 
may  have  been  a  term  applied  in  derision 
became  an  accepted  name.  Probably,  at 
first,  all  Judaizing  Christians  were  known 
as  Ebionites,  and  on  this  account  the  early 
history  of  the  heretical  sect  bearing  the 
name  is  very  imperfect  and  uncertain. 


Origen  says  that  many  of  them  were  in 
every  respect  Jews  in  belief,  but  accepted 
the  moral  teachings  of  Jesus,  while  others 
deemed  his  birth  miraculous,  and  held  that 
the  spirit  of  an  angel  or  archangel,  possibly 
of  Adam,  was  incorporated  in  his  human 
nature.  They  believed  that  the  Mosaic 
law  was  obligatory  upon  all,  and  that  Jeru¬ 
salem  was  to  be  the  city  of  God.  St.  Paul 
they  looked  upon  as  unworthy  of  confi¬ 
dence,  and  the  Gospel  of  St.  Matthew  was 
the  only  book  of  the  New  Testament  they 
received.  The  sect  disappeared  toward 
the  close  of  the  fourth  century. 

Ebrard  (Johannes  Heinrich),  August, 
D.  D.,  Reformed;  b.  at  Erlangen,  Jan.  18, 
1818;  d.  there,  July  23,  1888.  Educated  at 
Erlangen  and  Berlin,  he  was  professor  of 
theology  at  Zurich,  1844-47;  at  Erlangen, 
1847-61,  and  in  1875  became  pastor  of  the 
French  Reformed  Church  there.  He  was 
a  prolific  writer  under  several  pseudonyms. 
Among  his  works  that  were  translated  into 
English  are,  The  Gospel  History  (1842,  Edin¬ 
burgh,  1863);  Apologetics  (trans.,  1886-87), 
3  vols. 

Ecbatana.  The  modern  Hamadan,  a  town 
in  Persia  at  the  foot  of  the  Elwend  Mount¬ 
ains,  is  the  site  of  the  magnificent  city  of 
Ecbatana,  the  summer  residence  of  the 
Persian  kings  from  the  time  of  Darius 
Hystaspis  to  the  Greek  conquest.  This 
was  probably  the  place  where  the  roll  was 
found  containingCyrus’s  decree  for  rebuild¬ 
ing  the  temple  at  Jerusalem.  It  is  often 
mentioned  in  the  Apocrypha,  but  only  once 
in  the  Bible.  (Ezra  vi.  2.) 

Ecce  Homo  ( behold  the  man),  the  name 
given  to  pictures  that  represent  the  suffer¬ 
ing  Saviour  as  described  in  John  xix.  5. 

Ecclesia.  See  Church. 

Ecclesiastes  ( The  Preacher),  “called  in 
Hebrew  Koheleth,  is  generally  supposed 
to  have  been  written  by  Solomon  at  the 
close  of  his  life,  after  his  lapse  (1  Kings 
xi.  1-13),  and  to  contain  the  expression  of 
his  penitence.  He  holds  himself  up  as  a 
warning  to  others:  from  its  title,  some 
suggest  that  he  delivered  it  in  public.  It 
is  a  narrative  of  the  attempts  of  a  worlding, 
in  various  ways,  to  find  happiness.  He 
alternates  between  study,  pleasure,  sensu¬ 
ality,  refinement,  luxury,  misanthropy, 
construction,  mechanical  skill,  book-mak¬ 
ing.  All  are  unsatisfying,  and  leave  a 
void;  the  conclusion  being  that  everything 
is  vain  and  empty  but  the  fear  of  God,  and 
that  subservience  to  him  is  the  only  per¬ 
fect  freedom.  *  Wisdom’  is  here  used  in  the 


Ecc 


(  271  ) 


Ede 


modern  sense,  viz.  possession  of  knowledge. 
The  canonicity  of  this  book  is  acknowledged 
by  Jews  and  early  Christian  writers;  but  the 
former  did  not  rank  it  among  the  poetical 
books,  the  greater  part  of  it  being  prose. 
Both  the  age  and  the  authorship  of  this 
book  are  controverted.  By  the  intermixt¬ 
ure  of  the  Hebrew  with  Aramaic  words  it 
is  thought  to  belong  to  the  same  period  as 
the  Books  of  Ezra  and  Nehemiah,  with 
which  its  subject-matter  seems  to  accord ; 
e.  g. ,  the  expression  of  misery  under  a 
tyrannical  government,  sudden  vicissitudes 
of  fortune,  the  tone  of  despondency,  the 
moral  and  religious  declension,  and  the 
condition  of  literature — all  seem  to  in¬ 
dicate  a  state  of  things  more  like  that  sub¬ 
sequent  to  the  return  from  the  Captivity 
than  that  of  the  golden  age  of  Solomon. 
The  attempts,  however,  to  fix  its  date 
have,  so  far,  manifested  very  little  unanim¬ 
ity.” — “Oxford”  Bible  Helps.  See  Intro¬ 
ductions,  by  Bleek,  Keil,  Horne,  etc.;  Lock- 
ler  in  Lange ;  Plumptre,  1881;  Authorship 
of  Ecclesiastes,  Wright,  1883;  Bradley,  1885. 

Ecclesiastical  History.  See  Church 
History. 

Ecclesiastical  Polity.  See  Church  Gov¬ 
ernment. 

Ecclesias'ticus.  See  Apocrypha,  p.  41. 

Eck,  Johann  Maier  von,  the  most  prom¬ 
inent  adversary  of  Luther,  b.  at  Eck,  Nov. 
13,  i486;  d.  at  Ingolstadt,  Feb.  10,  1543. 
The  son  of  a  peasant  who  had  risen  to  the 
office  of  village  bailiff,  he  studied  first  at 
Heidelberg  and  then  at  Tubingen,  where  he 
took  his  degree  as  master  of  arts  in  1501. 
His  reputation  as  a  scholar  gained  for  him 
the  chair  of  theology  in  the  University  of 
Ingolstadt  in  1510.  When  the  ninety-five 
theses  of  Luther  appeared,  Eck,  who  had 
previously  been  on  friendly  terms  with 
him,  prepared  and  privately  circulated 
(i5i8)a  manuscript  criticism  of  them.  This 
opened  the  discussion  that  culminated  in 
the  great  disputation  at  Leipzig  in  1519. 
For  four  days  Eck  disputed  with  Carlstadt, 
on  the  doctrines  of  divine  grace  and  good 
works,  and  for  ten  days  with  Luther,  con¬ 
cerning  the  temporal  and  spiritual  power 
of  the  pope,  purgatory,  penance,  etc.  The 
verdict  was  not  altogether  favorable  to  Eck, 
and  from  this  time  he  opposed  Luther  with 
a  bitter  spirit.  He  secured  a  papal  bull 
against  Luther’s  writings,  but  at  Leipzig 
and  other  places  the  people  would  not  allow 
its  publication.  He  was  prominent  in  the 
Augsburg  Diet  of  1530,  and  in  the  confer¬ 
ences  at  Worms  (1540)  and  at  Ratisbon 
41541).  Noisy  and  self-assertive,  with 


considerable  skill  in  dialectics,  he  was  a 
man  of  little  scholarly  ability. 

Eckhart,  the  most  remarkable  of  the 
German  mystics  of  the  fourteenth  century 
(1260-1329).  He  belonged  to  the  Domin¬ 
ican  order  and  was  prior  of  Erfurt  for  a 
time.  In  1302  he  taught  in  the  College 
of  St.  Jacques  in  Paris,  and  in  1308  he  set¬ 
tled  at  Strasburg  as  vicar  for  the  grand 
master  of  his  order.  It  was  here  that  he 
became  acquainted  with  the  Brethren  of  the 
Free  Spirit;  and  when,  sometime  after,  he 
was  summoned  to  Frankfort  as  prior  of  the 
Dominican  monastery,  his  preaching 
aroused  the  suspicion  of  his  superiors. 
From  this  time  on  he  was  bitterly  assailed 
and  brought  to  trial  for  heresy.  He  was 
condemned  by  the  pope,  but  after  protest¬ 
ing  his  willingness  to  recant  any  error  into 
which  he  had  fallen,  a  bull  was  issued  that 
treated  his  case  with  great  leniency.  He 
died  before  this  reached  him.  His  writings 
were  again  formally  condemned  in  1430. 
He  is  generally  called  Meister  Eckhart. 

Eclecticism  is  the  name  given  to  the 
method  by  which  a  selection  and  combina¬ 
tion  is  made  from  various  systems  of  phi¬ 
losophy,  as  may  suit  personal  preference. 
This  method  lacks  unity  and  consistency, 
and  is  without  scientific  value.  In  recent 
times,  the  name  Eclectics  has  been  given  to 
those  connected  with  the  Church  of  Eng¬ 
land  who  refuse  to  give  in  their  adhesion 
to  any  party,  but  prefer  to  be  at  liberty  to 
hold  such  opinions  as  they  deem  best. 

Ecthesis.  See  Monothelites. 

Ecuador,  The  Republic  of,  has  a  pop¬ 
ulation  of  about  eleven  hundred  thousand, 
two  hundred  thousand  of  whom  are  half- 
civilized  Indians.  The  bulk  of  the  civil¬ 
ized  population  is  of  mixed  white,  negro 
and  Indian  blood.  They  are  all  nom¬ 
inally  Christians,  but  the  Indians,  among 
whom  active  mission  work  was  once  car¬ 
ried  on,  have  relapsed  into  heathenism. 
The  Roman  Catholic  Church  is  the  State 
Church,  and  other  denominations  are  ex¬ 
cluded. 

Edersheim,  Alfred,  Ph.  D.,  D.  D.,  an 
eminent  biblical  scholar;  b.  of  Jewish  par¬ 
ents  at  Vienna,  March  7,  1825;  d.  at  Men¬ 
tone,  France,  March  16,  1889.  He  studied 
at  Vienna  and  Berlin,  and  in  1843  entered 
the  New  College,  Edinburgh.  In  1S49 
became  minister  of  the  Free  Church,  Old 
Aberdeen,  where  he  remained  until  ill- 
health  compelled  him  to  seek  a  home  at 
Torquay,  in  the  south  of  England,  where 
he  gathered  a  congregation  and  built  a 


Ede 


(  272  ) 


Edr 


church.  In  1875  he  took  orders  in  the 
Church  of  England.  After  acting  as  curate 
at  Loders,  Dorsetshire,  from  1876,  he  re¬ 
moved  to  Oxford  in  1883,  where  he  was 
engaged  in  literary  and  professional  work 
until  the  last  year  of  his  life.  From  1880 
to  1S84  he  was  Warburtonian  lecturer  at 
Lincoln’s  Inn,  London.  He  was  a  prolific 
writer  and  among  his  best-known  works 
are:  The  History  of  the  Jewish  Nation  from 
A.  D.  70-312  (Edinburgh,  1857);  The  Life 
and  Times  of  Jesus  the  Messiah  (1883,  2d  ed. 
18S6);  Prophecy  and  History  in  Relation  to 
the  Messiah  (1885);  The  History  of  Israel 
frojn  the  Sacrifice  on  Carmel  to  the  Death  of 
John  (1885);  Jesus  the  Messiah  (abridgment 
of  Life  and  Times ,  1890). 

Edes'sa,  an  ancient  city  in  the  north  of 
Mesopotamia.  Christianity  was  early  in¬ 
troduced  here.  In  216  it  became  a  Roman 
colony,  and  at  one  time  more  than  three 
hundred  monasteries  are  said  to  have  been 
within  its  walls,  and  its  theologians  took 
a  prominent  part  in  the  Arian  and  other 
controversies.  The  city,  after  many  vicis¬ 
situdes  of  fortune,  fell  into  the  hands  of 
the  Mohammedans,  and  the  Christian 
churches  were  used  as  mosques.  There 
is  still  a  small  Armenian  Christian  popula¬ 
tion  and  it  is  the  seat  of  a  Greek  archbishop 
and  an  Armenian  bishop. 

Eddy,  Richard,  S.  T.  D.  (Tufts,  1883), 
Universalist;  b.  at  Providence,  R.  I.,  June 
21,  1828.  Entered  the  ministry  in  1851, 
and  since  i88r  has  been  in  Melrose,  Mass. 
He  is  the  author  of  Universalism  in  A??ier- 
ica  :  A  History  (Boston,  1884-86),  2  vols. 

Eden  (probable  origin  of  the  name  is 
found  in  the  Assyrian  idinu ,  from  Accadian 
edin ,  plain),  (1)  the  home  of  our  first 
parents  before  their  fall.  Its  exact  loca¬ 
tion  is  unknown,  although  several  theories 
have  been  advocated.  Many  eminent  au¬ 
thorities  place  “  the  garden  of  Eden  east¬ 
ward  ”  in  the  highlands  of  Armenia,  or  in 
the  valley  of  the  Euphrates.  (2)  A  region 
conquered  by  the  Assyrians  (2  Kings  xix. 
12;  Isa.  xxxvii.  12),  probably  the  same  as  the 
Eden  of  Ezek.  xxvii.  23:  identified  by  some 
as  near  the  modern  Balis  in  Mesopotamia. 

Edict  of  Nantes.  See  Huguenots; 
Nantes. 

Edict  of  Worms.  See  Luther;  Worms. 

Edification  ( building-up ),  a  New  Testa¬ 
ment  term  used  in  comparing  the  Church 
and  the  Christian  believer  to  a  house  or 
temple.  (1  Cor.  iii.  9;  Eph.  ii.  21.)  A 
Christian  may  be  said  to  be  edified  when 


character  is  built  on  Christ  (Eph.  ii.  20; 
Col.  ii.  7),  and  enlarged  by  the  means  of 
grace  (Acts  xx.  32;  1  Thess.  v.  11),  and 
filled  with  the  Holy  Ghost.  (1  Cor.  iii.  17.) 
To  edify  others  there  should  be  love, 
spiritual  conversation,  forbearance,  faith¬ 
fulness,  benevolent  exertions,  and  uni¬ 
formity  of  conduct. 

Edom  (red),  called  also  Idum.ea  and 
Seir.  It  extended  as  far  north  as  the  Dead 
Sea,  and  south  to  the  Gulf  of  Akabah,  and 
eastward  from  the  valley  of  the  Arabah 
to  the  desert  of  Arabia,  being  about  125 
miles  long  and  thirty  miles  wide.  The  coun¬ 
try  is  mountainous,  but  the  soil  in  the  nar¬ 
row  valleys  and  on  the  mountain  terraces 
bears  a  luxuriant  growth  of  trees,  flowers, 
and  grass.  Its  first  inhabitants  were  the 
Horites  (dwellers  in  caves).  They  were 
driven  out  by  the  Edomites,  who  were 
sometimes  called  “children  of  Seir.”  (2 
Chron.  xxv.  11,  14.)  These  descendants 
of  Esau  perpetuated  the  enmity  with  the 
descendants  of  Jacob.  They  opposed  the 
passage  of  Israel  through  their  country 
when  they  came  from  the  wilderness 
(Num.  xx.  20,  21),  but  finally  permitted 
them  to  go  through  their  eastern  border. 
(Deut.  ii.  28,  29.)  Conquered  by  Saul  (1 
Sam.  xiv.  47),  and  by  David  (2  Sam.  viiu 
14),  they  revolted  against  Solomon,  (r 
Kings  xi.  14.)  They  were  in  vassalage  to 
Judah,  until  they  again  revolted  and  se¬ 
cured  their  independence  in  the  reign  of 
Jehoram.  (2  Kings  viii.  20-22.)  In  the 
time  of  the  Maccabees  the  Edomites  were 
defeated  by  Judas  Maccabseus,  and  were 
compelled  by  their  conquerors  to  adopt 
the  Mosaic  Law.  Antipater,  the  father  of 
Herod  the  Great,  who  secured  the  govern¬ 
ment  of  Judaea,  b.  c.  47,  was  an  Edomite. 
The  prophecies  of  the  desolation  that 
should  overtake  the  descendants  of  Esau 
and  their  country  have  been  literally  ful¬ 
filled.  (Jer.  xlix.  17,  18.)  The  ruins  of 
thirty  towns,  within  a  few  days’  journey 
from  the  Red  Sea,  attest  their  former 
greatness  and  present  desolation.  See  E. 
H.  Palmer:  Desert  of  the  Exodus  (1871); 
Badeker:  Palesiina  and  Syria. 

E'domites.  See  Edom. 

Ed'rei  ( strength ,  stronghold ),  the  name 
of  the  second  capital  of  Bashan.  It  was 
in  the  territory  of  Manasseh,  on  the  east 
of  Jordan.  (Num.  xxxii.  33.)  Its  ruins  cov¬ 
er  a  circuit  of  three  miles,  and  consist 
of  remains  of  temples,  churches  and 
mosques.  It  was  an  important  city  up  to 
the  seventh  century  of  the  Christian  era. 
Now  known  as  Edhra,  it  has  a  population 
of  about  500. 


Edu 


(  273  ) 


Edw 


Education,  among  the  Hebrews,  con¬ 
sisted  mainly  in  religious  training  in  the 
home  and  in  public  worship.  (Deut.  iv.  9; 
vi.  6-20.)  The  priests  could  read  and 
write,  and  there  were  educated  men 
among  the  laity,  such  as  the  historians  of 
the  Judges  and  Kings,  the  surveyors  of 
Canaan  (Josh,  xviii.  8,  9),  and  the  foreign 
ministers  of  state.  (2  Kings  xviii.  26.) 
Mention  is  made  of  “  schools  of  the  proph¬ 
ets,”  where  certain  young  men  were 
trained  for  the  prophetic  office.  (1  Sam. 
xix.  20;  2  Kings  ii.  3,  5,  7,  15.)  The  syn¬ 
agogue-system  of  worship  was  developed 
during  the  captivity,  and  instruction,  by 
authorized  teachers,  was  given  to  the 
young.  The  learning  of  a  trade  was  made 
imperative  on  every  boy.  Girls,  as  a  rule, 
received  very  little  education  beyond  the 
rudiments.  The  ideal  of  the  Hebrew  wife 
(Prov.  xxxi.  10-31)  did  not  lay  stress  upon 
the  learning  of  the  schools. 

Edwards,  Bela  Bates,  D.  D.,  Congre- 
gationalist  ;  b.  in  Southampton,  Mass., 
July  4,  1802;  d.  at  Athens,  Ga. ,  April  20, 
1852.  He  was  graduated  at  Amherst  College 
in  1824,  and  at  Andover  Theological  Sem¬ 
inary  in  1830.  In  1837  he  was  appointed 
professor  of  Hebrew  in  the  Andover  Sem¬ 
inary,  and  in  1848  associate  professor  of 
sacred  literature.  He  was  editor  of  The 
American  Quarterly  Review  from  1828  to 
1842.  He  founded  The  American  Quarterly 
Observer  in  1833,  which  was  soon  after¬ 
ward  united  with  The  Biblical  Repository , 
of  which  he  was  editor  until  1838.  From 
1844  to  1852  he  was  the  senior  editor  of 
The  Bibliotheca  Sacra.  He  aided  in  the 
compilation  of  a  large  number  of  impor¬ 
tant  works.  An  able  scholar,  gifted  as  a 
writer,  skillful  as  a  teacher,  and  eloquent 
as  a  preacher,  he  crowded  the  years  of  his 
life  with  useful  service.  See  Memoir,  in¬ 
cluding  discourses  and  essays,  by  E.  A. 
Park  (Boston,  1853),  2  vols. 

Edwards,  Jonathan,  the  most  eminent 
American  divine  and  metaphysician;  b.  in 
East  Windsor,  Conn.,  Oct.  5,  1703;  d.  at 
Princeton,  N.  J. ,  March  22,  1758.  His 
father  was  pastor  of  the  Congregational 
Church  at  East  Windsor  for  morethansixty- 
three  years,  and  his  mother,  a  woman  of 
remarkable  gifts,  was  the  daughter  of  Sol¬ 
omon  Stoddard,  who,  for  nearly  fifty-seven 
years  (1672-1729),  was  pastor  of  the  Con¬ 
gregational  Church  in  Northampton,  Mass. 
He  was  the  fifth  child  and  only  son  in  a 
family  of  eleven  children.  The  influences 
in  this  cultured  home  circle  aided  in  the 
development  of  his  precocious  intellect, 
and  at  the  age  of  thirteen  he  had  gained  a 
good  knowledge  of  Latin,  Greek,  and  He¬ 


brew,  and  was  prepared  to  enter  Yale  Col¬ 
lege,  where  he  was  graduated  with  the  high¬ 
est  honors  of  his  class,  in  1720.  Early  in  his 
college  course  he  studied  Locke  on  the  Hu - 
man  Understanding ,  a  book  which,  he  says, 
afforded  him  “  far  higher  pleasure  than 
the  most  greedy  miser  finds,  when  gather¬ 
ing  up  handfuls  of  silver  and  gold  from 
some  newly-discovered  treasure.” 

When  but  a  child  his  mind  was  much  ex-- 
ercised  upon  the  doctrine  of  the  divine 
sovereignty;  and  in  his  eighth  or  ninth 
year  he  tells  us  that  he  experienced  “  two- 
remarkable  seasons  of  awakening.”  It  was- 
probably  about  the  time  of  his  graduation 
from  college  that  he  united  with  his  father’s 
church  at  East  Windsor.  Returning  to 
New  Haven,  he  spent  two  years  in  pursu¬ 
ing  theological  studies,  and  in  1722  was  li¬ 
censed  to  preach.  From  the  summer  of 
1722  until  April  of  the  following  year,  he 
supplied  the  pulpit  of  a  small  Presbyterian 
church  in  New  York.  Declining  their  call 
to  a  permanent  settlement,  he  filled  a  tu¬ 
torship  at  Yale  for  two  years,  and  in  Feb., 
1727,  was  ordained  pastor  of  the  Congre¬ 
gational  Church  at  Northampton,  Mass. 
The  same  year  he  was  married  to  Sarah 
Pierrepont,  the  daughter  of  Rev.  James 
Pierrepont,  an  eminent  minister  of  New 
Haven,  and  one  of  the  founders  of  Yale. 
She  was  a  woman  of  rare  personal  graces 
and  intellectual  gifts,  and  proved  an  ef¬ 
ficient  helpmeet  of  her  husband.  From 
the  time  when,  a  lad  of  nine  years,  he  com¬ 
posed  a  letter  on  materialism,  he  had  fre¬ 
quently  given  evidence  of  his  power  as  a 
writer,  and  while  in  New  York  he  penned 
the  first  of  his  Resolutions ,  that  are  still  ad¬ 
mired  for  their  beauty  of  diction  as  well 
as  their  deep  spiritual  significance.  His 
pastorate  at  Northampton,  for  the  first  two 
years,  was  as  colleague  of  his  venerable 
maternal  grandfather.  He  at  once  gained 
reputation  as  a  preacher  of  commanding 
influence.  Without  the  aid  of  physical  ad¬ 
vantages,  his  intense  moral  earnestness, 
expressing  thought  in  the  severest  logical 
and  intellectual  form  often  swept  every¬ 
thing  before  him.  The  stories  still  extant 
of  the  influence  which  he  sometimes  ex¬ 
erted  over  congregations  seem  almost  in¬ 
credible.  In  1734-35,  and  also  in  1740-41, 
his  parish  shared  largely  in  the  revivals  of 
religion  which  spread  through  a  great  part 
of  New  England,  and  both  by  his  pen 
and  public  services  he  did  much  to  give 
wise  direction  in  these  periods  of  intense 
spiritual  thoughtfulness.  But  this  eminent 
servant  of  God  was  not  to  escape  the  dis¬ 
cipline  of  trial  and  disappointment.  Fol¬ 
lowing  the  revival  period  of  1740-41  there 
came  a  reaction,  marked  by  gross  viola¬ 
tions  of  morality  in  thought  and  practice 


Edw 


(  274  ) 


Ege 


in  some  of  the  homes  of  his  parish.  The 
reading  of  what  he  deemed  impure  liter¬ 
ature  especially  aroused  his  condemnation. 
With  fearless  courage  he  uttered  his  con¬ 
victions  and  admonitions,  with  a  plainness 
that  offended  and  alienated  some  influen¬ 
tial  families.  Under  the  terms  of  what 
was  known  as  the  “  Half-way  Covenant,” 
his  grandfather,  Stoddard,  had  permitted 
unconverted  persons  to  partake  of  the 
Lord’s  Supper.  Edwards  had  become  con¬ 
vinced,  with  other  leading  ministers  of  his 
time,  that  this  was  wrong.  True  to  his 
convictions,  while  realizing  the  opposition 
it  would  meet,  he  took  a  firm  stand  against 
this  practice.  The  controversy  ended  by 
the  ejectment  of  Edwards  from  the  pastor¬ 
ate,  which  he  had  held  for  over  twenty- 
three  years. 

His  reputation  as  a  preacher  and  writer 
had  crossed  the  Atlantic,  and  he  was  urged 
to  enter  upon  ministerial  service  in  Scot¬ 
land;  but  he  finally  accepted  a  call  to  be¬ 
come  pastor  of  a  small  Congregational 
church  at  Stockbridge,  Mass.,  and  mis¬ 
sionary  among  the  Housatonic  tribe  of 
Indians.  It  was  in  this  secluded  spot  that 
he  prepared  his  great  Essay  on  the  Human 
Will ,  a  work  that  has  received  unstinted 
praise  from  the  most  eminent  scholars. 
Dr.  Chalmers  recommended  it  to  his  pu¬ 
pils  “  more  strenuously  ”  than  any  other 
“  book  of  human  composition,”  and  it  was 
this  work  that  won  from  Sir  James  Mack¬ 
intosh  the  reference  to  “  his  power  of 
subtle  argument,  perhaps  unmatched,  cer¬ 
tainly  unsurpassed,  among  men.” 

From  his  wilderness  study  and  labor 
among  the  Indians,  Edwards  was  called  to 
the  presidency  of  the  college  at  Princeton, 
N.  J.,  in  1757.  With  great  personal  reluc¬ 
tance  he  accepted  the  position,  and  was 
inaugurated  Feb.  16,  1758.  The  week  fol¬ 
lowing  he  was  inoculated  for  the  small¬ 
pox;  a  fever  ensued,  and  he  died  on  the 
22d  of  March. 

The  collected  works  of  Edwards  were 
published  at  Worcester,  Mass.,  1809,  in 
eight  volumes.  Another  edition,  edited 
by  his  relative,  Dr.  Sereno  E.  Dwight,  was 
published  in  1830.  This  edition,  with  an 
Essay  on  his  Genius  and  Writings ,  by 
Henry  Rogers,  in  two  volumes,  appeared 
in  London  (1840).  The  principal  works  of 
Edwards  are:  Religious  Affections  (1746); 
Life  of  Brainerd  (1749);  Freedom  of  the 
Will  (1754);  God s  Last  End  in  the  Creation 
of  the  World  (1755);  Original  Sin  (1758); 
Nature  of  Virtue  ( 1788).  See,  also,  A.  V. 
G.  Allen:  Jonathan  Edwards (  Boston,  1889). 

Edwards,  Jonathan,  the  Younger,  son 
of  the  preceding;  b.  at  Northampton, 
Mass.,  May  26,  1745;  d.  at  Schenectady, 


N.  Y.,  Aug.  1,  1801.  He  was  graduated  at 
Princeton  College  in  1765;  studied  theol¬ 
ogy  with  Dr.  Joseph  Bellamy,  1765-66; 
tutor  at  Princeton  for  two  years.  In  1769 
he  accepted  the  pastorate  of  a  church  in 
New  Haven,  Conn.  Here  he  remained  for 
twenty-six  years.  In  1796  he  became  pas¬ 
tor  of  the  Congregational  church  in  Cole- 
brook,  Conn.,  where  he  remained  until 
1799,  when  he  was  elected  president  of 
Union  College,  Schenectady,  N.  Y.  Here 
he  remained  until  his  death.  Dr.  Samuel 
Miller,  of  Princeton,  says,  “  The  son 
greatly  resembles  his  venerable  father  in 
metaphysical  acuteness,  in  ardent  piety, 
and  in  the  purest  exemplariness  of  Chris¬ 
tian  deportment.”  “  The  son,”  says  Dr. 
Park,  “  like  the  father,  was  a  tutor  in  the 
college  where  he  had  been  a  student;  was 
first  ordained  over  a  prominent  church  in 
the  town  where  his  maternal  grandfather 
had  been  the  pastor;  was  dismissed  on  ac¬ 
count  of  his  doctrinal  opinions;  was  after¬ 
ward  the  minister  of  a  retired  parish;  was 
then  president  of  a  college,  and  died  at  the 
age  of  about  fifty-five  years,  soon  after  his 
inauguration.”  (See  art.  in  S chaff -Herzog.') 
Dr.  Edwards  edited  his  father’s  writings, 
and  contributed  many  articles  for  the  press. 
Among  his  published  discourses  the  most 
celebrated  are  the  three  On  the  Necessity 
of  the  Atonement ,  and  its  Consistency  with 
Free  Grace  in  Forgiveness.  They  form  the 
basis  of  what  is  known  as  the  “Edwardean 
theory  ”  of  the  atonement.  Edwards  was 
a  remarkable  philologist  as  well  as  theolo¬ 
gian.  He  received  the  degree  of  D.  D. 
from  Princeton  College.  Edwards’s  works 
were  published  at  Andover,  1842,  2  vols., 
with  Memoir  by  Tryon  Edwards. 

Edwards,  Justin,  D.  D.,  b.  in  West- 
hampton,  Mass.,  April  25,  1787;  d.  at  Vir¬ 
ginia  Springs,  July  23,  1853.  He  was  pas¬ 
tor  at  Andover,  Mass.,  1812-28;  secretary 
of  the  American  Society  for  the  Promotion 
of  Temperance,  1829-36;  president  of  the 
seminary  at  Andover,  1837-42;  secretary 
of  the  American  and  Foreign  Christian 
Union,  1842  until  his  death.  He  pub¬ 
lished  a  work  on  the  Sabbath ,  and  wrote 
many  tracts  that  had  a  large  circulation. 
See  Life  and  Labors  of  the  Rev.  Justin 
Edzuards ,  D.  D.t  by  W.  A.  Hallock  (N.Y., 
1856). 

Egede,  Hans,  the  first  missionary  to  the 
Greenlanders;  b.  at  Senjen,  in  the  north 
of  Norway,  Jan.  31,  1686;  d.  on  the  island 
of  Falster,  Nov.  5,  175S.  While  pastor  at 
Waagen  he  became  interested  in  the  his¬ 
tory  of  Greenland  and  the  condition  of  its 
heathen  population.  With  the  cooperation 
of  prominent  bishops  he  resigned  his  par- 


Egi 


(  275  ) 


Egy 


ish  in  1717,  and,  having  gained  some 
knowledge  of  the  Greenland  tongue,  form¬ 
ed  a  company  to  trade  with  that  country, 
and,  with  his  family,  sailed  in  1721.  In  the 
face  of  many  obstacles  and  privations,  he 
succeeded,  finally, in  making  many  converts, 
and  forming  stronger  commercial  rela¬ 
tions  with  Denmark.  Ill-health  compelled 
his  return  home  in  1736,  and  he  was  made 
principal  of  the  seminary  at  Copenhagen, 
where  students  were  prepared  for  the  mis¬ 
sion  work  in  Greenland.  He 
wrote  a  book  on  the  natural 
history  of  Greenland.  His 
son,  Paul  Egede,  who  lived  in 
that  country  until  1740,  pre¬ 
pared  a  grammar  of  the  lan¬ 
guage.  The  Danish  mission 
work  is  still  continued  there. 

Eginhard,  or  Einhard,  b. 
about  770  in  Franconia;  d.  at 
Seligenstadt,  March,  14,  844. 

Educated  at  the  court  of 
Charlemagne  under  Alcuin, 
he  was  appointed  secretary  to 
the  emperor,  and  superintend¬ 
ent  of  public  buildings.  Some 
have  conjectured  that  his  wife, 

Emma,  was  the  daughter  of 
Charlemagne.  This  marriage 
was  dissolved  about  815,  and 
Eginhard,  having  been  ordain¬ 
ed  as  a  priest,  retired  to  the 
monastery  of  Seligenstadt,  on 
the  Main.  He  wrote  a  life  of 
Charlemagne  which  has  proved 
invaluable  to  historians  of  this 
period.  Collected  editions  of 
his  works  have  been  edited  by 
Teulet  (Paris,  1840-43);  Eng¬ 
lish  translation  of  the  Life  of 
Charlemagne,  by  W.  Glaister 
(London,  1877),  and  S.  E.  Tur¬ 
ner  (New  York,  1880). 

Eg'lon  ( calf ),  a  king  of  Moab 
^  who,  with  the  aid  of  the  Am¬ 
monites  and  Amalekites,  sub¬ 
jugated  Israel  and  kept  them 
in  bondage  eighteen  years.  He 
was  killed  by  Ehud,  and  his 
people  destroyed.  (Judg.  iii. 

12-30.) 

Egypt,  a  country  in  the  northeast  of 
Africa,  extending  from  latitude  310  36'  to 
240  6'  N.,  that  is,  from  the  Mediterranean 
to  the  first  cataract  of  the  Nile.  The  ledge 
at  this  cataract  interrupts  navigation,  and 
makes  a  natural  boundary  between  races 
and  languages. 

A Tames. — Egypt  is  only  the  English  form 
of  the  Greek  Aigyptos.  The  ancient  Egyp¬ 


tians  called  themselves  Kemi,  or  people 
of  the  black  land,  referring  to  the  color 
of  their  fertile  soil.  The  common  biblical 
name  of  the  country  is  Mizraim,  a  dual 
form  suggesting  the  two  great  natural  di¬ 
visions  of  the  country,  the  narrow  valley 
of  the  Nile,  south  of  Heliopolis,  which  is 
five  miles  N.  E.  of  Cairo,  and  the  broad 
Delta  to  the  north.  The  former  part  is 
known  as  Upper  Egypt,  the  latter  as  Lower 
Egypt. 


Nattiral  features.  —  Herodotus  said  of 
old,  “  Egypt  is  the  gift  of  the  Nile,”  and 
that  is  true,  for  rain  is  almost  unknown, 
and  wherever  the  Nile  water  goes  there  is 
fertility,  but  beyond  that,  both  east  and 
west,  there  is  desert  sand.  The  average 
width  of  the  Nile  valley,  above  the  Delta, 
is  six  miles.  The  entire  area  under  culti¬ 
vation,  in  1882,  was  computed  at  8,410 
square  miles.  The  Nile  is  very  generous 


(  276  ) 


Egy 


to  Egypt;  it  has  deposited  a  soil  from  thir¬ 
ty-three  to  thirty-eight  feet  deep — at  the 
head  of  the  Delta  nearly  fifty  feet  deep. 
Even  one  who  is  familiar  with  the  fertility 
of  our  western  prairies  is  amazed  at  the 
productiveness  of  Egypfc,  if  he  visits  it  in 
the  harvest  season  of  a  good  year;  but  a 
“bad  Nile,”  that  is,  a  Nile  which  does  not 
rise  to  the  due  height,  means  a  bad  year. 
One  foot’s  deficit  in  the  inundation  causes 
a  loss  of  ten  millions  of  dollars. 

The  Nile  determines  the  seasons  for 
Egypt,  which  are  three, — the  water  sea¬ 
son,  when  the  great  river  rises  and  pours 
its  red  flood  over  the  country,  extending 
from  June  to  September;  the  garden  sea¬ 
son,  when  the  crops  are  planted  and  tend¬ 
ed  ,  including  from  October  to  January ;  and 
the  harvest  season,  stretching  from  Febru¬ 
ary  to  May. 

Plants  and  Animals. — The  lotus  and  the 
papyrus  were  prominent  in  old  Egyptian 
life.  The  lotus  was  the  favorite  flower  at 
banquets.  It  was  worn  in  garlands,  carried 
in  the  hand,  and  used  to  ornament  the 
table.  It  was  a  kind  of  water-lily.  It  is 
mentioned  in  Job  xl.  21,  22  (R.  V.).  The 
papyrus  was  a  sedge.  Its  pith  was  cut 
into  strips,  and  these  were  laid  horizontally 
and  covered  crosswise  with  a  second  layer, 
and  then  the  two  were  pasted  together, 
and  subjected  to  heavy  pressure,  and  the 
result  was  the  Egyptian  paper.  It  is 
probably  referred  to  in  2  John  12.  A 
coarser  kind  was  made  into  boats  (Ex.  ii. 
3,  R.  V.  margin;  Is.  xviii.  2,  R.  V.,  etc.), 
baskets,  and  the  like.  The  plant  is  extinct 
in  Egypt,  but  is  still  found  in  Palestine. 
Our  word  paper  comes  from  papyrus. 

Two  characteristic  animals  deserve 
special  mention  from  the  prominent  men¬ 
tion  of  them  in  the  Bible — the  crocodile 
and  the  hippopotamus.  The  crocodile  was 
formerly  found  nearly  to  the  sea,  though 
now  mostly  confined  to  Upper  Egypt. 
One  of  the  divinities  of  Egypt  was  the 
crocodile-headed  Sabak.  Job  xli.  has  a 
graphic  description  of  the  crocodile  under 
the  name  of  ‘  ‘  the  leviathan.  ”  The  hippopot¬ 
amus  which  appears  to  have  formerly  been 
common  north  and  south  has  been  gradual¬ 
ly  driven  southward  until  it  is  now  rare 
even  in  Nubia.  It  is  portrayed  as  “  the  chief 
of  the  ways  of  God  ”  in  Job  xl.,  where  it  is 
called  “  behemoth.”  Hunting  the  crocodile 
and  the  hippopotamus  were  favorite  sports 
in  ancient  Egypt,  as  many  a  monument 
shows. 

Population. — The  census  of  1882  gave  a 
population  for  Egypt  Proper  of  6,811,44s. 
It  appears  to  have  been  somewhat  greater 
in  ancient  times. 

Origin. — The  shape  of  the  skull,  the 
grammar  of  the  language,  the  fact  that  the 


Egy 


oldest  and  noblest  works  are  found  to  the 
north,  and  the  genealogical  record  of 
Genesis  x.,  are  some  of  the  indications  of 
an  Asiatic  origin  for  the  Egyptians;  while 
the  similarity  of  many  of  the  customs  and 
utensils  depicted  upon  the  monuments  to 
those  still  used  upon  the  Zambesi  and  the 
Niger  indicate  an  African  element.  The 
stock  has  been  vastly  modified  and  shaped 
by  its  surroundings.  This  influence  of 
the  country  upon  the  people  is  illustrated 
by  what  has  taken  place  amongst  the  cat¬ 
tle.  These  have  been  many  times  ex¬ 
terminated  by  murrain,  and  replaced  by 
foreign  breeds,  but  the  new-comers  have 
invariably,  after  a  few  generations,  taken 
on  the  type  seen  upon  the  monuments. 

Chronology. — The  chronology  of  Ancient 
Egypt  has  been  the  subject  of  measureless 
dispute.  One  point  of  contest  has  been 
whether  all  the  dynasties  and  reigns  re¬ 
corded  in  Egyptian  lists  were  real,  and  an¬ 
other  more  important  issue  has  been 
whether  they  were  all  successive,  or  par¬ 
tially  contemporaneous ;  but  with  the  prog¬ 
ress  of  discovery  in  the  memorials  of  old 
Egyptian  life,  scholars  are  coming  more 
and  more  to  recognize  living  persons  back 
of  the  names,  and  to  agree  that  the  dy¬ 
nasties  and  reigns  were  successive. 

As  to  the  historic  reality  of  the  reigns, 
amongst  many  others  all  the  Pharaohs, 
from  the  twentieth  to  the  thirty  -  eighth 
of  the  seventy-five  who  are  mentioned  in 
the  Alydos  tablet,  are  already  otherwise 
known  to  us,  and  investigation  is  frequently 
bringing  another  name  out  upon  the  solid 
ground  of  fact.  Bearing  upon  the  ques¬ 
tion  of  successive  or  contemporaneous 
reigns,  we  have  evidences  like  these:  annals 
of  many  other  Egyptians  besides  the  Pha¬ 
raohs,  whose  lives  overlap  many  of  the 
reigns,  and  extensive  lists  of  the  sacred 
bulls,  with  the  length  of  their  lives.  Some 
would  also  attach,  great  weight  to  the  as¬ 
tronomical  records  of  the  monuments. 
Indeed,  instead  of  being  required  to  deduct 
for  contemporaneous  reigns,  we  seem 
rather  to  need  to  make  additions  for  omit¬ 
ted  ones.  In  the  eighteenth  dynasty,  for 
example,  there  appear  to  have  been  several 
sovereigns  whose  religious  heresies  caused 
them  to  be  struck  out  of  the  accepted  lists. 

The  indications  are  that  the  ancient  Pha¬ 
raohs  had  as  long  reigns  as  modern  sover¬ 
eigns,  those  of  England  for  example.  Con¬ 
siderations  like  these  appear  to  carry  the 
beginning  of  the  Egyptian  monarchy  back 
to  a  time  considerably  earlier  than  3,000 
b.  c.  Lepsius  puts  the  commencement  of 
the  reign  of  the  first  king  at  3,892  b.  C. 
Boockh’s  date,  5,702  b.  c. ,  and  Poole’s. 
2,717  b.  c. ,  may  be  taken  as  extremes. 

Religion. — Herodotus  said  that  it  was 


(  277  ) 


Egy 


Egy 


easier  to  find  a  god  than  a  man  in  Egypt; 
it  may  be  added  that  their  religion  in  its 
later  forms  was  as  gross  as  it  was  poly¬ 
theistic,  for  it  deified  a  multitude  of 
animals,  from  the  bull  down  to  the  snake. 
To  reduce  the  vast  Egyptian  pantheon  al¬ 
together  to  system  would  be  a  herculean 
task;  but  two  great  myths  stand  out  promi¬ 
nent,  that  of  Ra,  the  sun-god,  and  his  fam¬ 
ily,  and  that  of  Osiris  and  his  family.  The 
latter  myth  is  similar  to  the  former,  but 
more  elaborate. 

The  great  divinities  of  Egypt  are  divin¬ 
ities  of  light,  and  their  foes  are  the  powers 
of  darkness.  Thoth,  the  moon-god,  is  one 
of  the  most  interesting  of  the  divinities.  He 
is  “  the  distributer  of  time  ”  and  the  god 
of  art  and  learning.  One  is  reminded  that 
our  word  moon  comes  from  md,  to  meas¬ 
ure,  and  that  it  was  known  as  “  the  meas¬ 
urer,  the  ruler  of  days  and  weeks  and  sea¬ 
sons.”  Ptah,  “the  opener”  who  reveals 
hidden  beauty,  the  artist-god,  was  identified 
by  the  Greeks  with  Hephaistos  (Latin,  Vul¬ 
can.)  Athor  or  Hathor,  “lady  of  the  dance 
and  mirth,”  was, in  like  manner,  thought  by 
the  Greeks  to  be  the  same  with  Aphrodite 
(Latin,  Venus). 

The  Egyptian  religion  was  not,  it  should 
be  said,  altogether  so  polytheistic  as  it 
seems,  for  the  same  god  often  had  differ¬ 
ent  names  in  different  places;  and  in  the 
more  remote  ages  we  meet  with  such  sub¬ 
lime  recognitions  of  the  unity  of  God  as 
this:  “  Thou  art  alone,  and  the  millions  of 
beings  come  from  thee.”  This  fact  led  M. 
de  Rouge  to  infer,  it  would  seem  fairly, 
that  the  religion  of  Egypt  was  originally 
pure  monotheism.  The  old  Egyptians  had 
also  a  sublime  faith  in  immortality.  “  Life 
everlasting”  is  one  of  the  few  inscriptions 
upon  the  fragment  in  the  British  Museum 
of  the  wooden  coffin  of  King  Mykerinos, 
builder  of  the  third  pyramid.  The  embalm¬ 
ing  of  the  body  was  the  result  of  the  faith 
in  a  hereafter.  The  body  must  be  kept  so 
that,  as  from  time  to  time  the  soul  came 
back  to  earth  from  its  home  with  the  bless¬ 
ed,  it  might  never  miss  its  familiar  taber¬ 
nacle. 

Their  maxims  made  religion  a  matter  of 
daily  life.  Here  are  specimens:  “Give 
thyself  to  God;  keep  thyself  continually 
for  God.”  “  Thou  art  now  come  to  man’s 
estate,  .  .  .  but  never  do  thou  forget  the 
painful  labor  which  thy  mother  endured; 
nor  all  the  salutary  care  which  she  hath 
taken  of  thee.”  “  If  thou  art  a  wise  man, 
bring  up  thy  son  in  the  love  of  God.” 

Character. — When  we  turn  to  the  charac¬ 
ter  of  the  old  Egyptians  we  find  a  striking 
contrast  to  the  higher  and  older  teachings 
of  their  faith.  Brugsch  says — and  his  tes¬ 
timony  is  the  more  valuable  from  his  ad¬ 


miration  for  the  race — “  hatred,  wrong, 
cunning,  intrigue,  combined  with  a  senti¬ 
ment  of  pride,  contradiction,  and  perver¬ 
sity,  added  to  avarice  and  cruelty — such  is 
the  long  series  of  those  hereditary  faults 
which  history  reveals  to  us  among  the 
Egyptians,  by  unnumbered  examples  in 
the  course  of  centuries.”  Rawlinson  says: 
“  In  morals,  the  Egyptians  combined  an 
extraordinary  degree  of  theoretic  perfec¬ 
tion  with  an  exceedingly  lax  and  imper¬ 
fect  practice.” 

Civilization. — The  most  remote  ages  of 
Egyptian  civilization  known  to  us  are  its 
highest.  The  men  who  built  the  pyramids 
had  made  great  progress  in  agriculture 
and  mechanics,  in  art  and  science.  They 
had  a  decimal  notation,  and  a  year  of  365 
days,  divided  into  twelve  months.  They 
used  a  variety  of  bright  colors. 

Jewel-pointed  drills  and  bronze  saws  ap¬ 
pear  to  have  been  employed  upon  the  pyr¬ 
amids,  and  the  angles  of  their  bases  are  so 
perfect  that  one  'does  not  see  how  they  can 
have  been  measured  without  the  telescope. 

So  closely  are  the  blocks  of  stone  in  the 
Queen’s  Chamber,  in  the  heart  of  the  great 
pyramid,  united,  that  one  must  look  care¬ 
fully  to  find  the  joints. 

The  “  chief  of  the  three  ”  great  pyr¬ 
amids,  that  of  Khufu,  was  originally  481 
feet  high,  and  755  feet  wide,  and  contained 
6,848,000  tons  of  masonry.  It  is  now  454 
feet  high  and  750  feet  wide.  It  covers 
nearly  thirteen  acres.  It  was  cased  with 
polished  stones  “  so  skillfully  joined  that 
they  appeared  like  one  block  from  the 
base  to  the  top.”  The  pyramids  were 
tombs  designed  to  secrete  the  embalmed 
body  against  all  search. 

The  Sphinx  appears  to  have  been  repair¬ 
ed  by  Khufu,  and  is  now  supposed  to  be 
older  than  the  first  dynasty.  The  height 
from  the  pavement,  on  which  the  forepaws 
rest,  to  the  crown  of  the  head,  is  given  as 
66  feet,  the  width  of  the  mouth,  7  feet  7 
inches.  It  faces  the  east,  and  appears  to 
have  been  connected  with  the  sun-god — 
Ra.  Maspero  terms  it  a  work  of.  “  finished 
art,”  and  “  the  most  ancient  statue  known.” 

The  “  rock  temple  ”  is  a  simple,  majestic 
structure  of  limestone  and  alabaster  and 
red  granite.  It  is  believed  to  have  been 
connected  in  its  purpose  with  the  Sphinx. 
Mariette  discovered  it  in  1853,  and  found 
in  it  nine  statues  of  Khefren,  the  builder 
of  the  second  pyramid. 

The  fidelity  to  nature  of  the  most  ancient 
art  of  Egypt  is  very  striking,  particularly 
when  contrasted  with  its  later  convention¬ 
ality.  Every  visitor  to  the  Hall  of  the 
Ancient  Empire  in  the  Boulak  Museum  of 
Cairo  (just  transferred  to  Gizeh),  must 
have  remarked  this  characteristic.  It  is 


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beautifully  exemplified  in  the  Village  Sheik, 
a  wooden  statue  probably  5,000  years  old, 
which  Brugsch  takes  for  an  introductory 
picture  to  his  history  of  Egypt.  That 
statue  equally  illustrates  the  artist’s  mas¬ 
tery  of  difficulties,  for  thematerial  is  knotty, 
and  in  several  pieces  that  are  held  together 
with  square  pegs. 

In  that  primeval  empire  the  Egyptian 
had  a  written  language,  mostly  express¬ 
ed  in  beautiful  pictorial  characters,  known 
as  hieroglyphics,  meaning,  literally, 
“  sacred  carvings.”  By-and-by,  more  ab- 


Political  System.  —  The  king  was  su¬ 
preme.  He  was  “  the  visible  god  of  his 
subjects” — but  he  was  also  a  man,  so  he 
worshiped  himself.  The  country  was  di¬ 
vided  into  nomes,  or  provinces,  and  each 
nome  had  its  capital,  its  governor,  and  its 
tutelary  deity.  The  judges  were  priests. 
All  judicial  proceedings  were  in  writing, 
that  nothing  might  excite  or  prejudice  the 
mind  of  the  judge.  The  laws  were  of  re¬ 
markable  excellence,  largely  justifying  the 
saying  attributed  to  Bossuet,  “  Egypt  was 
the  source  of  all  good  government.  ”  There 


APPROACH  TO  THE  PYRAMIDS. 


breviated  forms,  known  as  hieratic  or 
priestly,  came  to  be  used  in  many  writ¬ 
ings,  and  in  the  ninth  century  B.  c.  the  still 
more  curtailed  characters,  called  demotic 
or  popular,  were  introduced,  chiefly  in 
social  and  commercial  intercourse.  The 
trilingual  inscription  in  hieroglyphic,  de¬ 
motic,  and  Greek,  upon  the  stone  that  was 
discovered  at  Rosetta  in  1799,  gave  to 
Champollion  the  key  to  the  long-locked 
mystery  of  the  hieroglyphics.  Upon  the 
sculptured  stone  and  the  delicate  papyrus 
the  Egyptian  recorded  a  literature  second 
to  none  in  antiquity  for  extent  and  variety. 


was  no  caste.  The  tomb  of  many  a  noble¬ 
man  bears  the  inscription,  “  His  ancestors 
were  unknown  people;”  but  the  nation  was 
divided  into  classes,  of  which  the  priestly 
was  at  the  head;  next  came  the  soldier 
class;  at  the  foot  was  the  great  mass  of  the 
common  people,  despised  and  spoken  of 
with  opprobrious  epithets. 

History. — The  history  of  Egypt  will  be 
noticed  with  special  reference  to  its  con¬ 
nection  with  the  Bible  and  the  kingdom 
of  God. 

Periods. — Egyptian  history  may  be  con¬ 
veniently  divided  into  ten  periods. 


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I.  The  Old  Empire,  including  the  first 
eleven  dynasties.  The  pyramids  were  built 
in  this  period,  those  of  Gizeh  (“  the  great 
pyramids  ”)  in  the  fourth  dynasty. 

II.  The  Middle  Empire — the  twelfth  dy¬ 
nasty,  which  introduced  the  obelisk.*  Its 
Pharaohs  all  bear  the  name  of  Usertesen, 
or  of  Amenemhat.  They  excel  in  art,  en¬ 
terprise,  and  war. 

III.  The  Hyksos  period.  The  Hyksos, 
or  Shepherd  Kings,  appear  to  have  been 
an  Asiatic  and  Semitic  race  that  invaded 
Egypt  and  were  its  dominant  power  for 


Hyksos  is  1708  b.  c.,  Lepsius’,  1591,  Wil¬ 
kinson’s,  1520.  The  comparatively  modern 
date  of  the  close  of  this  long  period  is  ex¬ 
act — 525  b.  c. 

The  greatest  Pharaohs  of  this  period 
bear  the  name  of  Thothmes  and  Amenho- 
tep,  both  of  the  eighteenth  dynasty,  and 
Rames^s,  of  the  nineteenth  and  twentieth 
dynasties.  Other  noted  names,  later  on,  are 
Sheshonk,  of  the  twenty-second  dynasty 
(biblical,  Shishak);  Taharka  (biblical,  Tir- 
hakah),  of  the  twenty-fifth  dynasty;  Pse- 
methek  (Greek,  Psammetichus),  and  Ne- 


THE  GREAT  PYRAMID,  SPHINX,  AND  ROCK  TEMPLE. 


some  five  centuries.  The  age  of  Abra¬ 
ham  and  that  of  Joseph  are  now  commonly 
thought  to  have  fallen  in  this  period. 

IV.  The  New  Empire.  This  begins 
with  the  eighteenth  dynasty  and  the  expul¬ 
sion  of  the  Hyksos,  and  extends  through 
the  twenty-sixth  dynasty.  With  the  be¬ 
ginning  of  this  period  we  approach  definite¬ 
ness  of  date,  the  differences  between  the 
estimates  of  different  Egyptologists  being 
no  longer  millenniums,  but  only  centuries. 
Mariette’s  date  for  the  expulsion  of  the 

*  Maspero  says  that  small  ones,  about  three  feet 
high,  are  found  in  tombs  as  early  as  the  fourth  dynasty. 


kau  (biblical,  Necho),  and  Apries  (biblical, 
Hophra),  all  three  of  the  twenty-sixth  dy¬ 
nasty.  This  period  takes  in  the  oppres¬ 
sion  of  Israel  in  Egypt,  its  exodus,  and 
all  the  time  of  its  history  down  to  the  re¬ 
turn  of  the  exiles  from  Babylon  under 
Zerubbabel. 

V.  The  Persian  Rule.  This  includes 
the  twenty-seventh  dynasty  and  those  that 
follow,  as  far  as  the  thirty-first,  the  first 
and  last  being  Persian.  It  terminates  with 
the  welcome  of  Alexander  as  the  deliverer 
from  the  yoke  of  Persia,  and  the  found¬ 
ing  of  Alexandria  by  him  in  332  b. 


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VI.  The  Greek  Rule.  During  this  period 
fifteen  Ptolemies  sat  on  the  throne.  It  ex¬ 
tends  to  b.  c.  30. 

VII.  The  Roman.  The  defeat  of  Antony 
and  Cleopatra  at  Actium,  in  31,  led  to  the 
incorporation  of  Egypt  into  the  Roman 
Empire  the  following  year.  It  continued 
to  be  a  province  of  Rome  until  the  division 
of  the  empire,  a.  d.  395. 

VIII.  The  Byzantine,  in  which  Egypt 
was  a  part  of  the  Eastern  Empire.  This 
extends  to  A.  D.  640. 

IX.  The  Mohammedan.  ’Amr  Ibn  el- 
’Asi,  better  known  as  Amru,  general  of 
the  great  Omar,  made  an  easy  conquest  of 
Egypt  in  640.  From  that  time  the  country 
has  been  nominally  under  Mohammedan 
control. 

X.  The  British  occupation.  The  defeat 
of  Arabi  Bey,  by  General  Wolseley  in  1882, 
led  to  the  occupation  of  Egypt  by  a  British 
force.  The  British  flag  is  never  displayed 
outside  the  barracks,  but  Britain  is  the 
power  behind  the  throne,  so  that  a  new 
period  in  Egyptian  history  may  be  said  to 
have  begun  with  this  occupation. 

Connection  with  Hebrew  History. — Only 
the  more  prominent  points  of  connection 
between  Egyptian  and  Hebrew  history  will 
be  noted.  These  points  will  be  mentioned 
in  chronological  order. 

In  the  third,  or  Hyksos,  period,  Egyptian 
and  Hebrew  history  begin  to  touch  each 
other.  In  the  early  part  of  that  period 
Abraham  visited  Egypt.  The  record  of 
that  visit  in  Gen.  xii.  gives  us  the  earliest 
biblical  mention  of  Egypt.  The  obelisk  of 
Heliopolis  was  already  erected,  and  the 
pyramids  were  old  and  the  Sphinx  very  old. 
A  tomb  of  the  twelfth  dynasty,  which 
was  a  little  before  Abraham’s  time,  repre¬ 
sents  the  approach  of  a  Semitic  chief  with 
his  family  to  an  Egyptian  governor  some¬ 
what  as  we  may  imagine  Abraham  to  have 
come.  The  Asiatic  origin  of  the  race  then 
dominant  in  Egypt  would  render  them 
more  friendly  to  strangers  from  their  own 
ancestral  region.  The  list  of  Abraham’s 
possessions  when  he  was  in  Egypt  (Gen. 
xii.  16)  does  not  mention  horses.  That 
corresponds  with  the  absence  of  the  horse 
from  the  earlier  monuments. 

The  biblical  history  of  Joseph  has  very 
interesting  illustrations  from  the  Egyptian 
records.  The  Tale  of  Two  Brothers, an  Egyp¬ 
tian  novelette,  strikingly  reminds  one  of 
Joseph’s  temptation.  In  that  tale  the  wife 
of  the  elder  brother  tempts  the  younger, 
but  he  resists  the  temptation,  whereupon 
she  slanders  him  to  her  husband.  The 
husband  fails  to  kill  his  brother,  and  so 
kills  his  wife.  The  Egyptian  narrative  is 
evidently  independent  of  the  biblical  one, 
but  they  coincide  in  their  delineation  of 


the  lustful  woman  and  the  chaste  young 
man. 

The  famine  in  Joseph’s  day  is  illus¬ 
trated  by  the  following  inscription  from 
a  tomb  that  appears  to  date  from  about  his 
time:  “  I  collected  corn  as  a  friend  of  the 
harvest  God.  I  was  watchful  at  the  time  of 
sowing,  and  when  a  famine  arose,  lasting 
many  years,  I  distributed  corn  to  the  city 
each  year  of  famine.” 

On,  or  Heliopolis,  where  Joseph  found 
his  wife, was  a  magnificent  university  city  of 
ancient  Egypt.  Its  chief  work  to-day  is  its 
beautiful  obelisk,  the  oldest  (save  possibly 
one  fragment)  in  the  world.  It  is  pleasant 
to  think  that  the  eye  of  Joseph  often  rested 
upon  that  obelisk,  and  that  it  would  sug¬ 
gest  to  him  dear  thoughts  of  wife  and  home. 

Joseph  located  his  father  and  brothers 
in  Goshen.  In  1885  M.  Naville  found,  as 
he  thought,  conclusive  evidence  identifying 
that  district  with  the  region  just  southeast 
of  Zakazik,  which  is  now  the  great  cotton 
mart  of  the  Delta.  In  the  time  of  Joseph 
it  does  not  appear  to  have  been  an  organ¬ 
ized  province  with  a  capital,  “but  prob¬ 
ably  a  kind  of  waste  land,  sufficiently 
watered  to  produce  good  pasturage;  thus 
it  was  a  district  which  might  be  assigned 
to  foreigners  without  despoiling  the  in¬ 
habitants  of  the  country.” 

If,  as  is  now  thought,  Joseph’s  career 
was  in  the  reign  of  Apepi,  the  last  Hyksos 
king,  we  have  some  glimpses,  though  tan¬ 
talizing,  it  must  be  owned,  of  his  sovereign. 
We  find  him  acknowledging  but  one  god — 
Set,  the  destroyer,  the  god  of  darkness — 
save  as,  out  of  compliment  to  the  reviving 
native  Egyptian  power  at  Thebes,  he  con¬ 
sents  to  honor  Ra.  We  have  his  name 
chiseled  in  black  granite  sphinxes  of  un¬ 
surpassed  vigor;  best  of  all,  M.  Naville 
found  at  Bubastis,  just  outside  of  Zakazik 
in  1888,  two  colossal  red  granite  Hyksos 
heads,  which,  from  an  inscription  found 
near  by,  are  thought  by  some  to  afford  por¬ 
trait  faces  of  Apepi  at  different  periods  of 
life.  At  all  events,  they  probably  give  us 
the  type  of  face  of  the  mysterious  Hyksos 
kings. 

Tell-el-Amarna,  the  ancient  Khuenaten 
on  the  Nile,  is  one  of  the  most  recent  of 
the  witnesses  that  throw  light  on  Bible 
times.  Its  testimony  relates  to  an  era  be¬ 
tween  Joseph  and  the  oppression.  The 
remains  at  this  point  had  long  been  seen  to 
be,  next  to  those  of  Thebes,  the  most  ex¬ 
tensive  in  Egypt;  but  it  was  reserved  for  a 
peasant,  searching  for  nitrous  earth  for  a 
fertilizer,  to  gain  the  clew  that  is  leading 
to  the  revelation  of  the  astonishing  value 
of  these  remains  to  historical  knowledge. 
At  the  annual  meeting  of  the  Victoria  In¬ 
stitute  in  July,  1S89,  Professor  Sayce  gave 


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a  report  of  his  visit  to  the  spot.  After 
hearing  that  report,  M.  Naville  declared  the 
discovery  the  greatest  of  the  century.  Pro¬ 
fessor  Sayce  found  evidence  of  a  predom¬ 
inant  Semitic  influence  in  the  reign  of 
Amenophis  IV.  of  the  eighteenth  dynasty. 
There  were  extensive  royal  archives  in  the 
cuneiform  or  Babylonian  characters.  It 
appeared  that  the  courts  of  Egypt  and 
Mesopotamia  were  connected  by  marriage. 
One  Dadu,  or  David,  who  may  have  been  a 
Hebrew,  was  guardian  of  the  king’s  daugh¬ 
ter.  A  description  of  Palestine  was  found, 
which  throws  light  on  biblical  names  and 
sites.  One  city  of  Southern  Palestine  that 
had  an  Egyptian  garrison  was  known  as 
Urusalim.  This  was  probably  none  other 
than  Jerusalem.  There  were  five  letters 
from  a  king  of  Babylon,  whose  reign  is 
known  from  Assyrian  discoveries  to  have 
been  about  1430  b.  c.  This  confirms  the 
previous  belief  as  to  the  date  of  Amenophis 
IV.  These  archives  prove  that  Israel  was 
not  then  in  Palestine,  and  corroborate  the 
belief  that  the  exodus  did  not  take  place 
till  the  time  that  has  been  of  late  so  com¬ 
monly  assigned  to  it.  They  also  strongly 
favor  the  longer  period  of  430  years  for  Is¬ 
rael’s  sojourn  in  Egypt,  rather  than  the 
shorter  one  of  215  years.  This  Amenophis 
IV.,  or  Khuenaten,  has  long  been  famous 
in  Egyptian  history  for  rejecting  the  vast 
national  pantheon,  and  paying  worship  to 
the  sun-god  alone.  This  conduct  brought 
down  on  him  the  odium  of  heresy,  and  led 
to  the  erasure  of  his  name  from  the  list  of 
sovereigns,  but,  like  many  another  whose 
name  has  been  cast  out  as  evil,  he  deserves 
special  honor.  Possibly  the  presence  of 
monotheistic  Israel  may  have  had  some¬ 
thing  to  do  with  the  religious  belief  of  the 
king.  At  all  events,  facts  like  those  that 
have  been  mentioned  indicate  that  the 
Semitic  Hebrews  would  enjoy  peace  and 
favor  under  such  a  sceptre. 

The  Tell-el-Amarna  find  is  being  diligent¬ 
ly  studied  by  Egyptologists,  and  it  is  prob¬ 
able  that  its  testimony  is  far  from  being  all 
in.  This  is  one  of  many  illustrations  cited 
in  this  article  of  the  rapid  growth  of  our 
knowledge  of  ancient  Egypt.  So  far  as 
current  discoveries  go,  old  Egypt  is  the 
newest  of  the  nations;  and  the  most  care¬ 
ful  statement  of  to-day  may  need  revision 
Tto-morrow. 

The  oppression  of  Israel  appears  to  have 
taken  place  in  the  reign  of  Rameses  II. 
His  is  the  most  famous  name  in  Egyptian 
history,  and  he  is  the  best  known  to  us  of 
all  the  Pharaohs.  He  was  a  great  con¬ 
queror — master  of  Asia  as  far  as  the  lower 
Euphrates — he  was  a  still  greater  builder. 
Thothmes  III.  is  his  rival  in  war,  but  none 
of  the  Pharaohs  will  compare  with  him 


in  works  of  sculpture  and  architecture. 
These  monuments  of  his  wealth  and  pow¬ 
er,  many  of  them  colossal  in  size,  cover 
the  country,  and  are  almost  countless. 

Some  of  the  illustrations  of  this  article 
suggest  the  grandeur  of  his  works.  The 
temple  hewn  out  of  the  rock  at  Aboo  Sim- 
bel  was  his  creation.  The  colossi  are  66 
feet  high,  and  the  temple  extends  into  the 
rock  180  feet.  Aboo  Simbel  is  in  Nubia, 
and  it  shows  the  extent  and  might  of  his 
sway  that  he  should  have  executed  such  a 
work  so  far  up  the  Nile.  Brugsch  terms 
it  “  the  most  sublime  of  all  dwellings  made 
for  the  gods.” 

In  “Luxor  Restored”  the  magnificent 
gateway  was  his  work.  Notice  the  lofty 
cedar  flag-masts,  the  colossi,  and  the  obe¬ 
lisks.  One  of  the  obelisks  still  stands 
there;  it  is  over  70  feet  high,  but  is  half 
buried  in  sand.  Its  companion  is  in  Paris. 
The  pylon,  or  portal  proper,  was  adorned 
with  sculptured  pictures  illustrating  his 
victories. 

The  execution  of  these  stupendous  works 
laid  crushing  burdens  on  his  kingdom.  Dur¬ 
ing  his  long  reign  of  sixty-seven  years  the 
light-heartedness  of  the  old  Egyptian  life 
fled  forever.  His  wars  were  chiefly  to 
augment  the  vast  number  of  slaves,  whose 
piteous  story  may  still  be  read  upon  the 
monuments.  There  they  are — their  backs 
branded  with  the  hot  iron — toiling  under- 
the  lash  of  the  merciless  taskmasters! 
Thus  Israel  labored  when  Pharaoh  and 
his  people  “  set  over  them  taskmasters 
to  afflict  them,”  and  made  their  lives  bit¬ 
ter  with  hard  bondage  in  mortar  and  in 
brick. 

The  Egyptian  Exploration  Fund  has 
identified  one  of  the  two  store-cities  that 
Israel  built  during  this  oppression,  namely, 
Pithom.  Its  ruins  lie  seven  miles  west  of 
Ismalia.  It  was  largely  composed  of  mag¬ 
azines  for  grain,  similar  to  those  depicted 
upon  the  monuments.  The  taxes  of  an¬ 
cient  Egypt  were  levied  in  kind,  and  all 
employees  of  the  Crown  were  paid  in  the 
same  manner,  so  vast  storehouses  were 
necessary  to  keep  the  government  proper¬ 
ty.  The  massive  walls  of  the  storehouses 
at  Pithom  are  built  of  large  sun-dried 
bricks.  In  some  of  the  bricks  the  mud  is 
strengthened  by  being  mixed  with  chopped 
straw:  in  others  there  is  no  straw.  Some 
find  here  a  result  of  the  refusal  of  Pha¬ 
raoh’s  taskmasters  to  give  to  the  Israelitish 
brickmakers  straw.  This  location  of  Pi¬ 
thom  lays,  probably  forever,  Brugsch’s 
theory  that  the  route  of  the  exodus  was 
along  the  narrow  tongue  of  land  between 
the  Serbonian  bog  and  the  Mediterranean, 
and  the  attempt,  so  far  a£  it  went  along 
with  that  theory,  to  account  for  the  de- 


(  282  ) 


Egy 


Egy 


struction  of  Pharaoh’s  host  without  any¬ 
thing  supernatural. 

The  world  had  long  been  familiar  with 
the  sculptured  features  of  Rameses  II., 
but  it  was  destined  to  a  more  intimate  ac¬ 
quaintance  with  him.  In  1881  his  mummy 
itself,  with  that  of  many  another  hero  and 
heroine  of  Pharaonic  times,  was  discovered 
in  a  chamber  far  within  the  everlasting 
rock  in  the  gloomy  desert  west  of  Thebes. 
It  was  wrapped  in  linen  finer  than  the 
finest  India  muslin,  and  bore  an  inscrip¬ 
tion  telling  how  it  had  been  deposited 


and  successor  of  Rameses  II.  No  record 
that  certainly  refers  to  this  event  has  been 
found  hitherto  in  Egypt.  The  ancient  na¬ 
tions  did  not  love  to  dwell  upon  their  disas¬ 
ters. 

The  legislation  of  Moses  shows  a  re¬ 
markable  correspondence  to  the  institutions 
of  the  country  where  his  people  had  dwelt 
so  long.  The  distinction  between  clean  and 
unclean  animals,  and  the  requirement  that 
all  offerings  should  be  without  blemish,  and 
the  prescription  of  linen  for  the  priestly 
dress  are  but  a  few  of  the  many  features 


TEMPLE  OF  ABOO  SIMBEL. 


there  for  security  in  a  time  of  invasion. 
It  was  wonderfully  well  preserved:  the 
form  was  tall  and  stalwart,  the  features 
told  of  an  imperious  soul,  and  the  age  ap¬ 
peared  to  be  upward  of  eighty.  It  is  kept 
in  the  great  museum  of  Gizeh. 

By  a  wonderful  Providence  Moses  was 
trained  in  the  very  palace  of  the  oppressor 
of  his  people.  Thus  he  became  “  learned 
in  all  the  wisdom  of  the  Egyptians,”  and 
gained  a  great  element  of  his  preparation  to 
be  the  deliverer  and  lawgiver  of  his  nation. 

The  exodus  appears  to  have  taken  place 
in  the  weak  reign  of  Menephtah,  the  son 


of  the  ritual  which  closely  resemble  those 
of  Egypt.  The  justice  and  humanity  of 
Israel’s  moral  code  had  been  largely  antic¬ 
ipated  by  Egyptian  precepts  that  were  very 
old  in  the  days  of  Moses — those  of  Ptah- 
hotep  for  instance,  who  lived  in  the  fifth 
dynasty,  and  whose  work  is  accepted  as 
“  the  most  ancient  book  of  the  world.’’ 

The  great  Israelitish  idea  of  the  unity 
of  the  Supreme  Being  was  not,  as  we 
have  seen,  foreign  to  Egyptian  thought. 
On  the  other  hand,  the  differences  be¬ 
tween  the  Egyptian  and  the  Israelitish 
systems  were  equally  striking.  The  sub- 


(  283  ) 


Egy 


lime  monotheism  of  the  Mosaic  law  is  no¬ 
where  lost,  or  even  obscured,  in  polytheism ; 
and  no  bull  or  other  animal  is  tolerated  as 
the  representative  of  the  Unseen  Power. 
Magic  and  all  that  is  akin  to  it,  although 
prevalent  in  Egypt,  is  sternly  forbidden. 
The  correspondences  and  the  differences 
between  the  religions  of  Israel  and  Egypt 
are  best  explained  on  the  ground  of  a 
divine  superintendence  of  the  mind  of  the 
great  Hebrew  lawgiver,  which  guided  him 
in  his  selections  and  rejections,  and  re¬ 
vealed  to  him,  in  its  original  purity,  lofty 
truth  that  had  almost  been  lost  sight  of 
in  the  land  of  his  birth.  Still  more  clearly 


‘Egy 


ing  down  the  conquered  Hebrews  with  a 
colossal  club,  while  beside  him  are  long 
rows  of  embattled  shields,  each  bearing  the 
name  of  a  vanquished  city.” 

Taharka  (biblical,  Tirhakah),  the  con¬ 
temporary  of  Hezekiah,  is  termed  in  the 
Bible  “  King  of  Ethiopia.”  He  came  from 
Ethiopia,  but  was  of  the  line  of  Khuenaten, 
the  so-called  heretic.  He  made  himself 
master  of  Egypt  about  700  b.  c. ,  and  dis¬ 
puted  the  pathway  of  the  advancing  Sen¬ 
nacherib.  The  Bible  records  the  miraculous 
destruction  of  the  Assyrian  host.  This  was 
as  truly  a  deliverance  to  Egypt  as  to 
Judah.  Herodotus  has  handed  down  the 


:-rr-  -\:j 


spilt 


LUXOR  RESTORED. 


is  the  divine  superiority  of  the  religion  of 
Israel  to  that  of  Egypt  seen  in  the  charac¬ 
ters  which  it  produced  out  of  a  wayward 
race:  of  such  moral  excellence  Moses  him¬ 
self  is  an  illustrious  example.  There  must 
have  been  a  “power  making  for  righteous¬ 
ness”  in  Israel,  to  which  Egypt,  with  all 
her  theoretic  moralities  and  noble  senti¬ 
ments,  was  a  stranger. 

Sheshonk  I. — the  Shishak  of  the  Bible— 
was  the  contemporary  of  Solomon’s  later 
years,  and  of  the  earlier  part  of  Reho- 
boam’s  reign.  The  Bible  tells  us  that  he 
harbored  the  fugitive  Jeroboam,  and  sub¬ 
sequently  captured  and  spoiled  Jerusalem. 
The  monuments  represent  him  as  “  strik- 


Egyptian  version  of  what  appears  to  be  the 
same  event  in  the  story  of  the  field-mice 
who  gnawed  quiver  and  bow  and  shield- 
band  so  effectually  in  a  single  night  that 
the  invading  army  fled  in  terror.  But 
Taharka’s  relief  was  only  temporary. 
Sennacherib’s  son,  Esar-haddon,  and  his 
grandson,  Assur-banipal,  in  succession  in¬ 
vaded  and  conquered  Egypt.  Thebes  was 
itself  taken  after  great  slaughter,  and  two 
obelisks  were  carried,  as  trophies,  to  Nin¬ 
eveh.  Then  was  fulfilled,  at  least  in  part, 
the  burden  of  Egypt,  recorded  in  Isa.  xix. 

Nekan  (biblical,  Necho)  conquered  Josiah 
and  took  Jerusalem.  He  has  the  honorable 
fame  of  having  sent  forth  an  expedition 


(  284  ) 


Egy 


that  circumnavigated  Africa;  but  as  Ta- 
harkahad  measured  strength  with  Assyria, 
so  he  did  with  the  new  power  of  Babylon, 
and  with  a  similar  fate,  for  he  suffered  a 
disastrous  defeat  by  Nebuchadnezzar  at 
Carchemish. 

The  limits  of  this  article  make  it  im¬ 
possible  to  mention  all  the  less  important 
Pharaohs  whose  careers  touch  the  biblical 
record. 

Only  one  more  will  be  individually  no¬ 
ticed,  and  that  is  Apries  (biblical,  Hophra). 
During  his  reign  Jerusalem  was  taken  by 
Nebuchadnezzar,  and,  a  little  later,  a  large 
company  of  Jewish  fugitives  sought  refuge 
in  Egypt,  taking  the  prophet  Jeremiah 
with  them.  They  found  a  temporary  asy¬ 
lum  at  Tahpanhes,  as  many  of  their  nation 
had  been  doing  no  doubt,  in  the  troublous 
years  that  preceded  Jerusalerii’s  downfall. 
Here  the  prophet  poured  forth  predictions 
against  Pharaoh  and  Egypt  and  his  own 
perverse  nation.  Pharaoh  Hophra  was  to 
be  given  into  the  hand  of  his  enemies; 
Nebuchadnezzar  was  to  set  up  his  throne 
on  the  “  pavement”  (Jer.  xliii.  9,  margin 
of  Revised  Version),  “at  the  entry  of 
Pharaoh’s  house,”  and  the  Jews  were  to 
suffer  heavy  woes.  Herodotus  tells  how 
Apries,  that  is,  Hophra,  was  strangled  by 
his  own  subjects;  and  Josephus  records 
Nebuchadnezzar’s  invasion,  and  his  re¬ 
moval  of  the  fugitive  Jews  to  Babylon. 

In  1886  M.  Petrie  identified  Tahpanhes 
with  Defenneh,  which  lies  a  little  west  of 
the  Suez  Canal  and  south  of  Lake  Menzaleh , 
on  the  camel  route  of  immemorial  antiquity 
from  Egypt  to  Palestine.  On  the  first 
evening  of  his  arrival  at  the  place,  he  was 
startled  to  hear  it  called  by  the  natives, 
“  Kasrel  Bint  el  Gehudi,”  thatis,  “  the  Pal¬ 
ace  of  the  Jew’s  daughter.”  He  takes  this 
to  be  a  reminiscence  of  the  fact  recorded 
in  the  Bible  that  Johanan  took  the  daugh¬ 
ters  of  King  Zedekiah  with  him  in  his 
flight  to  Tahpanhes.  He  found  there,  in 
front  of  the  palace,  a  great  open-air  plat¬ 
form  or  pavement  of  brickwork.  That 
pavement  he  believes  to  have  been  the  spot 
where  Jeremiah  uttered  the  prophecy  re¬ 
ferred  to  above,  and  accompanied  it  with 
a  graphic  illustrative  act. 

He  accounts  for  the  Greek  names  that 
appear  in  the  Hebrew  writings  after  the 
destruction  of  Jerusalem  by  the  mingling 
of  Jew  with  Greek  at  Tahpanhes.  Three 
cylinders  bearing  inscriptions  of  Nebuchad¬ 
nezzar  found  their  way  to  the  Boulak 
Museum  some  years  ago.  There  are  indi¬ 
cations  that  these  came  from  Defenneh,  and 
so  point  to  Nebuchadnezzar’s  presence 
there,  and  the  fulfillment  of  Jeremiah’s 
prophecy. 

Since  M.  Petrie’s  visit  a  seal  has  been 


Egy 


bought  in  Cairo,  bearing  an  inscription  in 
Hebrew  characters,  similar  to  those  of  the 
seventh  century,  b.  c.  The  translation  of 
the  inscription  is,  “  To  the  prosperity  of 
Jeremiah.”  There  is  reason  to  suppose 
that  this,  too,  came  from  Defenneh,  and  it 
may  have  belonged  to  the  great  prophet. 

During  the  reigns  of  the  earlier  Ptol¬ 
emies,  Alexandria  became  the  metropolis 
of  the  world  in  wealth,  splendor,  and  cul¬ 
ture.  In  the  reign  of  Ptolemy  Philadephus, 
Manetho  wrote  his  history  of  Egypt.  This 
work  has  of  late  risen  in  the  esteem  of 
Egyptologists,  as  more  and  more  of  its 
statements  have  received  confirmation  from 
the  ancient  records. 

In  the  same  reign  the  Hebrew  Script¬ 
ures  were  translated  into  Greek,  in  the 
version  called  the  Septuagint. 

Edfou  illustrates,  for  the  most  part,  the 
beautiful  architecture  of  the  Ptolemaic 
period. 

Connection  of  Egyptian  and  Christian  His¬ 
tory. — During  the  reign  of  Augustus,  our 
infant  Lord  was  taken  down  into  Egypt  for 
safety.  This  journey  into  the  country 
that  had  oppressed  his  nation  may  be  taken 
as  an  illustration  of  his  forgiving  spirit, 
and  a  prophecy  of  his  own  peaceful  con¬ 
quest  of  that  land. 

In  the  reign  of  Nero,  according  to  tradi¬ 
tion,  the  gospel  was  carried  into  Egypt  by 
Mark.  At  all  events  its  entrance  was  very 
early,  and  its  progress  rapid. 

The  prevalence  of  Christianity  drew 
down  cruel  and  repeated  persecution  upon 
the  Egyptian  converts,  but  as  it  had  been 
with  the  Jewish  Church  in  Egypt  under 
the  Pharaohs,  so  it  was  with  the  Christian 
under  the  Casars;  “  the  more  they  afflict¬ 
ed  them  the  more  they  multiplied  and 
grew.”  Egypt  gave  to  the  world  some  of 
the  most  illustrious  of  the  church  fathers. 
Justin  Martyr  was  converted  on  the  sea¬ 
shore  near  Alexandria;  and  Athenagoras, 
Origen,  Clement  of  Alexandria,  and  Atha¬ 
nasius  are  some  of  the  other  immortal 
names  in  Egyptian  Christianity. 

Philse  was  adorned  both  by  the  Ptolemies 
and  the  Caesars. 

In  the  reign  of  Marcus  Aurelius  (a.  d. 
161-180),  the  luster  of  Alexandrian  learn¬ 
ing  came  to  rival  that  of  the  days  of  the 
Ptolemies;  and  the  Church,  true  to  her 
spirit,  appropriated  to  her  own  beneficent 
mission  whatever  was  helpful  in  the  cul¬ 
ture  about  her.  A  large  number  of  our 
choicest  manuscripts  of  the  Bible  appear 
to  have  come  from  Alexandria,  amongst 
them  the  Alexandrine  of  the  British 
Museum. 

The  old  paganism  lingered  on,  with  fitful 
outbursts  of  life,  to  the  reign  of  Justinian 
(527-565  a.  D.). 


Egy 


(  285  ) 


Meanwhile,  Christianity  itself  had  be¬ 
come  debased.  The  command  to  be  “  not 
of  the  world  ”  was  interpreted  to  enjoin 
asceticism,  and  the  Egyptian  deserts  be¬ 
came  full  of  monks  and  nuns.  During 
the  reign  of  Valens  (364-378  A.  D.),  it 
was  said  that  there  were,  at  Oxyryn- 
chus  alone,  10,000  monks  and  20,000 
nuns. 

Most  of  the  period  of  more  than  a  mil¬ 
lennium,  in  which  the  crescent  has  ruled 
Egypt,  offers  little  attraction  to  the  Chris¬ 
tian  student;  but  a  better  day  is  dawning 


Egy 


affirms  the  humanity  of  Christ  to  have 
been  absorbed  into  his  divinity;  and  their 
religion  has  degenerated  largely  into  form¬ 
alism,  and  their  priesthood  is,  as  a  class, 
ignorant  and  far  from  exemplary,  but  they 
are  the  most  intelligent  part  of  the  popula¬ 
tion.  The  United  Presbyterian  Mission  was 
begun  in  Nov.,  1854,  and  has  been  favored 
with  the  services  of  a  little  company  of 
Christian  men  and  women  of  rare  devotion, 
whose  work  the  Lord  has  delighted  to  own. 
Some  of  the  principal  statistics  of  the  report 
for  1888-89  are  appended,  and  that  the  rapid 


TEMPLE  OF  EDFOU. 


on  that  land,  most  of  all  through  modern 
missionary  effort. 

The  mission  of  the  United  Presbyterian 
Church  of  North  America  deserves  partic¬ 
ular  mention  and  praise.  Its  special  field 
is  among  the  Copts.  These  number  some 
300,000.  They  are,  above  all  other  modern 
Egyptians,  the  lineal  descendants  of  the 
ancient  stock,  and  their  liturgical  language 
is  related  to  the  old  Egyptian  somewhat  as 
Italian  to  Latin.  As  early  as  the  fourth 
century  more  than  one  translation  of  the 
Bible  was  made  into  their  tongue.  They 
fell  off  into  the  Monophysite  heresy,  which 


growth  of  the  mission  may  be  appreciated, 
the  corresponding  figures  for  a  period  ten 
years  earlier,  so  far  as  they  are  accessible, 
are  put  in  a  parallel  column. 

Stations .  100  39 

Churches .  26  7 

Communicants . 2,624  947 

Pupils  in  Sunday-schools . 4,825  1,249 

“  week-day  schools. ... 5,701  1,893 

Money  contributed  by  na¬ 
tives . $27,802  $13,064 

In  these  ten  years  the  population  has  in¬ 
creased  but  25  per  cent. 


(  286  ) 


Egy 


No.  foreign  workers .  27 

“  native  “  . 198 

Theological  students .  13 

Self-supporting  church .  1 

Of  the  week-day  pupils,  1,170  were  Prot¬ 
estants,  3,328  Copts,  771  Mohammedans, 
143  Jews,  96  Greeks  and  Roman  Catholics. 
This  diverse  patronage  illustrates  the  gen¬ 
eral  recognition  of  the  excellence  of  their 
schools.  One  cannot  pay  the  most  cursory 
visit  to  Egypt  without  meeting  touching 
proofs  of  the  good  work  done,  far  and  wide, 
by  this  noble  mission.  Seven  Mussulmen 


Egy 


May  that  wish  speedily  prove  prophetic, 
and  may  the  second  part  of  the  ancient 
word,  whose  first  part  has  been  so  abun¬ 
dantly  fulfilled,  likewise  come  to  pass — 
“  the  Lord  shall  smite  Egypt;  he  shall 
smite  and  heal  it.” 

Recent  Authorities:  Brugsch:  Egypt 
Under  the  Pharaohs ,  2  vols. ;  Rawlinson: 
Ancient  Egypt,  2  vols.;  Wilson:  Egypt  of  the 
/W/(Miss  Edwards’s  edition);  Renouf:  Re¬ 
ligion  of  A ncient  Egypt;  Maspero :  Egyptian 
Archceology ;  Sharpe:  History  of  Egypt 
(takes  in  its  modern  history  down  to  Mo- 


PHILyE — ARTIST’S  VIEW,  OR  VIEW  MAGNIFICENT. 


were  baptized  by  the  missionaries  in  1888. 

Recent  political  changes  in  Egypt  have 
been  favorable  to  her  best  interests.  The 
presence  of  the  British  has  diminished  in¬ 
justice  and  oppression,  and  promoted  relig¬ 
ious  liberty. 

On  July  24,  1882,  just  after  Arabi  had  fled 
from  Alexandria,  Mr.  Gladstone  expressed 
the  wish  in  Parliament,  “  that  it  may  yet  be 
given  to  Egypt  to  achieve  in  the  future  less 
perhaps  of  glory,  but  yet  possibly  more 
happiness  than  she  did  once  achieve,  when 
in  a  far-off  and  almost  forgotten  time  she 
was  the  wonder  of  the  ancient  world.” 


hammedan  conquest)  ;  Mariette  :  Monu¬ 
ments  of  Upper  Egypt  (Dickeman’s  edi¬ 
tion);  Lane:  Modern  Egyptians  (Poole’s  edi¬ 
tion);  Petrie:  Pyramids  and  Temples  of 
Gizeh.  Memoirs  of  Egypt  Exploration 
Fund,  especially  the  volumes  on  Pithom , 
Tanis  (Part  ii.  includes  Defenneh ),  and 
Goshen.  (This  Fund  deserves  hearty  sup¬ 
port.)  Of  more  popular  works,  Robinson: 
Pharaohs  of  the  Bondage  and  the  Exodus , 
and  Egypt  in  the  “  Story  of  the  Nations  ” 
series,  may  be  mentioned.  Of  histories 
with  a  broader  range  that  treat  of  Egypt, 
The  Ancient  History  of  the  East  by  Lenor- 


Eic 


(  287  ) 


Eli 


mant  and  Chevallier  (2  vols.),  is  excellent, 
and  Fisher’s  Outlines  of  Universal  History 
has  an  admirable  epitome.  Sayce’s  Fresh 
Light  from  the  Monuments  treats  largely  of 
Egypt.  J.  L.  Ewell. 

Eichhorn,  Johann  Gottfried,  b.  1752; 
d.  at  Gottingen,  1827.  He  was  appointed 
professor  of  Oriental  languages  at  Jena  in 
1775,  and  professor  of  theology  at  Gotting¬ 
en  in  178S.  “  His  historical  writings  have 

now  fallen  into  oblivion;  but  his  works  on 
biblical  criticism,  though  their  rationalistic 
tendency  has  been  completely  overthrown, 
are  still  acknowledged  to  contain  many 
happy  views  and  profound  investigations.” 
— Bertheau  in  Schaff-Herzog:  Encv. ,  vol. 
i.,  p-  711- 

Einhard.  See  Eginhard. 

Einsiedeln,  or  Maria  Einsiedeln,  a  fa¬ 
mous  Benedictine  monastery  in  Switzer¬ 
land,  and  place  of  pilgrimage.  It  is  the 
custodian  of  a  black  image  of  the  Virgin, 
and,  according  to  the  legend,  Mary  herself 
and  the  angels  came  down  from  heaven  on 
Sept.  14,  948,  and  consecrated  the  chapel 
in  which  the  image  is  preserved.  The 
monastery  is  about  twenty  -  five  miles 
southeast  of  Zurich,  and  it  is  estimated 
that  it  is  now  visited  by  150,000  pilgrims 
annually. 

E'lam  {age),  a  country  inhabited  by  de¬ 
scendants  of  Shem,  and  called  after  his  son, 
Elam.  (Gen.  x.  22.)  It  was  bounded  on  the 
north  by  Assyria  and  Media,  east  by  Media 
and  Persia,  and  south  by  the  Persian  Gulf. 
The  city  of  Susa  was  its  capital.  A  power¬ 
ful  nation  in  the  time  of  Abram  (Gen. 
xiv.  9),  it  was  conquered  by  the  Assyri¬ 
ans  (Isa.  xxii.  6),  but  afterward  regained 
its  independence.  Jeremiah  mentions  it 
among  the  doomed  nations.  (Jer.  xlix. 
34-39.)  After  the  fall  of  Babylon  it  was 
absorbed  by  the  Persian,  then  by  the  Syro- 
Macedonian,  and,  finally,  by  the  Parthian, 
Empire. 

E'lath,  or  E'loth  (/wj),  a  seaport  town 
of  the  Edomites,  at  the  northern  end  of  the 
Gulf  of  Akabali,  the  eastern  arm  of  the 
Red  Sea.  In  their  exodus  from  Egypt  the 
Israelites  passed  by  it.  (Deut.  ii.  8.)  Con¬ 
quered  by  David  (2  Sam.  viii.  14),  it  was 
from  Elath  and  Ezion-geber  that  Solomon 
sent  his  ships  to  Ophir.  (1  Kings  ix.  26, 
28.)  Retaken  by  the  Edomites  (2  Kings 
viii.  20),  it  was  never  in  the  possession  of 
Israel  again,  except  for  a  short  period  in 
the  reign  of  Uzziah.  (2  Kings  xiv.  22;  2 
Chron.  xxvi.  2.)  Under  the  Romans  it  was 
a  place  of  some  commercial  importance. 


Stanley  identifies  Elath  with  the  modern 
Akaba,  a  town  consisting  of  a  few  wretched 
houses,  and  an  old  fortress  occupied  by 
Turkish  troops. 

Elcesaites.  See  Elkesaites. 

Elder.  The  term  elder  was  one  of  exten¬ 
sive  use  as  an  official  title  among  the  He¬ 
brews  and  the  surrounding  nations.  It 
had  reference  to  various  offices.  (Gen. 
xxiv.  2;  1.  7;  2  Sam.  xii.  17;  Ezek.  xxvii. 
9.)  See  Presbyter;  Presiding  Elder; 
Conference. 

Elect,  Election.  See  Predestination. 

Elements,  the  materials  used  in  the  sac¬ 
raments.  Water  is  the  element  of  baptism, 
bread  and  wine  in  the  Lord’s  Supper. 

Eleu'therus,pope,  1 77-193.  According  to 
Beda:  Hist.  Eccl.,  iii.  25,  and  the  Liber  Pon- 
tificalis,  the  British  king,  Lucius,  wrote  to 
Eleutherus  that  he  was  ready  to  accept 
Christianity  as  soon  as  teachers  were  sent 
to  him.  If  such  a  letter  was  sent,  it  could 
not  have  met  with  response,  since  the  Celt¬ 
ic  and  not  the  Roman  Church  engaged  in 
missionary  labor  among  the  Britons. 

Elevation  of  the  Host.  See  Mass. 

E'li  {ascent),  successor  of  Abdon  as  high- 
priest  and  judge  of  Israel  (1  Sam.  ii.  11) 
for  forty  years.  (1  Sam.  iv.  18.)  The  de¬ 
struction  of  his  house  for  the  sins  of  his 
two  sons,  Hophni  and  Phinehas,  was  ful¬ 
filled  twenty-seven  years  after  it  was  pre¬ 
dicted  by  Samuel.  (1  Sam.  ii.  11;  iii.;  iv.) 

Elig'ius,  b.  at  Chatelat,  near  Limoges, 
about  588;  d.  at  Noyon,  Nov.  30,  658  or 
659.  He  accumulated  a  fortune  in  Paris 
at  his  trade  as  a  goldsmith,  and  gained 
the  signal  favorof  King  Clotaire,  and  after¬ 
ward  of  his  son  and  successor,  Dagobert. 
Coming  under  the  influenceof  Columbanus, 
he  devoted  himself  with  great  earnestness 
to  works  of  piety.  He  purchased  hundreds 
of  young  Saxons  that  were  brought  to  Paris 
and  sold  as  slaves,  and  gave  them  their 
freedom,  and  also  founded  several  monas¬ 
teries  and  churches.  In  640  he  was  made 
bishop  of  Noyon, and  ruled  his  diocese  with 
courage  and  austerity.  At  the  Synod  of 
Chalons  (644)  and  in  that  of  Orleans(65o),  he 
was  the  recognized  leader.  After  his  death 
miracles  were  reported  as  taking  place  at 
his  grave,  and  he  was  honored  by  the  peo¬ 
ple  as  a  saint.  His  Life  was  written  by  his 
friend, Audoenus;  but, as  found  in  D’Arch- 
ery:  Spicilegimn  ii.,  76-123;  has  evidently 
been  very  much  changed.  Some  sermons 


Eli 


(  288  ) 


Eli 


ascribed  to  him  in  Bibl.  Max .  Patr. ,  xii,  pp. 
300-332,  are  evidently  of  a  later  period. 

Eli'jah  (my  God  is  Jehovah),  or  Elias  (the 
Greek  form  of  the  name),  one  of  the  great¬ 
est  of  the  prophets,  a  native  of  Gilead,  and 
called  the  “  Tishbite,”  the  name  probably 
indicating  his  birthplace.  (1  Kings  xvii.  1.) 
His  introduction  in  the  Bible  narrative  is 
singularly  abrupt.  He  appears  as  a  mes¬ 
senger  to  the  wicked  Ahab,  and  prophesies 
a  drought  of  three  years  in  the  land  of 
Israel.  Seeking  refuge  at  the  brook 
Cherith,  he  is  miraculously  fed  by  ravens. 
From  thence  he  goes  to  Zarephath,  where 
both  himself  and  the  widow’s  family,  in 
whose  home  he  had  found  a  hiding-place, 
are  cared  for  by  the  Lord,  and  the  dead  son 
of  the  widow  restored  to  life.  After  the 
famine  had  continued  nearly  the  predicted 
time,  Elijah  again  encounters  Ahab.  The 
prophet  meets  the  priests  of  Baal  upon  the 
heights  of  Carmel,  and,  in  answer  to  his 
prayer,  fire  falls  from  heaven  and  consumes 
his  sacrifice.  With  the  consent  of  Ahab, 
the  four  hundred  and  fifty  discomfited 
prophets  of  Baal  are  slain.  Elijah  prays 
for  rain,  and  then  runs  before  the  chariot 
of  Ahab,  sixteen  miles  across  the  plain,  to 
the  entrance  of  Jezreel.  (1  Kings  xviii.) 
Worn  and  depressed  by  the  mental  and 
physical  strain  of  these  exciting  incidents, 
the  threats  of  Jezebel  produced  such  de¬ 
spondency  that  Elijah  flees  into  the  “  wil¬ 
derness,”  and  prays  for  death.  The  ap¬ 
pearance  of  an  angelic  messenger  gives 
fresh  courage, and  hegoes  on  to  Sinai  where 
the  power  and  goodness  of  God  are  reveal¬ 
ed  to  him  in  a  wonderful  vision.  (1  Kings 
xix.  9-18.)  Having  anointed  Elisha  to  be 
prophet  in  his  place,  he  retires  from  active 
service  until  about  six  years  later,  when  he 
suddenly  appears  and  denounces  both 
Ahab  and  Jezebel  for  what  they  had  done 
to  Naboth.  His  last  public  appearance 
was  to  Ahaziah,  whose  death  he  predicted. 
(2  Kings  i.  3.)  “  Elijah’s  life  was  thus  one 

of  bold,  sudden  appearances  and  disappear¬ 
ances  in  a  gallant  struggle  against  the  mad 
idolatry  that  was  working  the  ruin  of  the 
northern  kingdom.  Where  he  was  and 
what  he  was  doing,  during  the  long  inter¬ 
vals  of  his  public  ministry,  we  can  only 
conjecture.  His  departure  out  of  life  was 
in  keeping  with  the  whole  previous  tenor 
of  it.  His  sheepskin  mantle,  rolled  up  into 
a  rod,  smote  a  path  for  himself  and  for 
Elisha  across  Jordan.  A  chariot  of  fire 
and  horses  of  fire  parted  the  two  prophets, 
and  the  Tishbite  went  up  in  a  storm  into 
the  sky.  This,  however,  does  not  quite 
end  his  biography.  Second  only  to  Moses, 
who  also  was  strangely  snatched  away 
not  far  from  the  same  locality,  Moses  and 


Elijah  came  back  together  to  meet  our 
Lord,  transfigured  on  Hermon.  The  abun¬ 
dance  and  boldness  of  the  miracles  ascribed 
to  Elijah  bring  no  suspicion  upon  the  nar¬ 
rative  when  it  is  considered  that  the  true 
religion  was  in  such  desperate  straits.” — 
Dr.  P.  D.  Hitchcock  in  Schaff- Herzog: 
Ency.,  vol.  i.,  p.  714.  See  Stanley:  History 
of  the  Jewish  Church ,  vol.  ii. ,  p.  321.  F. 
W.  Krummacher:  Elijah  the  Tishbite;  W. 
M.  Taylor:  Elijah  the  Prophet. 

E'lim  (trees),  the  second  station  of  Israel 
after  crossing  the  Red  Sea.  (Exod.  xv.  27; 
Num.  xxiii.  9.)  It  had  twelve  springs  and 
seventy  palm-trees,  and  is  identified  by 
most  travelers  with  Wady  Gharandel,  which 
is  a  pleasant  spot  with  water  and  palms. 

Eliot,  John,  “  the  apostle  to  the  In¬ 
dians;”  Congregationalist;  b.  in  the  county 
of  Essex,  England,  in  1604;  d.  at  Roxbury, 
Mass.,  May  20,  1690.  He  was  educated  at 
Cambridge,  and  came  to  New  England  in 
1631.  He  was  settled  over  the  church  at 
Roxbury  in  the  following  year,  and  con¬ 
tinued  in  that  relation  until  his  death,  a 
period  of  nearly  sixty  years.  He  became 
interested  in  missionary  work  among  the 
Indians,  and  learned  their  language  that  he 
might  preach  to  them.  The  first  Indian 
church  was  organized  at  Natick  in  1660. 
He  gained  a  wonderful  influence  over  the 
savages,  who  at  first  opposed  his  labors; 
and  in  1661  he  published  the  New  Testa¬ 
ment  in  the  Indian  language,  and  three 
years  later  the  entire  Bible.  His  work  at¬ 
tracted  much  interest  in  England,  and  he 
was  aided  by  the  famous  Long  Parliament. 
Humble,  devout,  and  tireless  in  his  efforts, 
his  life  was  one  of  peculiar  usefulness. 

St*  Eli'sha  ( God  is  salvation),  the  disciple  and 
successor  of  Elijah.  He  was  a  native  of 
Abel-meholah  (l  Kings  xix.  16),  where 
Elijah  found  him  ploughing,  and  conse¬ 
crated  him  as  prophet  by  throwing  his 
mantle  over  him.  Leaving  the  oxen  in  the 
field,  he  became  the  faithful  follower  of  his 
great  master.  The  conditions  under  which 
these  eminent  prophets  fulfilled  their  life- 
work  were  in  accord  with  their  distinctive 
temperaments.  The  stern  message  of 
Elijah  becomes  an  earnest  but  tender  ad¬ 
monition  in  the  counsels  which  Elisha  gave 
to  kings  and  disciples  alike,  as  they  sought 
his  prophetical  aid.  His  miracles  were  full 
of  gracious  blessing.  He  heals  the  impure 
waters  (2  King^ii.  19-22),  renders  palata¬ 
ble  the  food  of  the  sons  of  the  prophets  (iv. 
38-41),  helps  a  poor  widow  (iv.  1-7),  and 
restores  to  a  poor  boy  the  axe  which  had 
fallen  into  the  water  (vi.  1-7).  A  few  loaves, 
by  his  blessing,  feed  many  (iv.  42-44);  and 


Eli 


(289) 


Ely 


when  the  child  promised  the  Shunammite 
dies,  he  restores  it  to  life.  By  his  prophetic 
power  the  Syrian  commander  is  defeated, 
Naaman  cured,  and  Gehazi  stricken  with 
leprosy;  and,  when  dying,  he  predicted  to 
Hazael  that  he  would  come  to  the  throne, 
and  bring  ruin  upon  Israel  (viii.  7-15).  The 
strange  fact  is  recorded,  that  a  year  after 
his  burial  a  dead  man  was  accidentally 
placed  in  the  tomb,  and  the  moment  his 
body  touched  that  of  the  prophet  he  came 
to  life.  “  In  sublime  intellectual  power 
Elisha  was  not  equal  to  his  predecessor; 
but  in  him  the  grace  of  God  shows  its  ten¬ 
der  and  solicitous  care  for  the  smallest 
events.  His  miracles  approach  nearest  to 
those  of  the  Saviour,  in  which  the  fullness 
of  divine  grace  revealed  itself.  He  who 
sees  deeds  of  supernatural  power  in  the 
saving  life  of  Christ  will  not  deny  them  to 
his  type  in  the  Old  Testament.” — Orelli. 
See  Stanley:  Hist.  Jewish  Church,  vol.  ii., 
PP-  353-364- 

Elizabeth,  St.,  of  Hungary,  b.  in  Pres- 
burg  in  1207;  d.  at  Marburg,  Nov.  19, 
1231.  Betrothed  to  Louis  IV.,  landgrave 
of  Thuringia  when  but  four  years  of  age, 
she  was  educated  in  the  court  circle;  but 
worldly  pleasures  had  little  attraction  for 
her,  and  she  early  devoted  herself  to  works 
of  charity  and  devotion.  Married  at  four¬ 
teen,  she  gained  the  cooperation  of  her 
husband  in  her  labors  of  Christian  love. 
After  his  death,  which  occurred  while 
making  a  pilgrimage  to  the  Holy  Land, 
efforts,  instigated  by  his  brother,  were 
made  to  deprive  her  of  the  regency.  She 
was  driven  for  a  time  from  her  estates, 
but  they  were  restored  to  her  again,  and 
she  was  enabled  to  devote  herself  to  labors 
among  the  poor.  Giving  her  wealth  to 
charitable  purposes,  she  performed  the 
most  menial  services  among  the  sick  and 
suffering.  She  was  canonized  by  Gregory 
IX. ,  four  years  after  herdeath.  Her  life  fur¬ 
nished  the  materials  for  Chas.  Kingsley’s 
poem,  the  Saint's  Tragedy. 

Elkesaites,  a  school  in  the  Jewish  Chris¬ 
tian  Church,  which  held  doctrines  tinged 
with  Gnosticism. 

^  Ellicott,  Right  Rev.  Charles  John, 
Church  of  England;  b.  at  Whitwell,  near 
Stamford,  April  25,  1819;  was  graduated  at 
Cambridge,  1841;  professor  of  divinity, 
King’s  College,  London,  1848-1860;  Hul- 
sean  professor  of  divinity,  Cambridge, 
1860-1861;  dean  of  Exeter,  1861-1863; 
since  1863  lord  bishop  of  Gloucester  and 
Bristol.  He  was  chairman  of  the  British 
New  Testament  Revision  Committee,  1870- 
1881.  He  is  the  author  of  several  works, 


but  the  best  known  and  most  valuable  are 
his  Life  of  our  Lord  (London,  i860);  and 
his  commentaries  on  Galatians  (1854,  2d 
ed.,  1859);  Ephesians  (1855,  5th  ed.,  1884); 
Philippians ,  Colossians,  and  Philemon  (1857, 
5th  ed.,  1888);  TJiessalonians  (1858,  4th  ed. , 
1880);  Pastoral  Epistles  (1858,  5th  ed., 
1883);  First  Corinthians  (1887). 

Elliott,  Charles,  D.  D.,  b.  at  Glencon- 
way,  Ireland,  May  16,  1792;  d.  at  Mount 
Pleasant,  la.,  Jan.  6,  1869.  He  was  a 
licensed  Methodist  local  preacher  when  he 
came  to  the  United  States  in  1815.  For  a 
time  he  was  engaged  in  mission  work 
among  the  Wyandotte  Indians  at  Upper 
Sandusky,  and  was  presiding  elder  in  the 
Ohio  Conference,  and  professor  of  lan¬ 
guages  in  Madison  College,  Uniontown, 
Penn.  For  a  long  time  he  was  the  editor 
of  different  Methodist  religious  news¬ 
papers.  From  1857  to  1867,  with  the  ex¬ 
ception  of  four  years,  he  was  professor  of 
biblical  literature,  and  president  of  the 
Iowa  Wesleyan  University.  He  wrote  a 
history  of  the  division  of  the  Methodist 
Episcopal  Church  in  1844  on  the  question 
of  slavery,  but  his  most  important  work 
was  the  Delineation  of  Roman  Catholicism 
(N.  Y. ,  1841),  2  vols. 

Ellis,  William,  Congregationalist;  b.  in 
London,  Aug.  29,  1794;  d.  at  Hoddesdon, 
England,  June  25,  1872.  He  began  his 
missionary  labors  in  the  South  Sea  Islands 
in  1816,  where  he  labored  until  1823,  when 
he  removed  to  Hawaii,  and  aided  in  the 
translation  of  the  Bible  into  the  language 
of  the  islands.  From  1832  to  1839,  he  acted 
as  traveling  agent  in  England  of  the  Lon¬ 
don  Missionary  Society.  In  1853  he  was 
sent  out  to  Madagascar,  to  reestablish  the 
missions  there  after  the  period  of  fearful 
persecution.  He  was  very  successful  in 
this  work.  He  published  the  Martyr 
Church  of  Madagascar  (1839);  Three  Visits 
to  Madagascar  (1858);  Madagascar  Revisited 
(1867). 

E'loth.  See  Elath. 

Ely.  The  Cathedral  Church  of  Ely 
owes  its  foundation  (about  673)  to  St.  Eth- 
eldreda,  the  queen  abbess  of  the  monastic 
institution  which  bore  her  name.  St.  Ethel- 
dreda’s  church  was  raised  on  the  ruins  of 
one  which  had  previously  existed,  and  had 
been  destroyed  in  the  wars  between  East 
Anglia  and  Mercia.  For  two  centuries  it 
remained  in  the  odor  of  sanctity,  till,  about 
870,  it  was  laid  in  ruins  by  the  Danes.  A 
hundred  years  later  it  was  rebuilt,  and  a 
century  after  that,  Ely  became  the  scene 
of  the  last  gallant  resistance  that  was  offer- 


Ely 


(  290  ) 


Emb 


ed  by  Englishmen,  under  Hereward  “  the 
Wake,”  to  William  the  Conqueror.  It  was 
gradually  built  up  by  the  labor  of  succeed¬ 
ing  ages;  and  the  features  of  constructive 
art,  which  were  piled  upon  each  other 
in  all  the  happy  harmony  of  incongruous 
details,  only  heighten  the  picturesqueness 
of  the  mass.  In  the  nave  and  transepts 
are  found  the  hand  of  the  Norman.  These 
were  planned  and  carried  out  by  Abbot 
Simeon,  who  died  in  1093,  and  Abbot  Rich¬ 
ard,  whose  successor,  Hervey,  became  the 
first  Bishop  of  Ely  in  1109,  under  whom 
the  western  transept  was  commenced,  the 
two  upper  stages  of  which,  together  with 
the  western  tower,  are  examples  of  the 
Transition  period,  and  were  built,  under 
Bishop  Riddell  and  William  the  English¬ 
man,  between  1169  and  1185.  In  the  porch 
and  presbytery  is  to  be  seen  the  perfection 
of  the  Early  English  style.  Bishop  Eus¬ 
tace  (1197-98)  is  said  to  have  “  built  from 
the  foundation  the  new  Galilee  of  the 
church  of  Ely,  toward  the  west,  at  his  own 
cost.”  Some  say  that  the  work  is  too  fine 
for  so  early  a  period,  and  that  the  “  Galilee 
toward  the  west  ”  meant  the  northern  half 
of  the  western  transept  (now  lost);  but  Sir 
Gilbert  Scott  inclines  to  the  idea  that  it 


was  the  present  western  porch.  It 
was  called  by  its  builders  the  Galilee , 
because,  as  Galilee  was,  of  all  the 
Holy  Land,  the  position  most  remote 
from  Jerusalem,  so  is  this  part  of  the 
building  farthest  removed  from  the 
sanctuary.  In  the  thirteenth  century 
Bishop  Hugh  de  Northwold  (1234-52) 
carried  out  the  magnificent  extension 
of  the  eastern  arm  of  the  church,  with 
its  unusually  lofty  triforium  story. 
In  the  fourteenth  century  were  built 
the  Lady-chapel  and  the  central  octa¬ 
gon.  The  foundation-stone  of  the 
former  was  laid  in  1321  by  the  sub¬ 
prior,  Alan  de  Walsingham.  The 
octagon  was  built  to  replace  the  cen¬ 
tral  tower,  which  had  fallen  soon  after 
the  commencement  of  the  Lady- 
chapel.  It  is  unique  in  its  design 
among  English  mediaeval  buildings; 
both  it  and  the  Lady-chapel  are  pure 
specimens  of  the  Decorated  style,  and 
were  designed  by  Walsingham,  to 
whom,  also,  we  owe  the  beautiful 
stall  work.  The  chapels  of  Bishop 
Alcock  (1488),  and  Bishop  West 
(1534),  are  in  the  Late  Perpendicular 
style. 

In  1843  Dean  Peacock  set  on  foot 
a  movement  for  the  restoration  of  the 
cathedral,  which  was  commenced  in 
1845,  under  the  guidance  of  Sir  Gil¬ 
bert  Scott;  and  in  1873,  after  an  out¬ 
lay  of  ^70,000,  a  great  festival  was 
held  on  the  twelve-hundredth  anniversary 
of  the  foundation  of  the  cathedral.  On 
this  occasion  Bishop  Harold  Browne  bade 
farewell  to  his  diocese,  having  been  trans¬ 
lated  to  Winchester. 

The  income  of  the  See  is  ^5,500.  The 
cathedral  chapter  consists  of  the  dean,  six 
canons  residentiary,  four  archdeacons,  and 
twenty-four  honorary  canons.  —  Benham: 
Diet,  of  Religion. - 

Emanation  denotes  a  theory,  developed 
most  fully  by  the  Neo-Platonists,  that  the 
universe  was  not  created  by  the  exercise 
of  conscious  will,  but  proceeds  from  primal 
being  by  an  involuntary  process  or  emana¬ 
tion.  See  Neo-Platonism. 

Embalming,  as  practiced  by  the  Egyp¬ 
tians,  was  probably  learned  by  the  Jews  in 
Egypt.  The  only  cases  mentioned  in  the 
Old  Testament  are  those  of  Jacob  and  Jo¬ 
seph.  In  the  time  of  our  Saviour  it  was 
evidently  quite  common,  and  the  early 
Christians  adopted  the  custom  very  gen¬ 
erally. 

Ember  Days  are  the  Wednesday,  Friday, 
and  Saturday  after  the  first  Sunday  in  Lent, 


Emb 


(  291  ) 


Enc 


Whitsunday,  Sept.  14,  and  Dec.  13.  The 
name  comes  from  the  ashes  (embers)  which 
penitents  sprinkled  upon  their  heads  as  a 
sign  of  humiliation.  The  days  were  first 
kept  in  seeking,  through  prayer  and  fasting, 
for  the  divine  blessing  upon  the  seasons 
which  they  represented. 

Embury,  Philip,  the  first  Methodist 
minister  in  America;  b.  at  Ballygaran,  Ire¬ 
land,  Sept.  21,  1728  or  1729;  d.,  Aug.  1775. 
In  1750  he  became  a  preacher  in  the  Irish 
Conference,  and  in  1760  he  emigrated  to 
America.  In  1766  he  organized  a  clan  of 
Methodists  in  New  York  City  and  began 
to  preach  “  first  in  his  own  house,  then  in 
a  hired  room,  and  soon  after  (1767)  in  the 
‘  Rigging  Loft,’  famous  as  the  birthplace 
of  Methodism  in  New  York.”  A  chapel 
was  built  in  1768  on  the  site  of  the  present 
John  Street  Church,  and  here  Embury 
preached  gratuitously  until  the  arrival  of 
the  first  missionaries  sent  out  by  John 
Wesley.  He  continued  his  labors  as  a 
local  preacher,  and  organized  a  society  at 
Ashgrove,  the  first  Methodist  Church  with¬ 
in  the  bounds  of  the  present  Troy  Confer¬ 
ence. 

Em'maus  ( hot  springs),  a  village  near 
Jerusalem,  where  our  Lord  made  himself 
known  to  two  of  his  disciples  on  the  after¬ 
noon  of  the  day  on  which  he  arose  from 
the  dead.  (Luke  xxiv.)  Its  site  is  still  in 
dispute.  Kubeibeh ,  a  little  over  seven 
miles  northwest  of  Jerusalem,  has  been 
favored  by  specialists  until  recently,  when 
a  strong  argument  is  made  for  Urtds ,  a 
poor  village  about  two  miles  southwest  of 
Jerusalem. 

-  Emmons,  Nathaniel,  D.  D.;  b.  in  East 
Haddam,  Conn.,  April  20,  1745;  d.  at 
Franklin,  Mass.,  Sept.  23,  1840.  After 
graduating  from  Yale  College  in  1767  he 
studied  theology,  first  with  Rev.  Nathan 
Strong,  of  Coventry,  Conn.,  and  then  with 
Rev.  John  Smalley,  of  Berlin,  Conn.  In 
April,  1773,  he  was  ordained  pastor  of  the 
Congregational  Church  in  Franklin,  Mass., 
where  he  continued  his  active  ministry 
until  1827.  He  was  a  prolific  writer,  and 
he  prepared  more  young  men  for  the  Chris¬ 
tian  ministry  than  any  other  private  in¬ 
structor  in  this  country.  An  indefatigable 
student  and  independent  thinker,  his  views 
made  a  deep  impression  upon  the  minds  of 
his  pupils  and  the  churches  of  Calvinistic 
faith.  The  distinctive  tenets  of  Emmons’s 
system,  as  given  by  Prof.  Edwards  A.  Park 
(Schaff-Herzog:  Ency.,vo\.  i.,p.72i),are:(i) 
Holiness  and  sin  consist  in  free,  voluntary 
exercises;  (2)  Men  act  freely  under  the 
divine  agency ;  (3)  The  least  transgression 


of  the  divine  law  deserves  eternal  punish¬ 
ment;  (4)  Right  and  wrong  are  founded  in 
the  nature  of  things;  (5)  God  exercises 
mere  grace  in  pardoning  or  justifying  pen¬ 
itent  believers  through  the  atonement  of 
Christ,  and  mere  goodness  in  rewarding 
them  for  their  good  works;  (6)  Notwith¬ 
standing  the  total  depravity  of  sinners, 
God  has  a  right  to  require  them  to  turn 
from  sin  to  holiness;  (7)  Preachers  of  the 
gospel  ought  to  exhort  sinners  to  love  God, 
repent  of  sin,  and  believe  in  Christ  imme¬ 
diately;  (8)  Men  are  active,  not  passive, 
in  regeneration.  “  The  theological  system 
of  Dr.  Emmons  is  often  confounded  with 
that  of  Dr.  Samuel  Hopkins,”  says  Prof. 
Park;  “  but  Dr.  Emmons  believed  that 
his  views  were  involved  in  the  system  of 
Dr.  Hopkins,  rather  than  added  to  it.” 
A  collected  edition  of  his  works,  edited  by 
E.  A.  Park,  was  published  in  6  vols.  (Bos¬ 
ton,  i860),  with  Memoir. 

Emory,  John,  a  bishop  of  the  Methodist 
Episcopal  Church;  b.  in  Queen  Anne 
County,  Maryland,  April  11,  1789;  d.  at 
Reisterstown,  Md.,  Dec.  16,  1835.  After 
successful  pastoral  service,  he  was  book- 
agent  and  editor  at  New  York  from  1824  to 
1832.  He  founded  The  Methodist  Quarterly 
Review,  and  in  1832  was  elected  bishop. 
He  was  one  of  the  organizers  of  Dickinson 
College,  and  wrote  several  pamphlets  on 
controversial  subjects. 

Encratites  ( abstinent s )  is  not  the  name  of 
a  distinct  sect,  but  denotes  certain  views 
of  asceticism  enjoining  abstinence  from 
flesh-meat,  wine,  marriage,  etc.  These 
views,  before  the  Christian  era,  had  been 
promulgated  in  India,  and  were  favored  by 
the  Essenes,  the  Pythagoreans,  and  many 
Gnostics. 

Encyclical  Letters  were  circular  letters 
which  in  early  times  were  sent  by  one 
church  to  the  churches  of  a  certain  circuit, 
but  which  are  now  sent  exclusively  by  the 
pope  to  the  bishops  of  the  Roman  Catholic 
Church. 

Encyclopaedia  of  Theology,  “  a  branch 
of  theological  science  of  comparatively  re¬ 
cent  origin.  Its  aims  are  to  furnish:  (1)  a 
sketch  of  the  different  branches  of  theology 
in  their  organic  connection  and  relations 
with  each  other,  showing  the  fitness  of 
the  various  branches  to  theological  science 
as  a  whole,  and  the  relative  importance  of 
these  branches;  and  (2)  a  plan  of  theolog¬ 
ical  study,  showing  the  order  in  which  the 
topics  should  be  taken  up,  and  indicating 
the  best  methods  of  study,  and  necessary 
books  and  helps  of  all  kinds.  This  second 


End 


(  292  ) 


branch,  including  the  practical  application 
of  Encyclopaedia,  is  generally  called  Meth¬ 
odology,  and  the  whole  science  taken  to¬ 
gether  is  called  by  the  double  name  Ency¬ 
clopedia  and  Afethodology.  Of  these,  Ency¬ 
clopaedia  is  the  objective  side,  the  outline 
of  the  science  itself;  Methodology  is  the 
subjective  side,  having  reference  to  the 
work  of  the  student  qf  the  science.”  See 
art.  and  literature  of  subject  in  McClintock 
and  Strong:  Ency.,  vol.  iii.,  pp.  189,  190. 
The  best  modern  works  on  this  subject 
are  in  German  by  Hagenbach  (1833)  and 
Reischle  (1889):  The  Theological  Encyclo¬ 
pedia  and  Methodology  of  Hurst  and  Crooks 
(New  York,  1885)  is  based  on  these 
works. 

Endeavor,  Christian.  See  Christian 
Endeavor,  Young  People’s  Society  of. 

Encyclopedists,  a  name  given  to  the 
editors  and  contributors  of  the  famous 
Encyclope'die  des  Sciences ,  des  Arts  et  des 
Metiers ,  edited  by  Diderot  and  D’Alembert 
(Paris,  1751-65),  17  vols. ;  Suppl.  (1776-77), 
4  vols.  While  the  dogmas  and  polity  of 
the  Roman  Catholic  Church  were  accepted 
and  defended,  Christian  faith  was,  for  the 
most  part,  treated  from  a  rationalistic 
standpoint,  and  the  entire  spirit  of  the 
work  was  destructive  and  skeptical  in  its 
treatment  of  religion.  The  opposition  to 
its  sale,  aroused  by  the  efforts  of  the  Jes¬ 
uits  and  others,  had  a  tendency  to  increase 
the  influence  of  the  work. 

Endor,  Witch  of.  See  Saul. 

Energumens  ( energoumenoi ,  “possessed 
by  an  evil  spirit  ”).  In  the  early  Church 
those  who  were  thought  to  be  under  the  in¬ 
fluence  of  evil  spirits,  but  who,  in  our  day, 
would  be  treated  as  insane,  were  not  per¬ 
mitted  to  enter  the  church  to  engage  in 
worship,  but  could  stand  in  the  porch  and 
listen  to  the  singing  and  prayers.  If  quiet, 
they  were  allowed  to  come  within  the 
church,  and  hear  the  sermon  and  receive 
the  blessing  of  the  bishop.  They  were 
placed  in  the  care  of  exorcists,  who  brought 
them  their  food,  and,  having  laid  hands 
upon  them,  prayed  for  them.  Upon  their 
recovery  they  were  at  once  restored  to 
full  membership. 

Enge'di  ( fountain  of  the  kid ),  a  small 
town  about  a  mile  from  the  west  shore  of 
the  Dead  Sea,  near  the  foot  of  the  moun¬ 
tainous  cliffs  of  the  region.  It  was  also 
called  Hazezon-Tamar,//^  city  of  palm  trees. 
(Gen.  xiv.  7.)  Here  David  found  a  hiding- 
place  from  Saul.  (1  Sam.  xxiii.  29.)  It  is 
now  known  as  Ain  Jidy ,  near  which  is  a 


Eng 


thermal  spring,  below  which,  ruins  indicate 
the  site  of  the  ancient  city. 

England,  Church  of.  The  earliest  in¬ 
habitants  of  England  that  appear  in  history, 
known  as  the  “  Britons,”  were  pagans,, 
and  the  Druids  were  their  ministering; 
priests.  They  were  partially  Christian¬ 
ized  soon  after  the  Apostolic  Age.  There 
are  many  and  various  traditions  respect¬ 
ing  the  missionary  work  in  Britain  of  apos¬ 
tolic  men,  such  as  Joseph  of  Arimathzea,. 
whose  name  is  so  closely  connected  with: 
Glastonbury  ;  but  especially  a  persistent 
tradition  points  to  a  visit  of  St.  Paul  to  that 
country,  at  some  time  between  his  libera¬ 
tion  from  his  first  imprisonment  at  Rome, 
which  took  place  in  the  year  63,  and  his; 
martyrdom,  which  occurred  in  a.  d.  68- 
The  traditions  of  early  Christian  times  de¬ 
clare  it  almost  certain  that  when  St.  PauL 
was  set  free  he  carried  out  his  long-formed 
plan  of  going  from  Rome  to  Spain.  (Rom. 
xv.  24,  28.)  The  writer  of  a  very  early  doc¬ 
ument  (a.  d.  i  50-1 70),  known  after  its  dis¬ 
coverer,  the  great  scholar,  Muratori,  as  the 
“  Muratorian  Fragment,”  cites  the  Acts  of 
the  Apostles  as  the  work  of  an  eye-witness, 
but  adds  that  Luke  does  not  record  “  the 
journey  of  Paul  from  Rome  to  Spain,”  as 
if  the  actual  performance  of  that  journey 
was  a  fact  well  known  to  the  Christian 
world,  as  it  may  well  have  been,  since  the 
writer  may  have  been  a  grandson  of  one 
who  had  been  contemporary  with  the  apos¬ 
tle.  St.  Chrysostom  expressly  states  that 
“  after  his  residence  in  Rome,  the  apostle 
departed  to  Spain.”  It  is  probable  that,, 
after  spending  some  time  in  Spain,  the 
apostle  visited  adjacent  countries,  such  as- 
France,  where  Trophimus,  the  unintention¬ 
al  cause  of  his  last  troubles  at  Jerusalem 
(Acts  xxi.  29),  became  bishop  of  Arles,, 
in  the  ecclesiastical  province  of  which  pa¬ 
triarchal  archbishopric  Britain  was,  in  the 
early  Christian  days,  included;  and  there 
is  nothing  improbable  in  the  supposition 
that  Trophimus  may  have  received  a  visit 
from  St.  Paul  before  they  started  on  the 
apostle’s  last  missionary  work  (2  Tim.  iv. 
20),  and  have  carried  him  over  to  Britain 
to  lay  the  foundation  of  a  church  there. 
Less  than  thirty  years  (a.  d.  96)  after  St. 
Paul’s  martyrdom,  St.  Clement,  his  fellow- 
laborer  (Phil  iv.  3),  writes  that  the  apostle 
preached  “  both  in  the  east  and  in  the 
west,”  and  that,  having  taught  righteous¬ 
ness  to  the  whole  world,  he  came  to  the 
extreme  limit  of  the  west  ”  (Clem.,  1  Cor. 
v.),  that  expression  being  exactly  the  one 
which  was  used  to  signify  Spain,  France, 
and  Britain  (Theodoret,  Eh  Hot  hens  xxvi. 
881);  and  the  Britons  being  regarded  as  in¬ 
habitants  of  the  furthest  extremity  of  the 


Eng 


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Eng 


world — ultimos  orbis  Britannos  (Horace: 
Odes ,  i.  xxxv.  29) — by  generations  which 
little  dreamed  of  the  great  continents  that 
lay  further  west. 

St.  Paul  may,  however,  have  found 
Christianity  already  known  in  Britain,  for 
there  were,  doubtless,  Christians  among 
the  Roman  army  of  occupation,  and  the 
early  Christians  were  ever  desirous  of  re¬ 
ceiving  over  converts  to  their  religion.  As 
early  as  a.  d.  47,  a  lady  named  Pomponia 
Graecina,  the  wife  of  Aulus  Plautius,  who 
was  viceroy  in  Britain  to  the  Emperor 
Claudius,  was  accused,  on  her  return  to 
Rome,  of  practising  a  “  foreign  supersti¬ 
tion  ”  unauthorized  by  the  Roman  law 
(Tacit.  Ann.  xiii.  32),  and  this  was  almost 
certainly  Christianity.  Gildas,  also  (a.  d. 
560),  the  earliest  historian  of  England,  tells 
his  readers  that  the  sun  of  Christianity 
arose  in  this  land  about  the  time  when 
Queen  Boadicea  was  defeated  by  the  Ro¬ 
mans,  which  was  in  the  year  62  or  63. 

But  if  there  were  Christians  in  Britain 
in  the  earliest  ages  of  Christianity,  it  is 
also  certain  that  they  were  organized  into 
one  or  more  spiritual  communities;  for 
there  is  no  record  of  any  converts  to  Chris¬ 
tianity  in  the  apostolic  period,  or  near  to 
it,  in  which  the  persons  so  converted  were 
not  formed  into  a  church,  a  society  aiming 
to  continue  in  the  fellowship  and  doctrine 
of  the  apostles,  and  to  carry  out  their  sys¬ 
tem  of  devotion.  (Acts  ii.  42.)  Hence,  as 
we  should  expect,  early  Christian  writers 
refer  to  the  Christianity  of  Britain  in  their 
own  time  as  to  an  organized  system  of  relig¬ 
ion  which  had  been  growing  long  enough 
to  be  well  rooted  in  the  land.  Eusebius 
bears  testimony  to  the  existence  of  an  epis¬ 
copal  ministry  in  Britain.  Within  his  time 
there  were  three  British  bishops  who  ap¬ 
peared  among  those  who  assembled  at  the 
Council  of  Arles,  in  France,  in  a.  d.  314, 
and  these  are  expressly  called  the  bishops 
of  certain  see£ — London,  Caerleon,  and 
York— and  are  mentioned  by  name  in  an 
almost  contemporary  record.  St.  Athana¬ 
sius,  in  his  Synodal  Epistle,  tells  the 
Emperor  Jovian  that  there  were  also  Brit¬ 
ish  bishops  at  the  Council  of  Nicsea  (a.  d. 

^325).  In  short,  the  evidence  for  the  exist¬ 
ence  of  an  early  organized  Christianity  in 
the  first  five  centuries  is  so  abundant  and 
definite  that  the  most  trustworthy  and 
critical  of  modern  historical  writers,  such 
as  Bishop  Stubbs  and  Mr.  Haddan,  are 
able  to  print  it,  with  references  and  dates, 
and  in  the  original  languages,  and  it  ex¬ 
tends  over  many  pages  of  their  great  work 
(Haddan  and  Stubbs:  Councils ,  and  Ecclesi¬ 
astical  Documents  relating  to  Great  Britain 
and  Ireland). 

The  Anglo-Saxon  Period  (a.  D.  450-1070). 


— The  Roman  army  of  occupation  was  final¬ 
ly  removed  from  Britain  in  the  year  41 1. 
While  Britain  formed  part  of  the  Roman 
Empire,  some  mixture  of  race,  and  more 
of  habits,  had  taken  place,  and  the  Romans 
left  many  marks  of  influence  behind  them. 
The  civilization  of  the  Britons  was  Roman 
civilization.  Their  Christianity  was  also 
Roman  in  its  form — that  form  being  then 
of  the  type  of  the  Byzantine  or  Easter.* 
Church,  which  characterized  Roman  Chris¬ 
tianity  in  the  first  ages.  In  illustration  of 
this  latter  fact  some  sculptures  may  be  re¬ 
ferred  to  which  were  discovered  a  few  years 
ago  in  the  Church  of  St.  Nicolas  at  Ipswich, 
in  which  the  ornamental  portions  were  dis¬ 
tinctly  Byzantine,  while  some  Greek  words, 
such  as  Theos  and  naos  (“  God  ”  and  “  tem¬ 
ple  ”),  were  introduced  into  the  inscriptions. 
The  refined  Romans  were  soon  succeeded 
in  Britain  by  three  uncivilized  and  heathen 
tribes  of  Germans — the  Jutes,  the  Saxons, 
and  the  Angles  or  English;  and  the  name 
of  Englishmen,  which  these  German  tribes 
bore  in  common  among  themselves,  pres¬ 
ently  became  the  common  name  of  the 
mixed  race  which  dwelt  within  the  four 
seas. 

After  about  a  century  of  painful  national 
struggles  the  Britons  were  subdued;  the 
fighting  portion  of  them  being  driven  back 
step  by  step  into  the  highlands  of  Wales 
and  Cornwall,  and  the  non-fighting  portion 
reduced  to  the  condition  of  slaves.  It  was 
much  as  when  the  Israelites  took  posses¬ 
sion  of  the  Holy  Land,  leaving  some  of  the 
aboriginal  Canaanites  in  the  southwest,  to 
be  afterwards  known  as  Philistines,  and  in 
the  northwest  as  Phoenicians — the  people 
of  Tyre  and  Sidon.  But  during  the  contest 
between  the  German  invaders  and  the  Cel¬ 
tic  aborigines  a  considerable  amalgamation 
of  the  conquering  army  and  the  conquered 
nation  was  taking  place;  and  this  became 
extended  over  a  much  larger  surface  of  the 
country  on  the  establishment  of  peace,  and 
the  consequent  addition  to  the  numbers  of 
the  foreigners  that  followed.  In  the  end  a 
mixed  nation  was  formed  in  the  body  of  the 
island,  composed  of  an  aristocracy  and 
mercantile  class,  in  which  the  foreign  ele¬ 
ment  predominated,  and  a  much  larger 
number  of  farmers  and  working  people, 
who  were  necessarily  longer  in  amalgamat¬ 
ing  with  their  conquerors.  In  Wales  and 
Cornwall  the  fugitive  fighting  men  com¬ 
bined  with  the  original  mountaineers  of 
those  parts  to  form  comparatively  inde¬ 
pendent  nations.  The  mixed  nation  took 
the  general  name  of  Englishmen,  and  be¬ 
came  the  ancestors  of  the  English  nation  of 
modern  history. 

The  records  of  the  Church  among  this 
mixed  population  are  very  bare  during  the 


Eng 


(  294  ) 


Eng 


greater  part  of  the  sixth  century.,  although 
authentic  and  comparatively  full  details 
have  been  handed  down  respecting  the  dio¬ 
ceses  of  Llandaff  and  St.  Davids,  and  other 
portions  of  the  Western  Highlands  where 
no  great  change  had  taken  place.  We  may, 
however,  pass  over  here  the  justly  vener¬ 
ated  names  of  St.  David,  St.  Asaph,  St. 
Columba,  St.  Kentigern,  and  St.  Patrick, 
which  are  all  noticed  in  their  respective 
places,  and  come  shortly  to  the  close  of  the 
sixth  century.  For  a  while  the  power  of 
German  heathenism  so  predominated  that 
the  few  native  or  British  clergy  who  were 
left  alive  were  driven  from  their  churches, 
and  often — perhaps  mostly — assumed  the 
hermit  life,  doing  what  they  could  for  the 
few  Christians  around  them,  and  for  the 
conquerors  also,  though  little  was  to  be 
done  for  the  conversion  of  the  rough  and 
warlike  soldiers,  who  looked  with  contempt 
on  those  whom  they  had  conquered  and 
enslaved.  The  bishops  of  the  British 
Church  retired  with  the  rest  of  the  clergy, 
hopeless  of  maintaining  their  positions. 
Theonas  and  Thadiorus,  Bishops  of  Lon¬ 
don  and  York,  are  heard  of  in  their  retreats 
in  Wales,  whither  they  had  fled  in  a.  d. 
587,  and  others  came  out  of  their  retire¬ 
ment  to  meet  St.  Augustine  in  confer¬ 
ence. 

The  ancient  Church  of  the  land  was  thus 
so  much  depressed  by  the  English  con¬ 
quest  that  it  was  all  but  lost  sight  of,  and 
the  mission  which  St.  Gregory  desired  to 
undertake,  and  which  St.  Augustine  actual¬ 
ly  did  undertake,  was  a  mission  to  convert 
Britain  anew  to  Christianity.  (Augustine, 
St.,  of  Canterbury.)  It  did  indeed  be¬ 
come  so  far  an  independent  movement  that 
for  a  time  there  was  an  “  Anglo-Saxon” 
Church  of  England,  as  it  has  been  called 
by  later  ages,  side  by  side  with  the  old 
“  British  ”  Church  of  the  same  country. 
But  the  two  Churches  gradually  amalga¬ 
mated  as  the  two  races — the  conquered  Cel¬ 
tic  race  and  the  conquering  German  race — 
amalgamated;  and  although  the  more 
ancient  of  the  two  Churches  maintained 
and  still  maintains  a  kind  of  partial  inde¬ 
pendence  through  the  differences  of  race 
and  language  in  the  four  dioceses  of  Wales, 
yet  the  Christianity  of  the  whole  country 
south  of  the  Cheviots  became  henceforth 
consolidated  into  the  one  “  Church  of  Eng¬ 
land,”  divided  in  a  short  time  into  the 
archiepiscopal  provinces  of  Canterbury 
and  of  York;  these  latter  being  composed 
of  dioceses  which  followed  in  their  bound¬ 
aries  the  political  divisions  of  the  seven 
kingdoms  into  which  England  was  now 
parcelled  off. 

For  a  time  each  of  the  seven  kingdoms 
of  the  Saxony  Heptarchy  had  one  bishop 


only.  Thus  there  was  a  bishop  of  North¬ 
umbria,  a  kingdom  which  stretched  from 
the  Tweed  to  the  Humber,  including  the 
northwestern  as  well  as  the  northeastern 
counties;  a  bishop  of  Mercia,  which  in¬ 
cluded  the  whole  Midland  country,  from 
the  border  of  Wales  to  the  eastern  coast, 
and  from  Chester  to  Hertfordshire  and 
West  London;  a  bishop  of  the  kingdom  of 
Kent;  a  bishop  of  Wessex,  or  the  West 
Saxons,  taking  in  the  people  of  Berks, 
Hants,  Wilts,  Dorset,  Devon,  and  Corn¬ 
wall;  a  bishop  of  Sussex,  or  the  South 
Saxons,  the  people  of  Sussex  and  Surrey; 
a  bishop  of  Essex,  or  the  East  Saxons,  the 
people  of  Essex,  Middlesex,  and  part  of 
Herts;  and  a  bishop  of  East  Anglia — Nor¬ 
folk,  Suffolk,  Cambridgeshire,  and  the  Isle 
of  Ely.  Yet  this  was  not  a  rule  without 
exceptions,  for  in  the  kingdom  of  Kent 
there  was  a  see  at  Rochester  as  well  as  at 
Canterbury.  This  plan  of  making  each 
kingdom  a  see  was  soon  found,  however, 
to  be  unsuitable  to  the  spiritual  necessities 
of  the  Church.  Kingdoms  grew  too  large 
and  populous  for  dioceses,  and  then  the 
latter  were  subdivided;  as,  for  example, 
the  one  great  diocese  of  Mercia  was  divided 
before  the  seventh  century  into  the  five 
dioceses  of  Lindsey,  Leicester,  Lichfield, 
Hereford,  and  Worcester;  while  that  of 
Northumbria  became  divided  during  the 
same  period  into  the  four  dioceses  of  York, 
Lindisfarne,  Hexham,  and  Whithern;  and, 
long  before  the  Norman  Conquest,  the 
great  diocese  of  Wessex,  or  Winchester, 
became  divided  into  the  four  dioceses  of 
Winchester,  Ramsburv,  Wells,  and  Credi- 
ton.  Notices  of  this  subdivision  of  Chris¬ 
tian  England  will  be  found  at  the  proper 
references.  Although,  therefore,  there  are 
some  historical  traces  of  the  modern  dioc¬ 
esan  system  of  the  Church  of  England, 
even  in  the  Romano-British  period,  yet  the 
system,  as  it  has  since  existed  in  the  medi¬ 
aeval  and  the  modern  periods,  may  rather 
be  said  to  have  been  originated  in  the 
Anglo-Saxon  period. 

The  sees  thus  established  remained  sub¬ 
stantially  the  same  until  the  reign  of  Henry 
VIII.,  who  added  a  few  more  out  of  the 
spoils  obtained  from  the  suppression  of 
the  monasteries.  The  bishops  were  nom¬ 
inally  elected,  as  they  still  are,  by  the 
cathedral  chapters;  but  the  Crown  always 
influenced,  and  generally  monopolized,  the 
appointment.  Parish  churches  were  prob¬ 
ably  as  many  in  number  as  at  the  begin¬ 
ning  of  the  present  century,  whilst  nearly 
every  monarch  of  the  days  before  the  Con¬ 
quest  founded  some  monastery.  Thus, 
Westminster  Abbey  was  founded  by  Ed¬ 
ward  the  Confessor,  Waltham  by  Harold, 
St.  Alban’s  by  Offa;  while  King  Edgar  is 


Eng 


(  295  ) 


Eng 


said  to  have  founded  forty-eight  religious 
houses  during  his  sixteen  years’  reign. 

The  old  English,  generally  known  as  the 
Anglo-Saxon  Church,  professed,  in  a  coun¬ 
cil  held  a.  d.  680,  the  tenets  taught  by  the 
first  five  General  Councils.  To  these  was 
added,  in  787,  the  sixth  council.  Purgatory, 
prayers  for  the  dead,  auricular  confession, 
were  all  recognized;  but  not  so  transub- 
stantiation.  The  celibacy  of  the  clergy  was 
the  cause  of  a  very  severe  struggle  in  the 
Anglo-Saxon  Church. 

The  Norman  Conquest  was  followed  by  a 
large  advance  in  the  power  of  the  papacy. 
The  Conqueror  was  far  enough  from  yield¬ 
ing  any  of  his  rights  or  prerogatives,  and 
he  suffered  no  ecclesiastical  interference 
without  his  sanction;  but  some  of  the  Acts 
made  by  him  became,  in  the  days  of  less 
powerful  rulers,  instruments  in  papal 
hands  to  be  used  for  their  purposes.  Ac¬ 
cordingly,  from  the  reign  of  Henry  I.  to 
John,  the  papal  power  steadily  grew. 
Archbishop  Anselm  refused  to  render  hom¬ 
age  to  Henry  I.  for  his  bishopric,  and  the  in¬ 
vestiture  struggle  ended  virtually  in  papal 
victory.  (Investitures.)  The  civil  wars 
of  Stephen  caused  both  him  and  Matilda  to 
seek  ecclesiastical  aid.  Henry  II.,  in  spite 
of  his  energy,  was  worsted  in  the  contest 
with  Becket;  the  Constitutions  of  Claren¬ 
don  proved  inoperative;  and  the  murder  of 
the  Primate  turned  popular  opinion  alto¬ 
gether  to  the  side  of  the  clergy.  The  sub¬ 
mission  of  King  John,  when  he  laid  his 
crown  at  the  feet  of  Cardinal  Pandulf, 
and  declared  himself  a  vassal  of  the  Holy 
See,  was  the  culmination.  From  that  time 
the  papal  power  began  to  decline  in  Eng¬ 
land.  During  the  long  reign  of  Henry  III. 
the  papal  exactions  caused  a  feeling  of  bit¬ 
ter  hostility.  In  the  reign  of  Edward  I.  the 
people  looked  tranquilly  on  while  the 
clergy  were  plundered.  In  that  of  Edward 
III.  was  passed  the  Statute  of  Praemunire, 
restraining  the  exercise  of  patronage  by 
Roman  pontiffs,  and  forbidding  appeals  to 
Rome.  (Pr^munire.)  Meanwhile,  a  feel¬ 
ing  was  also  rising  against  the  doctrinal  sys¬ 
tem  of  Rome,  which  found  eloquent  expres¬ 
sion  in  the  person  of  Wycliffe.  (Wycliffe.  ) 
It  was  estimated  by  some  that  in  the  days 
of  Henry  IV.  his  followers,  known  as  Lol¬ 
lards,  amounted  to  half  the  population  of 
England.  The  king,  who  closed  with  any 
means  by  which  to  bolster  up  his  usurpa¬ 
tion  Pf  the  crown,  bought  the  help  of  the 
.  powerful  ecclesiastics  by  persecuting  the 
Lollards,  and  in  1440  passed  the  act  de 
Hereiico  Comburendo.  But  all  this  strength¬ 
ened  the  growing  feeling  towards  the 
coming  Reformation,  which  the  scandal 
caused  by  the  great  Papal  Schism  (q.  v.) 
further  augmented.  The  great  change  of 


the  sixteenth  century  will  be  considered 
under  the  head  of  Reformation.  Its  prin¬ 
ciples  may  be  said  to  have  reached  their 
fullest  national  and  legal  recognition  at  the 
close  of  the  reign  of  Edward  VI.  All  sub¬ 
sequent  ecclesiastical  legislation  was  direct¬ 
ed,  not  to  further  innovation  in  doctrine 
or  ritual,  but  to  maintain  the  settlement 
already  made  against  the  adherents  of  Rome 
on  one  side,  and  advanced  innovation  on 
the  other. 

With  the  death  of  Edward  came  a  reac¬ 
tion.  Mary,  acceding  to  the  throne  at  a 
time  when  it  was  still  held  to  be  the  duty 
of  the  nation  to  look  to  the  civil  ruler  for  a 
creed,  and  to  expect  him  to  enforce  com¬ 
pliance  with  it,  at  once  reversed  her  broth¬ 
er’s  policy;  the  acts  of  the  preceding  reign 
touching  religion  were  repealed;  the  doc¬ 
trine  of  transubstantiation  was  reaffirmed; 
the  married  clergy  were  all  ejected  from 
their  livings,  and  the  reconciliation  of  Eng¬ 
land  with  the  Holy  See  was  pronounced  by 
Cardinal  Pole  at  Westminster,  before  the 
Queen  and  the  two  Houses  of  Parliament, 
kneeling  to  receive  it.  Then  began  perse¬ 
cution.  The  prominent  Reformers  fled  be¬ 
yond  sea;  but  before  the  end  of  the  reign 
three  hundred  persons  had  perished  in  the 
flames,  and  thereby  England  was  utterly 
alienated  from  Rome. 

Elizabeth  restored  the  Reformed  Church 
to  its  previous  position;  178  clergy,  only, 
refused  to  take  the  oath  of  the  Royal  Su¬ 
premacy,  and  the  Act  of  Uniformity  (1559) 
restored  the  Book  of  Common  Prayer. 
This  settlement  reaches  the  close  of  the 
first  section  of  the  Reformation  period.  It 
defined  the  position  of  the  Church  in  rela¬ 
tion  both  to  Rome  and  the  religious  bodies 
on  the  Continent  which  had  broken  off 
from  that  communion.  In  the  first  place 
the  episcopal  succession  was  retained.  In 
the  renewal  of  the  Act  of  Supremacy,  in 
which  the  Queen  was  styled  “  Supreme 
Governor,”  it  was  declared  that  clergy  and 
laity  alike  were  subject  to  Law,  passed  by 
Convocation  and  Parliament,  and  enforced 
by  the  Crown.  The  Prayer-book,  though 
substantially  agreeing  with  the  second  book 
of  Edward  VI.,  yet  indicated  a  desire  to 
find  a  mode  of  agreement  with  those  who 
loved  the  ancient  system.  (Common  Pray¬ 
er.)  And  the  Thirty-nine  Articles,  though 
they  bore  a  provisional  character,  and  had 
not  the  all-round  completeness  of  the  Prot¬ 
estant  Continental  Confessions,  were 
framed  with  the  same  desire  of  concilia¬ 
tion.  They  began  with  rehearsing  the 
faith  held  in  common  by  all  Christendom 
(i.-v.),  then  defined  the  “  Rule  of  Faith,” 
and,  in  contradiction  to  the  Council  of 
Trent,  appealed  to  Holy  Scripture,  thereby 
taking  up  boldly  the  fundamental  principle 


Eng 


(  296  ) 


Eng 


of  the  Reformation,  while  the  ancient 
creeds  were  reasserted  (vi.-viii.).  Next, 
the  two  great  doctrines  of  Justification  by 
Faith  and  Predestination  were  considered, 
the  language  of  Calvin  being  used,  but 
guarded  and  modified  by  appeals  to  Script¬ 
ure  generally  (ix.-xviii. ).  Next,  the 
nature  and  authority  of  the  Church,  the 
sacredness  of  the  ministry,  and  the  grace 
of  the  Sacraments  are  all  asserted  (xix.- 
xxxvi.);  after  which  the  relations  of  the 
Crown,  the  Church,  and  the  individual  are 
defined.  But  now  it  appeared  that  there 
were  two  parties  within  the  Reformed 
Church  of  England.  There  were  those 
who,  having  freed  themselves  from  papal 
tyranny,  desired  to  follow  the  cautious, 
statesmanlike  policy  of  Cranmer,  rather 
than  the  hot  zeal  of  partisans,  and  to  con¬ 
ciliate  opponents  rather  than  to  cast  off  all 
connection  with  the  past;  and  there  were 
those  who,  in  the  exercise  of  private  judg¬ 
ment,  hated  any  approximation  to  the 
Church  of  Rome,  and  craved  fuller  liberty 
of  action  and  opinion.  These  are  known 
as  Puritans  ( q .  v.).  Their  objections 
seem  to  have  been  at  first  confined  to 
points  of  ceremonial  and  discipline;  but 
Elizabeth,  bent  on  preserving  as  much 
as  was  left  of  the  ancient  order,  was  uni¬ 
formly  opposed  to  them,  and  the  High 
Commission  Court, in  which  her  supremacy 
was  represented,  took  stringent  measures 
against  them.  Hence  the  practice  be¬ 
gan  of  holding  separate  meetings  for  relig¬ 
ious  worship,  in  which  we  have  the  origin 
of  Nonconformity.  The  essential  principle 
underlying  this  opposition  was  Calvinism, 
the  very  essence  of  which  was  inconsistent 
with  the  preservation  of  the  ancient  basis 
of  Church  doctrine  and  order.  It  met  the 
excommunication  of  Rome  with  an  equally 
intolerant  rejoinder,  and  substituted  indi¬ 
vidual  consciousness  for  the  sacraments 
and  ministry.  The  Puritans  were  as  far 
removed  as  the  bitterest  of  their  antag¬ 
onists  from  any  idea  of  toleration. 

The  first  attack  which  was  made  against 
Calvinism  in  the  Church  was  the  move¬ 
ment  known  as  Arminianism.  (Arminians.) 
But  whereas  in  Holland,  its  native  coun¬ 
try,  Arminianism  took  latitudinarian  shape 
in  its  revolt  against  the  narrow  view  of 

Election,”  in  England  those  who  were 
called  Arminians  by  their  opponents, 
though  they  repudiated  this  title,  were 
those  who  opposed  to  the  Calvinistic  tenet 
the  assertion  of  the  Catholic  Church  as  to 
sacraments  conveying  grace  to  all  who  ac¬ 
cepted  them.  The  greatest  writer  against 
the  anti-Catholic  view  was  Hooker,  whose 
name  stands  in  the  front  rank  of  Church 
divines.  (Hooker.)  Somewhat  in  advance 
of  him  in  view  was  Andrewes,  a  better  the¬ 


ologian,  so  far  as  patristic  learning  went, 
and  Laud,  a  clever  and  indefatigable  ad¬ 
ministrator.  In  these  men  we  have  the 
founders  of  the  great  Anglo  -  Catholic 
school,  a  school  which  has  lived  on,  and 
has  created  the  most  permanent  Anglican 
theology.  This  school  included  such  di¬ 
vines  as  Jeremy  Taylor  (a  name  which 
such  a  great  critic  as  Coleridge  pronounced 
to  be  a  rival  of  Shakespeare),  Hall,  Pat¬ 
rick,  Ken,  B  ram  hall,  Wilson,  Pearson, 
Thorndike,  Bull,  Pusey;  poets,  like  George 
Herbert,  Wordsworth,  Keble;  the  greatest 
of  English  Church  historians,  Jeremy  Col¬ 
lier;  laymen,  such  as  Boyle,  Evelyn,  Rob¬ 
ert  Nelson,  Gladstone,  Beresford  Hope. 
It,  more  than  any  other  influence  at  that 
time,  prevented  the  Church  of  England 
from  becoming  a  Calvinistic  sect,  affirm¬ 
ing,  as  it  did,  that  the  sacraments  are  not 
mere  acts  of  man,  nor  empty  signs,  nor 
acted  prayers,  but  are  verily  outward  chan¬ 
nels  conveying  inward  grace.  Unhappily, 
however,  errors  of  judgment  mingled 
themselves  with  the  holy  aspirations,  the 
learning,  and  the  zeal  which  marked  the 
rise  of  this  great  school.  It  was  learned; 
it  had  to  defend  the  position  of  the  Church 
against  the  skillful  Jesuit  controversialists; 
and  a  style  of  writing  resulted  which  was 
not  adapted  for  popular  reading,  but  suited 
the  learned  only.  The  half-educated  liked 
it,  probably,  least  of  all.  The  utterly  un¬ 
learned  took  a  line  not  unlike  that  of  the 
“  Northern  Farmer”: 

“I  thowt  a  said  whot  a  owt  to  ’a  said  an*  I  coom'd 
awaay.” 

Those  who  could  read  and  think  for 
themselves,  but  yet  knew  not  enough  to 
enter  into  intricacies  and  balance  conflicting 
arguments,  were  at  sea  with  learned  disqui¬ 
sitions,  and,  therefore,  were  more  at  home 
with  The  Saint's  Pest  and  Pilgrim' s  Prog¬ 
ress.  Moreover,  the  Church  suffered  heav¬ 
ily  for  its  alliance  with  the  Crown,  an  alli¬ 
ance  to  be  traced  to  all  the  traditions  of 
past  ages,  which  held  that  the  national  re¬ 
ligion  followed  the  national  government, 
an  opinion  held  as  firmly  by  Presbyterians 
as  by  Churchmen.  The  fulsome  dedica¬ 
tions,  such  as  Bacon’s  of  The  Advancement 
of  Learning,  and  in  Spenser’s  Faerie  Queene , 
were  regarded  as  right  and  proper,  and  the 
translators’  preface  to  the  Bible  of  1611 
does  not  escape  the  taint,  though,  as  a  mat¬ 
ter  of  fact,  it  was  written  by  a  Puritan. 
The  result  was,  that  the  Catholic  view  of 
the  Church  became  inextricably  mixed  up 
with  an  unpopular  and  decaying  political 
creed,  though  the  present  position  of  this 
school  in  England  is  sufficient  to  show  that 
it  does  not  rest  upon  Court  favor,  and  that 
its  doctrine  and  discipline  do  not  depend 
upon  law  courts  and  arbitrarily  wielded 


(  297  ) 


Eng 


Eng 


civil  power.  But,  through  the  cause  vve 
have  named,  it  was  regarded  then  as  one 
with  the  Stuart  State  policy,  and,  in  conse¬ 
quence,  it  shared  the  Stuart  fall.  When 
the  Civil  War  broke  out,  the  bishops  were 
expelled  from  the  House  of  Lords  (1641),. 
and  in  1643  episcopacy  itself  was  abolished. 
The  direction  of  religion  was  vested  in  the 
Westminster  Assembly  (q.  v.),  the  Di¬ 
rectory  was  substituted  for  the  Prayer- 
book,  3,000  clergy  were  turned  out  of 
their  churches  and  homes,  and  Archbishop 
Laud  was  beheaded. 

But  the  triumphant  Calvinistic  party 
began  to  decay  in  the  very  hour  of  its  tri¬ 
umph.  It  broke  up  into  antagonistic 
schools;  the  Independents,  the  strongest 
of  the  new  “  sectaries,”  put  forth  a  the¬ 
ory,  not  only  of  religious  toleration,  but  of 
recognized  religious  diversity,  a  theory  le¬ 
gitimately  belonging  to  Congregationalism, 
but  hateful  to  the  Presbyterians.  Logical 
Calvinism,  however,  never  took  hold  of 
the  average  English  mind.  It  had  been 
adopted  in  the  struggle  for  political  lib¬ 
erty;  but,  that  struggle  ended,  it  stood 
forth  in  the  nakedness  of  its  hard  and  ruth¬ 
less  dogmatism,  and  Englishmen  turned 
away,  shuddering.  At  the  Restoration, 
the  Church  at  once  returned  to  its  former 
place,  to  the  joy  of  the  nation;  so  entire 
was  the  reaction  against  the  dogmatic  yoke 
of  the  Puritans.  It  is  wonderful  to  read 
how  quietly  this  Restoration  took  place. 
But  a  change  at  once  became  visible  in  the 
tone  of  the  Church  teaching.  The  formu¬ 
laries  and  principles  remained  as  before, 
but  the  Church  was  leavened  by  the  ad¬ 
mixture  of  new  thought.  Men  like  Falk¬ 
land  and  Hyde  had  been  conscientious  sup¬ 
porters  of  the  Parliament  against  the  king 
in  the  early  days  of  this  conflict;  but  they 
remained  firm  supporters  of  the  Church, 
and  it  was  their  love  of  the  Church  which 
now  led  them  to  join  the  Royal  cause. 
These  men  represent  a  party,  who,  by 
joining  the  school  of  Andre wes  and  Laud, 
removed  its  more  stiff  and  rigid  features, 
and  led  it  to  views  of  larger  comprehen¬ 
siveness.  To  these  must  be  added  the 
Cambridge  Platonists  (Whichcote),  whose 
endeavor  to  reconcile  reason  and  faith  was 
another  blow  struck  at  Calvinistic  dogma¬ 
tism.  That  dogmatism  had  provoked  a 
reaction  utterly  irreligious.  (Hobbes.) 
Whichcote  stands  as  a  representative  of  a 
school,  not  numerous,  at  least  for  many 
years,  yet  influential,  which,  while  it  held 
firmly  to  a  supernatural  faith,  also  recog¬ 
nized  human  intellect  and  allotted  it  its 
rightful  place.  Consequently,  the  theology 
of  the  later  Stuart  days  is  more  moderate 
in  tone  than  that  of  the  earlier.  The  High- 
Church  Jeremy  Taylor  wrote  the  Liberty  of 


Prophesying ;  Bramhall,  the  friend  of  Laud 
and  the  favorite  of  Strafford,  declined  to 
pronounce  the  nullity  of  Presbyterian  Or¬ 
ders;  Sanderson,  the  author  of  the  Preface 
to  the  Prayer-book  of  1662,  professed  him¬ 
self  a  disciple  of  the  moderate  Hooker. 

Another  attempt  to  conciliate  the  Non¬ 
conformists  (Savoy  Conference)  failed, 
but  this  was  not  owing  to  the  rigidness  of 
the  prelates.  The  Act  of  Uniformity  of 
1662  was  the  work  of  Parliament,  which, 
in  its  Royalist  zeal,  saw  nothing  but  evil 
in  the  recent  Calvinistic  rule.  It  must  be 
remembered  that  many  holders  of  benefices 
had  been  intruded  into  the  places  of  the 
true  possessors.  But  the  expulsion  of 
2,000  ministers  on  St.  Bartholomew’s-Day, 
1662,  for  refusing  to  assent  to  everything 
contained  in  the  Book  of  Common  Prayer, 
certainly  deprived  the  Church  of  many  a 
faithful  and  earnest  preacher.  The  Cor¬ 
poration,  Conventicle,  Five-Mile,  and 
Test  Acts  (see  each  under  its  head)  were 
all  blows  leveled  at  Nonconformity.  In 
1678,  in  consequence  of  Oates’s  plot,  Ro¬ 
man  Catholics  were  excluded  from  Parlia¬ 
ment.  Charles  II.  made  several  endeavors 
after  toleration,  but  Parliament  defeated 
them,  in  fear  that  they  were  intended  to 
favor  Romanism.  It  is  true,  indeed,  that 
toward  the  end  of  this  reign  a  more  gen¬ 
erous  spirit  toward  trivial  diversities  was 
beginning  to  show  itself,  and  this  feeling 
was  plainly  seen  when  the  Nonconform¬ 
ists  made  common  cause  with  the  Church 
against  James  II. ’s  ill-starred  attempt  to 
force  popery  on  the  nation. 

The  expulsion  of  James,  however,  was 
not  effected  without  some  loss  to  the 
Church  and  to  religion.  The  former  sepa¬ 
ration  of  the  Nonjurors  was  now  followed 
by  the  setting  of  Whigs  on  the  episcopal 
thrones,  who  were  thus  placed  in  a  position 
of.  hostility  to  the  parochial  clergy,  who, 
whilst — like  Sancroft  and  Ken — they  had 
no  sympathy  with  Rome,  could  not  forego 
their  conscientious  adherence  to  the  prin¬ 
ciples  of  the  ancient  monarchy.  This  dif¬ 
ference  boded  ill  for  the  scheme  of  compre¬ 
hension  which  was  once  more  brought  for¬ 
ward.  The  Prayer-book  was  revised  under 
a  commission  appointed  by  the  king,  the 
Puritans  being  led  by  Baxter;  the  altera¬ 
tions  made  were  perfectly  moderate,  and 
some  of  the  additions  were  much  to  be  de¬ 
sired.  But  the  Lower  House  of  Convoca¬ 
tion  rejected  this  proposed  book,  and  it 
was  therefore  abandoned ;  and  the  proposal 
for  reconciliation  has  never  since  been 
authoritatively  renewed.  Nor  was  this  the 
whole  of  the  trouble  which  came  upon  the 
Church  through  the  Nonjuring  division. 
The  seceders  were  men  of  deep  piety,  and 
the  Church,  even  on  that  account,  could  ill 


/ 


Eng 


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t 


Eno 


afford  to  lose  them.  The  eighteenth  cen¬ 
tury  was,  not  unnaturally,  marked  by  an  in¬ 
crease  of  worldliness,  of  selfish  ease,  and 
sloth.  There  was  learning,  but  a  want  of 
spiritual  earnestness;  and  in  many  districts 
the  people  were  left  almost  in  heathenism. 
The  preaching  of  Wesley  and  Whitefield  did 
much  to  remedy  this  evil.  It  was  a  call  to 
new  life;  and,  whilst  it  led  the  way  to  a 
large  separation,  it  more  than  compensated 
for  that  by  reviving  religious  life  in  the 
Church.  The  successive  rise  of  the  Evan¬ 
gelical  Party ,  of  the  Oriel  School ,  and  of  the 
Tractarian  Party  will  be  told  under  their 
respective  titles. 

Such  is  an  outline  of  the  history  of  the 
Church  of  England.  It  now  only  remains 
for  us  to  survey  it  as  it  at  present  exists. 
It  consists  of  the  clergy  and  laity  of  the  two 
provinces  of  Canterbury  and  York;  those 
provinces  containing  thirty-four  dioceses, 
and  being  conterminous  with  the  fifty-two 
counties  of  England  and  Wales,  supple¬ 
mented  by  the  adjacent  islands.  It  is  es¬ 
sentially  an  episcopal  body,  the  theory  of 
its  constitution  being  that  its  corporate 
continuance  and  its  spiritual  life  are  both 
dependent  upon  the  office  of  bishop.  The 
corporate  continuance  of  the  Church  is 
thus  identified  with  an  unbroken  succession 
of  bishops.  Great  care  has  always  been 
taken  to  keep  up  this  succession,  and  also 
to  preserve  the  records  upon  which  the 
proof  of  it  depends.  Every  bishop  is  con¬ 
secrated  by  at  least  three  who  are  already 
bishops,  and  thus  the  lines  of  succession  by 
which  he  is  connected  with  the  bishops  of 
former  ages  are  almost  innumerable.  So 
well,  too,  have  the  evidences  of  his  spirit¬ 
ual  genealogy  been  preserved,  that  every 
bishop  is  able  to  trace  the  name  of  his  own 
immediate  episcopal  ancestor  back  to  the 
Reformation  without  a  break;  from  the 
Reformation  back  to  the  Norman  Conquest 
with  similar  certainty;  from  the  Conquest 
to  the  time  of  St.  Augustine’s  mission  (a.  d. 
600)  with  almost  equal  accuracy ;  and  from 
the  sixth  century  to  the  Apostolic  Age  with 
an  amount  of  certainty  such  as  can  be 
shown  in  few  successions  of  sovereigns  at 
much  more  recent  periods.  Thus  Anglican 
bishops,  like  the  bishops  of  other  Catholic 
Churches,  claim  to  be  “  successors  of  the 
apostles,”  in  an  historical  as  well  as  in  a 
spiritual  sense. 

The  spiritual  life  of  the  Church  is  also 
considered  to  be  dependent  upon  the  epis¬ 
copate,  because  it  is  maintained  by  minis¬ 
terial  acts,  and  no  ministry  is  recognized 
but  one  in  which  the  ministers  are  ordained 
by  bishops.  Every  bishop  is  also  regarded 
as  the  centre  of  spiritual  authority  within 
the  range  of  his  diocese,  he  being  the  chief 
pastor,  and  the  parochial  clergy  his  deputy 


pastors.  The  principle  of  the  Episcopal 
ministry  is  thus  assumed  to  be:  (1)  that  a 
bishop  alone  can  give  that  authority  and 
power  to  a  person  which  will  make  him  a 
minister  of  the  Church;  and  (2)  that  a  min¬ 
ister  so  ordained  can  only  exercise  his  of¬ 
fice  lawfully  within  a  certain  sphere  or 
“  cure  of  souls  ”  committed  to  him  by  the 
chief  pastor  of  the  diocese.  This  principle 
is  carefully  provided  for  and  guarded  by 
the  Ordination  Services  of  the  Prayer- 
book,  and  by  the  issue  of  formal  docu¬ 
ments,  such  as  “  Letters  of  Orders  ”  and 
of  “  Institution,”  and  by  acts  and  cere¬ 
monies  connected  with  admission  to  a  bene¬ 
fice. 

Statistics. — The  clergy  of  the  Church  of 
England  number  about  23,000,  consisting- 
of  2  archbishops,  32  bishops,  30  deans,  80 
archdeacons,  130  canons  of  cathedral  and 
collegiate  churches,  14,000  parochial  clergy 
with  benefices,  rectors,  and  vicars,  6,000 
parochial  clergy  without  benefices,  stipend¬ 
iary  curates,  and  about  3,000  other  clergy, 
many  of  whom  engage  voluntarily  in  paro¬ 
chial  work.  The  exact  proportion  of  the 
laity  to  the  gross  population  cannot  be 
ascertained,  but  cannot  differ  very  greatly 
either  way  from  one-half  of  the  whole. 

Incotne  and  Expenditure. — The  pecuniary 
resources  of  the  Church  of  England  are 
partly  derived  from  ancient  and  modern 
endowments,  and  partly  from  a  constantly 
kept-up  voluntary  system  ;  they  are  ex¬ 
pended  chiefly  on  the  maintenance  of  the 
clergy,  the  education  of  children,  the  char¬ 
itable  relief  of  the  poor,  the  building  and 
maintenance  of  churches  and  foreign  mis¬ 
sions. — Benham:  Diet,  of  Religion. 

English  Bible  Versions.  See  Bible. 

E'noch  ( initiated ).  The  only  one  of  this 
name  mentioned  in  the  Old  Testament,  of 
special  interest,  is  the  son  of  Jared,  and  the 
father  of  Methuselah.  (Gen.  v.  18,  21-24.) 
We  are  told  that  “he  walked  with  God,” 
and  after  this  life  of  divine  communion  and 
companionship,  at  the  age  of  three  hundred 
and  sixtv-five  years,  “  he  was  not,  for  God 
took  him,”  entering  at  once  upon  the  joys 
of  a  blessed  immortality  without  suffering 
the  ordinary  dissolution  of  the  body.  (Gen. 
v.  18-24.)  “  There  is  only  one  reference 

in  the  Bible  (Jude  14)  to  Enoch  as  a 
prophet,  but  an  Apocryphal  book  called 
after  him,  was  well  known  to  the  early 
fathers.  It  was  then  lost  to  the  knowledge 
of  Europe,  except  in  fragments,  until 
Bruce,  in  1773,  brought  from  Abyssinia 
three  manuscript  copies  containing  the 
complete  Ethiopic  translation.  Archbishop 
Lawrence  made  an  English  translation  of 
the  book,  which  was  the  basis  of  various 


Eno 


(  299  ) 


Eph 


subsequent  editions,  which  were  rendered 
comparatively  worthless  when,  in  1851, 
Dr.  Dillmann  published  a  new  edition  of 
the  Ethiopic  text,  and,  in  1853,  a  German 
translation.  ‘  The  book  consists  of  a  series 
of  revelations,  supposed  to  have  been  given 
to  Enoch  and  Noah,  which  extend  to  the 
most  varied  aspects  of  nature  and  life,  and 
are  designed  to  offer  a  complete  vindica¬ 
tion  of  the  action  of  Providence.’  It  was 
never  received  by  the  Jews  nor  by  the 
fathers  as  inspired.  The  authorship  and 
date  are  unknown.” — Schaff:  Bible  Dic¬ 
tionary. 

Enoch,  Book  of.  See  above. 

Eon.  See  Era;  Gnosticism. 

Epaon,  The  Council  of,  was  held  in  517 


panying  picture  shows  in  the  foreground  a 
part  of  the  ruins  of  the  great  theatre  (Acts 
xix.  29),  and  beyond,  the  plain  and  the  out¬ 
look  toward  the  harbor  and  sea.  Ephesus 
was  visited  by  Paul  on  his  second  mission¬ 
ary  tour  (Actsxviii.  19-21),  and  the  church 
here  was  distinguished  by  having  the  great 
apostle  “  for  its  founder,  St.  John  for  its 
counsellor,  and  Timothy  for  its  bishop.” 
It  was  here  that  A  polios  was  instructed  by 
Aquila  and  Priscilla,  and  St.  John  spent  his 
last  years,  and  probably  wrote  his  gospels 
and  epistles.  On  his  second  visit  Paul 
dwelt  in  Ephesus  from  two  to  three  years 
(Acts  xix.),  and  preached  with  great  suc¬ 
cess.  The  third  oecumenical  council,  which 
defined  the  doctrines  of  the  Church  against 
Nestorius,  met  at  Ephesus.  The  site  of 
the  once  populous  and  magnificent  city  is 
now  occupied  by  a  squalid  Turkish  village. 


SITE  OF  EPHESUS. 


in  a  town  of  Burgundy,  whose  site  is  now 
unknown.  It  was  attended  by  twenty-four 
bishops,  who  passed  forty  canons,  mostly 
of  a  disciplinary  character.  See  Mansi: 
Con.  Coll. ,  viii. 

Eparchy  (the  Greek  word  for  province'). 
In  ecclesiastical  usage  it  denotes  a  prov¬ 
ince  governed  by  a  metropolitan.  In  the 
Russian  Church  a  bishop  is  called  an 
eparch. 

Ephesians,  Epistle  to  the.  See  Paul. 

Eph'esus,  the  most  important  commer¬ 
cial  city  of  Asia  Minor.  It  was  situated  on 
a  fertile  plain,  through  which  ran  the  river 
Cayster,  just  before  it  empties  into  the  sea, 
with  mountains  on  three  sides,  and  the 
Icarian  Sea  on  the  west.  The  accom- 


In  apostolic  times  the  most  remarkable 
building  in  Ephesus  was  the  Temple  of 
Diana,  one  of  the  Seven  Wonders  of  the 
World.  It  was  built  of  the  purest  marble, 
and  was  425  feet  in  length  and  220  feet  in 
breadth.  The  roof  was  supported  by  127 
marble  columns  60  feet  high.  This  mag¬ 
nificent  structure  was  destroyed  by  the 
Goths  when  they  ravaged  the  city,  262  A.D.; 
and  it  was  not  until  1869  that  its  remains 
were  brought  to  light  by  Mr.  J.  T.  Wood, 
who  spent  eleven  years,  from  1862  to  1874, 
in  exploring  the  site  of  the  ancient  city. 
See  Wood:  Discoveries  in  Ephesus  (London 
and  Boston,  1877);  Conybeare  and  How- 
son:  Life  of  St.  Paul ,  ii.,  80  sqq.  (Am.  ed.); 
Farrar:  St.  Paul. 

Ephesus,  Councils  of,  are  eight  in  num¬ 
ber,  but  only  two  are  of  special  interest ; 


Eph 


(  300  ) 


Epi 


(1)  The  third  CEcumenical  Council,  a.  d. 
431  (June  22  to  Aug.  31),  which  condemned 
the  heresy  of  Nestorius  that  Christ  had 
two  persons  as  well  as  two  natures.  Cyril 
of  Alexandria  presided.  Nestorius  was 
present,  but,  when  cited,  refused  to  appear, 
as  the  Syrian  bishops,  upon  whom  he  de¬ 
pended  for  support,  had  been  delayed. 
Cyril  waited  sixteen  days,  and  although 
word  was  sent  that  the  absent  bishops 
were  not  far  away,  he  declined  to  wait 
longer,  and  Nestorius  was  condemned  and 
deposed.  (2)  The  so-called  Robber  Council. 
This  name  was  given  on  account  of  the 
brutal  and  overbearing  manner  in  which 
the  council,  under  the  lead  of  Dioscurus 
of  Alexandria,  restored  Eutyches  ( q .  v. ), 
who  had  been  deposed  by  the  Synod  of 
Constantinople  (448).  The  decisions  of 
this  council  were  reversed  by  the  Council 
of  Chalcedon.  See  Hefele  :  Hist,  of  the 
Councils ,  vol.  ii. ;  Schaff:  Ch.  Hist.,  vol.  ii. ; 
Milman:  Latin  Christianity ,  vol.  i.,  p.  286. 

Ephesus,  The  Seven  Sleepers  of.  This 
early  legend  relates  that  seven  Ephesian 
youths  of  noble  birth,  during  the  persecu¬ 
tion  of  Decius  (249-257),  hid  in  a  cave, 
which  was  sealed  up  by  the  authorities. 
The  young  men  fell  into  a  slumber  which 
continued  for  187  years,  when,  some  of  the 
stones  at  the  entrance  being  removed,  they 
■were  awakened  by  the  rays  of  light.  Send¬ 
ing  one  of  their  number  into  the  city  to 
buj^  bread,  his  strange  appearance  and  the 
ancient  coin  which  he  offered  in  payment 
for  the  food  aroused  curiosity.  The  magis¬ 
trates,  with  the  bishop,  visited  the  Seven 
Sleepers,  but  no  sooner  had  he  given  his 
blessing  than  they  expired.  This  legend  is 
found  in  the  Koran. 

Eph'od,  a  vestment  worn  by  the  Jewish 
high-priest  over  the  meil,  or  second  (pur¬ 
ple)  tunic.  It  consisted  of  two  shoulder- 
pieces,  one  covering  the  back,  the  other 
the  breast  and  upper  part  of  the  body. 
Two  onyx  stones,  set  in  gold,  fastened  it 
on  the  shoulders,  and  on  each  of  the  stones 
were  engraved  the  names  of  six  tribes, 
according  to  their  order.  The  material  of 
which  the  ephod  was  wrought  was  ex¬ 
tremely  costly  and  magnificent,  “gold,  blue, 
purple,  crimson,  and  fine  twined  linen.” 
An  ephod,  or  something  like  it,  was  worn 
by  others  besides  the  priests.  David  ap¬ 
peared  in  one  when  the  ark  was  brought 
back  to  Jerusalem  (2  Sam.  vi.  14),  and  refer¬ 
ence  is  made  to  its  use  under  other  circum¬ 
stances.  (Judges  viii.  27;  xvii.  5;  xviii.  17.) 

E'phraim.  See  Tribes. 

E'phraem  Sy'rus,  one  of  the  most 


prominent  fathers  of  the  Syrian  Church, 
and  a  prolific  ecclesiastical  writer.  The 
real  story  of  his  life  has  become  so  mingled 
with  legendary  accounts  that  it  is  difficult 
to  separate  them.  Horn  in  the  early  part 
of  the  fourth  century,  he  was  educated  by 
Bishop  Jacob,  oT  Nisibis.and  accompanied 
that  prelate  to  the  Council  of  Nicaea  (325). 
In  363  he  removed  to  Edessa,  then  famous 
for  its  schools  of  learning,  and  joining  him¬ 
self  to  the  anchorites,  in  a  cave  outside 
the  city,  he  devoted  himself  to  study  and 
writing.  He  spoke  and  wrote  constantly 
against  idolaters  and  heretics  of  all  kinds, 
especially  Arians,  Sabellians,  etc.  He  died 
about  378.  Of  the  existing  works  of 
Ephraem  only  a  part  are  in  the  original 
Syrian  text;  the  rest  are  in  Greek,  Latin, 
Armenian,  and  Slavic  translations. 

Epicte'tus,  a  celebrated  Stoic;  b.  in  Phry¬ 
gia.  He  was  first  a  slave  in  Rome,  but 
gained  his  freedom,  and  became  a  teacher 
of  the  Stoic  philosophy.  In  a.  d.  90  he  was 
expelled  from  the  city  with  other  Stoics, 
and  settled  at  Nicopolis,  where  he  con¬ 
tinued  to  teach  until  his  death.  His  max¬ 
ims  were  preserved  by  his  disciples.  They 
inculcated  the  principle  of  self-denial  ; 
“  to  renounce,  to  endure,  and  not  to  set 
the  mind  upon  anything  beyond  the  power 
of  the  individual  to  attain,  being  the  points 
chiefly  insisted  upon.”  His  teachings  had 
a  marked  influence  on  Marcus  Aurelius. 
See  F.  W.  Farrar:  Seekers  After  God  (N.Y., 
1885). 

Epicureanism,  a  system  of  philosophy 
originating  with  Epicurus  (342-270  B.  C. ), 
who  taught  at  Athens.  He  taught  that 
happiness  is  the  only  true  aim  of  life,  and 
that  this  consists  in  peace  of  mind  spring¬ 
ing  from  virtue.  His  scheme  of  morality 
put  no  restraint  on  the  passions,  and 
recognized  no  divine. law  of  responsibility. 
The  result  has  been  that  those  who  have 
accepted  the  system  have  often  become 
shameless  sensualists. 

Epipha'nius,  St.,  was  b.  early  in  the 
fourth  century  at  Bezandirke,  a  village  of 
Palestine,  and  probably  was  of  Jewish 
parentage.  Educated  among  the  monks, 
after  spending  some  years  of  his  youth  in 
Egypt  under  Gnostic  influences  he  re¬ 
turned  to  Palestine,  and  in  time  became 
the  head  of  a  monastery,  which  he  founded 
near  his  native  place.  In  367  he  was  made 
bishop  of  Salamis,  the  metropolis  of  Cy¬ 
prus.  Devoted  to  the  interests  of  monas- 
ticism,  and  fanatical  in  his  purpose  to  de¬ 
stroy  what  he  judged  heresies,  he  openly 
denounced  Origen  and  his  followers,  and 
contended  against  them  with  fierce  energy. 


Epi 


(  3d  ) 


Epi 


Under  frivolous  pretexts  he  proceeded,  in 
old  age,  to  Constantinople,  and  attacked 
Chrysostom.  He  was  a  prolific  writer, 
and  a  man  of  considerable  learning.  A  few 
of  his  works  are  preserved,  but  their  chief 
value  is  their  quotations. 

Epiphany,  or  Manifestation  of  Christ 
to  the  Gentiles,  one  of  the  oldest  Chris¬ 
tian  festivals,  observed  on  the  6th  of  Jan¬ 
uary.  In  the  East,  where  it  was  first 
celebrated,  it  was  associated  with  the  man¬ 
ifestation  and  voice  of  the  Holy  Spirit  at 
the  time  of  Christ’s  baptism,  and  for  this 
reason  it  was  made  a  special  occasion  for 
the  baptism  of  catechumens.  In  the  West, 
the  day  was  associated  with  the  visit  of  the 
Magi,  and  it  was  never  a  day  for  baptism. 
It  was  in  connection  with  the  Epiphany 
that  the  romance  was  started,  in  the  twelfth 
century,  that  the  Wise  Men  were  three 
kings,  named  Melchior,  Gaspar,  and  Bal¬ 
thazar.  The  festival,  as  now  celebrated  in 
Episcopal  churches,  commemorates  not 
only  the  visit  of  the  Magi  but  the  manifes¬ 
tation  of  Christ  at  his  baptism  and  in  his 
first  miracle.  Coming  the  twelfth  day 
after  Christmas  it  is  also  called  Twelfth 
Day. 

Episcopacy,  the  government  by  bishops 
in  the  Church.  The  origin  and  functions 
of  the  office  have  been  discussed  under  the 
head  of  Bishop,  and  this  article  will  be 
confined  to  a  brief  statement  of  the  views 
held  on  the  subject  by  different  denomina¬ 
tions  of  Christians  in  which  the  office  of 
bishop  exists.  (1)  The  Roman  Catholic 
Church  defined  its  position,  as  regards  the 
episcopacy,  at  the  Council  of  Trent  in 
canon  sixth:  ‘  If  any  one  saith  that  in  the 
Catholic  Church  there  is  not  a  hierarchy 
instituted  by  divine  ordinance,  consisting 
of  bishops,  priests,  and  deacons,  let  him 
be  anathema.”  The  Roman  Church  holds 
that  the  bishops  are  the  immediate  succes¬ 
sors  of  the  apostles.  The  pope,  or  bishop 
of  Rome,  is  the  head  of  the  hierarchy  of 
bishops,  and  the  successor  of  St.  Peter 
(Matt.  xvi.  18,  19),  who  was  the  first  bishop 
of  Rome.  The  majority  of  Roman  Cath¬ 
olics  accept  the  Vatican  Decrees,  which 
give  the  pope  supreme  authority,  and  lim¬ 
it  the  prerogative  of  the  bishops.  This 
is  the  ultramontane  view,  as  opposed  to 
the  moderate,  or  Gallican  opinion,  which 
asserts  an  independent  divine  right  on  the 
part  of  each  bishop.  (2)  The  Eastern 
Church  holds  to  the  divine  origin  of  the 
episcopacy,  but  regards  the  pope  as  a 
usurper,  and  denies  the  right  of  any  bishop 
to  have  supreme  authority  in  the  Church. 
(3)  The  Old  Catholics  and  the  Jansenisis, 
while  holding  extreme  views  on  the  divine 


origin  and  authority  of  the  episcopacy,  re¬ 
fuse  allegiance  to  the  pope.  (4)  The  Church 
of  England  and  the  Protestant  Episcopal 
Church  in  the  United  States  hold  that  bish¬ 
ops  are  the  successors  of  the  apostles,  and 
superior  to  priests  and  deacons.  The  High- 
Church  view  regards  episcopacy  as  essen¬ 
tial  to  the  existence  of  the  Church,  and 
accepts  the  doctrine  of  apostolic  succession 
and  the  transmission  of  grace  by  the  im¬ 
position  of  hands.  The  Lozcj  and  Broad 
Church  party,  accepting  the  episcopate  as 
representing  the  best  and  most  efficient 
form  of  church  polity,  do  not  regard  it  as 
indispensable,  or  the  only  form  of  govern¬ 
ment  founded  on  scriptural  authority. 
They  generally  accept  the  view  that  in  the 
New  Testament  reference  is  made  only  to 
two  orders  of  the  ministry — presbyters 
and  deacons,  and  that  the  episcopate  was 
developed  from  the  first  of  these  orders. 
(5)  The  Reformed  Episcopal  Church  says,  in 
its  Declaration  of  Principles,  that  “  It  ad¬ 
heres  to  episcopacy,  not  as  of  divine  right, 
but  as  a  very  ancient  and  desirable  form  of 
church  polity.”  (6)  The  bishops  of  the 
Methodist  Episcopal  Church  are  elected  by 
the  General  Conference  for  life.  The  limits 
of  their  authority  are  defined  in  the  Book 
of  Discipline.  They  act  as  general  super¬ 
intendents  of  the  work  of  the  Church,  and 
perform  all  episcopal  functions,  while 
claiming  no  superiority  over  their  breth¬ 
ren.  The  Methodist  episcopacy  was  insti¬ 
tuted  by  Wesley.  After  vainly  seeking  the 
ordination  of  preachers  to  America  by  the 
Bishop  of  London,  he  personally  ordained 
Thomas  Coke,  LL.  D.,  and  Richard  What- 
coat  and  Thomas  Vasey  as  superintendents 
of  the  work  in  America.  Dr.  Coke  ordained 
Francis  Asbury,in  1784,  the  first  bishop  of 
the  Methodist  Church.  (7)  The  Moravian 
Church  is  in  form  episcopal,  its  bishops 
claiming  direct  descent  from  those  of  the 
old  Church  of  Bohemia.  They  recognize 
the  ordination  of  other  denominations  as 
valid,  and  admit  presbyters  at  once  into 
their  ministry.  (8)  The  Lutheran  Church ,  for 
the  most  part,  discards  the  episcopacy.  The 
church  in  Sweden  has  bishops.  Their 
claim  to  apostolic  succession,  like  that  of 
the  bishops  of  the  Lutheran  Church  of 
Denmark,  is  not  generally  admitted.  (9) 
The  Evangelical  Association  and  the  Church 
of  the  United  Brethren  have  bishops  elected 
for  stated  periods,  and  not  for  life.  (10) 
The  Reformed  Churches  hold  that  there  are 
but  two  orders  of  the  ministry — presbyters 
and  deacons.  The  term  bishop  as  used  in 
the  New  Testament  they  regard  as  identical 
with  presbyter. 

Episcopal  Church,  The  American.  The 
first  services  of  the  reformed  Church  of 


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England,  within  the  territory  now  forming 
the  United  States,  were  held  on  the  shores 
of  the  Bay  of  San  Francisco  in  the  year 
1579.  Francis  Fletcher,  priest  and  preach¬ 
er  of  the  expedition  of  Sir  Francis  Drake 
in  the  Golden  Hind ,  in  which  the  globe 
was  circumnavigated,  records  in  I'he 
World  Encotnpassed the  use  of  the  Church’s 
prayers  on  the  eve,  or  else  on  the  feast  of 
St.  John  Baptist,  June  24,  at  which  savages 
and  sailors  formed  the  congregation  of 
worshipers,  and  the  motley  crew  of  the 
great  buccaneer  besought  their  Godin  be¬ 
half  of  the  simple  natives  attracted  to  their 
solemn  services,  that  he  would  “  open  their 
blinded  eyes  to  the  knowledge  of  him,  and  of 
Jesus  Christ,  the  salvation  of  the  Gentiles.” 
For  six  weeks  these  English  visitors  re¬ 
mained  on  the  coast  of  California  while 
repairing  the  Golden  Hind,  and  during 
all  this  while  the  services  of  the  Church 
were  maintained.  Thus  was  the  land  of 
gold  at  its  first  discovery  consecrated  to 
the  service  of  God  by  men  of  the  English 
race,  and  members  of  England’s  Church. 

Later,  on  the  Atlantic  coast,  at  Raleigh’s 
ill-fated  colony  in  North  Carolina  on  the 
13th  of  August,  the  Ninth  Sunday  after 
Trinity,  1587,  Manteo,  an  Indian  chieftain 
who  had  been  twice  in  England,  received 
holy  baptism  in  accordance  with  the  forms 
of  the  English  Church;  and  on  the  follow¬ 
ing  Sunday  Virginia  Dare,  daughter  of 
Ananias  and  Eleanor  Dare,  and  grand¬ 
daughter  of  the  Governor  of  the  colony, 
John  White,  the  first  Christian  born  in 
Virginia,  was  christened  according  to  the 
same  forms. 

In  the  summer  of  1605,  the  expedition 
under  the  command  of  Waymouth,  which 
had  “  put  to  sea  in  the  name  of  God  ”  on 
Easter-day,  was  off  the  coast  of  Maine,  and 
at  the  daily  prayers  of  the  churches  then 
maintained  in  every  voyage  of  discovery, 
trade,  or  settlement,  the  Indian  visitors  of 
the  captain  were  present  from  time  to 
time,  “  who  behaved  themselves  very 
civilly,  neither  laughing  nor  talking  all  the 
time.” 

On  the  Third  Sunday  after  Trinity,  June 
21,  1607,  the  first  Sacrament  was  adminis¬ 
tered  at  Jamestown,  Virginia,  by  the  faith¬ 
ful  priest,  Robert  Hunt,  A.  M.,  who  went 
forth  on  the  Church’s  mission  to  the  New 
World  in  Newport’s  Expedition,  at  the 
request,  and  with  the  special  approval,  of 
Bancroft,  the  Archbishop  of  Canterbury. 
This  sacrament  was  administered,  and  the 
daily  prayers  of  the  Church  were  said 
morning  and  evening,  in  the  rude  church 
described  by  Captain  John  Smith,  in  his 
“Advertisements”  dedicated  to  Arch¬ 
bishop  Abbot,  in  which  for  a  while  the 
worship  of  the  Church  was  maintained  till 


the  more  substantial  church — “  a  homely 
thing  like  a  barne,  set  upon  cratchets,  cov¬ 
ered  with  rafts,  sedge  and  earth  ” — was 
built.  This  in  time  gave  place  to  a  more 
fitting  structure  of  cedar,  sixty  feet  by 
twenty-four,  with  chancel,  altar,  pulpit, 
and  baptismal  font,  in  which  De  la  Warr, 
the  pious  governor,  worshiped  in  almost 
regal  pomp  and  state,  and  the  Indian 
maiden,  Pocahontas,  received  holy  bap¬ 
tism  at  the  hands  of  Alexander  Whitaker, 
the  apostle  to  the  Indians,  and  was  after¬ 
ward  married  to  John  Rolfe. 

At  the  North,  there  had  been  founded  a 
colony  with  its  church  and  clergyman,  at 
the  mouth  of  the  Sagadahoc  on  the  coast  of 
Maine.  Sailing  from  Plymouth.  England, 
on  Trinity  Sunday,  May  31,  1607,  this 
colony,  of  which  George  Popham  was  the 
head,  celebrated  its  landing  and  its  final 
choice  of  a  settlement  with  the  Church’s 
services  and  sermons  by  Richard  Seymour, 
the  faithful  priest  who  accompanied  this 
expedition  to  our  shores.  Here  again,  and 
as  was  always  the  case  at  these  settlements 
undertaken  by  the  members  of  the  Church 
of  England,  the  savages  were  invited  to 
attend  the  services  of  the  Church,  and  in 
the  annals  of  this  colony  special  note  is 
made  of  the  presence,  at  matins  and  even¬ 
song,  on  the  Eighteenth  Sunday  after 
Trinity,  of  “  Nahanada  and  his  wife,  and 
Skidwarres,  with  the  Basshaboes  brother, 
and  one  other,  called  Amerquin,  a  Sagamo. ” 
These,  the  president  took  to  “  the  place 
of  public  prayers,  which  they  were  at  both 
morning  and  evening,  attending  it  with 
great  reverence  and  silence.”  Thus  was 
the  New  England  coast  the  scene  of  the 
Church’s  services  and  sacraments  thirteen 
years  before  the  coming  to  Plymouth  of 
the  Leyden  Puritans  to  found  the  New 
England  theocracy. 

Special  efforts  were  made  in  Virginia, 
not  alone  for  providing  the  services  of  the 
Church  for  the  settlers,  but  also  for  the 
conversion  of  the  Indians  to  Christ.  There 
could  be  no  greater  mistake  than  to  sup¬ 
pose  that  faithful  priests  were  wanting  in 
these  days  of  early  settlement,  or  that  the 
labors  of  these  self-denying  men  were  con¬ 
fined  to  those  of  their  own  race.  At  the 
meeting  in  “  the  Quire  of  the  Churche  ”  at 
Jamestown,  of  the  first  elective  legislative 
body  convened  on  this  continent,  which 
took  place  on  Friday,  July  30,  1619,  the 
sessions,  which  were  opened  by  the  solemn 
services  of  the  Church,  were  largely  oc¬ 
cupied  with  the  consideration  of  means  for 
the  better  provision  of  clergy  for  the 
colony,  and  for  the  Christianizing  and 
civilizing  of  the  Indians.  The  projected 
Universityat  Henrico, and  the  Indian  school 
at  Charles  City  were  richly  endowed  with 


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land,  and  were  most  liberally  provided 
with  instructors,  and  with  every  thing  req¬ 
uisite  for  the  work  of  Christian  education. 
The  gifts  of  pious  Churchmen  of  all  class¬ 
es  and  conditions  poured  in  upon  this  In¬ 
stitution,  of  which  Mr.  George  Morpe,  a 
gentleman  of  family  and  fortune,  was  made 
the  head.  A  royal  “  brief”  called  for  con¬ 
tributions  to  further  this  work  of  evan¬ 
gelizing  the  western  world,  from  all  the 
parishes  of  England  and  Wales.  One  of 
the  Virginia  clergy ,  Mr.  Thomas  Bargrave, 
a  nephew  of  the  Dean  of  Canterbury, 
who  came  over  in  1618,  at  his  death  in 
1621  left  his  library,  valued  at  one  hundred 
marks,  or  seventy  pounds  sterling,  to  the 
College;  thus  anticipating  the  act  of  the 
young  minister  of  Charlestown,  Mas¬ 
sachusetts,  who,  a  few  years  later,  left  his 
books  to  the  infant  College  at  Cambridge, 
and  thus  gained  a  name  and  remembrance 
wherever  “  Harvard  ”  College  is  known. 
The  rising  of  the  Indians,  and  the  mas¬ 
sacre  of  the  colonists  in  March,  1622,  gave 
a  death-blow  to  the  first  efforts  made  in 
America  for  the  establishment  of  a  Uni¬ 
versity,  and  it  was  years  before  the  at¬ 
tempt  was  renewed,  and  William  and  Mary 
College,  chartered  toward  the  close  of  the 
seventeenth  century,  became  the  first 
Church  College  of  the  western  world. 

There  were  Churchmen  even  among  the 
Plymouth  Puritans,  and  the  attempt  they 
made  to  keep  the  Christmas-feast  with  the 
sports  of  the  mother-land  was  ruthlessly 
crushed  by  the  magistrate.  Churchmen 
abounded  in  Maine,  in  New  Hampshire, 
and  were  first  on  the  ground  at  Boston  and 
Charlestown,  and  later,  in  Rhode  Island.  In 
the  middle  and  southern  colonies  the 
Church  grew  apace,  and  on  the  organiza¬ 
tion  of  the  Venerable  Society  for  the  Prop¬ 
agation  of  the  Gospel  in  Foreign  Parts, 
in  the  year  1701,  through  the  exertions  of 
Thomas  Bray,  D.  D.,  who  had  been  the 
commissary  of  the  Bishop  of  London,  in 
Maryland,  there  were  supplied,  as  were 
needed  at  different  points  on  the  continent, 
the  ministrations  of  missionaries  selected 
and  sent  out  from  home.  The  list  of  these 
“  missioners  ”  comprises  the  names  of 
many  men  whose  lives  and  labors  have 
their  record  on  high,  as  well  as  in  the  last¬ 
ing  remembrance  of  the  parishes  they 
founded  and  the  services  they  rendered, 
both  to  Europeans  and  savages  on  the  At¬ 
lantic  coast.  The  first  of  these  mission¬ 
aries  was  the  celebrated  George  Keith, 
who  was  a  convert  from  Quakerism,  and 
whose  labors  extended  from  New  Hamp¬ 
shire  to  Caratuck,  in  North  Carolina. 
From  the  numbers  of  devoted  men  who 
gave  their  lives  to  the  work  of  evangeliz¬ 
ing  the  colonies,  one,  the  Rev.  Thomas 


Thompson,  after  years  of  faithful  labor  in 
New  Jersey,  was  the  first  to  offer  himself 
for  the  foreign  missionary  work;  and,  giv¬ 
ing  up  his  home  and  cure  of  souls  in  our 
land,  went  forth  as  a  herald  of  the  cross  to 
the  coast  of  Africa,  and  lived  and  died  a 
missionary  to  the  Guinea  negroes,  nearly 
a  half-century  before  the  great  societies  of 
modern  days  had  their  birth. 

In  North  Carolina,  the  Rev.  Clement 
Hall  traveled  on  his  mission  tours  thou¬ 
sands  of  miles,  and  brought  hundreds  to 
holy  baptism,  and  to  the  new  life  of  repent¬ 
ance  and  faith.  In  Connecticut  the  cause 
of  the  Church  received  a  new  impulse 
when,  on  the  day  after  the  annual  “  Com¬ 
mencement  ”  of  Yale  College — founded  by 
the  liberality  of  a  Churchman  for  whom  it 
was  named — the  head  of  the  Institution 
and  six  of  its  most  prominent  “  fellows,” 
“  tutors,”  and  graduates,  presented  to  the 
trustees  a  paper  declaring  that  “  some  of 
us  doubt  the  validity,  and  the  rest  of  us 
are  more  fully  persuaded  of  the  invalidity 
of  the  Presbyterian  ordination,  in  oppo¬ 
sition  to  Episcopal.”  The  public  discus¬ 
sion  following  this  bold  step  resulted  in 
the  resignation  of  Rector  Cutler,  Tutor 
Brown,  Samuel  Johnson  (formerly  tutor 
and  pastor  of  West  Haven),  and  James  Wet- 
more  (pastor  of  North  Haven),  “  persons 
of  figure,  ”  by  the  admission  of  their  oppo¬ 
nents;  “  of  considerable  learning,”  and 
“of  a  virtuous  and  blameless  conversa¬ 
tion;  ”  who  soon  after  proceeded  to  Eng¬ 
land  for  the  ordination  they  coveted.  In  the 
decade  following  this  memorable  declara¬ 
tion,  more  than  one  in  ten  of  the  graduates 
of  Yale  who  entered  the  ministry  followed 
the  example  of  Cutler,  Johnson,  Brown, 
and  Wetmore,  in  conforming  to  the 
Church.  The  “  Connecticut  apostacie,” 
as  Chief-Justice  Sewall,  of  Massachusetts, 
styles  it  in  his  Diary ,  occasioned  great  ap¬ 
prehension  among  the  ministers  and  mem¬ 
bers  of  the  “standing  order”  in  New 
England. 

At  Boston,  John  Checkley  (afterward 
M.A.),  of  Oxford,  Eng.,  and  missionary  of 
the  Venerable  Society  at  Providence,  R.  I., 
for  many  years,  was  tried,  imprisoned,  and 
fined  for  publishing,  as  an  appendix  to  Les¬ 
lie’s  Short  and  Easy  Method  with  the  Deists , 
a  “  Discourse  concerning  Episcopacy,” 
also  from  the  pen  of  Leslie,  with  occa¬ 
sional  additions  and  changes,  designed  to 
apply  the  arguments  of  the  author  to  the 
objections  and  case  of  the  New  England 
Independents.  The  Puritan  magistracy, 
by  an  “  order  of  Council,”  ordered  an  in¬ 
dictment  of  this  book,  as  “  reflecting  on 
the  ministers  of  the  gospel  established  in 
this  Province,  and  denying  their  Sacred 
Function  and  the  holy  Ordinances  of  Re- 


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ligion,  as  administered  by  them.”  Refused 
the  privilege  of  speaking  in  his  own  de¬ 
fense,  a  “heavy  judgment”  was  entered 
against  Checkley  in  the  lower  court;  and 
an  appeal,  in  which  Checkley  delivered  his 
famous  speech  in  defense  of  the  exclusive 
validity  of  Episcopal  Ordination  and  Sacra¬ 
ments,  the  jury  found,  “  specially,”  that 
“  if  this  book ,  entitled,  lA  Short  and  Easy 
Method  with  the  Deists ,’  containing  in  it  a 
‘  Discourse  concerning  Episcopacy  ’  (pub¬ 
lished,  and  many  of  them  sold,  by  the  said 
Checkley),  be  a  false  and  scandalous  Libel , 
then  we  find  the  said  Checkley  guilty  of  all 
and  every  Part  of  the  Indictment  (except¬ 
ing  that  supposed  to  traduce  and  draw  into 
dispute  the  undoubted  Right  and  Title  of 
our  Sovereign  Lord,  King  George,  to  the 
Kingdoms  of  Great  Britain  and  Ireland, 
and  the  Territories  thereto  belonging).  But 
if  the  said  Book,  containing  a  Discourse 
concerning  Episcopacy  as  aforesaid,  be 
not  a  false  and  scandalous  Libel,  then  we 
find  him  not  guilty.”  The  Justices  were 
men  of  sterner  stuff  than  these  befogged 
jurymen,  and  the  “  Sentence  of  the  Court  ” 
pronounced  the  “  Discourse  concerning 
Episcopacy  ”  to  be  “a  false  and  scandal¬ 
ous  Libel.”  Checkley  was,  therefore,  fined 
“  Fifty  pounds  to  the  King,”  and  compelled 
to  pay  the  costs  of  this  prosecution — 
“  standing  committed  until  this  sentence 
be  performed.”  Such  was  the  answer  of 
the  Puritan  establishment  to  the  arguments 
of  the  Church’s  champion.  A  war  of  pam¬ 
phlets  followed,  only  ceasing  when  the 
graver  questions  of  the  introduction  of 
bishops  into  the  colonies  aroused  an  even 
fiercer  controversy,  and  gave  occasion  to 
even  more  bitter  invective  from  those  who 
would  deprive  the  Church  of  the  right 
freely  accorded  in  America  to  every  other 
religious  organization.  Churchmen  were 
now  daily  “distrained”  for  “rates”  due 
for  the  support  of  the  ministers  of  the 
“  standing  order.”  The  Rev.  William 
Gibbs,  of  Simsbury,  Conn.,  writes  to  the 
Venerable  Society  from  “  Hartford  Gaol,” 
where  he  had  been  confined  on  an  execu¬ 
tion  for  the  costs  in  an  unsuccessful  suit 
for  his  rate  collected,  but  not  paid  over, 
by  the  Independents  of  New  Cambridge. 
“  Meantime,”  writes  Dr.  Johnson,  of  Strat¬ 
ford,  “  many  of  our  people  are  frequently 
persecuted  and  imprisoned  for  their  rates 
to  dissenting  teachers,  which  they  have 
never  been  in  any  stipulation  with.”  In 
1750  the  Rev.  Ebenezer  Punderson  writes: 
“  In  Branford  and  Cohasset  they  have,  in 
the  most  violent  manner,  been  distressing 
and  imprisoning  the  members  of  the 
Church  of  England.”  The  Archbishop  of 
Canterbury,  the  excellent  Seeker,  writes: 
“  These  sort  of  complaints  come  by  every 


ship,  almost;  there  are  now  some  ministers 
of  the  Church  of  England  in  prison  on  ac¬ 
count  of  these  persecutions  from  the  Dis¬ 
senters.” 

The  Church  had  been  introduced  into 
New  York  on  the  surrender  of  New  Am¬ 
sterdam  to  the  English  Crown.  In  Phil¬ 
adelphia  the  “  Church  party”  had  asserted 
its  rights  to  toleration;  and  a  Church,  in 
which  from  the  first  were  held  abundant 
services,  was  erected  in  time  to  give  place 
to  the  noble  Christ  Church — the  very  cra¬ 
dle  of  the  independent  American  Church. 
In  Maryland,  Churchmen  formed  a  part  of 
the  “  Pilgrims  of  Maryland,”  who,  under 
Calvert,  colonized  this  province  and  estab¬ 
lished  themselves  at  St.  Mary’s  in  1634. 
The  “  Protestant  Catholics,”  as  these  faith¬ 
ful  and  resolute  Churchmen  styled  them¬ 
selves,  had  a  chapel  at  St.  Mary’s,  and 
constant  services,  even  from  the  first, 
when  there  was  no  priest  of  their  own 
communion  to  minister  to  them.  Later, 
the  clergy  of  the  mother-land  came  to  this 
province,  and  the  toleration  granted,  by  a 
king  in  communion  with  the  Church  of 
England,  to  the  Roman  Catholic  settlers  of 
Maryland  was,  necessarily  and  agreeably  to 
the  very  words  of  the  royal  patent,  extended 
to  the  Church  to  which  rightly  belongs  the 
praise  of  this  act  of  comity  rather  than  to 
those  to  whom  it  was  granted  as  a  special 
boon.  In  Virginia,  with  the  growth  of  the 
colony,  the  Church  grew.  Clergy  from 
England  and  from  the  Virginian  College  of 
William  and  Mary,  supplied  the  numerous 
parishes,  and  both  Indians  and  negroes 
profited  by  their  ministrations.  In  New 
York  the  labors  of  the  missionaries  of  the 
Venerable  Society  among  the  Mohawks 
were  productive  of  lasting  results;  and 
while  the  Indian  Bible  of  John  Eliot’s 
pious  labors  is  to-day  in  an  unknown  ana 
unused  tongue — a  costly  curiosity,  remand¬ 
ed  to  libraries — The  Mohawk  Prayer-book, 
with  the  portions  of  Scripture  contained 
therein,  prepared  and  published  by  the  mis¬ 
sion-priests  of  the  English  Church,  is  still 
in  use  in  frequent  reissues  from  the  press, 
and  has  moulded  the  Christian  life  of  suc¬ 
cessive  generations  of  Indians,  reclaimed 
from  idolatr}’-  and  from  their  savage  estate. 

In  South  Carolina,  the  labors  of  the  mis¬ 
sionaries  among  the  Yemasees  were  pro¬ 
ductive  of  great  results,  while  in  North 
Carolina  the  services  of  the  clergy  were 
both  abundant  and  far-reaching  for  good. 
It  was  in  Georgia  that  both  John  and 
Charles  Wesley  labored — the  former  in 
Christ  Church  parish,  Savannah,  and  the 
latter  at  Frederica.  While  in  Savannah, 
John  Wesley,  who  established  the  weekly 
Eucharist  in  his  Georgia  parish,  was  suc¬ 
ceeded  by  the  great  evangelist,  George 


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Epi 


Whitefield,  who,  after  most  devoted  ser¬ 
vice  in  continuing  the  daily  prayers  and 
frequent  additional  services  established 
by  Wesley,  built  and  endowed,  under  the 
Church's  auspices,  the  first  Orphan  House 
on  the  continent.  Even  in  Florida,  and 
what  is  now  the  State  of  Alabama,  the 
mission-priests  of  the  Church  of  England 
penetrated,  and  established  their  services. 
Among  the  missionaries  who  deserve  spe¬ 
cial  mention  for  long  and  faithful  labor,  we 
may  instance  the  Rev.  George  Ross,  of 
Delaware,  whose  term  of  service  extended 
over  a  half-century,  and  whose  son  was  a 
signer  of  the  Declaration  of  Independence; 
the  Rev.  John  Talbot,  of  New  Jersey, 
whose  praise  was  in  all  the  churches;  the 
Rev.  Evan  Evans,  D.  D.,  of  Philadelphia, 
through  whose  care  the  Church  in  Penn¬ 
sylvania  grew  fast  and  strong;  the  Rev. 
Commissary,  John  Blair,  of  North  Caro- 
lina,  full  of  labors  and  success;  the  Rev. 
Alexander  Garden,  of  South  Carolina,  a 
commissary  of  the  Bishop  of  London,  and 
an  earnest  stickler  for  the  Church’s  order; 
the  Rev.  James  McSparran,  D.  D.,  of  Nar- 
ragansett,  R.  I.,  who,  both  by  his  life  and 
literary  work,  adorned  the  Church  of  which 
he  was  a  member;  and  the  Rev.  Thomas 
Bradbury  Chandler,  D.  D.,  of  New  Jersey, 
who,  with  the  Rev.  East  Apthorp,  of  Mas¬ 
sachusetts,  the  Rev.  William  Smith,  D.  D., 
provost  of  the  College  and  Academy  of 
Philadelphia,  the  Rev.  John  Beach,  of 
Connecticut,  the  Rev.  Charles  Inglis, 
D.  D.,  afterward  first  Bishop  of  Nova  Sco¬ 
tia,  and  the  Rev.  Samuel  Seabury,  D.  D., 
first  Bishop  of  Connecticut,  were  foremost 
in  defense  of  the  Church’s  right  to  the 
Episcopate,  and  by  pamphlets,  treatises, 
and  newspaper  articles,  served  to  keep  this 
subject  before  the  public  view. 

At  the  beginning  of  the  War  of  the  Revo¬ 
lution  there  were  in  the  colonies  not  far 
from  two  hundred  and  fifty  clergymen  of 
the  Church  of  England.  It  is  a  matter  of 
record  that  fully  two  thousand  “  clerks  in 
holy  orders”  of  the  Anglican  communion 
had  lived  and  labored  on  American  soil, 
from  the  date  of  Francis  Fletcher’s  minis¬ 
trations  on  the  California  coast  in  1579,  to 
the  time  of  the  breaking  out  of  the  struggle 
for  independence. 

The  Church  in  the  middle  and  southern 
colonies  was  the  church  of  the  wealthy, 
the  cultivated,  the  refined.  It  was  the 
church  of  the  representatives  of  royalty, 
even  in  New  England.  Those  who  sought 
political  prominence  in  the  provincial 
assemblies,  or  coveted  the  rich  offices  in 
the  gift  of  the  Crown;  those  who  had  sup¬ 
plemented  the  defects  of  transatlantic 
education  and  training  at  the  ancient  uni¬ 
versities;  the  younger  members  of  noble 


families  who  had  sought  homes  and  for¬ 
tunes  in  the  new  world;  those  who  had 
traveled  abroad,  and,  in  short,  all  who 
maintained  a  close  connection  with  the 
court  and  Crown  of  the  mother-land  were 
naturally  adherents  of  the  established 
religion  of  England,  and  disposed  to  fur¬ 
ther  its  growth  and  standing  in  America. 
Besides  these,  a  large  number  of  the  grad¬ 
uates  of  the  Puritan  colleges  of  Harvard 
and  Yale,  in  being  brought  in  contact  with 
the  works  of  Anglican  theology  stored  in 
the  libraries  of  these  institutions,  had  be¬ 
come  converts  to  the  Church,  and  were 
most  zealous  in  their  devotion  to  their  new 
belief.  There  was  lacking  but  the  presence 
of  Bishops  in  America  to  bring  into  the 
Church  numbers  who  feared  to  cross  the 
ocean  for  Orders,  or  who  felt  that  without 
the  prelatical  order  there  could  not  be  in 
America  that  perfect  oversight  of  matters 
of  discipline,  and  that  full  administration 
of  the  Church’s  rules  and  rites  which  they 
desired.  It  is  a  matter  of  history,  that  at 
the  opening  of  the  Revolutionary  War  the 
prospects  of  the  Church  were  full  of  prom¬ 
ise.  It  was,  without  doubt,  the  leading 
religious  body  in  the  land. 

The  war,  in  bringing  about  a  direct  is¬ 
sue  with  the  Crown,  divided  the  Church. 
Many  of  the  clergy  of  English  birth,  and 
all  of  English  ordination,  felt  resting  upon 
them  the  binding  obligation  of  their  ordi¬ 
nation  vows,  and  gave  in  their  adhesion  to 
the  royal  cause.  Their  parishioners,  in 
many  cases,  followed  their  lead.  It  is  a 
noticeable  fact  that  in  the  colonies  where 
the  Church  had  been  established  and  the 
clergy  were  independent  of  foreign  con¬ 
trol,  the  clergy  generally  espoused  the 
popular  cause.  The  stipendiaries  of  the 
Venerable  Society,  on  the  other  hand,  were 
generally  loyalists.  Still,  the  great  body, 
both  of  clergy  and  laity,  were  identified 
with  the  patriotic  party.  It  could  not  be 
otherwise,  when  the  vestries  of  Virginia, 
and  the  other  colonies  where  the  Church 
was  established  had  been  fighting  the  bat¬ 
tles  and  establishing  the  principles  of  the 
Revolution  for  one  hundred  and  fifty  years. 
We  are  not  surprised,  then,  to  learn  that 
the  first  prayer  in  Congress  fell  from  the 
lips  of  a  priest  of  the  Church;  that  the 
most  conclusive  arguments  in  defence  of 
the  American  people  were  prepared  by 
clergymen  of  the  Church,  such  as  William 
Smith  and  Thomas  Coombe  of  Philadelphia; 
that  Bass,  afterward  first  Bishop  of  Massa¬ 
chusetts  and  New  Hampshire,  was  dis¬ 
missed  from  the  service  of  the  Venerable 
Society  for  his  ready  compliance  with  the 
requirements  of  the  insurrectionary  assem¬ 
bly  of  the  province;  that  Parker,  of  Trin¬ 
ity,  Boston,  who  succeeded  to  the  Massa- 


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(  306  ) 


Epi 


chusetts  Episcopate,  was  among  the  first  to 
adapt  the  Prayer-Book  Services  to  the  new 
order  of  things;  that  Provoost,  first  Bishop 
of  New  York,  was  a  leader  on  the  side  of 
freedom,  and  personally  took  part  in  the 
strife;  that  Croes,  first  Bishop  of  New  Jer¬ 
sey,  was  a  non-commissioned  officer  in  the 
war;  that  William  White,  first  Bishop  of 
Pennsylvania,  was  a  chaplain  of  Congress 
in  the  darkest  hours  of  the  American 
cause;  that  Madison,  first  Bishop  of  Vir¬ 
ginia,  and  Griffith,  first  Bishop-elect  of  the 
Old  Dominion,  and  Washington’s  rector 
and  personal  friend,  and  Charles  Minn 
Thrustin,  who  gathered  the  patriots  of 
Frederick  County,  Virginia,  within  the 
walls  of  his  church  for  council,  and  Muh¬ 
lenberg,  of  Shenandoah,  who  exchanged 
the  surplice  for  the  soldier’s  garb,  and 
Robert  Smith,  first  Bishop  of  South  Caro¬ 
lina,  who  served  as  a  soldier  in  the  war, 
were  each  and  all  leaders  in  the  cause  of 
*  American  freedom.  In  South  Carolina  fif¬ 
teen  out  of  the  twenty  clergy  adhered  to  the 
American  side.  In  Virginia,  Maryland, 
Pennsylvania,  Delaware,  New  Jersey,  the 
proportion  fell  but  little  short  of  that  at 
the  South. 

It  is  not  to  be  wondered  at  that  by  far 
the  greater  part  of  those  who  signed  the 
Declaration  of  Independence  were  Church¬ 
men;  that  Washington  was  a  life-long  wor¬ 
shiper  at  the  Church’s  altars;  that  John 
Jay,  William  Samuel  Johnson,  Patrick 
Henry,  Francis  Hopkinson,  Henry  Lau¬ 
rens,  Lord  Stirling,  Anthony  Wayne,  the 
Pinckneys,  the  Randolphs,  and  others  of 
equal  or  less  note,  were  all  Churchmen. 
Even  Benjamin  Franklin  was  a  nominal 
Churchman,  and  his  testimony  to  the  value 
of  the  Prayer-Book  is  most  interesting; 
while  Thomas  Jefferson,  the  author  of  the 
Declaration  of  Independence,  was  also,  at 
the  time  of  its  composition,  an  attendant 
on  the  services  of  the  Church  in  which  he 
was  brought  up,  and  with  which  he  always 
maintained  an  outward  connection. 

The  close  of  war  found  the  Church  at  its 
lowest  ebb.  The  clergy  had  been  scattered, 
the  churches  were  closed,  or  had  been 
converted  to  other  uses,  and  the  connec¬ 
tion  of  the  American  Churchmen  with  the 
Mother-Church  of  England  had  been  sun¬ 
dered.  There  were  those  who  thought 
upon  Zion,  and  mourned  to  see  her  in  the 
dust.  In  1783  ten  clergymen  met  at  Wood¬ 
bury,  Conn.,  and  on  the  Feast  of  the  An¬ 
nunciation,  March  25,  chose  the  excellent 
Samuel  Seabury,  D.  D.,  Oxon.,  to  go  first 
to  England,  and  then,  if  necessary,  to 
Scotland,  to  secure  the  coveted  Episcopate, 
without  which  the  New  England  Church¬ 
men  felt  that  all  efforts  for  the  organiza¬ 
tion  of  the  Church  would  be  futile.  In 


Maryland,  under  the  leadership  of  the  able 
William  Smith,  formerly  president  of  the 
College  and  Academy  of  Philadelphia,  and 
then  in  charge  of  Washington  College, 
Chestertown,  measures  for  organization 
had  been  taken  by  the  clergy,  and  at  an 
informal  meeting  of  three  clergymen  the 
title  of  The  Protestant  Episcopal  Church  had 
been  given  to  the  revived  body,  heretofore 
known  as  the  Church  of  England  in  Amer¬ 
ica.  In  1784  the  Church  in  Pennsylvania, 
under  the  leadership  of  William  White, 
organized  on  the  plan  advocated  prior  to 
the  announcement  of  peace  by  the  rector 
of  Christ  Church  and  St.  Peter’s.  Phila¬ 
delphia,  which  provided  for  the  admission 
of  the  laity  into  the  councils  of  the  Church. 
In  Virginia,  where,  at  the  beginning  of  the 
war,  the  legislature  had  taken  in  hand  the 
revision  of  the  Prayers  of  the  Church,  by 
directing  the  omission  of  the  State  suppli¬ 
cations,  the  clergy  met  in  council,  and 
took  measures  for  the  preservation  of  the 
Church’s  temporalities,  as  well  as  adopted 
resolutions  respecting  the  limitation  of 
Episcopal  power  when  Bishops  should  bc 
obtained. 

In  South  Carolina  the  preliminary  Con¬ 
vention,  while  recognizing  the  existence 
and  need  of  the  three  orders  of  the  minis¬ 
try,  stipulated  that,  for  the  present,  no 
Bishop  should  be  settled  in  the  State. 

The  first  general  meeting  of  the  repre¬ 
sentatives  of  the  Churches  in  the  respective 
States  grew  out  of  a  suggestion  made  by 
Dr.  Abraham  Beach,  of  New  Brunswick, 
N.  J.,  in  a  letter  addressed  to  the  Rev. 
William  White,  of  Philadelphia,  and  at  a 
later  date  in  one  sent  to  the  Rev.  Samuel 
Provoost,  the  patriot-rector  of  Trinity 
Church,  New  York.  In  connection  with  a 
meeting  at  New  Brunswick  of  the  “  Cor¬ 
poration  for  the  Relief  of  Widows  and 
Orphans  of  Clergymen  of  the  Church  of 
England,”  in  Pennsylvania,  New  Jersey, 
and  New  York,  this  primary  and  informal 
meeting  was  held  on  the  nth  of  May,  17S4. 
Laymen  as  well  as  clergymen  were  present, 
and  a  Committee  of  Correspondence  was 
appointed  “  for  the  purpose  of  forming  a 
continental  representation  of  the  Episcopal 
Church,  and  for  the  better  management  of 
its  other  concerns.”  Agreeably  to  this  ac¬ 
tion,  there  met  in  NewYork,  on  the  6th  of 
October,  1784,  a  “  Convention  of  Clergy¬ 
men  and  Lay  Deputies  of  the  Protestant 
Episcopal  Church  in  the  United  States  of 
America.”  Of  the  New  England  States, 
Massachusetts  and  Rhode  Island  and 
Connecticut  were  represented  by  a  single 
clerical  deputy  respectively.  New  York 
sent  six  clergymen  and  three  laymen;  New 
Jersey,  a  single  clergyman  with  three 
laymen;  Pennsylvania  was  represented  by 


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(  307  ) 


Epi 


three  clergymen  and  four  laymen;  Dela¬ 
ware  by  two  clergymen  and  a  single  lay¬ 
man;  and  Maryland  by  one  clergyman,  the 
celebrated  Dr.  William  Smith.  The  Rev. 
Mr.  Griffith,  of  Virginia,  was  present, 
though  unaccredited,  the  clergy  of  Vir¬ 
ginia  “  being  restricted  by  laws  yet  in 
force,”  and,  consequently,  not  “at  liberty 
to  send  delegates,  or  consent  to  any  altera¬ 
tion  in  the  order,  government,  doctrine,  or 
worship  of  the  Church.”  Fifteen  clergy¬ 
men  and  eleven  of  the  laity  composed  a 
body  which  framed  the  “  fundamental 
principles  ”  underlying  the  general  ecclesi¬ 
astical  constitution  of  the  American  Church 
which,  with  slight  modifications,  has  existed 
for  a  hundred  years,  and  more.  It  was 
provided  in  these  “  Fundamental  Prin¬ 
ciples”  that  there  should  be  a  meeting  “  of 
the  Episcopal  Church”  in  a  “  General  Con¬ 
vention;  that  there  should  be  a  represen¬ 
tation  of  the  Episcopal  Church  in  each 
State”  by  deputies  “consisting  of  clergy 
and  laity;”  that  the  “Church  shall  main¬ 
tain  the  doctrine  of  the  gospel  as  now  held 
by  the  Church  of  England;  and  shall  ad¬ 
here  to  the  Liturgy  of  said  Church,  as  far 
as  shall  be  consistent  with  the  American 
Revolution,  and  the  Constitutions  of  the 
respective  States;”  that  a  “  Bishop,  duly 
consecrated  and  settled,”  shall  be  “a 
member  of  the  Convention  ex  officio\  ”  that 
the  clergy  and  laity  “  shall  deliberate  to¬ 
gether,  but  vote  separately;”  that  “the 
concurrence  of  both  orders  shall  be  neces¬ 
sary  for  the  validity  of  a  vote;”  and  assign¬ 
ing  a  date  for  the  first  meeting.  Before 
that  meeting,  on  the  14th  of  November, 
1784,  in  an  “  upper  room  ”  in  Aberdeen, 
Scotland,  Samuel  Seabury  received  conse¬ 
cration  to  the  Episcopal  office  at  the  hands 
of  the  Bishops  of  the  Church  in  Scotland, 
and  early  the  following  year  was  enthusi¬ 
astically  welcomed  to  his  see.  The  New 
England  Churches,  accepting  at  once  the 
services  of  Seabury,  and  sympathizing  with 
his  more  pronounced  Churchmanship,  were 
not  represented  in  the  Convention  of  the 
Churches  in  the  Middle  and  Southern 
States,  which  met  in  Philadelphia  in  Sep¬ 
tember  and  October,  1785.  At  this  Con¬ 
vention  of  the  Churches  of  seven  States, 
represented  by  sixteen  clergymen  and 
seven  laymen,  the  revision  of  the  Prayer- 
Book  was  undertaken;  a  draft  of  a  constitu¬ 
tion  was  proposed;  and  a  plan  adopted  for 
obtaining  the  consecration  of  Bishops  from 
England.  The  liturgical  alterations  pro- 
f'osed,  for  they  were  never  adopted  by  the 
American  Church,  contemplated  the  omis¬ 
sion  from  the  Apostles’  Creed  of  the  article 
“  he  descended  into  hell,”  and  the  removal 
of  the  Nicene  and  Athanasian  symbols. 

I  he  Articles  of  Religion  were  reduced  to 


twenty.  A  preface,  chiefly  the  work  of 
Dr.  William  Smith,  was  prefixed  to  the 
proposed  Prayer-Book.  The  Offices  were 
abbreviated,  a  service  for  the  Fourth  of 
July,  and  one  for  a  Day  of  Thanksgiving 
were  set  forth,  and  numerous  verbal 
changes  in  prayers  and  psalter  were  intro¬ 
duced.  But  the  “  Proposed  Book”  proved 
unsatisfactory,  and  even  its  tentative  use 
was  confined  to  a  few.  It  soon  sank  into 
obscurity,  and  has  only  been  brought  into 
notice  in  our  day  by  its  adoption  as  the 
service-book  of  the  “  Reformed  Episcopal 
Church.” 

Two  Conventions  were  held  in  1786,  at 
the  second  of  which,  in  accordance  with  the 
wish  of  the  English  prelates,  the  omitted 
articles  in  the  Apostles’  Creed  and  the 
Nicene  Creed  were  restored.  The  testi¬ 
monials  of  Drs. 'White  and  Provoost,  Bish- 
ops-elect,  were  signed,  and  on  the  4th  of 
February,  1787,  they  received  the  Episco¬ 
pate  at  Lambeth  Chapel,  at  the  hands  of 
the  Archbishops  of  Canterbury  and  York, 
and  the  Bishops  of  Bath  and  Wells  and 
Peterborough. 

The  minds  of  Churchmen  now  turned 
toward  union;  and  at  the  second  Conven¬ 
tion  of  1789,  after  the  full  recognition  of 
Seabury’s  Episcopate  and  the  modification 
of  the  ecclesiastical  Constitution  in  the  di¬ 
rection  of  a  fuller  recognition  of  the  Epis¬ 
copal  office  and  power,  Bishop  Seabury 
and  deputies  from  the  churches  in  Massa¬ 
chusetts  and  Rhode  Island  and  Connecti¬ 
cut  attended,  acceded  to  the  amended  con¬ 
stitution,  and  the  Convention  thus  became 
“General,”  and,  representing  the  churches 
in  all  the  States,  resolved  itself  into  its  two 
houses — the  one  of  Bishops,  and  the  other 
of  Deputies,  effecting  and  completing  its 
organization,  as  it  has  continued  for  a 
hundred  years.  The  Prayer-Book,  as  in 
use  for  the  first  century  of  the  Church’s 
independent  existence,  was  adopted,  and 
the  Church,  fully  organized,  began  its 
united  and  aggressive  life. 

The  number  of  Bishops  in  the  English 
line  of  succession,  requisite  for  the  canon¬ 
ical  transmission  of  the  Episcopal  office, 
was  speedily  completed  by  the  consecration 
of  Dr.  James  Madison  as  Bishop  of  Vir¬ 
ginia,  at  Lambeth  Chapel,  September  19, 
1790;  and  on  the  17th  of  September,  1792, 
there  occurred  the  first  American  consecra¬ 
tion,  that  of  Dr.  Thomas  John  Claggett.first 
Bishop  of  Maryland,  at  which,  by  the  pres¬ 
ence  of  Seabury,  with  White,  Provoost, 
and  Madison,  the  English  and  Scottish 
lines  of  succession  were  forever  blended, 
so  that  every  American  Bishop  can  trace 
his  spiritual  lineage  to  the  Scottish  College 
through  Seabury,  or  to  the  English  Arch¬ 
bishops  and  Bishops  through  Provoost. 


* 


Epi  (  30S  )  Epi 


The  beginning  of  the  present  century 
found  the  Church  depressed  and  in  a  pre¬ 
carious  condition.  The  consecration  of  the 
apostolic  Richard  Channing  Moore  to  the 
Episcopate  of  Virginia,  and  the  admission 
to  the  Episcopal  office  of  John  Henry 
Hobart  for  New  York,  and  Alexander  Viets 
Griswold  for  the  Eastern  Diocese,  compris¬ 
ing  all  New  England  save  Connecticut, 
marked  the  period  of  the  Church’s  revival 
in  each  of  these  localities.  The  founding 
of  the  General  Theological  Seminary,  and 
the  organization  of  the  Domestic  and 
Foreign  Missionary  Society  of  the  Church 
in  1820-1S21,  and  the  adoption  by  the 
Church  in  1835  of  the  principle  that  each 
baptized  member  of  the  Church  is,  by  vir¬ 
tue  of  baptism,  a  member  of  the  Church’s 
missionary  organization,  marked  a  new 
epoch.  The  rapidly  developing  West  was 
the  scene  of  the  labors  first  of  the  great¬ 
hearted  Philander  Chase,  who  founded  two 
dioceses,  and  two  seminaries  of  the  higher 
learning,  and  later  of  the  apostolic  Kem¬ 
per,  who  lived  to  see  the  whole  territory 
of  the  United  States  under  direct  Episcopal 
oversight.  Schools  of  culture  were  founded 
at  Hartford,  Conn.,  at  Geneva,  N.  Y.,  and 
later  at  various  points  in  the  West  and 
South,  and  the  number  of  the  Schools  of 
theology  was  multiplied. 

The  Foreign  Missionary  work  received 
anew  impulse  when  Dr.  Horatio  Southgate 
was  sent  as  a  missionary  Bishop  to  Turkey, 
and  Dr.  William  J.  Boone  to  China,  and 
Dr.  John  Payne  to  Cape  Palmas,  Africa. 
The*  Church’s  work  in  Greece  flourished, 
and  still  later  the  Church  and  a  Bishop 
were  placed  in  Hayti  and  in  Mexico,  while 
in  the  home-field  Bishops  were  provided 
for  all  quarters  of  the  land. 

The  “  Oxford  movement"  attracted  no 
little  attention  and  following,  and  the  in¬ 
creased  beauty  of  churches  and  of  ritual 
served  to  commend  the  Church  to  increas¬ 
ing  numbers  flocking  to  her  communion. 

The  celebrated  Episcopal  trials  of  the 
brothers  Onderdonk,  one  the  Bishop  of 
New  York,  and  the  other  the  Bishop  of 
Pennsylvania,  and  of  Bishop  Doane  of  New 
Jersey,  resulting  in  the  suspension  for 
years  of  the  two  former,  and  the  acquittal 
of  the  latter,  are  remembered  now  rather 
as  the  sad  proofs  of  partisan  unscrupulous¬ 
ness,  seeking  to  destroy  those  in  high  posi¬ 
tions  who  failed  to  commend  themselves 
to  its  narrow  standards  of  belief  and 
practice.  Certainly  the  revulsion  of  feel¬ 
ing  which  finally  pervaded  the  whole 
Church  in  the  case  of  each  of  these  calum¬ 
niated  men  will  go  far  to  convince  the  un¬ 
prejudiced  mind  of  their  innocence  of 
much,  if  not  of  all,  that  was  laid  to  their 
charge. 


The  Civil  WTar  produced  only  a  tempo¬ 
rary  disruption  of  the  Church,  and  with  the 
welcoming  of  peace  both  North  and  South 
came  together  at  once.  The  Bishop  of 
Alabama,  consecrated  during  the  forced 
suspension  of  intercourse  between  the  two 
sections  of  the  country,  was  received 
among  his  Episcopal  brethren  without 
question,  and  the  reunited  Church  entered 
at  once  upon  a  career  of  development  un¬ 
precedented,  and  indicating  a  phenomenal 
growth  in  the  time  to  come.  During  the 
little  more  than  a  century  of  its  inde¬ 
pendent,  autonymous  existence  the  Amer¬ 
ican  Church  has  extended  over  the  entire 
country;  and  with  its  seventy-two  Bishops, 
its  more  than  four  thousand  clergy,  its 
half-million  of  communicants,  its  abound¬ 
ing  charities,  its  great  missionary  and  edu¬ 
cational  advances,  its  culture,  its  history, 
its  conservatism,  and  its  esprit  du  corps ,  it 
seeks  to  be  the  American  Church — the 
Church  of  the  future,  broad,  tolerant. 
Catholic,  and  instinct  with  the  life  and  love 
of  Christ. 

William  Stevens  Perry, 

Bishop  of  Iowa. 

Literature.  —  For  the  general  history 
consult  Bishop  Perry:  History  of  the  Amer¬ 
ican  Episcopal  Church,  1587-188 3,  2  vols. 
(Boston,  1SS5);  Anderson  :  History  of  the 
Church  of  England  in  the  Colonies  ana 
Foreign  Dependencies  of  the  British  Empire, 
3  vols.  (London,  1846,  1848,  1856,  2d  ed., 
rearranged  and  enlarged,  i2mo,  1S56)  ; 
S.  Wilber  force:  Histoiy  of  the  Protestant 
Episcopal  Church  of  A  merica  ( London ,  1 S46) ; 
Hawkins:  Historical  Notices  of  the  Missions 
of  the  Church  of  England  in  the  North 
American  Colonies  (London,  1845);  Updike: 
History  of  the  Episcopal  Church  in  Narra- 
gansett,  R.  /.  (New  York,  1847);  Bolton: 
History  of  the  Protestant  Episcopal  Church 
in  the  County  of.  Westchester  (New  York, 
1855).  For  original  sources  vide  Perry’s 
Historical  Collections  of  the  American  Colo¬ 
nial  Church  (privately  printed),  vol.  i., 
Virginia,  1S71  ;  vol.  ii.,  Pennsylvania, 
1872;  vol.  iii.,  Massachusetts,  1873;  vol. 
iv.,  Maryland,  1878;  vol.  v.,  Delaware, 
1878;  Perry  :  fournals  of  the  General 
Conventions,  1S05-1835,  3  vols.  (Svo,  1874); 
Perry:  Historical  Notes  and  Documents  Il¬ 
lustrating  the  Organization  of  the  Protestant 
Episcopal  Church  in  the  United  States  of 
America  (Svo,  1874);  Hawks  and  Perry: 
Documentary  History  of  the  Church  in  Con¬ 
necticut,  2  vols.  (1863-64);  Perry:  Church¬ 
man's  Year  Book  (1S70-1S71),  2  vols. 
(Hartford)  ;  Perry  :  Connection  of  the 
Church  of  England  with  Early  American 
Colonization  (Portland,  Me. ,  1863);  Bishop 
White :  Memoirs  of  the  Protestant  Epis¬ 
copal  Church  in  the  United  States  (three 


Epi 


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Era 


editions,  Phila. ,  1820,  New  York,  1836, 
edited  by  the  Rev.  Francis  Lister  Hawks; 
New  York,  1880,  edited  by  the  Rev.  B.  F. 
De  Costa);  Dalcho:  Historical  Account  of 
the  Prot.  Epis.  Church  in  South  Carolina 
(Charleston,  1820).  The  legislation  of  the 
Church  is  embodied  in  the  Journals  of  Gen¬ 
eral  Convention  (triennially,  1789-1889). 
The  Journals  of  the  Preliminary  and  Gen¬ 
eral  Conventions,  1785-1814,  were  published 
in  1814  by  Beozen  of  Phila.,  edited  by 
Bishop  White.  Those  from  1785  to  1835 
were  published,  by  order  of  the  Conven¬ 
tion,  in  eight  volumes,  and  were  edited 
by  Bishop  Perry.  Bishop  Perry  has  also 
published  three  editions  of  the  Handbook 
of  the  General  Convention  (New  York,  1874, 
1877,  1880). 

Episcopal  Church,  The  Protestant. 
See  Episcopal  Church,  American. 

Episcopal  Church,  Reformed.  See  Re¬ 
formed  Episcopal  Church. 

Episcopius,  Simon,  a  celebrated  Armin- 
ian  theologian,  b.  in  Amsterdam,  1583;  d. 
there,  1643.  He  studied  at  Leyden,  and  in 
the  fierce  controversies  of  the  time  soon 
distinguished  himself  as  a  leader  of  the 
Arminian  party.  In  1612  he  succeeded 
Gomarus  as  professor  of  theology  at  Ley¬ 
den.  He  was  accused  of  Socinianism  by 
the  orthodox  party,  who  bitterly  opposed 
him.  At  the  Synod  of  Dort  he  was  con¬ 
demned,  with  others,  and  banished  from 
the  country.  He  lived  for  a  time  at  Brus¬ 
sels,  where  he  wrote  his  Confessio{  1622)  and 
afterward  at  Paris  and  Rouen.  He  re¬ 
turned  to  Holland  in  1626,  where  he  be¬ 
came  pastor  of  the  Remonstrant  Church  in 
Amsterdam,  and  in  1634  professor  of  the¬ 
ology  in  the  Arminian  Seminary  in  that 
city.  During  these  years  he  published 
his  principal  works.  See  Calder:  Memoirs 
of  Simon  Episcopius  (N.  Y. ,  1837). 

Epistles,  a  name  applied  to  the  apostolic 
letters  in  the  New  Testament.  See  history 
and  literature  under  separate  epistles  or 
authors. 

Era,  or  t£ra,  a  word  which  Spanish 
authors  introduced  into  chronology,  to  ex¬ 
press  the  beginning  of  some  extraordinary 
change,  as  of  reigns,  etc.  It  comes  from 
AEra,  a  tribute  imposed  on  Spaniards  by 
the  Emperor  Augustus,  39  b.  c.,  under  the 
consulship  of  L.  Marcus  Censorius  and  C. 
Calvisius  Sabinus,  about  the  year  715  of 
Rome.  It  was  used  in  Spain  till  about 
1383,  and  in  Portugal  till  1415,  when  the 
years  of  Jesus  Christ  were  substituted  in 
its  place.  Other  famous  eras  in  chronology 


are  the  Roman  era,  A.  u.  c. ,  dating  from 
the  building  of  the  city,  corresponding  to 
753  b.  c. ;  that  of  Nabonassar,  correspond¬ 
ing  to  747  b.  c. ,  used  by  the  ancient  Per¬ 
sians  and  astronomers;  that  of  the  Greek 
Seleucidse,  312  b.  c. ,  when  Seleucus  Nica- 
nor  settled  in  Syria,  twelve  years  after  the 
death  of  Alexander  the  Great;  the  Chris¬ 
tian,  dating  approximately  from  the  birth 
of  Christ;  the  Diocletian,  and  the  Jewish. 
The  date  of  an  era  is  fixed  upon  by  the  gen¬ 
eral  consent  of  a  nation  or  community. 
The  Greeks  were  the  first  to  adopt  the  sys¬ 
tem  of  eras;  their  Olympiads  were  periods 
of  four  years,  the  first  Olympiad  dating 
776  b.  c.  The  Jews  did  not  use  an  era 
until  the  time  of  the  Maccabees,  and  then 
they  adopted  that  of  the  Seleucidae,  dating 
from  312  b.  c.  But  the  Jews  now  use  an 
era  of  their  own,  dating  from  the  Creation, 
which  they  place  in  3761  b.  c. 

The  Christian  era  begins  upon  the  1st  of 
January  after  the  birth  of  our  blessed 
Saviour,  which  is  commonly  fixed  to  Dec. 
25th,  and  754  years  after  the  building  of 
Rome,  in  the  consulship  of  Lentulus  and 
Calpurnius  Piso.  This  is,  probably,  not 
the  exact  year  of  our  Lord’s  birth.  But, 
for  practical  purposes,  this  date  has  been 
generally  accepted  throughout  Christen¬ 
dom.  The  Venerable  Bede  uses  it  in  his 
history.  This  era  has  sometimes  been 
called  the  Dionysian ,  from  the  fact  that 
Dionysius  Exiguus  was  the  first  advocate 
and  proposer  of  it.  Research  has  made  it 
probable  that  our  Lord’s  birth  really  took 
place  four  years  earlier  than  the  received 
era;  therefore,  in  our  Reference  Bibles  the 
birth  of  Christ  is  marked  “  b.  C.  4.” 

The  Diocletian  era  is  called  the  key  of 
Christian  chronology:  this  period  begins  at 
the  first  year  of  Diocletian’s  reign,  which 
falls  in  with  Aug.  29th,  a.  d.  284.  This 
computation  is  made  good  by  the  author¬ 
ities  of  Theophilus  and  St.  Cyril,  archbish¬ 
ops  of  Alexandria,  of  St.  Ambrose,  of 
Dionysius  Exiguus,  and  others.  This  era 
is  still  used  by  the  Copts  in  Egypt,  and 
was  in  general  use  throughout  the  West 
of  Europe  until  the  introduction  of  the 
Christian  era. 

The  Era  of  Constantinople ,  called,  also, 
the  Byzantine  era;  it  reckons  from  the  Cre¬ 
ation,  which  it  places  in  5508  b.  C.  It  was 
formerly  in  use  in  the  Eastern  Empire, 
and  is  still  used  by  the  Albanians. 

The  Hegira,  the  Mussulman  era,  dating 
from  Mohammed’s  flight  from  Mecca  in 
622. 

In  the  sixteenth  century  it  was  found 
that  the  calendar  founded  by  Dionysius 
Exiguus  upon  that  of  Augustus  was  de¬ 
fective,  owing  to  the  solar  year  consisting 
of  365  days,  five  hours,  forty-nine  minutes, 


Era 


(  3™  ) 


Ers 


instead  of  365  days,  six  hours,  as  had  been 
reckoned.  Consequently,  the  calendar  had 
fallen  ten  days  wrong,  and  the  vernal  equi¬ 
nox  fell  on  the  nth  instead  of  the  21st  of 
March.  Consequently,  Pope  Gregory  XIIL. 
ordered  that  1582  should  consist  of  355 
days  only,  and  that  a  year  ending  a  century 
should  not  be  bissextile,  with  the  exception 
of  that  ending  every  fourth  century.  Thus, 
1700  and  1S00  were  not  leap-years,  nor  will 
1  goo  be  so,  though  2000  will.  All  the 
Western  European  countries  gradually 
adopted  this  New  Style  before  the  end  of 
the  sixteenth  century,  except  Great  Britain, 
which  did  not  accept  it  until  1751.  In  Rus¬ 
sia,  and  the  East  generally,  the  Old  Style 
is  still  retained. — Benham:  Diet .  of  Relig¬ 
ion.  See  Calendar. 

Erasmus,  Desiderius,  the  most  brilliant 
scholar  of  his  age;  b.  at  Rotterdam,  1465; 
d.  at  Basel,  1536.  He  studied  at  Paris  and 
in  Italy,  and  early  won  distinction  as  a 
classical  scholar  and  editor.  He  taught 
five  years  at  Cambridge,  England,  and  then 
returned  to  the  continent,  having  “  a  fame 
which  has  never  been  surpassed  in  the  an¬ 
nals  of  letters.”  In  1516  the  most  impor¬ 
tant  of  all  his  many  works  appeared.  It 
was  an  edition  of  the  New  Testament  with 
a  Latin  translation,  and  had  a  very  large 
circulation.  In  1518  he  published  the  Col- 
loquia  Familiaria  which  contains  “  the 
keenest  sarcasm  and  wittiest  sallies  against 
conventual  life,  fasting,  pilgrimages,  and 
the  wrorship  of  saints.”  These  and  other  of 
his  writings  aided  in  opening  the  way  for 
the  Reformation.  When  the  crisis  came 
he  failed  to  appreciate  the  spiritual  signif¬ 
icance  of  the  moment.  He  soon  broke  with 
the  Reformers,  and  opposed  Luther  with  a 
bitterness  which  increased  until  he  urged 
the  authority  and  duty  of  the  Church  to 
punish  heretics  with  death.  He  continued 
to  write  against  ecclesiastical  abuses,  which 
aroused  the  opposition  of  many  high  in 
authority,  but  he  kept  the  friendship  of  the 
pope,  and  he  declined  the  offer  of  a  car- 
dinalship  not  long  before  his  death.  See 
art.  by  Stahelin  in  Schaff-Herzog:  Ency. 

Erastianism.  See  Erastus. 

Eras'tus,  Thomas,  a  learned  physician 
and  theologian;  b.  in  Switzerland,  1524; 
d.  at  Basel,  1583.  He  was  a  disciple  of 
Zwingli,  and  an  earnest  defender  of  his 
views  regarding  the  Lord’s  Supper  and 
church  polity.  While  professor  of  medi¬ 
cine  at  Heidelberg  he  strenuously,  but 
Avithout  avail,  opposed  the  action  of  the 
Calvinistic  party  which  secured  the  adop¬ 
tion  of  a  Presbyterian  form  of  church  gov¬ 
ernment  and  discipline.  Erastus  Avas  the 


first  to  suffer  under  the  neAv  discipline, 
being  excommunicated  on  a  charge  of  la¬ 
tent  Unitarianism.  He  Avas  restored  five 
years  after.  A  posthumous  Avork  from  his 
pen  Avas  published  in  1589.  In  the  form  of 
theses  he  denied  “  that  excommunication 
is  a  divine  ordinance,  that  the  Church  has 
any  pOAver  to  make  laAvs  or  decrees,  and  to 
inflict  pains  and  penalties  of  any  kind,  that 
the  sins  of  professing  Christians  are  to  be 
punished  by  pastors  and  elders,  instead  of 
the  civil  magistrate,  etc.  The  book  at¬ 
tracted  much  attention,  and  Avas  attacked 
by  Beza.  It  Avas  translated  into  English  in 
1659,  and  again  in  1S44  by  R*  Lee:  and  its 
vieAvs  Avere  adopted  by  a  distinct  party  in 
the  Westminster  Assembly,  headed  by  Sel- 
den,  Lightfoot,  Coleman,  and  Whitelocke. 
Since  that  time,  the  doctrine  of  the  State  su¬ 
premacy  in  ecclesiastical  causes  generally 
goes  under  the  name  of  Erastianism : 
though  in  its  broad  sense,  and  Avide  appli¬ 
cation,  this  doctrine  is  by  no  means  due  to 
Erastus.” — G.  V.  Lechler  in  Schaff-Herzog: 
Ency.,  vol.  i.,  p.  755. 

Eremite.  See  Anchorites. 

Ernesti,  Johann  August,  the  founder  of 
the  grammatico-historical  school  of  theol¬ 
ogy  and  philosophy;  b.  at  Tennstadt,  in 
Thuringia,  1707;  d.  at  Leipzig,  in  1781. 
He  Avas  professor  of  classical  literature  at 
Leipzig  (1742),  of  rhetoric  (1756),  and  of 
theology  (1758).  His  principal  theological 
Avork  is  his  Institutio  Interpret  is  jV.  T. 
(1761),  which  Avas  translated  and  published 
in  the  Biblical  Cabinet  (Edinburgh  1S34). 
In  this  volume  he  contended  that  the  sense 
of  the  Scriptures  should  be  sought  by  the 
same  methods  that  are  applied  in  the  study 
of  uninspired  literature. 

Errett,  Isaac,  Disciple;  b.  in  NeAv  York 
City,  Jan.  2,  1S2.0;  d.  Dec.  19,  18SS,  at 
Terrace  Park,  near  Cincinnati,  Ohio.  From 
1840  to  1S71  he  held  prominent  pastorates. 
He  Avas  associated  Avith  Alexander  Camp¬ 
bell  ( q .  v.)  in  editing  The  Millennial  Har¬ 
binger,  and  from  1866  Avas  editor-in-chief 
of  The  Christian  Standard,  the  denomina¬ 
tional  organ  of  the  Disciples.  He  Avas  the 
author  of :  Walks  about  Jerusalem :  a 
Search  after  the  Landmarks  of  Primitive 
Christianity  (Cincinnati,  1S72,  5*h  ed. 
1884);  Talks  to  Bereans  (1875,  4th  ed. 
1SS4);  Evenings  with  the  Bible  (1885),  3 
Arols.,  and  other  Avorks. 

Erskine,  Ebenezer,  founder  of  the  Seces¬ 
sion  Church  (formed  of  dissenters  from  the 
Church  of  Scotland);  b.  at  Dryburgh,  June 
22,  16S0;  d.  at  Stirling,  June  2,  1754-  He 
Avas  educated  at  Edinburgh,  and  in  1703 


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was  settled  as  minister  at  Portmoak,  where 
he  remained  for  twenty-eight  years,  and 
gained  a  great  reputation  for  eloquence 
and  ability  as  a  preacher.  About  1720 
Erskine  became  interested  in  a  controversy 
which  arose  over  the  views  expressed  by 
Edward  Fisher  in  a  book  called  the  Marrow 
of  Modern  Divinity.  The  volume  was  con¬ 
demned  by  the  General  Assembly  as  con¬ 
taining  unscriptural  doctrines,  but  Erskine 
with  twelve  other  ministers  signed  a  paper 
defending  its  positions.  The  discussion 
waxed  bitter,  especially  over  the  matter 
of  the  rights  of  parishioners  to  elect  their 
own  ministers.  Erskine,  who  had  become 
minister  of  the  West  Church,  Stirling,  :n 
1731,  strenuously  upheld  the  side  of  pop¬ 
ular  rights  against  the  decisions  of  the 
General  Assembly.  He  and  three  other 
ministers  were  finally  deposed  in  1740,  and 
soon  after  they  formed  the  Associate  Pres¬ 
bytery  that  was  the  beginning  of  the  Seces¬ 
sion  Church.  In  1747  they  became  divided 
in  regard  to  the  nature  of  the  oath  to  be 
administered  to  burgesses.  Erskine  stood 
with  the  “  Burgher”  section,  on  the  side 
of  tolerance,  refusing  to  make  non-sub¬ 
scription  a  term  of  communion.  He  taught 
theology,  and  continued  to  preach  to  large 
congregations  in  Stirling  up  to  the  time  of 
his  death.  The  Burgher  and  Anti-Burgher 
parties  were  reunited  in  1S20,  and  the  Se¬ 
cession  Church  united  with  the  Relief 
Synod  in  1847,  and  formed  the  United 
Presbyterian  Church.  See  Life  and  Diary 
of  Ebenezer  Erskine ,  by  Donald  Fraser 
(1831);  Historical  Sketch  of  the  Origin  of  the 
Secession  Church  (Edinburgh,  1.S48). 

Erskine,  Thomas,  b.  in  Edinburgh.  Oct. 
13,  1788;  d.  there,  March  20,  1870.  He.was 
educated  as  a  lawyer,  but  soon  after  enter¬ 
ing  his  profession  he  succeeded  to  the 
family  estate  at  Linlathen,  near  Dundee, 
where  he  retired,  and  spent  his  life  in  the 
care  of  his  estate  and  congenial  literary 
labors.  He  became  deeply  interested  in 
theological  studies,  and  expressed  views  in 
opposition  to  the  current  Scotch  theology. 
He  held  that  the  only  proper  criterion  of 
the  truth  of  Christianity  is  “  its  conformity 
or  nonconformity  with  man’s  spiritual  nat¬ 
ure,  and  its  adaptability  or  non-adapta¬ 
bility  to  man’s  universal  and  deepest  spir¬ 
itual  needs.  The  incarnation  of  Christ 
was  the  necessary  manifestation  to  man 
of  an  eternal  sonship  in  the  divine  nat¬ 
ure,  apart  from  which  those  filial  quali¬ 
ties  which  God  demands  from  man  could 
have  no  sanction.”  Scriptural  faith  is 
“a  certain  moral  or  spiritual  condition 
which  virtually  implied  salvation,  because 
it  implied  the  existence  of  a  principle  of 
spiritual  life  possessed  of  an  immortal 


power.  This  faith  could  be  properly  awak¬ 
ened  only  by  the  manifestation,  through 
Christ,  of  love  as  the  law  of  life,  and  as 
identical  with  an  eternal  righteousness, 
which  it  was  God’s  purpose  to  bestow  on 
every  individual  soul.” — Ency.  Brit. 
These  views  were  sharply  criticised,  but 
they  found  favor  among  prominent  think¬ 
ers,  like  Carlyle,  Irving,  Stanley,  and  oth¬ 
ers.  John  McLeod  Campbell  and  Frederick 
Denison  Maurice  gained  from  him  their 
conceptions  of  the  atonement,  which  have 
had  such  influence  upon  contemporary 
religious  thought. 

JP'E’  sar-had'don  ( Assyr.  Ashur-ach-iddina ), 
son  and  successor  of  Sennacherib,  was  king 
of  Assyria,  B.  C.  681-668.  His  reign  was 
marked  by  great  achievements.  He  built 
magnificent  palaces  in  Nineveh,  Calah,  and 
Babylon,  which  he  subjugated,  b.  c.  680. 
Manasseh  was  king  of  Judah  when  Esar- 
haddon  began  to  reign,  and  outlived  him. 
While  the  name  of  Manasseh  appears  in  a 
list  of  western  kings  tributary  to  Esar-had- 
don,  he  does  not  seem  to  have  engaged  in 
any  hostilities  with  Judah.  It  was  prob¬ 
ably  Asur-banipal,  the  son  of  Esar-haddon, 
who  carried  Manasseh  captive  to  Babylon. 
(2  Chron  xxiii.  11.)  See  Assyria;  Esau; 
Edom;  Jacob. 

Eschatology  literally  and  properly 
means  the  doctrine  concerning  the  last 
things,  those  which  are  embraced  in  the 
de'nouement  of  the  history  of  the  world 
and  of  the  Church.  The  whole  creation 
moves  to  what  is  supposed  to  be  a  far-off 
goal.  The  events  comprehended  in  the 
consummation  of  the  present  dispensation 
are  in  themselves  necessarily  veiled  from 
our  eyes.  They  not  only  lie  in  the  future, 
but  the  sphere  in  which  they  will  take 
place  is  in  some  respects  certainly  different 
from  the  present,  and  this  will  give  them 
a  unique  character.  Experience,  too,  can¬ 
not  here,  as  in  the  great  doctrines  of  theol¬ 
ogy  and  soteriology,  reflect  any  clear  light; 
and  even  Revelation,  although  very  explicit 
on  the  cardinal  phenomena,  becomes  ob¬ 
scure  on  their  concomitant  details. 

The  Scriptures  teach  continually  and 
emphatically:  (1)  The  visible  advent  of  our 
Lord  as  the  necessary  and  supreme  com¬ 
pletion  of  his  office  and  the  glorious 
apocalypse  of  his  person.  The  vision  of 
the  coming  of  the  Son  of  Man  in  great 
power  and  glory  stands  ever  before  the 
Church  as  its  most  sublime  and  cheering 
prospect.  (2)  The  import  and  object  of 
the  parousia  is  the  universal  judgment.  A 
final  retributive  judicial  dispensation  is  a 
postulate  of  the  moral  sense  cf  mankind. 
It  is  guaranteed  by  the  faith  in  the  justice 


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of  God.  It  is  continually  held  forth  by 
Scripture  as  the  office  of  the  Redeemer, 
the  Head  of  the  race,  whose  peculiar  rela¬ 
tion  to  God  as  well  as  to  man  gives  him 
unique  and  absolute  fitness  for  this  func¬ 
tion.  The  basis  of  judgment  will  be  the 
law  under  which  men  had  respectively 
their  probation.  All  of  them,  whether 
limited  to  the  light  of  nature  reflected 
through  conscience,  or,  under  the  economy 
of  Moses  revealed  through  him  from  heav¬ 
en,  or  under  the  effulgence  of  the  Gospel, 
fall  properly  under  the  supreme  judicial  au¬ 
thority  of  the  Mediator,  Jesus  Christ,  from 
whom,  as  the  light  of  the  world  even  before 
his  incarnation,  have  ever  streamed  all  the 
rays  that  have  illuminated  the  minds  of 
men.  All  the  relations  of  God  to  the  creat¬ 
ure  are  mediated  through  his  eternal  Son. 
Therefore  he  has  been  appointed  judge  of 
the  quick  and  the  dead. 

(3)  As  a  prerequisite  to  the  judgment 
the  resurrection  of  the  dead  will  take  place. 
In  order  to  be  judged  for  the  deeds  done 
through  the  body,  the  complete  personal¬ 
ity,  the  body  reunited  with  the  proper  soul, 
a  renewed  union  adapted  to  a  new  sphere, 

t  must  stand  before  the  Judge.  This  is  a 
doctrine  derived  purely  from  Revelation. 
It  is  an  inscrutable  mystery,  yet  a  funda¬ 
mental  truth,  whose  denial  is  pronounced 
inconsistent  with  belief  in  the  Bible  and 
subversive  of  salvation.  (1  Cor.  xv.  1-14. ) 
Reason  is,  indeed,  as  incapable  of  denying 
it  as  it  is  of  discovering  this  future  fact. 
“  Why  should  it  be  thought  a  thing  incred¬ 
ible  for  God  to  raise  the  dead?”  Its 
postulate  of  a  final  judgment  points  beyond 
the  sphere  of  natural  phenomena,  and  at 
least  helps  to  prepare  the  mind  for  accept¬ 
ing  the  resurrection  when  revealed. 

The  question  arises.  Whether  the  good 
and  the  wicked  will  rise  simultaneously  ? 
The  perspective  of  prophecy  seems  to 
group  them  together,  as  is  the  case  with 
other  events  occurring  at  long  intervals. 
St.  Paul  clearly  foreshadows  a  chronolog¬ 
ical  order,  with  an  undefined  interval  sepa¬ 
rating  the  resurrection  of  Christ  from  those 
that  are  Christ’s  at  his  coming,  and  this 
event  again  from  the  third  tagma ,  the  end 
or  final  goal  with  which  the  general  resur¬ 
rection  coincides.  Such  phrases  as  “  the 
resurrection  of  the  just”  and  “the  first 
resurrection,”  and  the  distinction  recog¬ 
nized  in  the  expressions,  “  resurrection 
from  the  dead  ”  and  “  resurrection  of  the 
dead,”  have  a  significant  if  not  decisive 
bearing  on  the  interpretation  of  1  Cor.  xv. 
23  /• 

(4)  The  result  of  the  judgment  will  be 
the  assignment  of  the  righteous  to  eternal 
joy.  A  life  hid  with  Christ  in  God,  begun 
upon  earth,  will  attain  its  perfected  holi¬ 


ness  and  glory  in  heaven.  The  fruits  of 
the  Spirit,  gradually  ripening  here,  will 
there  appear  in  full  consummation.  Earthly 
imagery  is  inadequate  to  express  those 
spiritual  conceptions  which  are  proper  to  a 
state  of  glory,  and  it  has  not  entered  into 
man’s  heart  to  conceive  what  God  has  laid 
up  for  his  own;  but  the  redeemed  may  con¬ 
fidingly  anticipate  perfect  freedom  from 
sin,  from  pain  and  sorrow,  from  toil,  con¬ 
flict  and  temptation,  from  perplexity, 
doubt  and  fear.  They  will  also  enjoy  a 
height  of  mental  and  moral  development 
transcending  the  loftiest  earthly  aspira¬ 
tions,  and  with  this  a  realization  of  the  im¬ 
port  of  redemption  that  is  not  possible 
under  present  limitations. 

The  perfection  of  bliss  follows  from  the 
perfection  of  the  whole  man.  The  fellow¬ 
ship  of  the  most  exalted  creatures  will  be 
a  marked  feature  of  heaven,  kindred  spirits 
finding  a  perennial  feast  in  each  other. 
And  higher  than  any  other  form  of  blessed¬ 
ness  will  be  the  beatific  vision  of  God,  an 
unclouded  communion  of  life  and  love  with 
God  in  the  face  of  Jesus  Christ  through  the 
Holy  Ghost,  the  Lamb  in  the  midst  of  the 
throne  being  the  light  of  that  temple,  the 
mediating  cause  and  centre  of  all  blessed¬ 
ness. 

(5)  By  contrast  with  the  nature  of  the 
blessed,  some  conceptions  can  be  formed 
of  the  doom  of  those  consigned  by  the 
righteous  Judge  to  hell.  The  Scriptures 
furthermore  employ  the  most  horrible  im¬ 
agery  to  exhibit  the  sufferings  of  those  who 
die  in  their  sins.  Cut  off  from  every  bless¬ 
ing,  excluded  from  God  and  from  all  holy 
beings;  the  craving  of  depraved  passions 
intensified,  yet  seeking  in  vain  for  gratifica¬ 
tion;  in  dire  distress,  with  no  possibility  of 
alleviation;  conscious  of  an  accumulation 
of  sin,  failure,  disgrace,  and  loss,  the  re¬ 
morse  of  conscience  burning  like  a  fire  that 
supplies  its  own  fuel;  with  the  direct  puni¬ 
tive  inflictions  of  a  just  and  angry  God — 
such  are  the  elements  of  unutterable 
wretchedness  endured  by  those  who  reject¬ 
ed  the  great  salvation.  The  terms  of 
Scripture  leave  no  doubt  that  the  punish¬ 
ment  of  the  wicked  goes  on  forever.  And 
reason,  though  staggering  under  its  con¬ 
templation,  offers  no  valid  objections  to  this 
doctrine  of  Revelation. 

(6)  While  the  souls  of  the  righteous  and 
the  wicked  are  disembodied,  their  state 
before  the  resurrection  cannot  be  the  de¬ 
finitive  stage  of  human  development. 
Hence  theologians  speakof  an  intermediate 
state,  concerning  which  nothing  definite 
has  been  revealed,  but  many  human  specu¬ 
lations  have  been  invented.  According  to 
some,  the  process  of  sanctification,  left  in¬ 
complete  at  death,  advances  to  perfection. 


Esc 


(  3i3  ) 


Ess 


According  to  others,  all  dying  unregener¬ 
ate  will  have  a  second  probation,  which  an¬ 
other  theory  limits  to  the  heathen,  to  in¬ 
fants,  and  all  others  who  are  supposed  not 
to  have  had  the  offer  of  salvation  in  this 
world.  To  this  state  belongs  also  the 
Roman  Catholic  doctrine  of  purgatory, 
which  holds  that  those  having  died  in  the 
Church  undergo  purification  through  dis¬ 
ciplinary  sufferings  and  the  intercessions 
and  offerings  of  the  faithful  on  earth. 

(7)  Connected  with  Eschatology  is  also 
the  doctrine  of  a  millennium,  variously  un¬ 
derstood.  The  day  of  the  Lord  is  viewed 
by  many  as  a  dispensation,  an  aeonic  day  or 
period,  with  its  morn  and  its  eve,  corre¬ 
sponding  with  the  glorious  assumption  of 
the  kingdom  by  the  Son  and  his  surrender 
of  it,  completed,  to  the  Father,  a  millennial 
age  in  which  the  Church  will,  with  her 
Lord,  exchange  the  via  crucis  for  the  via 
lucis.  Some  think  that  the  millennium  will 
antedate  the  Advent. 

(8)  Another  element  embraced  in  the  last 
things  is  the  doctrine  of  Antichrist,  a  con¬ 
crete  personal  incarnation  of  the  opposition 
to  Christ.  The  conflict  with  the  papacy  in 
the  Reformation  led  to  the  belief  that  the 
pope  was  Antichrist,  an  idea  which  found 
its  way  into  some  Protestant  confessions. 
From  his  portraiture  by  the  Scriptures  it 
seems  clear  that  Antichrist  will  represent, 
not  exclusively  irreligious  or  anti-relig¬ 
ious  forces,  but,  as  the  name  indicates,  he 
will  be  the  counterpart  of  the  true  faith 
and  the  true  Redeemer.  E.  J.  Wolf. 

For  the  Eschatology  of  the  Old  Testa- 
tament  see  Oehler:  Old  Testament  Theology 
(Eng.  trans.,  edited  by  Day,  New  York, 
1883);  for  the  New  Testament,  see  Weiss: 
Biblical  Theology  of  the  Nezv  Testament 
(Eng.  trans.,  Edinburgh,  1882-83),  2  vols. 

A  very  full  history  and  bibliography  of  the 
subject  is  given  in  Alger:  Doctrine  of  a 
Future  Life  (10th  ed.,  Boston,  1878);  for 
recent  works  see  C.  M.  Mead:  The  Soul 
Here  and  Hereafter  (1879);  Dorner:  The 
Future  State  (trans.  Newman  Smyth,  New 
York,  1883);  E.  D.  Morris:  Is  there  Salva¬ 
tion  after  Death?  (1887);  A.  Hovey:  Biblical 
Eschatology  (Philadelphia,  1888)  ;  James 
Fyfe:  The  Hereafter  ( London ,  1889). 

Escorial,  a  famous  monastery  situated 
about  thirty  miles  northwest  of  Madrid. 
At  the  time  of  its  erection  it  was  the  most 
magnificent  building  of  the  kind  in  the 
world.  Built  by  Philip  II.  in  honor  of  St. 
Lorenzo,  it  was  constructed  in  the  form  of 
a  gridiron,  in  allusion  to  the  instrument  of 
his  martyrdom.  The  Escorial  was  begun  : 
in  1563,  and  finished  in  1584.  It  was  in¬ 
tended  to  serve  as  a  palace,  royal  mauso¬ 
leum,  and  monastery. 


Esdrae'lon.  See  Jezreel. 

Es'dras.  See  Apocrypha,  Old  Testa¬ 
ment. 

Ess,  Leander  (properly  Johann  Hein¬ 
rich;  the  other  is  his  name  as  a  Benedict¬ 
ine  monk);  b.  at  Warburg,  Feb.  15,  1772; 
d.  at  Affolderbach,  in  the  Odenwald,  Oct. 
13,  1847.  He  entered  a  Benedictine  con¬ 
vent  in  1790;  was  ordained  priest  in  1796; 
became  professor  of  theology  at  Marburg 
in  1812;  retired  to  private  life,  1822. 
In  connection  with  his  cousin,  Karl  Ess, 
he  brought  out  a  translation  of  the  New 
Testament  in  1807,  of  which  more  than  half 
a  million  copies  were  distributed  by  a 
Roman  Catholic  Bible  Society  that  was 
suppressed  in  1817.  He  translated  the  Old 
Testament,  which  was  published  in  1836, 
and  a  first  edition  of  the  entire  Bible  in 
1840.  These  labors,  in  connection  with  aid 
rendered  the  British  Foreign  Bible  Society, 
brought  him  into  trouble  with  the  Roman 
Church  authorities.  His  library,  purchased 
at  the  suggestion  of  Dr.  E.  Robinson,  is 
now  in  the  Union  Theological  Seminary, 
New  York  City. 

Essence  (Latin,  essentia ,  from  esse,  to  be) 
denotes  the  very  being  of  anything,  where¬ 
by  it  is  what  it  is. 

Essenes,  The,  an  obscure  sect  that  ex¬ 
isted  at  the  time  of  Christ’s  appearance, 
but  is  not  mentioned  in  the  New  Testa¬ 
ment.  Their  origin,  according  to  Josephus, 
was  contemporaneous  with  that  of  the 
Pharisees  and  Sadducees,  but  their  relation 
to  Judaism  is  still  in  doubt.  They  lived  in 
separate  communities  under  a  kind  of 
monastic  rule,  and  practised  the  laws  of 
Levitical  purity  and  command  with  great 
strictness.  They  practiced  sun-worship  to 
some  extent,  denied  the  resurrection  of  the 
body ,  but  believed  in  the  immortality  of  the 
soul,  and  held  that  Fate  is  the  director  of 
the  events  of  life.  “Essenism,”  says  Light- 
foot,  “exercised  very  little  influence  on 
Christianity.  In  its  practical  bearing,  it 
was  diametrically  opposed  to  the  apostolic 
teaching.  The  only  real  similarity  between 
Essenism  and  Christianity  lay  in  the  com¬ 
mon  element  of  true  Judaism.  Nationally, 
however,  the  Essenes  occupy  the  same  po¬ 
sition  as  that  to  which  John  the  Baptist 
was  personally  called.  They  mark  the 
close  of. the  old,  the  longing  for  the  new, 
but  in  this  case  without  the  promise.  At 
a  later  time  traces  of  Essenism  appear  in 
the  Clementines.”  See  the  full  and  impor¬ 
tant  treatise  on  this  subject,  by  Lightfoot: 
St.  Paul’s  Epistles  to  the  Colossians  and  to 
Philemon  (London,  1875). 


Est 


(  314  ) 


Eth 


Esther.  “  The  book  called  by  Esther’s 
name  contains  an  episode  in  the  history  of 
those  Israelites  who  did  not  return  from 
captivity,  and  it  shows  their  moral  decline. 
Having  chosen  to  remain  in  a  heathen  land, 
Mordecai  and  his  family  accommodate 
themselves  to  their  adopted  nationality  till 
their  lives  are  imperiled.  His  kinswoman, 
Esther,  being  constrained  to  compete  for  a 
position  in  the  harem  of  a  heathen  monarch, 
Mordecai  charges  her  to  conceal  her  na¬ 
tionality  and  religion  for  temporal  ag¬ 
grandizement.  Although  God’s  providence 
never  forsakes  his  people,  and  in  answer 
to  their  prayers  deliverance  is  wrought, 
his  name  remains  secret  among  them. 
The  contrast  throughout  between  the  tone 
of  Mordecai  and  Daniel  under  similar  cir¬ 
cumstances,  and  the  inferiority  of  the 
former  to  his  contemporaries,  Ezra  and 
Nehemiah,  are  very  marked.  The  inci¬ 
dent  is  supposed  to  have  its  historical  po¬ 
sition  between  the  sixth  and  seventh  chap¬ 
ters  of  Ezra,  and  Ahasuerus  is  conjectured 
to  have  been  Artaxerxes,  though  some  see 
in  him  a  stronger  resemblance  to  the  ef¬ 
feminate  Xerxes,  and  place  the  events 
which  this  book  records  in  the  later  years 
of  his  reign. 

“  It  is  impossible  to  identify  Esther  with 
any  queen  mentioned  in  profane  history, 
and  it  is  most  probable  that  she  was  a 
favorite  concubine  to  whom  that  title  was 
accorded.  The  author  of  the  book  is  un¬ 
known,  but  was  most  probably  Mordecai, 
as  no  one  else  could  well  possess  such 
minute  knowledge  of  the  names  of  Haman’s 
family,  as  also  of  that  of  Esther,  and  the 
domestic  details  of  the  palace  of  Shushan, 
as  is  shown  in  this  narrative.  It  has  been 
attributed  to  Ezra,  who  may  have  brought 
it  with  him  from  Babylon  to  Jerusalem, 
and  added  it  to  the  Canon.  It  was  written  in 
Hebrew,  though  additions  were  made  to  it 
in  Greek  by  the  LXX.  The  feast  of  Purim 
remains  to  this  day  as  an  evidence  of  the 
truth  of  the  story;  and  the  book  has  been 
always  esteemed  Canonical  both  by  Tews 
and  by  Christians.” — “  Oxford  ”  Bible 
Helps .  See  G.  Rawlinson  in  the  Speaker's 
Commentary ;  F.  W.  Schultz,  in  Lange's 
Co?nmentary;  and  Introductions  to  the  O. 
T. ,  by  Bleek,  Keil,  etc. 

Eternal  Life.  See  Immortality. 

Eternal  Punishment.  See  Punishment, 
Future. 

Ethelbert,  king  of  Kent  (560-616);  d. 
616.  He  married  Bertha,  a  daughter  of 
the  king  of  Paris.  She  was  allowed  to 
practice  her  religion  as  a  Christian  princess, 
but  it  was  not  until  the  coming  of  Augus¬ 


tine  in  596  that  Ethelbert  was  converted, 
and  established  Christianity  among  the 
hitherto  pagan  Saxons.  He  founded  the 
see  of  Canterbury  (602),  and  that  of 
Rochester  (604),  and  prepared  the  first 
written  Saxon  laws. 

Ethics  may  be  defined  as  the  science  of 
moral  conduct,  or  the  doctrine  of  human 
character.  It  is  a  philosophical  inquiry  into 
the  facts  and  laws  of  the  moral  sense,  the 
principles  and  the  end  of  human  obligation, 
thegroundsfor  thedistinction  which  enjoins 
certain  kinds  of  action  and  forbids  others, 
the  ultimate  authority  which  makes  it  in¬ 
cumbent  upon  man  to  obey  a  certain  law 
01  follow  a  certain  end.  It  differs  from 
the  theoretical  sciences  in  discussing  not 
merely  what  is,  but  what  ought  to  be,  and 
discriminating  the  right  from  the  wrong  in 
the  actual  facts  of  conduct.  It  is,  at  the 
same  time,  interconnected  (1)  with  psy¬ 
chology,  which  treats  of  mental  processes, 
often  with  reference  to  their  ethical  bear¬ 
ing.  Ethical  systems  are  wont  to  be 
grounded  in  a  certain  philosophy  of  the 
mind,  and  some  have  even  defined  Ethics 
as  “  a  branch  of  the  wider  science  that 
deals  with  the  spiritual  constitution  of 
man.”  (2)  With  sociology,  the  development 
of  customs  and  institutions.  Science  must 
trace  the  historic  relation  of  moral  ideas 
and  practices  to  social  customs  and  polit¬ 
ical  and  religious  institutions.  (3)  Other 
cognate  subjects  are  free-will,  fate,  mate¬ 
rialism,  theology.  Theories  of  morals  are 
largely  determined  by  these.  Man  acts  in 
pursuance  of  his  beliefs.  Character  is  the 
outcome  of  thought. 

The  results  of  investigation  are  classified 
into  three  schools  :  the  Intuitional,  the 
Utilitarian,  and  the  Historical.  Antagonis¬ 
tic  as  are  these  different  general  theories, 
the  first  two  sometimes  approach  each 
other  and  flow  into  each  other,  and  the 
same  may  be  said  of  the  last  two. 

According  to  the  Intuitional  school 
the  apprehension  of  the  moral  good  or 
evil,  the  conception  which  recognizes  cer¬ 
tain  types  of  character  or  conduct  as  bet¬ 
ter  than  others,  lies  immediately  within 
the  soul.  Moral  discriminations,  like  the 
reasoning  power,  are  native  in  the  mind, 
whose  action  in  this  sphere  is  unique,  in 
that  it  discovers  a  distinct  element  not  fur¬ 
nished  by  the  mere  exercise  of  reasoning. 
A  natural  moral  faculty  apprehends  in¬ 
tuitively  the  absolute  distinction  between 
right  and  wrong.  Independent  of  experi¬ 
ence,  irrespective  of  any  observed  ten¬ 
dency  to  produce  certain  consequences,  it 
spontaneously  discriminates  in  actions  a 
quality  called  moral,  just  as  by  taste  we  de¬ 
tect  the  quality  of  beauty  in  objects,  and  this 


Eth 


(  315  ) 


Eth 


discrimination  is  accompanied  by  a  feeling 
of  obligation,  and  in  the  case  of  personal 
or  voluntary  actions,  by  a  sense  of  approval 
or  condemnation.  The  existence  and  the 
authority  of  the  moral  law  have  their  seat 
and  spring  in  the  soul.  Primal  and  immu¬ 
table  principles  of  conduct  are  stamped 
upon  the  human  constitution. 

While  the  Intuitionalists  agree  on  this 
general  theory,  they  differ  in  various  par¬ 
ticulars,  especially  in  relation  to  the  final 
ground  of  the  authority  of  moral  ideas. 
Having  these  ideas,  whence  comes  the 
sense  of  obligation  underlying  them,  the 
concept  of  oughtness  ?  Wherefore  these 
authoritative  averments  of  conscience  ? 
One  view  finds  the  final  ground  in  God’s 
appointment.  By  the  sovereign  exercise 
of  his  will  God  decrees  right  as  right  and 
wrong  as  wrong,  and  he  has  made  con¬ 
science  the  reflex  of  his  authority.  An¬ 
other  finds  it  in  the  nature  of  things,  and 
therefore  in  the  very  being  of  God  as  the 
executive  of  the  moral  universe.  Some 
speak  of  “the  eternal  fitness  ”  of  things, 
and  hold  virtue  to  consist  in  conformity 
with  this  fitness;  and  some  identify  virtue 
with  benevolence.  Among  the  representa¬ 
tives  of  Intuitionalism  are  Clarke,  Cud- 
worth,  Shaftesbury,  Hutcheson,  Reid, 
Stuart,  IvIcCosh,  Whewell.  Its  greatest 
expositor  was,  doubtless,  Bishop  Butler, 
Avho  asserted:  “  Had  conscience  power,  as 
it  has  manifest  authority,  it  would  abso¬ 
lutely  rule  the  world.”  Kant  spoke  of 
“  the  starry  heaven  above  and  the  moral 
law  within”  as  the  two  things  that  “  fill  the 
mind  with  an  ever  new,  an  ever  rising  ad¬ 
miration  and  reverence.”  This  great  met¬ 
aphysician  makes  conscience  the  practical 
reason  which  lays  down  absolute  or  un¬ 
conditional  laws.  Its  categorical  impera¬ 
tive  prescribes  a  principle  of  conduct  irre¬ 
spective  of  desire  or  an  ulterior  end. 

In  the  Utilitarian  scheme  utility  is  made 
the  criterion  or  standard  of  duty.  Instead 
of  native  impulses  pointing  out  moral  dis¬ 
tinctions,  and  an  immediate  spontaneous 
judgment  in  man  enforcing  their  observ¬ 
ance,  these  distinctions  are  the  result  of 
observation  and  experience.  Virtue  and 
vice  are  differentiated  by  calculation,  not 
by  intuition.  Moral  ideas  are  derived  or 
developed  from  a  series  of  rational  proc¬ 
esses.  They  are  grounded  in  the  desire 
for  the  chief  good.  The  proper  test  of 
virtue  is  the  happiness,  pleasure,  profit, 
well-being,  to  which  it  leads.  It  is  a  means 
to  an  end.  Instead  of  ultimate  it  is  medi¬ 
ate,  and  its  adaptedness  to  secure  the  high¬ 
est  good  gives  to  it  its  value,  its  moral 
quality. 

Various  subdivisions  are  comprehended 
under  this  scheme.  With  some  the  quality 


of  good  or  evil  in  things  is  determined 
wholly  by  the  agreeable  or  disagreeable 
results.  The  sovereign  motives  of  conduct 
are  pain  and  pleasure.  It  is  for  these  alone 
to  determine  conduct.  “  Ought  ”  and 
“duty”  are  pestilent  intruders  into  hu¬ 
man  speech.  Others  hold  that  the  su¬ 
preme  good  is  moral  perfection  as  well  as 
happiness,  that  the  highest  end  to  which  all 
the  laws  of  conduct  are  subordinate  is 
ethical.  Thus  Utilitarianism  allows  also 
a  place  to  religious  sanctions. 

One  class  of  Utilitarians  are  called  Egoist¬ 
ic  Hedonists,  or  Eudaemonists,  because 
they  hold  the  supreme  end  to  be  individual 
happiness.  With  some  this  is  the  syno¬ 
nym  of  sensual  enjoyment — with  all  it  is 
extreme  selfishness.  The  maximum  of  in¬ 
dividual  pleasure  is  the  end  of  personal 
existence.  Others  are  called  Universalist- 
ic  Hedonists,  or  Altruists.  Their  creed  is 
the  common  good — the  greatest  good  of 
the  greatest  number — the  happiness  of 
mankind.  Not  each  for  himself,  but  each 
for  all,  is  the  cardinal  principle  of  moral¬ 
ity.  And  an  altruism  which  makes  the 
interest  of  humanity  the  chief  concern, 
it  is  claimed,  is  superior  to  the  disinte**- 
ested  benevolence  of  the  Intuitional  school. 
The  most  famous  Utilitarians  are  Locke, 
Hume,  Paley,  Bentham,  Mill,  and  Bain. 

A  theory  radically  distinct  from  all  those 
grouped  under  the  two  general  systems  is 
the  application  of  the  evolutionary  hypoth¬ 
esis  to  moral  conduct.  It  is  styled  by  its 
friends  the  Historical  or  Scientific  theory. 
“  The  intuitions  of  a  moral  faculty,”  says 
Herbert  Spencer,  “  are  the  slowly  organ¬ 
ized  results  of  experience  received  by  the 
race.”  Conscience  is  the  product  of  ma¬ 
terial  combinations,  nerve  forces  and  nerve 
shocks,  accumulated  and  transmitted 
through  past  generations.  What  is  called 
morality  is,  accordingly,  “  simply  the  me¬ 
chanical  result  of  a  process  material  in  its 
origin,  utilitarian  in  its  blind  aims,  neces¬ 
sary  in  its  unfolding  stages,  and  involun¬ 
tary  in  the  sentiments  and  judgments 
which  it  finally  reaches.” 

Ancient  ethical  speculations  .  bore  un¬ 
doubtedly  the  Utilitarian  stamp,  but  they 
were  again  differentiated  by  the  question 
of  the  highest  good;  Plato  and  Aristotle 
holding  it  to  be  “  the  perfect  development 
of  a  man’s  self  inmora)and  intellectual  ex¬ 
cellence,”  while  Epicurus  formulated  a 
system  which  makes  his  own  pleasure  the 
moral  end  of  each  individual. 

The  ethical  instructions  of  Christ  are  in¬ 
comparable,  and  rest  upon  his  immediate 
authority.  The  primitive  Church  was  dis¬ 
tinguished  by  its  high  moral  ideas  and 
practice.  The  asceticism  which  arose  with 
Monasticism  prevented  a  normal  develop- 


Eth 


(  316  ) 


Euc 


ment  of  ethical  principles.  Scholasticism 
reared  a  sytem  based  on  the  seven  cardi¬ 
nal  virtues  in  contrast  wkh  the  seven  car¬ 
dinal  sins.  The  Reformers  ascribed  ethi¬ 
cal  as  well  as  doctrinal  authority  to  the 
Scriptures  alone,  and  comprehended  in  the 
several  commandments  of  the  decalogue 
the  whole  compass  of  human  duty.  The 
pioneers  in  the  scientific  treatment  of  the 
subject  are  Grotius,  Mosheim,  Buddeus, 
and  Crusius. 

Among  the  more  important  ethical  writ¬ 
ings  are  Sedgwick  :  Methods  of  Ethics  ; 
Outlines  of  the  History  of  Ethics ;  Kant: 
Groundzvork  of  the  Metaphysics  of  Morals; 
Critique  of  Practical  Reason  ;  Spencer : 
Data  of  Ethics;  Martineau:  Types  of  Ethical 
Theory;  Martensen  :  Christian  Ethics; 
Dorner:  System  of  Christian  Ethics;  Lut- 
hardt:  History  of  Christian  Ethics  before  the 
Reformation.  E.  J.  Wolf. 

Ethiopia.  See  Abyssinian  Church. 

Ethnarch,  the  governor  of  a  province 
who  governed  the  people  according  to  their 
national  laws.  This  term  was  especially 
>  used  to  denote  the  Jewish  rulers  after  they 
came  under  subjection  to  the  Roman  em¬ 
peror. 

Ettwein,  John,  an  eminent  bishop  of 
the  Moravian  Church;  b.  at  Freudenstadt, 
in  Wiirtemburg,  June  29,  1721;  d.  at  Beth¬ 
lehem,  Pa.,  Jan.  2,  1802.  He  became  a 
Moravian  in  1739,  and  was  ordained  in 
1746.  In  1754  he  came  to  America  as  a 
traveling  evangelist  and  missionary  to  the 
Indians,  among  whom  he  labored  with  great 
zeal,  and  prepared  a  dictionary  and  phrase- 
book  in  the  Delaware  language.  While 
the  army  hospital,  in  the  War  of  the  Revo¬ 
lution,  was  at  Bethlehem  in  1776  and  1777 , 
Ettwein  acted  as  its  chaplain.  He  repre¬ 
sented  the  Moravians  in  their  relations 
with  the  government.  Consecrated  bishop 
in  1784,  he  founded  in  1787  the  “  Society 
of  the  United  Brethren  for  Propagating  the 
Gospel  among  the  Heathen,”  an  organiza¬ 
tion  still  doing  efficient  work. 

Euchelaion  is  the  “  prayer  oil  ”  consecrat¬ 
ed  by  seven  priests,  and  used  in  the  Greek 
Church  for  the  unction  of  the  sick.  It  is 
considered  one  of  the  seven  sacraments  of 
the  Church,  but,  unlike  the  extreme  unction 
of  the  Roman  Church,  it  is  not  confined  to 
cases  of  mortal  illness. 

Euchites,  or  “  Praying  People,”  so 
called  from  their  regarding  prayer  as  the 
one  means  of  their  salvation.  Neander 
says  that  they  had  their  origin  in  Syrian 
Monachism.  The  sect  propagated  itself 


from  the  second  half  of  the  fourth  century 
down  to  the  sixth,  and  in  its  after-effects 
even  to  later  times.  “They  were  called 
sometimes  after  the  names  of  those  who 
at  different  times  were  their  leaders — Lam- 
petians,  Adelphians,  Eustathians,  and 
Marcianists;  sometimes  after  various 
peculiarities  supposed  to  be  observed  in 
them  —  Euchites,  Messalians  (from  the 
Chaldee)  on  account  of  their  theory  about 
constant  inward  prayer;  also  Choreutes 
from  their  mystic  dances;  Enthusiasts,  on 
account  of  the  pretended  communications 
which  they  received  from  the  Holy  Spirit. 
They  discarded  all  manual  labor  as  being 
a  disturbance  to  their  state  of  inward  pray¬ 
er;  and  were  the  first  mendicant  friars. 
Their  fundamental  principle  was  that  e,rery 
man  brings  into  the  world  an  evil  spirit, 
under  whom  he  lives,  and  that,  though 
baptism  might  clip  away  the  earlier  sins, 
the  root  yet  remained,  and  that  the  new 
sins  which  would  constantly  germinate 
could  only  be  overcome  by  true  inward 
prayer.  They  looked  on  themselves  as 
exalted  far  above  other  Christians,  because 
they  believed  themselves  to  be  recipients 
of  special  spiritual  communion,  and  they 
therefore  thought  the  outward  ordinances 
of  the  Church  a  matter  of  indifference  for 
them;  yet  they  joined  in  the  celebration  of 
the  Lord’s  Supper  in  order  that  they  might 
be  considered  members  of  the  Catholic 
Church.  They  considered  fire  as  the 
creative  principle  of  the  universe.  It  was 
difficult  to  get  any  clue  to  their  doctrines, 
as  they  thought  it  right  to  conceal  from 
ordinary  men,  yet  enslaved  by  sin,  the 
higher  truths,  until  their  senses  were 
spiritualized  to  receive  them.  Flavian, 
bishop  of  Antioch  (about  381)  managed  to 
enter  into  a  conference  with  Adelphius, 
their  superior,  pretending  to  agree  with 
him,  and  thus  enticed  him  to  a  confession, 
which  he  made  use  of  against  Adelphius 
and  his  whole  sect:  The  first  public  action 
taken  against  them  was  at  the  Synod  of 
Sida,  in  Pamphylia,  in  383.  They  were 
many  times  condemned  in  various  dioceses: 
one  important  condemnation  was  issued  at 
Constantinople  in  427,  which  was  confirmed 
at  the  Council  of  Ephesus,  in  431.  A  book 
called  A sceticon ,  by  one  of  their  body,  was 
produced  at  this  council  and  condemned; 
it  was  almost  their  only  literary  produc¬ 
tion. 

In  the  eleventh  century,  in  the  Greek 
Church,  there  was  a  numerous  sect  under 
the  name  of  Euchites,  or  Enthusiasts,  who 
believed  in  one  perfect  original  Being,  from 
whom  they  derived  two  sons,  the  good  and 
evil  principle,  the  relation  between  whom 
seems  to  have  constituted — according  as  it 
inclined  one  way  or  the  other,  to  an  absolute , 


Euc 


(  317  ) 


Eus 


or  to  a  relative  dualism — a  main  difference, 
and,  indeed,  the  ground  of  two  several 
parties  in  this  sect.  To  this  same  distinc¬ 
tion  may  be  referred  the  main  difference 
between  the  Bogomiles  and  the  Catharians 
(Novatians),  of  whom  the  Euchites  may 
be  called  the  precursors. — Benham:  Diet, 
of  Religion. 

Euchologion,  the  name  given  in  the 
Greek  Church  to  books  on  liturgy  and 
rituals. 

Eudaemonism.  See  Epicureanism. 

Eudocia,  wife  of  the  Emperor  Theo¬ 
dosius;  b.  at  Athens,  she  was  early  brought 
to  Rome,  and  under  the  training  of  her 
father,  a  learned  sophist,  she  developed 
remarkable  intellectual  powers.  Capti¬ 
vated  by  her  varied  accomplishments  the 
emperor  was  married  to  her  in  421.  In 
later  years  differences  arose  between  them, 
and  she  was  divorced,  and  lived  in  Pales¬ 
tine.  She  was  devoted  to  works  of  piety 
and  charity.  She  was  a  writer  of  consid¬ 
erable  merit  both  in  poetry  and  prose. 

Eugenius,  the  name  of  four  popes.  The 
first  of  this  name  was  pope  during  the  quar¬ 
rel  between  the  Eastern  and  Western 
Churches  concerning  Monothelitism.  “  He 
was  a  weak  character,  and  in  order  to  es¬ 
cape  the  fate  of  his  predecessor,  Martin  I., 
he  deferred  to  the  wishes  of  the  emperor, 
and  made  a  compromise  with  the  heretical 
Pyrrhus,  patriarch  of  Constantinople,  on 
the  basis  that  Christ  had  neither  one  or 
two  wills,  but  three.”  He  d.  in  657.  See 
Popes. 

Eunomians,  an  Arian  sect  of  the  fourth 
century,  named  from  Eunomius,  who  was 
b.  at  Dacora,  in  Cappadocia,  and  d.  there 
about  392.  He  was  a  pupil  of  Aetius  in 
Alexandria,  and  accompanied  this  Arian 
leader  to  the  Council  at  Antioch  in  358, 
where  he  was  ordained  deacon.  He  was 
made  bishop  of  Cyzicus  in  360.  The  ex¬ 
pression  of  extreme  Arian  views  aroused 
fierce  opposition,  and  he  was  soon  deposed 
from  his  office.  He  then  placed  himself  at 
the  head  of  the  Anomoeans,  who  were  there¬ 
after  known  as  Eunomians.  His  doctrine 
ooncerning  Christ  was  that  he  was  a  created 
Being,  of  a  nature  unlike  that  of  God,  and 
that  the  Son  of  God  did  not  substantially 
unite  himself  to  the  human  nature,  but  only 
by  virtueof  hisoperations.  The  HolySpirit, 
he  said,  was  the  first  among  the  created  nat¬ 
ures,  formed  according  to  the  command  of 
the  Father,  by  the  agency  of  the  Son;  which 
Spirit,  as  being  first  after  the  Son,  has  re¬ 
ceived,  indeed,  the  power  to  sanctify  and  to 


teach,  but  wants  the  divine  creative  power. 
Eunomius  was  the  first  who  discontinued 
baptism  in  the  name  of  the  Trinity,  sub¬ 
stituting  words  which  made  it  a  baptism  in 
the  name  of  the  Creator,  and  into  the  death 
of  Christ.  —  Benham:  Did.  of  Religion . 
The  Eunomian  heresy  was  condemned  by 
the  Council  of  Constantinople,  and  the 
sect,  torn  by  internal  divisions,  finally  dis¬ 
appeared.  The  writings  of  Eunomius 
were  held  in  high  esteem  by  his  party. 
Only  fragments  of  them  now  remain. 

Eu'nuch  ( bed-keeper\  This  class  of  cas¬ 
trated  males  is  still  employed  in  Eastern 
courts,  as  attendants  in  charge  of  harems. 
There  were  many  in  ancient  Rome  and  in 
Greece  during  the  Byzantine  period.  The 
soprano  singers  in  the  Sistine  chapel  are 
eunuchs.  Jealous,  intriguing,  shameless, 
they  are  peculiarly  liable  to  melancholy, 
and  many  commit  suicide.  The  word 
“eunuch”  is  used  by  Christ  (Matt.  xix. 
12)  in  three  senses:  (1)  Of  those  incapac¬ 
itated  from  birth;  (2)  of  those  who  had 
been  mutilated;  (3)  of  those  who  abstained 
from  marriage  that  they  might  give  more 
exclusive  attention  to  the  interests  of  the 
kingdom  of  heaven. 

Euphrates,  the  largest  river  in  western 
Asia.  It  rises  from  two  chief  sources  in 
the  mountains  of  Armenia,  both  of  which 
flow  toward  the  west  or  southwest,  and 
unite  about  long.  390.  Winding  along  the 
borders  of  Syria,  and  skirting  the  Arabian 
desert,  it  joins  the  Tigris  in  Lower  Baby¬ 
lonia,  and  empties  into  the  Persian  Gulf. 
Its  length  is  1,780  miles,  and  it  is  naviga¬ 
ble  for  small  vessels  1,200  miles  from  its 
mouth.  The  river  overflows  its  banks 
when  the  snows  on  the  Armenian  mount¬ 
ains  melt,  and  between  the  first  of  March 
and  early  May  it  sometimes  rises  twelve 
feet  above  its  ordinary  level.  In  ancient 
times  dykes  and  canals  were  constructed 
at  great  expense,  to  prevent  the  waste  of 
soil  and  furnish  irrigation.  The  Euphrates 
is  named  as  one  of  the  rivers  of  Eden  (Gen. 
ii.  14),  called  “  the  great  river.”  (Gen. 
xv.  18;  Deut.  i.  7.)  It  was  the  eastern 
boundary  of  the  Promised  Land  (Deut.  xi. 
24;  Josh.  i.  4),  and  is  referred  to  in  proph- 
ecy  (Jer.  xiii.  4-7;  xlvi.  2-10;  li.  63),  and 
in  Revelation  (x.  14;  xvi.  12),  and  is  often 
spoken  of  as  “  the  river.”  The  natives 
call  it  the  Frat . 

Eusebius,  bishop  of  Caesarea;  b.  near  the 
close  of  the  third  century,  probably  in  Pal¬ 
estine;  d.  at  Caesarea,  340.  After  his  or¬ 
dination  as  a  presbyter  he  taught  in  a  school 
at  Caesarea,  and  aided  Pamphilus  in  liter¬ 
ary  work.  This  friendship  had  a  marked 


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influence  upon  his  life,  and  introduced  him 
to  the  study  of  the  works  of  Origen.  After 
the  martyrdom  of  Pamphilus,  in  the  last 
persecution  of  Diocletian,  and  the  restora¬ 
tion  of  peace  (313),  he  was  made  bishop  of 
Caesarea.  He  soon  became  involved  in  the 
Arian  controversy,  and  attempted  to  shield 
Arius  from  the  fierce  storm  of  persecution 
that  had  risen  against  him.  At  the  Coun¬ 
cil  of  Nicaea(325)  he  sought  to  bring  about 
a  reconciliation  between  the  contending 
parties,  but  failed.  His  own  position  was 
intermediate,  and  based  upon  the  views  of 
Origen.  He  contended  to  the  last  against 
the  term  honiodusion  —  of  the  same  sub¬ 
stance — but  in  the  interests  of  peace,  and 
at  the  dictation  of  the  emperor,  finally  sub¬ 
scribed  to  the  Nicene  creed.  His  efforts 
at  reconciliation  won  the  friendship  of  Con¬ 
stantine,  for  whom  he  had  an  inordinate 
admiration,  as  shown  in  his  Life  of  the 
emperor.  Among  his  numerous  works  the 
most  important  is  his  Ecclesiastical  History , 
in  ten  books.  For  a  more  extended  account 
of  his  life  and  opinions,  see  Schaff:  Church 
Hist.,  ii.  872-879;  Dorner:  Hist,  of  the 
Person  of  Christ. 

Eusebius,  bishop  of  Emisa;  d.  about 
360.  He  was  an  intimate  friend  of  the  Em¬ 
peror  Constantius,  and  a  man  of  great 
learning,  and  an  able  preacher.  After  his 
appointment  as  bishop  the  hostility  of  the 
ignorant  populace  was  aroused  against 
him  because  of  his  astronomical  knowl¬ 
edge,  and  he  fled  first  to  Laodicea,  ami 
from  there  to  Antioch,  where  he  spent  the 
rest  of  his  life.  Only  fragments  of  his  nu¬ 
merous  writings  have  been  preserved. 

Eusebius  of  Nicomedia,  reported  to  be 
related,  on  his  mother’s  side,  to  the  Em¬ 
peror  Julian.  To  this  connection  was  prob¬ 
ably  due  his  rapid  rise  to  episcopal  honors. 
A  contemporary  and  friend  of  Eu.sebius  of 
Cresarea,  he  was  outspoken  in  his  sympa¬ 
thy  with  Arius.  His  views  appear  to  have 
been  in  substantial  accord  with  those  of 
his  namesake.  His  active  opposition  to 
Athanasius  led  to  his  temporary  banish¬ 
ment  from  his  see,  but  he  regained  the 
confidence  of  Constantine :  and  was  selected 
to  administer  baptism  to  the  emperor  in 
his  last  illness.  He  died  at  Constantino¬ 
ple  in  342. 

Eusebius,  bishop  of  Samosata,  one  of 
the  great  leaders  of  the  orthodox  church 
during  its  contest  with  Arianism  in  the 
latter  half  of  the  fourth  century;  d.  in  380. 
During  the  reign  of  Valens,  he  traveled 
through  Syria  Phoenicia, and  Palestine, dis¬ 
guised  as  a  soldier,  preaching  and  conse¬ 
crating  priests.  Banished  to  Thrace  in 


373.  he  was  in  exile  until  the  death  of 
Valens,  378.  Not  long  after  his  return, 
while  laboring  to  reorganize  the  Syrian 
Church,  he  was  killed  at  Dolica  by  a  tile 
thrown  from  the  roof  of  a  house  by  an  Arian 
woman. 

Eustathius  of  Antioch,  first  bishop  of 
Berrhoea  (Syria),  and  then  of  Antioch;  d. 
at  Philippi,  337.  He  earnestly  opposed 
the  Arians  in  the  Council  of  Nicaea,  and 
when  they  came  into  power  he  was  deposed 
in  331.  Of  his  writings  only  a  work  against 
Origen  is  extant:  Bibl.  Max.  Patr. ,  xvii. 

Eustathius,  bishop  of  Sebaste,  Armenia, 
from  350;  d.  380.  He  changed  so  often 
from  orthodoxy  to  different  phases  of 
Arianism  that  he  was  condemned  by  several 
synods.  He  introduced  monasticism  in 
Armenia,  Pontus,  and  Paphlagonia,  and 
organized  an  ascetic  party,  called  the  Eusta- 
thians,  that  was  condemned  by  the  synod 
of  Gangra  (about  360),  and  soon  disap¬ 
peared. 

Eutychianism.  See  Eutyches. 

Eutyches,  the  founder  of  the  Eutychians, 
abbot  and  presbyter  of  Constantinople  in 
the  fifth  century.  In  the  Council  of  Ephesus 
he  earnestly  opposed  the  Nestorians. 
“  They  were  accused  of  teaching  that  the 
divine  nature  was  not  incarnated  in,  but 
only  attendant  on,  Jesus,  being  superadded 
to  his  human  nature  after  the  latter  was 
completely  formed.  In  opposition  to  this, 
Eutyches  went  so  far  as  to  affirm  that  after 
the  union  of  the  two  natures,  the  human 
and  divine,  Christ  had  only  one  nature, 
that  of  the  incarnate  Word,  and  that,  there¬ 
fore,  his  human  body  was  essentially  dif¬ 
ferent  from  other  human  bodies.  In  this 
he  went  beyond  Cyril  and  the  Alexandrine 
school  generally,  who,  although  they  ex¬ 
pressed  the  unity  of  the  two  natures  of 
Christ  so  as  to  almost  nullify  their  duality, 
yet  took  care  verbally  to  guard  themselves 
against  the  accusation  of  in  any  way  cir¬ 
cumscribing  or  modifying  his  real  and  true 
humanity.  It  would  seem,  however,  that 
Eutyches  differed  from  the  Alexandrine 
school  chiefly  from  inability  to  express  his 
meaning  with  proper  guardedness,  for 
!  equally  with  them  he  denied  that  Christ’s 
i  human  nature  was  either  transmuted  or 
absorbed  in  his  divine  nature.” — Eitcy. 
Britannica ,  vol.  viii. ,  p.  724.  At  a  council 
held  at  Constantinople  in  448,  Eutyches 
was  accused  of  heresy  and  deposed  and  ex¬ 
communicated.  In  the  following  year  a 
council  convened  at  Ephesus,  and  largely 
attended  by  Egyptian  monks,  restored  him 
to  his  office  and  deposed  his  chief  oppo- 


Eva 


(  320  ) 


Eva 


nents,  Eusebius,  bishop  of  Dorylseum,  who 
had  accused  him,  and  Flavian,  who  presided 
at  the  council  that  excommunicated  him. 
The  proceedings  of  the  Council  at  Ephesus 
were  annulled  two  years  afterward  by  a 
council  which  met  at  Chalcedon  and  “  de¬ 
clared  that  th6  two  natures  were  united  in 
Christ,  but  without  any  alteration,  absorp¬ 
tion,  or  confusion.”  Eutyches  was  banish¬ 
ed  by  the  emperor,  and  died  in  exile.  In 
the  sixth  century  a  monk  by  the  name  of 
Jacob  brought  together  the  various  parties 
into  which  the  Eutychians  had  divided,  and 
formed  the  Jacobite  Church  which  still  has 
a  considerable  following  in  Armenia, 
Egypt,  and  Ethiopia. 

Evangelical  Alliance.  See  Alliance, 
Evangelical. 

Evangelical  Association, an  ecclesiastical 
body  which,  in  polity  and  faith,  is  nearly 
identical  with  the  Methodist  Episcopal 
Church.  Its  founder,  Jacob  Albright,  an 
unlettered  but  devout  man,  left  the  Luther¬ 
ans,  and,  having  connected  himself  with 
the  Methodists,  began  to  preach  in  1796. 
A  company  of  his  followers  ordained  him 
as  a  minister  in  1803,  and  as  the  Methodist 
Episcopal  Church  did  not  extend  its  labors 
among  the  Germans,  the  congregation 
gathered  through  his  labors  formed  them¬ 
selves  into  a  separate  denomination.  A 
conference  was  organized  in  1807,  and  Al¬ 
bright  was  elected  bishop,  and  instructed 
to  prepare  articles  of  faith  and  discipline. 
The  name  finally  adopted  by  the  organiza¬ 
tion  is  that  of  “  The  Evangelical  Associa¬ 
tion  of  North  America.”  Bishops  are 
elected  by  the  general  conference,  and  pre¬ 
siding  elders  by  the  annual  conferences. 
The  itinerant  system  is  practiced,  and  in 
doctrine  they  are  Arminian.  At  first  they 
labored  exclusively  among  the  Germans, 
but  more  recently  English  congregations 
have  been  organized.  There  are  now  22 
conferences,  1,523  ministers,  and  113,871 
church  members.  It  has  a  conference  in 
Germany  with  8,000  members,  and  carries 
on  a  mission  in  Japan.  A  Biblical  Institute 
at  Naperville,  Ill.,  and  the  Northwestern 
University  at  Plainfield,  Ill.,  are  under  the 
charge  of  the  denomination.  The  Book 
Concern  at  Cleveland  is  prosperous,  and 
publishes  several  papers  in  German  and 
English. 

Evangelical  Union.  In  1841,  the  Rev. 
James  Morison,  a  minister  of  the  United  Se¬ 
cession  Church, was  deposed  for  holding  an- 
ti-Calvinistic  views  regarding  faith,  the 
work  of  the  Holy  Spirit  in  salvation,  and  the 
extent  of  the  atonement.  His  father  and 
two  other  ministers  having  been  deposed 


for  holding  similar  views,  they  formed  the 
Evangelical  Union.  The  organization  has 
extended  until  it  numbers  upwards  of  a 
hundred  churches.  They  adhere  to  the 
Congregational  form  of  government.  Doc- 
trinally  they  are  in  sympathy  with  the 
views  held  by  the  Cumberland  Presbyte¬ 
rian  Church  of  the  United  States.  See 
Ferguson:  History  of  the  Evangelical  Union 
(Glasgow,  1876). 

Evangelist.  “  The  constitution  of  the  Ap¬ 
ostolic  Church  included  an  order  or  body 
of  men  known  as  Evangelists.  The  meaning 
of  the  name,  ‘  the  publishers  of  glad  tid¬ 
ings,’  seems  common  to  the  work  of  the 
Christian  ministry  generally,  yet  in  Eph. 
iv.  2,  the  *  evangelists  ’  appear  on  the 
one  hand  after  the  ‘  apostles  ’  and  ‘  proph¬ 
ets;’  on  the  other  before  the  ‘pastors’ 
and  ‘  teachers.’  This  passage,  accordingly, 
would  lead  us  to  think  of  them  as  stand¬ 
ing  between  the  two  other  groups — sent 
forth  as  missionary  preachers  of  the  Gospel 
by  the  first,  and  as  such  preparing  the  way 
for  the  labors  of  the  second.  The  same  in¬ 
ference  would  seem  to  follow  the  occur¬ 
rence  of  the  word  as  applied  to  Philip  in 
Acts  xxi.  8.  It  follows,  from  what  has  been 
said,  that  the  calling  of  the  evangelist  is 
the  proclamation  of  the  glad  tidings  to 
those  who  have  not  known  them,  rather 
than  the  instruction  and  pastoral  care  of 
those  who  have  believed  and  been  bap¬ 
tized.  It  follows,  also,  that  the  name  de¬ 
notes  a  work  rather  than  an  order.  The 
evangelist  might  or  might  not  be  a  Bish¬ 
op-Elder  or  a  Deacon.  The  apostles,  so 
far  as  they  evangelized  (Acts  viii.  25;  xiv. 
7;  1  Cor.  i.  17),  might  claim  the  title, 
though  there  were  many  evangelists  who 
were  not  apostles.  Theodoret  describes 
the  evangelists  as  travelling  missionaries. 
The  account  given  by  Eusebius,  though 
somewhat  rhetorical  and  vague,  gives 
prominence  to  the  idea  of  itinerant  mis¬ 
sionary  preaching.  If  the  Gospel  was  a 
written  book,  and  the  office  of  the  evangel¬ 
ists  was  to  read  or  distribute  it,  then  the 
writers  of  such  books  were  preeminently 
the  Evangelists.  In  later  liturgical  lan¬ 
guage  the  word  was  applied  to  the  reader 
of  the  Gospel  for  the  day.” — Smith:  Diet, 
of  the  Bible. 

Evangelistary,  a  name  given  the  chuich- 
book  containing  the  portions  of  the  Gos¬ 
pels  appointed  to  be  read  in  the  Commun¬ 
ion  service. 

Evans,  Christmas,  a  Baptist  preacher 
of  Wales,  famous  for  his  eloquence:  b.  at 
Ergaiswen  on  Christmas-Day,  1766  ;  d. 
July  14,  1S3S.  The  son  of  a  shoemaker, 


Eve 


(  321  ) 


Evo 


he  was  early  compelled  to  work  as  a  day 
laborer.  He  learned  to  read  after  he  was 
converted,  at  the  agfe  of  seventeen.  He  en¬ 
tered  the  ministry  in  1790,  and  preached 
for  two  years  at  Lleyn,  and  from  there 
went  to  the  Isle  of  Anglesea,  where  his 
salary,  most  of  the  time,  was  but  ^17. 
In  1826  he  removed  to  Tonyvelin,  and  in 
1833  to  Caernarvon.  His  power  as  an 
illustrative  preacher  won  him  the  title  of 
the  “  Welsh  Bunyan.”  His  power  over 
his  audiences  was  often  wonderful. 

Eve,  “  the  name  given  in  Scripture  to  the 
first  woman.  The  account  of  Eve’s  cre¬ 
ation  is  found  in  Gen.  ii.  21,  22.  Various 
explanations  of  this  narrative  have  been 
offered.  Perhaps  that  which  we  are  chiefly 
intended  to  learn  from  it  is  the  foundation 
upon  which  the  union  between  man  and 
wife  is  built,  viz. ,  identity  of  nature  and  one¬ 
ness  of  origin.  Through  the  subtlety  of  the 
serpent,  Eve  was  beguiled  into  a  violation 
of  the  one  commandment  which  had  been 
imposed  upon  her  and  Adam.  The  differ¬ 
ent  aspects  under  which  Eve  regarded  her 
mission  as  a  mother  are  seen  in  the  names 
of  her  sons.  The  Scripture  account  of 
Eve  closes  with  the  birth  of  Seth.” — Smith: 
Did.  of  the  Bible.  Different  interpreta¬ 
tions  of  this  narrative  have  found  defend¬ 
ers.  Philo  considered  it  allegorical,  and 
in  this  view  was  followed  by  the  Alexan¬ 
drian  fathers.  Others  hold  to  a  poetical 
interpretation;  and  still  others  to  a  myth¬ 
ical  view  which  makes  the  story  a  mere 
dramatic  conception.  See  W.  Robertson 
Smith’s  art.  “  Eve,”  in  Ency.  Britannica. 

Evidences,  Christian.  See  Apolo¬ 
getics. 

E'vil-Mero'dach,  son  and  successor  of 
Nebuchadnezzar,  king  of  Babylon,  and 
reigned  b.  c.  561-560.  He  released  Jehoia- 
chin,  king  of  Judah,  from  prison  after  a 
captivity  of  thirty-seven  years,  and  gave 
him  a  position  of  honor  and  personal  inti¬ 
macy.  (Jer.  lii.  31-34.)  After  a  reign  of 
two  years,  he  was  murdered  by  his  brother- 
in-law,  Neriglissar,  who  succeeded  him. 

Evolution.  The  general  idea  expressed 
in  the  word  “evolution”  is  that  of  a  pro¬ 
gressive  change  of  phenomena  under  the 
continuous  operation  of  secondary  causes. 
It  will  be  seen  hereafter  that  this  concep¬ 
tion  is  entirely  independent  of  any  partic¬ 
ular  theory  as  to  the  nature  of  secondary 
causes,  and  that  it  is  entirely  consistent 
with  that  doctrine  of  divine  immanence 
which  finds  in  the  divine  will  the  only  effi¬ 
cient  causation  in  nature,  recognizing  what 
are  called  secondary  causes  as  only  con¬ 


venient  symbols  to  express  the  method  and 
order  of  divine  activity. 

A  characteristic  example  of  such  a  series 
of  changes  as  may  properly  be  called 
evolution  is  to  be  found  in  the  growth  of 
the  individual  plant  or  animal  from  its 
primitive  condition  of  a  single  protoplasmic 
cell  to  the  complexity  of  its  adult  condi¬ 
tion.  On  a  larger  scale,  the  origin  of 
primary  and  secondary  planets  from  a  prim¬ 
itive  nebula,  as  explained  by  the  nebulaij 
theory,  is  a  case  of  the  evolution  of  a  planet¬ 
ary  system.  That  the  majority  of  the 
phenomena  of  the  physical  universe  fall 
within  the  scope  of  the  law  of  continuity 
has  long  been  the  universal  belief  of 
scientific  men.  The  only  question  in  this 
generation  has  been  whether  there  are  any 
exceptional  phenomena  which  lie  outside 
the  realm  of  secondary  causation,  and  are 
explicable  only  by  the  assumption  of 
isolated  and  processless  interpositions  of 
creative  power.  The  thoughtful  mind, 
surveying  the  gradual  but  constant  prog¬ 
ress  with  which  science  has  annexed  one 
after  another  of  the  seemingly  most  law¬ 
less  and  capricious  phenomena  of  nature  to 
the  realm  of  the  law-governed,  must  feel 
that  there  is  a  tremendous  presumption 
against  any  such  exceptions. 

The  most  important  scientific  contro¬ 
versy  of  this  century  has  been  waged  upon 
the  question  of  one  of  these  supposed  ex¬ 
ceptions.  The  word  “  evolution  ”  is  often 
employed,  and  will  be  employed  in  the  re¬ 
mainder  of  this  article,  in  a  restricted  sense, 
with  reference  to  that  particular  question. 
That  the  introduction  of  new  individuals 
in  the  animal  and  vegetable  kingdoms  is  a 
purely  natural  process,  lying  completely 
within  the  scope  of  secondary  causation, 
none  can  doubt.  But  geology  has  made 
known  the  fact  that  the  present  species  of 
animals  and  plants  have  existed  for  a 
period  which  is  very  shoit  in  comparison 
with  the  duration  of  the  earth;  and  that 
these  species  were  preceded  by  other 
species,  more  and  more  dissimilar  to  them, 
in  periods  of  more  and  more  remote  antiq¬ 
uity.  Have  these  new  species,  from  time 
to  time,  been  introduced  by  a  process  of 
descent  with  modification,  so  that  the  ori¬ 
gin  of  a  species  is  only  the  birth  of  indi¬ 
viduals  varying  from  the  parent  stock  ?  or 
must  the  origin  of  a  species  be  sought  in 
the  interposition  of  a  creative  fiat  whereby 
one,  two,  or  more  individuals  appeared 
without  any  generative  process  whatever  ? 
The  former  of  these  alternatives  is  what  is 
understood  as  the  theory  of  evolution,  and 
is  at  present  almost  universally  adopted  by 
scientific  men. 

Two  principles  of  fundamental  impor¬ 
tance  in  relation  to  this  question  are  hered 


Evo 


(  322  ) 


Evo 


ity  and  variation.  The  term  heredity 
expresses  the  familiar  fact  that  offspring 
resemble  their  parents,  while  the  term  va¬ 
riation  expresses  the  equally  familiar  fact 
that  offspring  are  never  exactly  like  their 
parents  or  exactly  like  each  other.  Evi¬ 
dently,  if  new  species  are  produced  by  de¬ 
scent  with  modification,  it  must  be  by  the 
occasional  occurrence  of  great  variations, 
or  by  the  progressive  accumulation  of 
small  variations.  It  appears,  however, 
within  the  comparatively  short  period  in 
which  plants  and  animals  have  been  stud¬ 
ied  by  civilized  man,  that  variations  are 
generally  small  in  amount,  and  oscillatory 
rather  than  progressive,  so  that  the  aver¬ 
age  character  of  a  species  appears  to  be 
substantially  constant  from  generation  to 
generation.  But  it  would  obviously  be  a 
tremendous  logical  saltus  to  conclude,  from 
the  fact  that  the  character  of  a  species  re¬ 
mains  apparently  changeless  for  a  few  cen¬ 
turies,  in  which  the  conditions  of  life  re¬ 
main  substantially  uniform,  that  it  would 
suffer  no  change  in  the  lapse  of  geological 
ages,  and  when  exposed  to  the  direct  and 
indirect  effect  of  the  geographical  and  cli¬ 
matic  changes  which  geology  reveals. 

If  the  existing  fauna  and  flora  are  the 
modified  descendants  of  earlier  faunas  and 
floras — if  the  present  condition  of  organic 
nature  is  the  result  of  a  growth — then 
traces  of  such  derivation — marks  of  growth 
— ought  to  reveal  themselves  in  the  char¬ 
acters  of  various  living  species,  and  in  the 
relations  of  living  species  to  each  other, 
and  to  time  and  space.  Do  such  growth- 
marks  exist?  Unquestionably:  organic  nat¬ 
ure  is  full  of  them.  Within  the  limits  of 
the  present  article  it  is  impossible  to  give 
any  adequate  idea  of  the  immense  mass  of 
the  evidence.  That  evidence  can  be  appre¬ 
ciated  only  by  those  who  have  attained 
some  considerable  proficiency  in  biolog¬ 
ical  science.  In  the  present  article  little 
more  can  be  attempted  than  an  inventory 
of  the  principal  classes  of  facts  from  which 
the  evidence  is  drawn. 

One  of  these  classes  of  facts  is  seen  in 
the  homology  of  structure  preserved  in 
organs  appropriated  to  widely  different 
uses.  The  arm  of  man,  the  fore  paw  of 
the  quadruped,  the  wing  of  bat  and  bird 
and  pterodactyl,  the  flipper  of  seal  and 
whale  and  ichthyosaurus,  the  pectoral  fin 
of  the  fish — all  have  a  structure  essentially 
identical.  It  can  certainly  not  be  asserted 
that  this  plan  of  structure  is  the  only  one 
admissible  for  those  various  functions,  nor 
is  it  clear  that  it  -is  the  best  plan;  for,  in 
other  branches  of  the  animal  kingdom,  we 
have  organs  for  prehension,  walking,  fly¬ 
ing,  and  swimming,  constructed  on  totally 
different  plans. 


Still  more  striking,  perhaps,  is  the  ev¬ 
idence  afforded  by  rqdimentary  organs— 
organs  which,  in  particular  species,  are 
more  or  less  imperfectly  developed  and 
functionless,  while  in  allied  species  they 
are  well  developed  and  functional.  Such 
cases  are  of  continual  occurrence  in  every 
group  of  the  organic  kingdoms,  and  in  con¬ 
nection  with  every  system  of  organs.  A 
striking  example  is  seen  in  the  wings  of 
some  beetles  which  never  fly,  folded  up 
under  wing-covers  immovably  soldered  to¬ 
gether.  The  theory  of  evolution  gives  to 
such  organs  a  perfectly  intelligible  mean¬ 
ing,  making  them  most  important  records 
of  the  method  of  creation.  To  say,  on  the 
other  hand,  that  the  Deity  specially  cre¬ 
ated  flightless  and  useless  wings,  concealed 
under  immovable  wing-covers,  for  the  sake 
of  conformity  to  the  coleopterous  arch¬ 
etype,  is,  to  say  the  least,  not  a  very  sat¬ 
isfactory  explanation. 

If  the  existing  species  have  been  derived 
from  earlier  ones  by  descent  with  mod¬ 
ification,  it  might  be  expected  that  resem¬ 
blances  to  those  earlier  forms  would  often 
be  exhibited  in  the  larval  and  embryonic 
stages  of  existing  species,  which  are  lost 
in  the  adult  stage  of  those  species;  and, 
since  there  has  been,  in  general,  a  progress 
from  lower  to  higher  forms  in  the  course 
of  geological  time,  it  might,  accordingly,  be 
expected  that  there  would  often  be  a  re¬ 
semblance  between  the  immature  stages  of 
higher  forms  and  the  mature  condition  of 
lower  allied  forms.  There  would  thus  be 
often  a  triple  correspondence  between  the 
embryological,  the  taxonomic,  and  the  pa¬ 
leontological  series  —  the  developmental 
stages  of  later  and  higher  forms,  recalling 
the  adult  condition  of  earlier  and  lower 
forms.  The  larva  of  a  crab  resembles  a 
lobster,  the  latter  being  a  representative 
of  a  group  lower  in  rank  and  earlier  in  or¬ 
igin.  An  embryonic  stage  in  the  develop¬ 
ment  of  the  heart  and  the  great  trunks  of 
the  blood-vessels  in  mammals  resembles 
the  permanent  condition  of  the  fish;  and 
the  neck  of  the  embryonic  mammal  is 
pierced  with  slits  like  the  gill-slits  of  a 
shark.  Multitudinous  such  correspond¬ 
ences  may  be  traced.  In  many  cases,  how¬ 
ever,  traces  of  ancestral  character  in  em¬ 
bryos  and  larvae  are  masked  by  adaptive 
modifications,  having  reference  to  the  con¬ 
ditions  of  life  in  which  the  immature  forms 
are  placed. 

The  general  order  of  paleontological 
succession  is  eminently  in  accord  with  the 
theory  of  evolution.  The  life  of  the  ear¬ 
liest  periods  exhibits  a  comparative  paucity 
of  ordinal  types,  a  conspicuous  absence  of 
the  highest  orders,  and  a  general  facies 
markedly  different  from  that  of  to-day.  In 


Evo 


(  323  ) 


Evo 


•successive  periods  we  find  a  continual  in¬ 
crease  in  the  number  and  diversity  of 
ordinal  types,  the  accession  of  higher  or¬ 
ders,  and  a  continual  approximation  to 
the  facies  of  the  present.  Early  types 
often  exhibit  a  remarkably  generalized 
character,  and  are  followed  by  allied  forms 
specialized  in  different  directions,  as  if  the 
descendants  of  a  common  stock,  exposed 
to  different  conditions,  had  varied  in  di¬ 
vergent  directions.  Thus  the  ancient  ga¬ 
noid  fishes  seem  to  have  given  rise,  on  the 
one  hand,  to  teleost  fishes,  and,  on  the  oth¬ 
er,  to  amphibia  and  reptiles.  In  some  cases 
the  record  of  succession  is  so  complete  as 
to  suggest  probable  genealogies  of  fam¬ 
ilies  and  genera.  The  numerous  corre¬ 
spondences  between  paleontology,  taxon¬ 
omy,  and  embryology  have  been  already 
referred  to.  It  is  now  universally  recog¬ 
nized  that  the  old  idea  of  geological  periods 
sharply  limited  by  epochs  of  universal 
extermination  and  new  creation  is  entirely 
false.  There  have,  undoubtedly,  been 
epochs  of  comparatively  rapid  change  in 
fauna  and  flora,  alternating  with  epochs  of 
comparative  stability,  these  epochs  of 
rapid  change  in  the  facies  of  organic  nat¬ 
ure  corresponding,  in  general,  with  the 
epochs  of  greatest  geographical  change; 
but  there  is  no  reason  to  believe  in  any 
universal  extermination  since  the  first  in¬ 
troduction  of  life. 

The  facts  of  geographical  distribution 
also  correspond,  in  general,  with  the  idea  of 
evolution.  The  range  of  a  species  is  usual¬ 
ly  continuous,  as  if  the  species  had  spread 
from  some  centre  of  origin  until  stopped 
by  geographical  barriers,  climate,  or  com¬ 
petition  of  more  powerful  rivals.  Appar¬ 
ent  exceptions  usually  admit  of  ready  ex¬ 
planation,  as  in  the  case  of  northern  plants 
on  the  Alps  and  other  mountains  of  Europe 
and  America,  whose  presence  is  readily  ex¬ 
plained  by  the  migrations  attendant  upon 
the  glacial  period.  The  range  of  genera  is 
usually  more  extensive  than  that  of  spe¬ 
cies,  but  is  generally  either  actually  con¬ 
tinuous,  or  capable  of  being  made  contin¬ 
uous  by  geographical  or  climatic  changes 
within  the  bounds  of  geological  probabil¬ 
ity.  The  range  of  the  most  comprehen¬ 
sive  groups,  as  sub-kingdoms  and  classes, 
whose  origin  must  have  antedated  the  pres¬ 
ent  distribution  of  sea  and  land,  is  generally 
world-wide.  When  the  facts  of  geological 
distribution  are  viewed  in  connection  with 
those  of  geological  succession,  a  striking 
generalization  is  reached,  which  is  emi¬ 
nently  in  accord  with  the  theory  of  ev¬ 
olution.  That  generalization  is  expressed 
in  the  words  of  A.  R.  Wallace:  “  Every 
species  has  come  into  existence  coincident 
both  in  time  and  space  with  a  pre-existing 


closely  allied  species.”  There  can  be  no 
doubt  of  the  general  truth  of  this  proposi¬ 
tion,  though  there  are  exceptions  which 
are  inexplicable  in  the  present  state  of  our 
knowledge.  This  law  is  most  conspic¬ 
uously  illustrated  in  the  comparison  of  the 
quaternary  with  the  recent  mammalian 
faunas  of  the  respective  continents.  Aus¬ 
tralia  was  the  land  of  marsupials,  and 
South  America  the  land  of  edentates,  in 
the  quaternary,  as  at  present — species 
being  changed,  but  family  and  ordinal 
types  persisting.  Nor  is  this  local  persist¬ 
ence  of  certain  types  to  be  explained  tele¬ 
ologically,  as  due  to  some  peculiar  adapta¬ 
tion  of  these  types  to  climate  and  other 
conditions.  So  far  is  it  from  being  the 
case  that  marsupials  are  especially  and  ex¬ 
clusively  adapted  to  the  climate  of  Austra¬ 
lia,  the  animals  introduced  from  Europe 
thrive  so  well  as  to  threaten  the  extermi¬ 
nation  of  the  native  fauna. 

The  indefiniteness  and  uncertainty  of  zo¬ 
ological  and  botanical  classification  bears 
strongly  in  favor  of  evolution.  Paradox¬ 
ical  as  it  may  seem,  it  is  in  the  genera  best 
known,  and  in  the  faunas  and  floras  of 
countries  most  thoroughly  explored,  that 
the  discrimination  of  species  is  most  diffi¬ 
cult.  While  species  are  founded  on  sol¬ 
itary  specimens  brought  home  by  explorers 
of  distant  lands,  species  appear  clearly 
marked  and  invariable.  But,  when  hun¬ 
dreds  or  thousands  of  specimens  can  be 
examined,  the  result  is  often  that  the  bound¬ 
aries  of  the  species  seem  to  be  lost  in  a 
haze  of  indefinite  variation.  Nor  is  it  alone 
in  the  discrimination  of  species  that  such 
indefiniteness  exists.  Probably  at  present 
no  two  zoologists  could  agree  on  a  scheme 
of  sub-kingdoms,  classes,  sub-classes,  or¬ 
ders,  and  sub-orders  for  the  animal  king¬ 
dom,  unless  such  agreement  was  reached  by 
a  compromise  analogous  to  those  of  pol¬ 
itics.  Groups  which  appear  well  defined 
in  their  typical  forms,  blend  on  their  con¬ 
fines  like  the  colors  of  the  spectrum. 

It  is  safe  to  say  that  the  more  thoroughly 
any  one  studies  the  various  aspects  and 
relations  of  organic  nature  the  more  strong¬ 
ly  will  he  be  impressed  with  the  accordance 
between  the  phenomena  and  the  theory  of 
evolution.  Derivation  by  continuous  mod¬ 
ification,  not  creation  by  occasional  and  dis¬ 
connected  fiats — nomogenesis,  not  thauma- 
togenesis — is  suggested  alike  to  the  zool¬ 
ogist  and  the  botanist,  the  embryologist 
and  the  paleontologist. 

The  stock  objection  to  evolution  is  found 
in  the  alleged  absence  of  gradational  forms 
between  species,  and  between  more  com¬ 
prehensive  groups.  As  has  been  already 
explained,  this  objection,  in  the  sweeping 
and  unqualified  form  in  which  it  is  often 


Evo 


(  324  ) 


Evo 


stated,  is  false.  The  thorough  student  of 
zoology,  botany,  or  paleontology  knows 
that  there  is  far  more  of  gradation  in  the 
organic  kingdoms  than  is  generally  sup¬ 
posed.  It  is,  however,  true  that  the 
majority  of  existing  species  seem  to  have 
pretty  definite  boundaries;  and  in  geolog¬ 
ical  history  many  groups  seem  to  make  a 
sudden  advent,  with  no  recognizable  trace 
of  ancestry.  The  force  of  this  objection 
is,  however,  much  less  than  at  first  ap¬ 
pears.  Close  series  of  gradational  forms 
between  existing  species  ought  to  be 
found  only  very  exceptionally,  if  the  theory 
of  evolution  is  true.  If  we  have  two  close¬ 
ly  related  species,^  and  B ,  it  is  not  likely 
that  one  of  them  is  descended  from  the 
other,  but  both  of  them  are  probably  de¬ 
scended  from  some  extinct  species,  C.  More 
or  less  gradational  forms  must  some  time 
have  existed  between  C  and  A ,  and  between 
C  and  B ,  but  not  between  A  and  B.  As  for 
the  lack  of  fossil  remains  of  gradational 
forms  connecting  extinct  species,  when  the 
imperfection  of  the  geological  record  is 
duly  considered,  the  wonder  will  be,  not 
that  so  few,  but  that  so  many,  gradational 
forms  have  come  to  light.  Those  groups 
of  animals  which  are  destitute  of  a  some¬ 
what  indurated  skeleton  are,  in  general, 
unrepresented  by  fossils.  The  large  num¬ 
ber  of  fossil  species  represented  only  by  a 
single  fragmentary  skeleton — in  some 
cases  by  a  fragment  of  a  lower  jaw — il¬ 
lustrate  impressively  what  an  infinitesimal 
fraction  of  the  ancient  populations  of  the 
globe  has  been  preserved,  even  in  the  case 
of  groups  possessing  well-developed  skel¬ 
etons.  The  epochs  of  greatest  geograph¬ 
ical  change  in  any  particular  region,  and 
therefore  of  most  rapid  evolutionary 
change,  are  apt  to  be  marked  by  strati- 
graphical  unconformity,  and  a  complete 
hiatus  in  the  record.  If  a  history  of  the 
United  States  had  nine  out  of  every  ten 
leaves  torn  out,  and  the  chapters  on  the 
Revolution  and  the  Civil  War  entirely 
lost,  the  reader  would  find  in  many  places 
an  abrupt  and  inexplicable  transition, 
where  the  missing  leaves,  if  they  could 
be  restored,  would  make  a  continuous  and 
intelligible  progress.  This  illustration  is 
an  inadequate,  rather  than  an  exaggerated, 
representation  of  the  imperfection  of  the 
geological  record. 

Attention  has  thus  far  been  called  to  the 
phenomena  of  organic  nature  which  sug¬ 
gest  the  general  idea  of  evolution;  but 
nothing  has  been  said  in  regard  to  the 
agencies  by  which  evolutionary  changes 
are  effected.  Since  individual  variation 
must  be  the  means  of  the  origination  of 
new  species,  it  is  evident  that  a  complete 
explanation  of  organic  evolution  must  in¬ 


volve  an  explanation  of  the  principles  of 
heredity  and  variation.  The  ingenious 
speculation  which  has  been  directed  to  that 
mystery  has  hitherto  hardly  accomplished 
more  than  to  render  darkness  visible. 
The  direct  influence  of  external  conditions 
may  be,  to  some  extent,  a  factor  in  evolu¬ 
tionary  change,  but  it  is  apparently  not  the 
most  important  one.  By  far  the  most  im¬ 
portant  contribution  to  the  explanation  of 
the  method  of  organic  evolution  is  the 
theory  of  “natural  selection,”  proposed  by 
Darwin  and  Wallace  in  1858,  and  expounded 
with  wonderful  ability  in  Darwin’s  epoch- 
making  book,  The  Origin  of  Species. 

The  theory  of  natural  selection  is  exceed¬ 
ingly  simple.  It  bases  itself  on  the  fa¬ 
miliar  principles  of  heredity  and  variation, 
and  on  the  tendency  of  all  organic  beings 
to  multiply  in  a  geometrical  series.  Since 
this  tendency  to  geometrical  increase  un¬ 
questionably  exists,  vastly  more  individ¬ 
uals  of  every  species  are  produced  than  can 
possibly  survive  to  maturity  and  propagate. 
By  the  attacks  of  enemies  and  the  compe¬ 
tition  of  rivals,  by  the  scarcity  of  food  and 
the  inclemency  of  climate,  every  Individual 
is  exposed  to  a  multiplicity  of  perils 
throughout  its  existence,  from  the  earliest 
moment  of  its  germ-life  to  its  death.  This 
is  what  Darwin  has  felicitously  called ,  “the 
struggle  for  life.”  Whatever  may  be  the 
known  or  unknown  causes  of  variation,  it 
is  certain  that  the  individuals  of  any  gen¬ 
eration  are  not  exactly  alike.  Presumably, 
some  of  them  will  prove  better  adapted 
than  others  to  succeed  in  the  struggle  for 
life.  The  individuals  whose  variations  are 
thus  favorable  will  be,  in  general,  those 
that  will  survive  to  maturity  and  propagate. 
They  will  be  “  naturally  selected.”  By  the 
principle  of  heredity,  it  may  be  expected 
that  their  peculiarities  will  be  in  greater  or 
less  degree  inherited  by  their  descendants. 

It  is  evident  that  this  principle  of  natural 
selection  must  be  sometimes  a  conserv¬ 
ative,  and  sometimes  a  progressive  force. 
In  a  stationary  condition,  when  the  char¬ 
acter  of  a  species  is  in  harmony  with  its 
environment,  the  effect  of  natural  selec¬ 
tion  will  be  to  keep  the  species  true  to  the 
ancestral  type,  checking  the  tendency  to 
variation  in  ever}''  direction.  But,  when 
any  change  in  climate  or  in  any  other  of  the 
conditions  of  life  throws  a  species  out  of 
harmony  with  its  environment,  so  that  a 
change  in  the  character  of  the  species  would 
be  an  improvement,  natural  selection  be¬ 
comes  a  progressive  force,  favoring  those 
individuals  that  vary  in  the  desirable’direc- 
tion,  rather  than  those  which  remain  true 
to  the  ancestral  type.  Thus  variation, 
which  is  ordinarily  oscillatory,  becomes  at 
times  progressive.  It  is  needless  to  remark 


Evo 


(  325  ) 


Evo 


that  this  result  of  the  theory  exactly  accords 
with  the  history  of  life  as  revealed  by  pa¬ 
leontology.  Periods  of  stability  of  geo¬ 
graphical  conditions  and  permanence  of 
specific  type,  appear  to  have  alternated 
with  periods  of  geographical  change  and 
relatively  rapid  modification  of  species. 

That  natural  selection  is  a  complete  ex¬ 
planation  of  the  process  of  organic  evolu¬ 
tion  probably  no  one  believes.  Indeed, 
that  claim  was  never  made  by  Darwin  him¬ 
self.  But  that  it  is  by  far  the  most  impor¬ 
tant  contribution  to  the  theory  of  evolution 
which  has  thus  far  been  made  is  certain. 

It  is  needless  to  remark  that  the  discov¬ 
ery  of  the  principle  of  natural  selection  has 
vastly  strengthened  the  evidence  for  the 
doctrine  of  evolution  in  general.  However 
conspicuous  are  the  growth-marks  which 
we  have  pointed  out  as  existing  in  organic 
nature,  men  could  easily  mistake  their  sig¬ 
nificance,  in  the  absence  of  any  known 
cause  by  which  variation  (confessedly 
oscillatory  in  all  our  ordinary  experience 
of  living  forms)  could  at  times  be  made 
progressive.  The  principle  of  natural 
selection  tends  to  supply  precisely  this 
lack.  Even  though  we  believe  that  prin¬ 
ciple  inadequate  for  the  complete  solution 
of  the  problem,  the  fact  that  there  has  been 
discovered  an  agency, ever  present  in  nature, 
whose  tendency  is  unquestionably  in  the 
required  direction,  renders  it  easy  to  be¬ 
lieve  that  other  agencies  may  be  hereafter 
discovered  ,by  which  the  agency  already  dis¬ 
covered  may  be  adequately  supplemented. 

When  the  publication  of  Darwin’s  great 
work  first  attracted  attention  to  the  subject 
of  evolution,  the  discussion  assumed,  in 
many  cases,  a  theological  character.  Many 
of  the  most  prominent  advocates  of  the 
theory  were  bitter  assailants  of  Christian¬ 
ity;  and  the  majority  even  of  intelligent 
Christians  regarded  the  theory  as  more  or 
less  decidedly  inimical  to  Christian  belief. 
It  was,  however,  very  early  perceived  by 
a  number  of  able  theologians  that  the  theory 
of  evolution  has  no  necessary  connection 
with  the  atheistic  philosophy  with  which 
some  of  its  defenders  have  associated  it; 
and  it  is  now  generally  conceded  that  there 
is  no  incompatibility  between  a  belief  in 
evolution  and  a  belief  in  Christianity.  If  it 
is  true  that  Darwin  and  Huxley,  among  the 
prominent  early  champions  of  evolution, 
were  agnostics,  it  is  no  less  true  that  Gray 
was  an  evangelical  Christian.  Although 
the  theological  opposition  to  the  theory  of 
evolution  has  well-nigh  died  out,  it  may 
still  be  desirable  to  say  a  few  words  in  re¬ 
gard  to  those  points  on  which  there  has 
been  supposed  to  be  a  conflict  between 
evolution  and  Christianity. 

The  anatomical  and  physiological  re¬ 


semblances  between  man  and  other  mam¬ 
mals  are  so  complete  that  it  is  scarcely 
possible  to  avoid  the  conclusion  that  man 
can  constitute  no  exception  to  the  general 
law  of  evolution.  The  question  then  arises 
whether  a  belief  in  the  evolutionary  origin 
of  man  is  consistent  with  such  a  recogni¬ 
tion  of  man’s  spiritual  nature  as  forms  the 
basis  of  ethics  and  religion.  The  study  of 
comparative  psychology  is  so  exceedingly 
difficult  that  it  is  not  easy  to  formulate 
precisely  the  psychological  difference  be¬ 
tween  man  and  brute.  While  the  present- 
ative  and  representative  powers  appear  to 
be  much  the  same  in  man  and  the  higher 
members  of  the  brute  creation,  there  seems 
no  satisfactory  evidence  of  the  presence,  in 
brutes,  of  the  powers  of  abstraction  and  in¬ 
tuition,  and  of  self-determining  will.  It  is, 
however,  not  necessary  to  dogmatize  on 
this  difficult  question.  Ethics  and  religion 
have  a  sound  basis  in  the  facts  of  human 
psychology,  as  given  in  consciousness, 
whatever  opinions  may  be  held  in  ontology, 
biology,  and  comparative  psychology.  The 
inalienable  belief  of  freedom  and  responsi¬ 
bility  lays  upon  every  soul  the  solemn  im¬ 
perative  of  moral  obligation,  independently 
of  any  particular  opinions  as  to  man’s 
similarity  or  dissimilarity  to  the  brutes  in 
faculty,  essence,  and  origin.  That  every 
individual  man  now  living  has  come  into 
existence  by  a  process  essentially  evolu¬ 
tionary,  is  unquestionable.  No  change 
need  be  made  in  our  conception  of  man’s 
nature  and  destiny,  by  the  belief  that  the 
origin  of  the  first  human  beings  was  due 
to  the  same  natural  process.  If  a  thorough¬ 
ly  spiritualistic  philosophy  is  to  be  main¬ 
tained,  it  is  probably  necessary  to  hold  the 
special  creation  of  each  human  spirit,  since 
traducianism  tends  strongly  toward  mate¬ 
rialism.  The  spiritualist  can  maintain  that, 
in  the  case  of  the  earliest,  precisely  as  in 
the  case  of  the  latest,  human  individual,  a 
spirit  was  created  when  a  suitable  body 
had  been  evolved. 

The  acceptance  of  the  theory  of  evolu¬ 
tion  brings  no  new  difficulties  in  the  inter¬ 
pretation  of  the  Mosaic  narratives  of 
Creation.  On  no  literal  interpretation  can 
the  Elohistic  narrative,  in  Genesis  i.  1— 
ii.  3,  be  reconciled  with  the  Jehovistic  nar¬ 
rative,  in  Genesis  ii.  4-25.  Nor  can  any  in¬ 
terpretation  which  gives  a  strictly  chrono¬ 
logical  signification  to  the  “days”  of  the 
former  narrative  be  satisfactorily  harmo¬ 
nized  with  the  well-attested  facts  of  geology. 
The  Bible  is  a  record,  by  inspired  men,  of 
a  progressive  revelation  of  religious  truth. 
The  theology  of  to-day  has  outgrown  the 
belief  that  those  men  were,  by  their  in¬ 
spiration,  rendered  omniscient,  or  qualified 
to  communicate  encyclopedic  knowledge. 


Evo 


(  326  ) 


Exc 


The  first  chapter  of  Genesis  is  best  under¬ 
stood  as  a  sublime  psalm,  in  which  God  is 
celebrated  as  the  Creator  of  all  things,  the 
“  days  ”  being  merely  poetic  drapery.  The 
second  chapter  of  Genesis  is  an  allegory,  in 
which  God  is  set  forth  as  the  providential 
establisher  of  human  society  and  civiliza¬ 
tion.  Neither  requires  any  reconciliation 
with  scientific  beliefs. 

The  belief  that  the  theory  of  evolution 
is  atheistic  has  arisen  from  a  false  phi¬ 
losophy  of  the  relation  between  God  and 
the  universe.  Nature  has  been  conceived 
of  as  a  self-supporting  system,  with  self- 
enforcing  laws,  subject  to  modification  by 
occasional  divine  interposition.  This  false 
philosophy  recognizes  no  divine  activity  in 
the  operations  of  nature,  finding  a  mani¬ 
festation  of  God  only  in  the  supernatural — 
the  miraculous.  Every  advance  of  science 
which  has  extended  the  domain  of  natural 
law  into  some  territory  formerly  held  as 
belonging  to  the  supernatural,  has  accord¬ 
ingly  been  denounced  as  atheistic.  A  true 
philosophy  must  recognize  the  immanence 
of  God,  and  his  immediate  efficiency  in  all 
natural  processes.  “  In  him  we  live  and 
move  and  have  our  being.”  Nature  has 
no  existence  apart  from  the  continuous 
energy  of  the  divine  will.  Natural  laws 
are  only  statements  of  the  habitual  order 
of  the  divine  action.  God  is  no  less  the 
Creator  of  all  things,  if  the  creative  fiat 
has  manifested  itself  through  a  long  series 
of  evolutionary  changes.  The  doctrine  of 
evolutionsimply  extends,  inourconception, 
the  scope  of  natural  law;  and,  if  natural 
law  is  the  expression  of  the  order  and 
method  of  the  activity  of  divine  will,  there 
is  surely  nothing  atheistic  in  such  exten¬ 
sion.  Thereby  are  we  led,  rather,  to  a 
larger  and  more  reverent  appreciation  of 
those  majestic  creative  plans,  wherein  the 
end  has  been  comprehended  from  the  be¬ 
ginning,  and  whose  fulfillment  has  pro¬ 
ceeded  through  countless  ages  in  contin¬ 
uous  development. 

The  literature  of  the  subject  is  immense. 
A  very  few  titles  of  important  works  are 
here  given  for  the  convenience  of  the  stu¬ 
dent:  Darwin:  On  the  Origin  of  Species  by 
Means  of  Natural  Selection:  or,  the  Preserva¬ 
tion  of  Favored  Races  in  the  Struggle  for 
Life;  Wallace:  Contributions  to  the  Theory 
of  Natural  Selection;  Mivart:  On  the  Gene¬ 
sis  of  Species;  Darwin:  The  Descent  of  Man, 
and  Selection  in  relation  to  Sex;  Gray:  Dar- 
winiana;  Schmid:  The  Theories  of  Dar¬ 
win,  and  their  relation  to  Philosophy,  Relig¬ 
ion,  and  A/orality;  Conn:  Evolution  of  To¬ 
day;  McCosh:  The  Religious  Aspect  of 
Evolution;  Le  Conte:  Evolution,  and  its  Re¬ 
lation  to  Religious  Thought;  Wallace:  Dar¬ 
winism .  William  North  Rice. 


Ewald,  Georg  Heinrich  August,  an 
eminent  Oriental  scholar;  b.  Nov.  16,  1803, 
in  Gottingen;  d.  there,  May  4,  1875.  After 
studying  at  the  University  of  Gottingen 
and  teaching  for  some  time,  he  became 
professor  in  the  university  in  1827.  In 
1837,  he,  with  six  other  professors,  was 
expelled  for  signing  a  protest  against  the 
revocation  of  the  liberal  constitution  of 
1833.  In  1838  he  was  called  to  Tubingen, 
where  he  taught  for  ten  years,  when  he 
returned  to  Gottingen  (1848),  and  remained 
there  till  1866,  when  he  was  excluded  from 
the  faculty  of  philosophy  for  refusing  to 
take  the  oath  of  allegiance  to  the  King  of 
Prussia.  He  was  still  allowed  his  salary 
and  permitted  to  lecture,  but  his  attacks 
against  the  government  were  so  bitter  that 
this  privilege  was  finally  withdrawn.  Dur¬ 
ing  these  years,  while  as  a  citizen  he  was 
so  radical  and  earnest  in  expressing  his  po¬ 
litical  views,  he  was  with  patient  industry 
and  wonderful  insight  pursuing  his  studies 
in  Oriental  language  and  criticism.  “  His 
Hebrew  grammar  inaugurated  a  new  era 
in  Hebrew  learning;  and  Hitzig,  in  his 
preface  to  Isaiah,  calls  the  author  the  sec¬ 
ond  founder  of  the  science  of  the  Hebrew 
language.  His  History  of  Israel,  in  spite 
of  errors  of  judgment  and  unreasonable 
dogmatism,  must  long  remain  the  standard 
work  in  its  line,  and  always  a  storehouse 
of  the  most  patient  research.  He  was  in¬ 
defatigable  as  lecturer,  and  equally  so  as 
author.  Whatever  department  he  devoted 
himself  to,  he  threw  an  almost  vehement 
enthusiasm  into  it.”  —  Dr,  Bertheau  in 
Schaff-Herzog:  Ency, 

Ewing,  Finis,  one  of  the  founders  of  the 
Cumberland  Presbyterian  Church;  b.  in 
Bedford  Co.,  Va.,  July  10,  1773;  d.  at 
Lexington,  Mo.  .July  4,  1841.  His  oppor¬ 
tunities  in  youth  were  limited,  but  after 
his  conversion  he  showed  great  natural 
ability,  and  in  1802  was  licensed  to  preach 
by  the  Cumberland  presbytery.  In  1S10, 
with  two  others,  he  formed  the  presbytery 
out  of  which  grew  the  Cumberland  Pres¬ 
byterian  Church. 

Excommunication.  In  the  period  of  the 
New  Testament  two  kinds  of  excommuni¬ 
cation  were  employed  among  the  Jews. 
The  milder  form  is  referred  to  in  Luke  vi. 
22,  and  that  which  was  more  severe  in 
John  ix.  22;  xii.  42;  and  xvi.  2.  Excom¬ 
munication,  as  practiced  by  the  Christian 
Church,  was  instituted  by  our  Lord  (Matt, 
xviii.  15-18),  and  was  commanded  by  Paul. 
(1  Tim.  i.  20;  1  Cor.  v.  2-5,  11;  Tit.  iii. 
10.)  In  the  early  Church  grave  sins  were 
punished  by  excommunication,  and  only 
after  a  severe  course  of  penitence  were. 


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Exe 


any  restored  to  spiritual  privileges.  Later, 
in  the  Roman  Church,  two  kinds  of  excom¬ 
munication  developed.  The  minor  ex¬ 
cluded  the  condemned  from  the  sacraments 
only;  the  major  excluded  from  the  mass, 
from  burial  in  consecrated  ground,  and 
even  from  intercourse  with  other  Chris¬ 
tians.  The  aid  of  the  State  was  invoked 
and  obtained  in  the  enforcement  of  this 
punishment.  While  the  Roman  Church 
still  treats  the  canon  law  as  valid  theoret¬ 
ically,  its  enforcement  is  practically  mod¬ 
ified  as  regards  excommunication  pro¬ 
nounced  by  the  pope,  since  his  action  is  no 
longer  sustained  by  the  State.  The  major 
excommunication,  when  it  is  now  pro¬ 
nounced,  consigns  the  condemned  to  end¬ 
less  perdition  unless  he  repents.  Among 
Protestants  excommunication  is  simply  an 
act  of  church  discipline,  exercised  in  the 
hope  that  the  offender  may  repent  of  his 
sin  and  be  restored  to  fellowship.  See 
Church  Discipline. 

Exegesis  is  the  technical  term  for  the 
exposition  of  any  writing,  but  it  is  used 
especially  and  mainly  of  the  interpretation 
of  the  Scriptures.  It  has  been  distinguish¬ 
ed  from  hermeneutics  as  practice  from 
theory.  The  latter  was  formerly  applied 
to  the  task  of  ascertaining  the  truth  of  a 
passage,  the  former  to  the  exposition  of 
the  truth  discovered,  the  explanation  of  its 
scope  and  bearing  on  doctrine  and  morals. 
Exegesis  at  present  generally  includes  both 
the  science  and  art  of  elucidating  Holy 
Writ,  and  even  textual  and  higher  criti¬ 
cism  which  deal  with  the  integrity  of  the 
text,  its  composition,  date,  authorship,  etc. 

The  books  of  the  Bible  are  not  inherent¬ 
ly  obscure  or  abstruse.  Candid  and  de¬ 
vout  readers  find  them  quite  intelligible 
and  satisfactory  on  all  matters  affecting 
salvation  or  duty,  but  written  in  ancient 
languages,  using  symbolical  phraseology 
to  which  the  modern  mind  is  a  stranger; 
addressed  to  individuals  or  communities 
under  peculiar  conditions,  treating  of 
usages  long  forgotten,  and  of  races  that 
have  passed  away,  drawn  up,  too,  by 
authors  of  widely  divergent  characteristics, 
it  becomes  the  task  of  exegesis  to  bring 
out  clearly  the  original  import  and  intent 
of  these  compositions,  and  to  transfer  their 
meaning  into  the  modes  of  thought  and 
forms  of  expression  which  prevail  at  the 
present  day. 

Considerable  diversity  of  theory  and 
practice  has  prevailed  in  this  as  in  all 
other  departments  of  human  thought. 
Different  theories  of  inspiration  have 
necessarily  affected  interpretation.  Some 
have  regarded  it  proper  to  comprehend  as 
much  as  possible  in  the  letter  of  the  Scrip¬ 


tures,  and  some  have  too  much  curtailed 
its  contents.  Some  have  attached  a  two¬ 
fold  sense  to  the  sacred  text,  the  literal*' 
and  the  spiritual;  some  a  threefold,  the 
grammatical,  the  moral,  and  the  mystical; 
and  some  have  held  to  a  sevenfold  or  even 
an  infinite  sense,  no  number  of  interpreta¬ 
tions  exhausting  the  significance  of  a 
passage.  Some  have  held  all  books  and 
all  parts  of  equal  value,  and  some  have 
taught  just  the  opposite.  Some  have 
magnified  the  difference  between  the  Bible 
and  other  books,  and  some  have  minimized 
it.  The  Roman  Catholics  hold  the  past 
teachings  of  the  Church  to  be  coordinate 
with  the  canonical  Scriptures,  and  allow 
no  interpretation  in  conflict  with  these; 
while  Protestants  hold  that  the  Scriptures 
are  the  only  fountain  of  truth,  and  allow 
universal  freedom  of  private  judgment. 

A  great  contrast  is  exhibited  between  the 
sure  word  of  prophecy  and  the  human  ex¬ 
positions  of  it.  There  has  been  much 
misinterpretation,  and  even  scholars  have 
often  carried  things  into  the  Scriptures 
which  they  claimed  to  have  derived  from 
them,  perverting  and  darkening  the  divine 
testimony  by  means  of  their  exegesis. 

The  history  of  exegesis  dates  back  to  the 
formation  of  a  Canon,  about  the  time  of 
Ezra.  Its  first  form  was  that  of  oral  com¬ 
ments  on  the  Mosaic  law,  applying  it  to 
practical  relations.  The  rabbinical  inter¬ 
pretation  was  almost  wholly  allegorical, 
an  arbitrary  system  carried  to  its  greatest 
length  by  Philo,  who  maintained  a  double 
sense,  one  literal  and  simple,  the  other 
figurative  and  spiritual.  The  Hellenist 
Jews  even  attempted  to  reconcile  by  this 
means  the  teachings  of  pagan  philosophy 
with  Hebrew  prophecy. 

The  Alexandrian  Christian  Fathers 
adopted  this  allegorical  method,  seeking 
everywhere  a  hidden  sense.  The  school 
of  Antioch  employed  the  more  sober  and 
rational  method,  called  the  grammatico- 
historical,  which  accepts  the  verbal  sense 
according  to  the  ordinary  conditions  and 
limitations  of  human  speech.  During  the 
Middle  Ages  philological  studies  were 
neglected,  and  the  Scriptures  were  inter¬ 
preted  either  according  to  ecclesiastical 
tradition  or  in  the  most  arbitrary  allegor¬ 
ical  fashion.  The-  revival  of  classical 
studies  and  the  Reformation  combined  to 
give  a  fresh  and  powerful  impulse  to  exe¬ 
gesis;  the  former  supplying  the  means  for 
determining  the  simple  force  of  the  letter, 
the  latter  for  directing  its  spiritual  applica¬ 
tion.  The  polemical  interests  which  fol¬ 
lowed  called  forth  anew  and  developed 
dogmatical  interpretation,  in  which  the 
leading  or  distinctive  doctrines  of  different 
branches  of  the  Church  respectively  con- 


Exe 


(  328  ) 


Exe 


trol  the  exposition  of  Holy  Writ.  With  the 
reaction  against  dogmatism  in  the  eight¬ 
eenth  century,  the  grammatico-historic 
method  came  again  to  the  front,  and  since 
then  this  field  of  theological  science  has 
been  cultivated  by  many  of  the  most  illus¬ 
trious  scholars  of  Germany  and  England. 

Accepting  the  Bible  as  an  inspired  hu¬ 
man  record  of  a  supernatural  revelation, 
recognizing,  on  the  one  hand,  the  law  of 
development  in  the  successive  books,  and, 
on  the  other,  the  principle  that  Scripture 
itself  is  the  interpreter  of  Scripture,  it  is  un¬ 
doubtedly  indispensable  to  a  correct  under¬ 
standing  of  it  that  the  student  primarily 
and  faithfully  follow  the  laws  of  all  human 
composition,  interpret  according  to  the 
rules  of  language,  and  consider  the  whole 
historic  situation  under  which  a  sacred 
composition  originated,  including  what  is 
called  psychological  exegesis — everything 
that  can  be  known  of  the  author’s  individ¬ 
uality,  mental  attitude,  experience,  aim, 
and  whatever  may,  consciously  or  uncon¬ 
sciously,  have  affected  him  when  writing. 
The  interpreter  must,  so  far  as  possible, 
project  himself  into  the  mind  and  feelings 
of  the  writer,  must  be  capable  of  “  a  spir¬ 
itual,  sympathetic  insight.”  Underneath 
the  outward  form  lies  the  truth  of  God.  It 
was  written  by  men  moved  by  the 
Holy  Ghost,  and  it  is  illogical  to  con¬ 
clude  that  an  adequate  interpretation 
of  it  is  attainable  without  the  influ¬ 
ence  of  the  same  power.  Upon  the 
ordinary  gifts  of  scholarship  must  be 
superinduced  the  help  of  God’s  Spirit. 

The  greatest  expositors  of  the  Scrip¬ 
tures  are,  undoubtedly,  Chrysostom, 
Jerome,  Luther,  Calvin,  Calov,  Beng- 
el,  Meyer,  Ewald. 

Literature.  —  Westcott  :  Introduc¬ 
tion;  Farrar:  History  of  Interpreta¬ 
tion;  Immer:  Hermeneutics;  Weiss: 
Introduction  to  the  New  Testament. 

E.  J.  Wolf. 

Exemption,  a  technical  term  in  ec¬ 
clesiastical  law,  denoting  the  trans¬ 
ference  of  a  person  or  institution 
from  the  jurisdiction  of  the  superior 
nearest  to  them  to  that  of  one  higher 
or  special.  This  law  is  illustrated  in 
the  history  of  monastipism.  Origi¬ 
nally  the  monks  were  under  the  juris¬ 
diction  of  the  bishop,  but  in  time 
single  monasteries  and  then  entire 
orders  placed  themselves  immedi¬ 
ately  under  the  authority  of  the  pope. 

Many  bishoprics  are  controlled  direct¬ 
ly  by  the  pope,  and  not  by  the  arch¬ 
bishops,  and  some  priests  are  exempt 
from  obedience  to  their  immediate 
superior. 


Exercises,  Spiritual,  a  term  used  by 
Roman  Catholics  to  denote  certain  exer¬ 
cises  in  meditation  and  mortification,  partly 
as  a  penance,  partly  as  a  preparation  for 
the  Lord’s  Supper,  ordination,  etc.  It  is 
practiced  both  by  priests  and  laymen,  gen¬ 
erally  under  the  direction  of  a  confessor. 

Exeter  Cathedral.  The  Church  of  St. 
Peter  was  founded  at  Exeter  in  932,  for  the 
Benedictine  monks;  but  the  monastery  had 
suffered  much  from  the  Danes  in  the  tenth 
and  eleventh  centuries.  Leofric  is  said  to 
have  been  a  great  benefactor  to  his  cathe¬ 
dral,  but  of  this  Saxon  church,  which  occu¬ 
pied  part  of  the  site  of  the  present  cathe¬ 
dral,  no  vestige  remains.  The  “  chronicon  ” 
of  the  Church  of  Exeter  assigns  to  William 
Wavelwast,  a  nephew  of  the  Conqueror, 
who  became  bishop  in  1107,  the  honor  of 
rebuilding  the  cathedral.  Of  that  structure 
we  have  remaining  the  north  and  south 
towers,  forming  the  transepts  of  the  pres¬ 
ent  church,  and  some  traces  in  the  chapels 
of  St.  Andrew  and  St.  James,  and  in  the 
southeast  door  leading  into  the  cloisters. 
Wavelwast  laid  the  foundation  in  1112,  but 
it  was  not  completed  till  1206,  in  the  epis¬ 
copacy  of  Marshall.  Six  bishops  occupied 
this  cathedral,  and  during  the  siege  of 


EXETER  CATHEDRAL. 


Exi 


(  329  ) 


Eze 


Exeter  by  King  Stephen,  in  1136,  it  was 
much  damaged. 

Bishop  Bruere  built  the  chapter-house 
in  the  thirteenth  century.  To  him  are  at¬ 
tributed  the  unique  misereres ,  probably  the 
earliest  in  the  kingdom.  Bishop  Peter 
Quivil  (1280)  began  the  transformation  of 
the  Norman  cathedral  to  the  Decorated 
style,  and  it  was  finished  in  the  last  year  of 
Bishop  Grandisson  (1369),  leaving  it,  ex¬ 
cept  in  a  very  few  details,  much  as  it 
stands  at  present.  In  1859  the  nave  was 
fitted  for  public  worship,  and  in  1870  a 
complete  restoration  was  commenced,  un¬ 
der  the  care  of  Sir  Gilbert  Scott.  The  in¬ 
come  of  the  see  is  ,£4,200.  The  cathedral 
chapter  consists  of  the  dean,  four  canons 
residentiary,  three  archdeacons,  twenty- 
four  prebendaries,  and  four  priest-vicars. 
— Benham:  Diet,  of  Religion. 

Exile.  See  Captivity. 

Exodus,  Book  of.  See  Pentateuch. 

Exodus  of  Israel.  It  is  accepted  by 
scholars  generally  that  the  Pharaoh  in  the 
time  of  the  Exodus  was  Menephthah  I., 
the  son  of  Rameses  II.,  the  Pharaoh  of 
the  oppression,  and  the  date  of  this  great 
event,  b.  C.  1317,  on  the  15th  of  the  first 
month,  Abib  or  Nisan,  our  April.  Where 
the  crossing  took  place  is  still  a  matter 
under  discussion.  According  to  Arab 
tradition  the  crossing  was  a  few  miles 
south  of  Suez,  where  the  sea  is  about  ten 
miles  broad.  This  view,  on  account  of 
the  many  difficulties  and  objections  that 
can  be  raised,  is  little  favored,  and  the 
same  is  true  of  the  theory  of  Brugsch  that 
makes  the  passage,  not  over  the  Red  Sea 
at  all,  but  through  the  Serbonian  bog,  near 
the  Mediterranean.  Two  other  theories 
find  most  substantial  arguments  in  their 
favor:  (1)  That  which  places  the  crossing 
at  the  head  of  the  gulf,  near  or  north  of 
Suez,  where  the  channel  is  less  than  a  mile 
wide;  (2)  that  which  places  it  at  Lake 
Tinsah.  There  are  geological  proofs  that 
the  sea  has  retreated,  and  it  is  quite  pos¬ 
sible  that  “  the  tongue  of  the  Egyptian 
sea”  may  have  formerly  extended  to  the 
lake.  This  view,  its  advocates  think,  is 
confirmed  by  the  recent  discovery  of 
Pithom  and  Rameses,  the  treasure  cities  of 
Egypt.  Further  explorations  may  decide 
this  disputed  question.  For  the  after-route 
of  Israel  see  Wilderness  of  the  Wander¬ 
ing. 

Exorcism,  the  act  of  expelling  evil  spir¬ 
its  by  the  use  of  adjurations,  accompanied 
with  certain  ceremonies.  In  the  records  of 
almost  every  nation  we  discover  traces  of 


this  custom.  The  New  Testament  gives 
us  incidents  in  which  Christ,  and  after  him 
the  apostles,  cast  out,  or  exorcised,  evil 
spirits.  Very  early  in  the  history  of  the 
Christian  Church  it  was  the  custom  to 
pronounce  a  formula  of  exorcism  over  can¬ 
didates  for  baptism.  To  pronounce  an 
adjuration  in  the  name  of  Christ  was  con¬ 
sidered  of  the  utmost  efficacy  in  expelling 
evil  spirits.  Exorcists,  as  a  class,  are  men¬ 
tioned  but  once  in  the  New  Testament. 
They  appear  to  have  been  regarded  as 
possessing  a  special  gift  or  power.  In 
later  times  they  were  reckoned  among  the 
minor  orders  of  clergy.  The  ancient  rite 
of  exorcism  at  baptism  is  still  retained  in 
the  ritual  of  the  Roman  Church,  and  also 
a  form  of  service  for  the  exorcising  of  pos¬ 
sessed  persons. 

Expiation.  See  Atonement. 

Extreme  Unction  (the  rite  of  anointing 
the  dying  with  oil),  one  of  the  seven  sacra¬ 
ments  of  the  Roman  Catholic  Church. 
The  ceremony  must  be  performed  by  a 
priest,  and  the  oil  must  be  olive  oil,  conse¬ 
crated  by  the  bishop.  The  Greek  Church 
calls  the  sacrament  Euchelaion.  See 
Euchelaion. 

Eze'kiel,  “  one  of  the  four  greater 
prophets.  He  was  the  son  of  a  priest 
named  Buzi.  The  Rabbis  absurdly  iden¬ 
tify  Buzi  with  Jeremiah.  Another  tradi¬ 
tion  makes  Ezekiel  the  servant  of  Jeremiah. 
Unlike  his  predecessor  in  the  prophetic 
office,  who  gives  us  the  amplest  details  of 
his  personal  history,  Ezekiel  rarely  alludes 
to  the  facts  of  his  own  life,  and  we  have  to 
complete  the  imperfect  picture  by  the  col¬ 
ors  of  late  and  dubious  tradition.  He  was 
taken  captive  in  the  captivit)^  of  Jehoia- 
chin,  eleven  years  before  the  destruction 
of  Jerusalem.  He  was  a  member  of  a 
community  of  Jewish  exiles  who  settled 
on  the  banks  of  the  Cliebar,  a  ‘  river  ’  or 
stream  of  Babylonia.  It  was  by  this  river, 
‘  in  the  land  of  the  Chaldseans,’  that  God’s 
message  first  reached  him  (i.  3).  His  call 
took  place  ‘  in  the  fifth  year  of  King  Jehoia- 
chin’s  captivity,’  B.  C.  595  (i.  2),  ‘  in  the 
thirtieth  year,  in  the  fourth  month.’  The 
latter  expression  is  very  uncertain.  It  now 
seems  generally  agreed  that  it  was  the 
thirtieth  year  from  the  new  era  of  Nab- 
opolassar,  father  of  Nebuchadnezzar,  who 
began  to  reign  b.  c.  625.  The  use  of  thks 
Chaldee  epoch  is  the  more  appropriate  as 
the  prophet  wrote  in  Babylonia,  and  he 
gives  a  Jewish  chronology  in  ver.  2.  The 
decision  of  the  question  is  the  less  impor¬ 
tant,  because  in  all  other  places  Ezekiel 
dates  from  the  year  of  Jehoiachin’s  cap- 


Eze 


(  330  ) 


Ezr 


tivity  (xxix.  17;  xxx.  20,  et  passim).  We 
learn  from  an  incidental  allusion  (xxiv.  18) 
—  the  only  reference  which  he  makes  to 
his  personal  history — that  he  was  married, 
and  had  a  house  (viii.  1)  in  his  place  of 
exile,  and  lost  his  wife  by  a  sudden  and 
unforeseen  stroke.  He  lived  in  the  high¬ 
est  consideration  among  his  companions  in 
exile,  and  their  elders  consulted  him  on  all 
occasions  (viii.  1;  xi.  25;  xiv.  1;  xx.  1, 
etc.).  The  last  date  he  mentions  is  the 
twenty-seventh  year  of  the  captivity  (xxix. 
17),  so  that  his  mission  extended  over 
twenty-two  years,  during  part  of  which 
period  Daniel  was  probably  living,  and 
already  famous.  (Ezek.  xiv.  14;  xxviii.  3.) 
He  is  said  to  have  been  murdered  in  Baby¬ 
lon  by  some  Jewish  prince  whom  he  had 
convicted  of  idolatry,  and  to  have  been 
buried  in  the  tomb  of  Shem  and  Arphaxad, 
on  the  banks  of  the  Euphrates.  The  tomb, 
said  to  have  been  built  by  Jehoiachin,  was 
shown  a  few  days’  journey  from  Bagdad. 
But,  as  Havernick  remarks,  ‘  by  the  side 
of  the  scattered  data  of  his  external  life, 
those  of  his  internal  life  appear  so  much 
the  richer.’  He  was  distinguished  by  his 
stern  and  inflexible  energy  of  will  and  char¬ 
acter;  and  we  also  observe  a  devoted  ad¬ 
herence  to  the  rites  and  ceremonies  of  his 
national  religion.  Ezekiel  is  no  cosmopo¬ 
lite,  but  displays  everywhere  the  peculiar 
tendencies  of  a  Hebrew  educated  under 
Levitical  training.  The  priestly  bias  is 
always  visible.  We  may  also  note  in  Eze¬ 
kiel  the  absorbing  recognition  of  his  high 
calling,  which  enabled  him  cheerfully  to 
endure  any  deprivation  or  misery,  if  there 
by  he  might  give  any  warning  or  lesson  to 
his  people  (iv. ;  xxix.  15,  16,  etc. ),  whom  he 
so  ardently  loved  (ix.  8;  xi.  13).  His  pre¬ 
dictions  are  marvellously  varied.  He  has 
instances  of  visions  (viii.-xi),  symbolical 
actions  (as  iv.  8),  similitudes  (xii.,  xv), 
parables  (as  xvii.),  proverbs  (as  xii.  22; 
xviii.  1  sq.),  poems  (as  xix.),  allegories  (as 
xxiii.,  xxiv.),  open  prophecies  (as  vi.,  vii., 
xx.,  etc.).  The  depth  of  his  matter ,  and 
the  marvellous  nature  of  his  visions,  make 
him  occasionally  obscure.  Hence,  his 
prophecy  was  placed  by  the  Jews  among 
the  ‘  treasures,’  those  portions  of  Script¬ 
ure  which  (like  the  early  part  of  Genesis 
and  the  Canticles)  were  not  allowed  to  be 
read  till  the  age  of  thirty.  The  Jews  class¬ 
ed  him  in  the  very  highest  rank  of  proph¬ 
ets.  Of  the  authenticity  of  Ezekiel’s 
prophecy  there  has  been  no  real  dispute, 
although  a  few  rash  critics  have  raised 
questions  about  the  last  chapters,  even 
suggesting  that  they  might  have  been  writ¬ 
ten  by  a  Samaritan,  to  incite  the  Jews  to 
suffer  the  cooperation  in  rebuilding  the 
Temple.  The  book  is  divided  into  two 


great  parts — of  which  the  destruction  of 
Jerusalem  is  the  turning-point;  chapters 
i.-xxiv.  contain  predictions  delivered  be¬ 
fore  that  event,  and  xxv.-xlviii.  after  it,  as 
we  see  from  xxvi.  2.  Again,  chapters 
i.-xxxii.  are  mainly  occupied  with  cor¬ 
rection,  denunciation,  and  reproof,  while 
the  remainder  deal  chiefly  in  consolation 
and  promise.  A  parenthetical  section  in 
the  middle  of  the  book  (xxv.-xxxii.)  con¬ 
tains  a  group  of  prophecies  against  seven 
foreign  nations,  the  septenary  arrange* 
ment  being  apparently  intentional.  Haver¬ 
nick  divides  the  book  into  nine  sections, 
distinguished  by  their  superscriptions,  as 
follows:  I.  Ezekiel’s  call,  i.-iii.  15.  II. 
The  general  carrying  out  of  the  commis¬ 
sion,  iii.  16-vii.  III.  The  rejection  of  the 
people  because  of  their  idolatrous  worship; 
viii.-xi.  IV.  The  sins  of  the  age  rebukeq 
in  detail,  xii. -xix.  V.  The  nature  of  the' 
judgment,  and  the  guilt  which  caused  it, 
xx. -xxiii.  VI.  The  meaning  of  the  now 
commencing  punishment,  xxiv.  VII.  God’s 
judgment  denounced  on  seven  heathen 
nations,  xxv.-xxxii.  VIII.  Prophecies, 
after  the  destruction  of  Jerusalem,  con- 
cerning  the  future  condition  of  Israel, 
xxxiii.-xxxix.  IX.  The  glorious  consum¬ 
mation,  xl.-xlviii.  There  are  no  direct 
quotations  from  Ezekiel  in  the  New  Tes¬ 
tament,  but  in  the  Apocalypse  there  are 
many  parallels  and  obvious  allusions  to* 
the  later  chapters  (xl.-xlviii).”  —  Smith:: 
Diet,  of  the  Bible. 

E'zion-Ga'ber,  or  Ge'ber  {giant's  back¬ 
bone ),  a  city  on  the  Red  Sea,  near  Elath. 
It  was  the  last  station  of  Israel  before 
entering  the  wilderness  of  Zin.  (Num. 
xxxiii.  35;  Deut.  ii.  8.)  Solomon  had .  a 
naval  station  here  (1  Kings  ix.  26  ;  2 
Chron.  viii.  17),  and  also  Jehoshaphat. 
(1  Kings,  xxii.  48.)  Its  site  remains  un¬ 
known. 

Ezra.  “  Ezra  was  the  son  of  Seraiah,  and 
was  probably  born  at  Babylon.  He  was  a 
‘  Scribe  ’  (Ezra  vii.  6),  who  went  up  to  Je¬ 
rusalem  with  the  second  body  of  return¬ 
ed  captives.  He  speaks  of  himself  as  the 
author  of  the  book  which  bears  his  name 
(vii.  27,  28;  viii.  1,  etc.).  It  consists  of 
two  portions,  with  a  considerable  interval 
between  the  two.  The  first  gives  the  re¬ 
turn  of  the  captives  in  the  time  of  Cyrus 
(b.  C.  536),  and  the  rebuilding  of  the  Tem¬ 
ple,  interrupted  by  the  Samaritans,  but 
renewed  at  the  preaching  of  Haggai  and 
Zechariah.  Some  portions  of  this  book  are 
in  Chaldee.  The  second  part  relates  the 
second  immigration  of  exiles  in  the  reign 
of  Artaxerxes  Longimanus  (b.  c.  457). 
with  Ezra  himself,  and  his  reformation  of 


Fab 


(  33i  ) 


Fai 


the  people.  The  whole  period  extends 
over  seventy-nine  years  (from  536  to  457).” 
— “  Oxford  ”  Bible  Helps . 

K. 

Faber,  Frederick  William,  D.  D.;  b. 
at  Calverly,  Eng.,  June  28,  1814.  He  was 
educated  at  Oxford,  and  there  came  under 
the  influence  of  John  Henry  Newman.  He 
was  ordained  priest  in  the  Church  of  Eng¬ 
land  in  1839.  After  traveling  in  Europe  for 
four  years  he  became  rector  of  Elton.  In 
1845  he  united  with  the  Roman  Catholic 
Church,  toward  which  his  sympathies  had 
turned  for  some  time.  He  founded  a  relig¬ 
ious  society  in  Birmingham,  and  in  1849 
was  placed  at  the  head  of  the  Oratory  of  St. 
Philip  Neri,  in  London,  where  he  remained 
until  his  death,  Sept.  26,  1863.  He  was  a 
prolific  writer  on  religious  subjects,  but 
his  fame  rests  upon  his  beautiful  hymns, 
some  of  which  have  been  adopted  by  the 
Church  Universal.  The  final  edition  of 
the  author,  which  appeared  in  1861,  con¬ 
tained  150  hymns.  Among  the  best  known 
are:  “  O  Gift  of  Gifts,  O  Grace  of  Faith;” 
“  Hark,  Hark,  my  Soul;”  “O  Paradise,  O 
Paradise.”  Faber  was  a  prolific  writer  of 
prose  works  that  are  now  of  little  value. 
See  Life  and  Letters ,  by  J.  E.  Bowden 
(Lond.,  1869). 

Fabian,  pope  (236-250).  According  to  a 
tradition,  given  by  Eusebius,  he  chanced 
to  be  present  when  the  election  was  made 
after  the  death  of  Anteros,  and  was  unani¬ 
mously  chosen  because  a  dove  came  down 
from  heaven  and  rested  upon  his  head. 
Little  is  known  of  his  reign. 

Fairbairn,  Andrew  Martin,  D.  D.  (Ed¬ 
inburgh,  1878;  Yale,  1889),  Congregational- 
ist;  b.  near  Edinburgh,  Nov.  4,  1838  ; 
studied  at  Edinburgh,  Glasgow,  and  Ber¬ 
lin  (under  Dorner,  1866-67);  became  pastor 
at  Bathgate,  Scotland,  1861;  at  Aberdeen, 
1872;  principal  of  Airdale  (Congregational 
Theological)  College,  Bradford , Eng. ,1877, 
and  of  Mansfield  College,  Oxford,  1886. 
He  is  the  author  of:  Studies  in  the  Philos¬ 
ophy  of  Religion  and  History  (London,  1876); 
Studies  in  the  Life  of  Christ  (1880,  5th  ed., 
1885);  The  City,  of  God (1883,  2d  ed.,  1885); 
Religion  in  History  and  in  Life  of  To-day 
(1884,  2d  ed.,  1885). 

Fairbairn,  Patrick,  D.  D.,  an  eminent 
Scotch  theologian  and  writer;  b.  at  Hally- 
burton,  Berwickshire,  Scotland,  Jan.  28, 
1805;  d.  at  Glasgow,  Aug.  6,  1874.  After 
a  long  pastoral  experience  he  was  elected 
(1853)  professor  of  theology  in  the  Theo¬ 
logical  College  at  Aberdeen,  and  in  1856 


became  principal  and  professor  of  system¬ 
atic  theology  and  New  Testament  exege 
sis  in  the  Free  Church  Theological  College 
at  Glasgow.  Principal  Fairbairn  was  a 
leading  spirit  in  the  organization  of  the 
Free  Church.  He  was  a  member  of  the 
Old  Testament  Revision  Company.  He 
wrote:  The  Typology  of  Scripture  (Edin¬ 
burgh,  1845-47,  2  vols. ,  6th  ed.,  1880); 
Ezekiel:  Exposition ,  with  New  Translation 
(1851);  Prophecy  (1856,  2d  ed.,  1866);  The 
Pastoral  Epistles  of  St.  Paul  (1874);  Pas¬ 
toral  Theology  (1875,  posthumous).  For 
biographical  sketch  see  his  Pastoral  Theol¬ 
ogy.  He  edited  The  Imperial  Bible  Dic¬ 
tionary  (Lond.,  1867,  2  vols.,  4th  ed.,  1876). 

Faith.  The  primary  signification  of  this 
word  is  “  trust.”  It  is  defined  as  follows 
by  Dr.  Henry  B.  Smith  ( System  of  Chris¬ 
tian  Theology ,  pp.  540,  541)  :  “  (a)  In  a 
loose  popular  sense.  Faith  is  belief  in  any 
truth  on  any  ground,  (b)  In  a  general  and 
somewhat  abstract  sense,  it  is  belief  in 
what  is  beyond  the  sphere  of  the  senses. 

(c)  It  is  belief,  on  the  ground  of  testimony,, 
in  what  we  have  not  ourselves  seen  or 
known — belief  on  the  ground  of  authority. 

(d)  More  particularly,  in  a  general  script¬ 

ural  usage,  Faith  is  trusting  in  God’s  testi¬ 
mony — receiving  all  that  God  has  revealed 
to  us.  Roman  Catholics  say,  ‘  It  is  belief 
in  God’s  testimony,  as  witnessed  by  the 
Church.’  It  merits  grace,  of  congruity, 
through  the  sacraments;  being  *  formed * 
by  love,  it  is  directly  meritorious,  and  ac¬ 
cumulates  merits,  (e)  The  special  sense 
of  Faith,  the  sense  in  which  it  is  used  in 
the  doctrine  of  justification  (among  Prot¬ 
estants)  is,  the  receiving,  resting  in,  and 
trusting  upon  Christ.  Not  mere  abstract 
truth,  but  Christ  is  its  object.  It  is  not 
merely  relying  upon  what  God  has  testified 
in  regard  to  all  truth,  but  trusting  in  and 
receiving  Christ  as  our  Saviour — relying- 
upon  him.  As  such,  (1)  It  is  an  act  of  the 
whole  soul — not  of  the  intellect,  nor  will, 
nor  sensibilities  alone,  but  of  all  combined. 
The  whole  soul  goes  out  in  the  act  of  faith 
in  Christ.  Faith  is  one  of  the  most  con¬ 
crete  of  acts,  yet  in  direct  consciousness  is 
an  act  perfectly  simple.  (2)  It  includes  in 
germ  all  other  graces.  It  does  this  because 
it  is  an  energy  of  the  whole  mind:  ‘  work- 
eth  by  love.’  (Gal.  v.  6.)  It  involves  re¬ 
pentance — ‘  Show  faith  by  works.’  (James 
ii.  18.)  (3)  It  is  itself  a  holy  act,  involv¬ 

ing  trust  and  love,  yet  it  is  not  as  holy  that 
it  is  the  means  of  justification,  but  as  being 
the  act  in  which  we  receive  Christ.  (4) 
Thus  it  is  properly  called  the  instrumental 
cause  of  justification.  The  meritorious 
ground  is  Christ.  Faith  is  not  the  highest 
of  the  virtues,  but  love  is.  Justification 


Fai 


(  332  ) 


Fam 


is  not  without  works,  yet  not  by  works; 
not  without  love,  yet  not  by  love;  not 
without  assent,  yet  not  as  though  the  as¬ 
sent  were  meritorious.” 

“  The  object  of  Faith,”  says  Schoberlein 
(Schaff-Herzog:  Ency. ,  vol.  i. ,  p.  796),  ‘  ‘  can¬ 
not  be  seen  by  the  eyes,  nor  can  it  be. 
grasped  by  the  understanding;  it  belongs 
to  the  realm  of  the  invisible,  the  spiritual, 
the  divine.  (Heb.  xi.  1,  6;  1  Pet.  i.  8;  2 
Cor.  v.  16;  John  xx.  29.)  But  this  invis¬ 
ible,  spiritual,  divine,  is  not  something 
unknowable;  it  proves  itself  to  the  inner 
man.  The  absolute  object  of  faith  is  the 
revelation  of  God  to  mankind,  originating 
in  his  love,  and  making  his  holiness  man¬ 
ifest;  and  the  centre  of  this  revelation,  the 
true  fulfilment  in  relation  to  which  all 
preceding  preparations  are  only  accommo¬ 
dations  to  the  susceptibility  of  the  race 
(Luke  xxiv.  25,  26;  Heb.  i.),  is  the  incarna¬ 
tion  of  God  in  Christ.  Faith,  in  the  abso¬ 
lute  sense  of  the  word,  is,  therefore,  a  per¬ 
sonal  and  spiritual  union  with  Christ, 
through  which  we  become  one  with  him, 
as  he  is  one  with  the  Father.  This  union 
with  Christ  man  cannot  accomplish  by  his 
own  efforts;  God  himself  must  awaken  the 
new  life  in  his  soul.  (John  vi.  29;  1  Cor. 
ii.  5.)  It  is  the  Holy  Spirit  who  works  the 
faith  in  the  heart;  and  the  means  by  which 
he  does  this  is  the  preaching  of  the  Word 
of  God ,  the  preaching  of  the  grace  of  Christ. 
(Rom.  x.  17;  1  Cor.  i.  21.)  But  the  soul 
can  prepare  itself  for  the  coming  of  the 
new  life  by  abandoning  all  confidence  in 
itself  and  in  the  world,  and  by  breaking  all 
the  selfish  instincts  under  which  it  labors; 
and  when,  by  repentance,  it  has  made  itself 
a  fit  receptacle  for  the  work  of  the  Holy 
Spirit,  that  movement  of  the  heart  will  fol¬ 
low  which  is  the  faith — the  faith  by  which 
sins  are  forgiven  (Acts  xxvi.  18),  and  man 
is  made  just  before  God.  (Rom.  iii.  26; 
v.  1;  Gal.  iii.  24.)” 

Faith,  Articles  of.  See  Creed. 

Faith,  Confession  of.  See  Creed. 

Faith,  Rule  of.  See  Regula  Fidei. 

Fakir  (Arabic ,  poor  man),  the  name  given 
a  class  of  Hindoo  mendicants.  They  have 
existed  in  India  from  a  very  early  period, 
and  now  number  some  two  millions.  They 
seek  to  excite  pity  by  self-inflicted  tor¬ 
tures,  and,  in  times  past,  have  proved  a 
dangerous  element  in  society  by  their  mad 
fanaticism.  The  English  government  has 
put  a  stop  to  some  of  their  worst  prac¬ 
tices,  but  they  are  still  dreaded,  if  not  re¬ 
spected,  by  the  people.  They  seek  the 
reoutation  of  “  saints,”  but  it  is  doubtful 


if  there  is  any  religious  sentiment  in  their 
action. 

Fal'ashas  {exiles),  an  industrious  and 
peaceable  people,  numbering  not  far  from 
one  hundred  and  fifty  thousand,  living  in 
Abyssinia.  They  are  probably  descend¬ 
ants  of  proselytes  to  Judaism,  and  their  re¬ 
ligious  beliefs  and  practices  are  a  mixture 
of  Judaism  and  Paganism.  There  is  evi¬ 
dence  that  they  were  early  converted  to 
Judaism.  They  practice  circumcision, 
fast  every  Monday  and  Thursday,  and  also 
every  new  moon  and  on  the  passover. 
They  keep  the  Sabbath  with  such  outward 
strictness  that  they  will  not  even  put  on 
their  clothes  that  day.  They  keep  most 
of  the  Jewish  festivals,  but  join  with  them 
many  rites  that  are  Pagan.  Every  newly 
built  house  must  be  sprinkled  with  the 
blood  of  sheep  or  fowl  before  it  is  habi¬ 
table,  and, a  woman  guilty  of  unchastity  has 
to  undergo  purification  by  leaping  into  a 
flaming  fire.  Monasticism  exists  among 
them,  and  their  priests  are  not  permitted 
to  marry  a  second  time.  No  one  can  be¬ 
come  a  priest  whose  father  or  grandfather 
has  eaten  bread  with  a  Christian.  They 
believe  that  the  souls  of  the  dead  dwell  in 
a  place  of  darkness  until  the  third  day. 
Prayers  are  offered  for  the  dead,  and  they 
are  formally  lamented  for  seven  days. 
They  now  number  about  100,000. 

Fall  of  Man.  See  Sin. 

False  Decretals.  See  Canon  Law. 

Familiar  Spirits  (from  the  Latin  farnil- 
iaris,  a  household  servant).  These  spirits 
were  believed  to  be  at  the  service  of  the 
necromancers,  by  which  they  divined  and 
wrought  their  spells.  (Lev.  xx.  27;  Deut. 
xviii.  11 ;  1  Sam.  xxviii.  7,  8,  and  other 
places.) 

Familiars  of  the  Inquisition,  the  name  of 
the  officers  who  arrested  suspected  per¬ 
sons.  They  were  often  men  of  rank,  and 
the  name  was  given  because  they  were 
connected  with  the  inquisitor’s  family. 
They  were  granted  special  spiritual  priv¬ 
ileges.  See  Inquisition. 

Familists,  or  “  Family  of  Love,”  a  sect 
which  arose  in  the  Netherlands  in  the  mid¬ 
dle  of  the  sixteenth  century.  It  was  found¬ 
ed  by  an  Anabaptist,  named  Henry  Nich¬ 
olas,  a  native  of  Amsterdam,  who  had  be¬ 
come  implicated  in  the  insurrections,  and 
fled  to  Emden  in  1533.  From  thence  he 
came  to  England  during  the  reign  of  Ed¬ 
ward  VI.,  and  in  1555  he  started  this  sect. 
Their  tenets  were  that  there  is  no  true 


Fan 


(  333  ) 


Fas 


— 


knowledge  of  Christ  except  in  their  com¬ 
munity,  and  that  as  Moses  is  the  prophet 
of  hope,  and  Christ  the  prophet  of  faith, 
so  is  Henry  Nicholas  the  prophet  of  love. 
They  were  extreme  Antinomians,  and  im¬ 
morality  was  very  common  among  them. 
This  sect  is  often  confused  with  that  of 
David  Joris  (Joris,  David),  who  was  a 
Dutch  Anabaptist,  with  whom  Nicholas 
was  intimate.  The  sect  was  at  first  pop¬ 
ular  in  England,  but  they  soon  began  to  be 
considered  dangerous,  both  to  civil  order 
and  to  morality  and  religion,  so  in  1560 
Queen  Elizabeth  ordered  an  investigation 
into  the  matter,  which  resulted  in  the  proc¬ 
lamation  issued  “against  the  sectaries  of 
the  Family  of  Love.”  Severe  measures 
were  also  taken  against  them  under  James 
I.,  and  the  sect  disappeared. — Benham: 
Diet,  of  Religiori.  See  John  Rogers:  The 
Displaying  of  a  horrible  Sect  naming  them¬ 
selves  the  Family  of  Love  (London,  1579). 

Fanaticism,  Fanatics  (Lat.  fanum,  tem¬ 
ple).  A  fanatic  was  originally  one  who 
spent  his  time  in  assisting  in  the  services 
of  the  temples,  so  as  to  cut  himself  off  from 
all  worldly  employments.  The  name  is 
now  applied  to  one  whose  zeal  in  religious 
matters  is  allowed  to  outrun  his  judgment, 
and  who  works  himself  into  a  state  of  ex¬ 
citement,  which'he  believes  will  be  pleasing 
to  God.  As  a  rule,  fanaticism  is  a  kind  of 
monomania,  produced  by  a  diseased  imag¬ 
ination.  In  ancient  times  the  diviners  of 
oracles  were  known  as  fanatics. — Benham: 
Diet,  of  Religion. 

Farel,  Guillaume,  reformer;  b.  at  Far- 
eaux,  near  Gap,  in  Dauphiny,  1489;  d.  at 
Neuchatel,  Sept.  13,  1565.  He  studied  in 
Paris,  and  while  teaching  there  avowed 
Lutheran  views  and  went  to  Metz  (1521), 
and  remained  there  until  persecution  com¬ 
pelled  him  to  seek  refuge  in  Basel  (1523), 
where  he  gained  the  friendship  of  QEcolam- 
padius.  Through  the  efforts  of  Erasmus, 
whom  he  had  compared  to  Balaam,  he  was 
driven  from  Basel,  and  for  the  next  eight 
years  preached  through  southeast  France 
and  the  west  of  Switzerland.  In  1532  he 
began  the  work  in  Geneva  which  intro¬ 
duced  the  Reformation  into  that  city. 
Through  his  efforts  Calvin  stopped  at 
Geneva  in  1536.  After  they  were  driven 
from  the  city,  in  1538,  Farel  lived  for  the 
most  part  at  Neuchatel  and  Metz.  Impet¬ 
uous  and  often  rash  in  action,  he  was  elo¬ 
quent  and  efficient  in  establishing  the  re¬ 
formed  faith  in  France  and  Switzerland. 
There  is  no  collected  edition  of  his  works. 

Farmer,  Hugh,  a  learned  Dissenting 
minister;  b.  near  Shrewsbury,  Eng.,  1714; 


d.  at  Walthamstow,  Essex,  Feb.  6,  1787. 
He  was  pastor  at  Walthamstow  for  forty 
years,  and  in  the  latter  part  of  his  life 
preached  and  lectured  in  London.  His 
principal  works  are  treatises  on  (1)  Our 
Lord's  Temptation  (1761),  in  which  he  con¬ 
tended  that  it  was  real  and  subjective;  (2) 
on  the  New  Testament  Demoniacs  (1775), 
holding  that  they  were  persons  suffering 
from  mental  and  physical  diseases;  (3)  on 
Miracles  (1771).  See  his  Life  by  Dobson, 
(London,  1805). 

Farnovians,  the  followers  of  Stanislaus 
Farnovius,  or  Farnowski  (d.  1615),  a  Pole 
who  studied  at  Heidelberg,  and  became 
the  leader  of  a  Unitarian  party  that  united 
with  the  Socinians  not  long  after  his  death. 

Farrar,  Venerable  Frederick  William, 
D.  D.  (Cambridge,  1873),  F.  R.  S.,  Church 
of  England;  b.  in  Bombay,  India,  Aug.  7, 
1831;  B.  A.,  Cambridge,  1854;  elected  fel¬ 
low  of  Trinity  College;  became  assistant 
master  in  Harrow  School,  1854;  head¬ 
master  of  Marlborough  College,  1871;  rec¬ 
tor  of  St.  Margaret’s,  Westminster,  Lon¬ 
don,  and  canon,  1876;  archdeacon,  1883. 
He  is  the  author  of:  Seekers  after  God  (Lon¬ 
don,  1869,  2d  ed.,  1877);  L'he  Witness  of 
History  to  Christ  (1871,  3d  ed.,  1875)  ;  The 
Life  of  Christ 2  vols. ,  38th  ed. ,  1880); 
Eternal  Hope  (1878,  12th  ed.,  same  year); 
L'he  Life  and  Work  of  St.  Paul  (1879, 2  vols., 

1 8th  thousand,  1881);  Mercy  and  fudg- 
ment:  Last  Words  on  Christian  Eschatology 
(1881,  2d  ed.,  1882);  Early  Days  of  Chris¬ 
tianity  (1882 ,  2  vols. ,  3d  ed. ,  1884);  Messages 
of  the  Books:  Discourses  and  Notes  on  the 
New  Testament  (1884)  ;  The  History  of 
Interpretation  (Bampton  lectures,  1886); 
Every-day  Christian  Life  (sermons,  1887); 
Solomon:  His  Life  and  Times  (1887);  Lives 
of  the  Fathers  (London  and  N.  Y.,  1889,  2 
vols.);  Epistle  to  the  Hebrews  (1889);  The 
Gospel  According  to  St.  Luke  (1890). 

Farthing.  See  Money. 

Fasting.  Among  the  Hebrews  there 
was  but  one  divinely  appointed  public  fast 
— that  of  the  day  of  Atonement.  (Lev.  xvi. 
29;  xxiii.  27;  Num.  xxix.  7.)  Days  of  pub¬ 
lic  fasting  were,  however,  frequently  pro¬ 
claimed  in  times  of  national  calamity,  and 
when  there  was  special  call  for  the  confes¬ 
sion  of  national  sins.  (Judg.  xx.  26;  1  Sam. 
vii.  6  ;  1  Kings  xxi.  27  ;  2  Chron.  xx.  3.) 
At  the  time  of  the  Babylonish  captivity 
four  other  fasts  were  instituted,  to  which 
has  been  added  the  fast  of  Esther.  (Esther 
iv.  16.)  At  present  the  Jewish  calendar 
contains  twenty-two  fast  days,  in  addition 
to  the  six  mentioned.  It  was  their  custom, 


Fas 


(  334  ) 


Fel 


also,  to  fast  on  Monday  and  Thursday  of 
each  week,  for  the  reason  that,  according 
to  tradition,  Moses  received  the  tables  of 
the  law  on  Mount  Sinai  on  Thursday,  and 
came  down  on  Monday.  The  Jews,  when 
they  fast  at  present  on  the  day  of  Atone¬ 
ment,  wear  a  white  shroud  and  cap,  and 
the  fast  is  called  “the  white  fast.”  On 
other  days  black  is  worn,  and  they  are 
called  “  black  fasts.” 

Fasting  in  the  Christian  Church.  The 
practice  of  fasting  is  of  early  date.  (Acts 
xiii.  2;  xiv.  23;  xxvii.  9;  2  Cor.  vi.  5.)  In 
the  Roman  and  Greek  Churches  fasting  is 
observed  with  great  strictness.  The  mem¬ 
bers  of  the  Roman  Church  in  the  United 
States  observe  as  fasting  days  every  day 
in  Lent  except  Sunday,  the  Ember  days, 
the  vigils  of  Pentecost,  Assumption,  All 
Saints,  and  Christmas.  In  the  Protestant 
churches  fasting  is  not  obligatory,  but  is 
recommended  as  a  Christian  duty. 

Fatalism,  the  doctrine  of  irresistible 
necessity,  not  as  the  result  of  the  inevi¬ 
table  laws  of  the  Creator,  but  as  the  result 
of  his  arbitrary  power.  While  it  bears  a 
strong  likeness  to  the  extreme  views  of 
predestination  held  by  some  Calvinists,  it 
reaches  its  complete  expression  in  the 
calm  submissiveness  which  marks  the  fa¬ 
naticism  of  Mohammedanism. 

Fathers  of  the  Church,  certain  early 
writers  of  the  Christian  Church,  although 
the  term  is  applied  to  the  patriarchs,  to  the 
rabbins,  and  to  other  distinguished  and 
venerable  men.  For  the  Latin  Church  the 
line  of  the  fathers  closes  with  Gregory  I. 
(d.  604);  for  the  Greek  Church,  with  John 
of  Damascus  (d.  754).  Protestants  do  not 
accept  the  authority  of  any  writer  out  of 
the  sacred  canon  as  final  in  matters  of  doc¬ 
trine  and  discipline.  The  High-Church 
party  of  the  Church  of  England  give  great 
prominence  to  the  authority  and  views  of 
the  orthodox  up  to  and  including  the 
Nicene  period. 

Fausset,  Andrew  Robert,  Church  of 
England;  b.  at  Silverhill,  County  Ferma¬ 
nagh,  Ireland,  Oct.  13,  1821;  was  graduated 
at  Trinity  College,  Dublin,  1843;  became 
rector  of  St.  Cuthbert,  York,  Eng.,  1859. 
Among  his  publications  are  a  translation 
of  BengeFs  Gnomon  (Edinburgh,  1857),  5 
vols.,  and  of  Vinet's  Homiletics  (London, 
1858);  Vols.  iii. ,  iv.,  and  vi.  of  a  Critical , 
Experimental ,  and  Practical  Commentary 
(with  Jamieson  and  Brown,  1868);  Horce 
Psalmicce  (1877 ,  2(J  ed.  1885);  The  Eng¬ 
lishman's  Critical  and  Expository  Bible 
Cyclopcedia  (1879,  2d  ed.,  1887);  Exposi¬ 


tory  Commentary  on  the  Book  of  Judges 

Feast  of  Asses,  a  festival  of  the  Roman 
Catholic  Church,  which  was  kept  at  Rouen 
and  other  cities  in  France,  to  commemorate 
the  flight  into  Egypt.  A  young  woman, 
riding  on  an  ass,  with  a  child  in  her  arms, 
was  conducted  to  the  church,  and  followed 
by  the  bishop  and  clergy.  A  sermon  was 
preached,  and  a  ludicrous  hymn  in  praise 
of  the  ass  was  sung.  The  festival,  with 
others  of  a  similar  character,  was  finally 
suppressed  in  the  fifteenth  century. 

Feast  of  Fools,  a  festival  celebrated  in 
many  countries  during  the  Middle  Ages. 
The  young  people  played  the  chief  parts, 
choosing  one  of  their  number  to  act  the  part 
of  bishop  or  archbishop  of  fools,  as  he 
was  called.  They  were  permitted  to  make 
a  mock  of  the  most  sacred  services,  and 
often  engaged  in  indecent  songs  and  dances. 

Feasts.  See  Festivals. 

Featly,  Daniel,  D.  D.,  b.  at  Charlton, 
Oxfordshire,  March  15,  1582;  d.  at  Chel¬ 
sea,  April  17,  1645.  He  became  rector, 
first  of  Lambeth,  then  of  Acton.  He  was 
a  member  of  the  Assembly  of  Divines  in 
1643,  and  was  the  last  Episcopal  member 
who  remained  in  it.  He  wrote  The  Dip¬ 
pers  dipt:  or,  the  Anabaptists  duckt  and 
plunged  over  head  and  ears  at  a  Disputation 
in  Southwark ;  Mystica  Clavis  (5th  ed., 
1648),  a  set  of  sermons  on  hard  texts;  a 
work  on  Private  Devotion  (8th  ed. ,  1676). 

Federal  Theology.  See  Cocceius. 

Felicitas,  St.,  a  Roman  lady  of  high 
rank,  a  widow,  who  was  martyred,  with 
her  seven  sons,  at  Rome,  under  Marcus 
Aurelius.  She  is  commemorated  July  10. 

Felix,  Antonius,  a  Roman  procurator  of 
Judaea  in  the  reign  of  Claudius  (51-62  a.  d.  ). 
A  slave  by  birth,  he  is  said  to  have  been 
set  free  by  the  mother  of  the  emperor. 
Corrupt  and  cruel,  his  administration  of 
affairs  in  Judaea  was  marked  by  many  law¬ 
less  acts.  The  apostle  Paul,  after  his  ar¬ 
rest  at  Jerusalem,  was  sent  to  Caesarea,  to 
be  judged  by  Felix,  before  whom  he  so 
reasoned  of  righteousness,  temperance, 
and  judgment  to  come,  that  he  trembled. 
For  two  years  he  kept  Paul  in  prison,  in 
the  expectation  that  a  bribe  would  be  offer¬ 
ed  for  his  liberty;  and  when  Felix  was 
succeeded  by  Festus,  he  left  his  prisoner 
bound,  thinking  it  would  please  the  peo¬ 
ple.  Accusations  for  the  misuse  of  his 
office  were  brought  against  him  by  prom- 


Fel 


(  335  ) 


Fer 


inent  Jews  of  Caesarea,  but  through  the 
intercession  of  his  brother,  Pallas,  he  es- 
caped  unpunished. 

Felix  is  the  name  of  five  popes.  See 
Popes. 

Fencing  the  Tables,  a  term  given  by 
Scotch  Presbyterians  to  the  address  made 
just  before  the  celebration  of  the  Lord’s 
Supper,  that  designates  the  character  of 
those  who  are  permitted  to  partake  of  the 
sacrament. 

Fenelon,  Francois  de  Salignac  de 
La  Mothe,  one  of  the  most  eminent  and 
devout  of  French  divines;  b.  at  the  castle 
of  Fenelon,  in  Perigord,  Aug.  6,  1651;  d. 
Jan.  7,  1715,  at  Cambrey.  A  brilliant  stu¬ 
dent  in  youth,  and  early  destined  for  the 
ministry,  he  completed  his  studies  at  the 
seminary  of  St.  Sulpice  and  took  orders  in 
1675.  Giving  up  plans  that  looked  toward 
a  missionary  life,  he  accepted  the  office  of 
superior  of  an  institution  in  Paris  for  the 
protection  and  instruction  of  women  con¬ 
verted  from  Protestantism.  In  this  posi¬ 
tion  he  spent  ten  years  (1675-85)  in  labor 
that  gave  him  opportunity  for  study  and 
writing,  and  brought  him  into  close  rela¬ 
tion  with  a  circle  of  choice  spirits.  It  was 
here  that  he  prepared  his  well-known  work 
on  De  F Education  des  Filles.  In  1685, 
through  the  influence  of  his  intimate  friend, 
the  great  pulpit  orator,  Bossuet,  Fenelon 
was  sent  to  Poitou,  in  1685,  to  convert  the 
Protestants.  He  entered  upon  this  work 
under  the  condition  that  the  military  es¬ 
cort  should  be  withdrawn  and  he  given  the 
privilege  of  choosing  those  who  should  la¬ 
bor  with  him.  His  mission  was  attended 
with  some  success,  but  in  1689  he  was  ap¬ 
pointed  tutor  to  the  heir-apparent,  the 
young  Duke  of  Burgundy,  a  task  which  he 
performed  with  great  faithfulness  and 
ability.  The  principles  on  which  this  mas¬ 
ter-teacher  planned  the  details  of  this  ser¬ 
vice  are  given  in  his  Tele’maque  and  other 
writings.  During  these  years  the  system 
of  religious  mysticism  promulgated  by 
Molinos  near  the  close  of  the  seventeenth 
century  found,  among  others,  an  ardent 
advocate  in  Madame  Guyon,  one  of  the 
most  remarkable  women  of  her  age.  Her 
writings  attracted  wide  attention,  and 
brought  her  under  ecclesiastical  censure. 
The  king,  as  well  as  the  archbishop  of 
Paris  and  Bossuet,  opposed  her.  Fenelon, 
to  some  extent,  sympathized  with  Madame 
Guyon.  In  1695  he  was  made  archbishop 
of  Cambrey,  but  in  time  great  bitterness  of 
feeling  was  stirred  up  against  him  by  Bos¬ 
suet  and  other  former  friends,  because  of 
ffiis  attitude  toward  Madame  Guyon  and 


her  doctrines.  He  was  finally  banished 
from  court  and  condemned  at  Rome  (1699). 
Accepting  the  papal  decision,  the  remain¬ 
der  of  his  life  was  spent  quietly  in  his  dio¬ 
cese  of  Cambrey.  By  works  of  charity 
and  good-will  he  won  the  hearts  of  Prot¬ 
estants  as  well  as  those  of  his  own  commu¬ 
nion.  He  was  known  by  all  as  “  the  good 
archbishop,”  and  his  influence  through 
an  extensive  correspondence  was  extended 
far  beyond  the  bounds  of  his  see.  The 
rare  beauty  of  his  character,  and  the  ten¬ 
der  devotion  that  marked  his  personal  life 
and  found  exquisite  expression  in  his 
writings,  has  made  his  memory  fragrant  to 
Christians  of  every  name.  Among  his 
works  that  have  been  translated  are:  Tele- 
?nachus  (new  ed.,  London,  1883);  Education 
of  a  Daughter ;  Counsels  to  those  Living  in  the 
World;  Spiritual  Letters  to  Men;  Spiritual 
Letters  to  Women;  Spiritual  Progress  :  or , 
Lnstructions  in  the  Divine  Life  in  the  Soul; 
Existence  of  God.  See  his  Life ,  by  H.  L. 
Lear  (London,  1876,  3d  ed.,  1884). 

Fergusson,  David,  one  of  the  early 
Scotch  reformers;  d.  in  1598.  From  1560 
he  was  appointed  by  the  Parliament  min¬ 
ister  at  Dunfermline,  the  seat  of  a  royal 
palace.  He  here  preached  the  reformed 
faith  at  great  personal  sacrifice.  He  be¬ 
came  prominent  as  an  ecclesiastical  leader, 
and  had  great  influence  over  the  king. 
Fergusson  published  two  tracts  in  his  life¬ 
time,  on  controversial  subjects,  which  met 
the  hearty  approval  of  John  Knox. 

Ferrar,  Nicholas,  a  clergyman  of  the 
Church  of  England:  b.  in  London,  Feb.  22, 
1592;  d.  Dec.  2,  1637.  He  was  ordained 
deacon  by  Laud,  while  bishop  of  St.  Da¬ 
vids,  in  1626,  but  never  proceeded  to 
priest’s  orders.  “  His  life  was  one  of  de¬ 
vout  asceticism,  and  he  devoted  his  means, 
which  were  ample,  to  pious  uses.  His 
house  was  like  a  monastery,  in  which  he 
scrupulously  observed  the  hours,  sleeping 
on  the  floor,  and  rising  atone  in  the  morn¬ 
ing.  He  provided  a  free  school  in  his 
neighborhood,  and  regularly  taught  in  it.” 
See  his  Life ,  by  his  brother  and  Dr.  Jebb 
(Cambridge,  1855). 

Ferrara-Florence,  Council  of.  The  op¬ 
position  of  the  Council  of  Basle  to  the  pope 
and  curia  led  to  a  breach.  At  the  sug¬ 
gestion  of  the  pope  (Eugenius  IV.)  the 
papal  minority  left  Basle  and  met  at  Fer¬ 
rara,  Jan.  8,  1438.  In  March,  a  large  del¬ 
egation  came  from  the  Eastern  Church  to 
discuss  the  project  of  union.  The  princi¬ 
pal  subjects  of  debate  were,  the  procession 
of  the  Holy  Spirit  ( Filioque ),  the  dogma 
of  purgatory,  etc.  Little  progress  was 


Fer 


(  336  ) 


Fic 


made  toward  union.  The  Eastern  del¬ 
egates  were  guests  of  the  pope,  and,  as  he 
had  no  money,  he  appealed  to  the  bankers 
of  Florence.  They  demanded  that  the 
council  should  be  transferred  to  Florence. 
Some  of  the  Eastern  members  returned 
home,  but  the  council  was  opened  at  Flor¬ 
ence  in  Feb.,  1439,  and  in  July  of  that  year 
an  act  of  union  was  signed  by  thirty-three 
Greek  and  a  hundred  and  fifteen  Latin  dig¬ 
nitaries.  The  union  thus  accomplished  did 
not  meet  general  approval,  and  amounted 
to  nothing.  Several  of  the  Greek  eccle¬ 
siastics  who  signed  the  act  were  punished, 
and  in  1472  the  Greeks  formally  renounced 
the  union.  See  Milman:  Latin  Christian¬ 
ity,  vol.  viii. ,  pp.  14-48. 

Ferrara,  Renata,  the  daughter  of  Louis 
XII.  of  France,  and  wife  of  Hercules  of 
Este,  Duke  of  Ferrara;  b.  1510;  d.  1575. 
Through  the  influence  of  Margaret  of  Na¬ 
varre  she  accepted  evangelical  views  of 
truth.  Her  literary  acquirements  attract¬ 
ed  wide  attention  in  Italy,  but  she  was 
true  to  her  religious  convictions,  and  in 
the  face  of  bitter  opposition  received  into 
the  palace  Calvin  and  other  evangelical 
ministers.  After  the  death  of  her  husband 
she  returned  to  France,  where  she  made 
profession  of  the  Reformed  faith. 

Ferris,  Isaac,  D.  D.,  LL.  D.,  b.  in  New 
York,  Oct.  3,  1799;  d.  at  Roselle,  N.  J., 
June  16,  1873.  After  graduating  from 
Columbia  College  in  1816,  he  was  pastor 
of  Reformed  Dutch  churches:  New  Bruns¬ 
wick,  N.  J.,  1821-24;  Albany,  1824-36; 
New  York  (Market  Street),  1836-54.  From 
1852-70  he  was  Chancellor  of  the  New  York 
University.  He  did  much  to  increase  the 
prosperity  of  the  University,  and  in  all  the 
positions  which  he  held  as  pastor,  preacher, 
and  professor,  he  was  highly  esteemed. 
He  delivered  the  address  at  the  jubilee  of 
the  American  Bible  Society  in  1866. 

Festivals  of  the  Jews.  The  festivals  of 
the  Jews,  instituted  before  the  exile,  are: 
(1)  The  Seventh  Day,  or  the  Sabbath;  (2) 
The  Feast  of  Trumpets,  or  New  Year; 
(3)  The  Day  of  Atonement;  (4)  The  Feast 
of  Tabernacles,  and  the  Feast  of  Pentecost. 
In  addition  to  these,  each  seventh  year 
was  observed  as  sabbatical;  and  after  seven 
times  seven  years  the  Feast  of  Jubilee  was 
observed.  (Ex.  xxiii.  10-17;  Lev.  xxii.  25; 
Num.  xxviii.  29;  Deut.  xvi.) 

After  the  exile  other  festivals  were 
added  to  those  instituted  by  Moses.  Zech- 
ariah  mentions  the  Feast  of  Esther,  or 
Purim;  that  of  the  Dedication  of  the  Tem¬ 
ple  on  its  restoration  by  Judas  the  Macca- 
bee,  and  that  of  Wood-offering,  at  which 


offerings  of  wood  were  brought  for  the  use 
of  the  Temple. 

Fetichism  (from  the  Portuguese  fetisso, 
feiti^o,  magic,  charm)  denotes  the  worship 
rendered  to  objects  of  nature  or  art,  an¬ 
imate  or  inanimate.  In  the  eyes  of  the 
savage  people  where  this  superstition  pre¬ 
vails,  anything  to  which  magical  power 
is  ascribed  may  be  a  fetish.  A  pebble,  a 
piece  of  wood,  or  a  plant  may  become  the 
idol.  If  it  does  not  favor  his  wishes,  the 
worshiper  often  punishes  the  fetish,  if  it 
is  an  animate  object,  and  destroys  it  if  it  is 
an  inanimate  object.  This  form  of  religion 
was  first  discovered  by  the  Portuguese 
among  the  negroes  of  West  Africa.  It  has 
since  been  found  to  exist  among  savages 
in  America,  Australia,  and  Siberia. 

Feuillants,  originally  a  branch  of  the 
Cistercian  order.  They  became  an  inde¬ 
pendent  congregation  through  the  efforts 
and  reforms  instituted  by  Jean  de  la  Bar- 
riere  (b.  1544;  d.  1600). 

Few,  Ignatius  A.,  D.  D.,  LL.  D.,  an 
eminent  minister  of  the  Methodist  Epis¬ 
copal  Church  South;  b.  in  Augusta,  Ga. , 
April  11,  1789;  d.  in  Athens,  Ga.,  Nov. 
28,  1845.  He  was  the  founder  and  first 
president  of  Emory  College,  Oxford,  Ga. 

Fiacre,  a  saint  of  Gaul,  who  d.  670.  He 
is  the  patron  of  gardeners,  who  celebrate 
his  festival  on  August  30. 

Fichte  (Jih'-teh),  Johann  Gottlieb,  b. 
at  Rammenau,  in  Upper  Lusatia,  May  19, 
1762;  d.  in  Berlin,  Jan.  27,  1814.  His  early 
life  was  environed  by  adverse  condi¬ 
tions.  Through  the  kindness  of  Baron 
von  Miltiz  he  was  enabled  to  begin  a  course 
of  study,  which  he  continued  with  earnest¬ 
ness  after  the  death  of  his  benefactor  left 
him  dependent  on  his  own  efforts.  “  His 
first  strong  intellectual  impression  he  re¬ 
ceived  from  the  writings  of  Lessing. 
Afterward,  in  the  course  of  his  mental 
development,  he  successively  moved  from 
the  freethinking  of  Lessing  to  the  detcr- 
minism  of  Spinoza,  and,  again,  from  the 
determinism  of  Spinoza  to  the  criticism  of 
Kant.  In  Kant’s  limitation  of  causality 
to  the  world  of  phenomena  he  found  the 
starting-point  for  his  own  philosophy — 
that  audacious  deduction  of  both  nature 
and  God  from  the  human  ego,  as  to  whose 
true  character  (atheism  or  not)  people  still 
disagree.” — Schaff- Herzog:  Ency.  Fichte 
became  professor  of  philosophy  at  Jena  in 
1794,  and  in  the  following  year  published 
his  most  important  work,  Science  of  Knowl¬ 
edge.  In  1799  he  published  a  little  essay 


Fie 


(  337  ) 


Fil 


“  On  the  Grounds  of  our  Faith  in  the  Divine 
Government  of  the  World,”  in  which  he 
took  the  position  that  the  moral  order  of 
the  world  is  God,  and  that  there  is  no  other 
God.  This  assertion  was  followed  by  a 
discharge  from  the  duties  of  his  professor¬ 
ship.  He  then  removed  to  Berlin,  where 
great  audiences  gathered  to  hear  his  lect¬ 
ures.  “  He  took  great  pains  to  clear  up 
his  relation  to  religion,  especially  to  Chris¬ 
tianity.  In  some  points  he  succeeded.  It 
is  evident  that  he  was  very  far  from'con- 
sidering  Christianity  a  mere  code  of  mo¬ 
rality;  he  recognized  it  as  an  agency  of 
much  deeper  significance  in  the  history  of 
the  human  race.  But  the  incarnation,  for 
instance,  seems  to  have  been  to  him  noth¬ 
ing  more  than  a  typical  representation  of 
what  takes  place  in  every  man  when  he  is 
converted.  Of  the  historical  facts  on  which 
Christianity  rests  he  seems  to  have  grasped 
the  typical  signification  only.” — Schaff- 
Herzog:  Ency.  His  collected  works  were 
published  at  Bonn  (1834-46),  11  vols. 

Field,  David  Dudley,  D.  D.,  b.  in  East 
Guilford,  Conn.,  May  20,  1781  ;  d.  at 
Stockbridge,  Mass.,  April  15, 1867.  He  was 
graduated  at  Yale  in  1802,  and  in  1804  be¬ 
came  pastor  of  the  Congregational  Church 
at  Haddam,  Conn.  After  a  service  of  fif¬ 
teen  years  he  accepted  a  call  to  Stock- 
bridge,  Mass.  Here  he  remained  eighteen 
years,  when  he  was  recalled,  in  1837,  to 
his  old  parish  at  Haddam,  where  he  re¬ 
mained  until  his  final  retirement  from  the 
ministry  in  1S51.  Dr.  Field  was  a  vigor¬ 
ous  preacher  and  faithful  pastor.  He  wrote 
several  volumes  of  local  history.  His 
name  has  become  widely  known  through 
the  distinguished  career  of  his  sons:  Cyrus 
W. ,  of  Atlantic  cable  fame;  Dr.  Henry  M., 
editor  of  The  Evangelist;  David  Dudley, 
the  eminent  lawyer,  and  Stephen  J. ,  asso¬ 
ciate  justice  of  the  Supreme  Court  of  the 
United  States. 

Field,  Henry  Martin,  D.  D.  (Williams 
College,  1862),  Presbyterian;  b.  at  Stock- 
bridge,  Mass. ,  April  3, 1 822 ;  was  graduated 
at  Williams  College,  1838,  and  at  East  Wind¬ 
sor  Hill  (now  Hartford)  Theological  Sem¬ 
inary,  1841;  was  pastor  in  St.  Louis,  1842- 
1847;  at  West  Springfield,  Mass.,  1850-54; 
since  1854  has  been  editor  and  proprietor 
of  The  ATew  York  Evangelist.  He  is  the  au¬ 
thor  of  :  Summer  Pictures  from  Copenhagen 
to  Venice  ( 1859);  From  the  Lakes  of  Killar- 
neyto  the  Golden  Hor?i  (1876);  From  Egypt  to 
fapan  (1877);  On  the  Desert  [Sinai]  (1883); 
Among  the  Holy  Hills  [Palestine]  (1884); 
The  Greek  Islands  and  Turkey  after  the 
War  (1885);  Old  Spain  and  New  Spain 
(1888);  Gibraltar  (1888);  Bright  Skies  and 


Dark  Shadows:  a  narrative  of  Travels  in 
the  Southern  States  (iSgo). 

Field,  Richard,  a  distinguished  Anglican 
divine  and  writer;  b.  in  Hempstead,  Hert¬ 
fordshire,  Oct.  15,  1561;  d.  Nov.  21,  1616. 
He  was  chaplain  in  ordinary  to  Elizabeth 
(1598),  and  became  dean  of  Gloucester  in 
1610.  His  fame  rests  upon  his  work  en¬ 
titled,  Of  the  Church ,  Five  Bookes,  by  Rich¬ 
ard  Field,  D.  D.  (1606-16 10).  This  work 
was  republished  by  the  Ecclesiastical  His¬ 
tory  Society,  4  vols.  (Cambridge,  1847). 

Fifth  Monarchy  Men,  the  name  given 
enthusiasts  in  Cromwell’s  time  who  said 
that  Christ  was  about  to  come  personally 
to  reign  on  earth,  and  establish  a  “Fifth 
Universal  Monarchy.”  Until  that  time  his 
saints  were  to  administer  the  affairs  of 
government,  and  no  individual  should  be 
allowed  to  rule  any  kingdom.  See  Neal: 
History  of  the  Puritans;  Carlyle :  Cromwell. 

Fiji  Islands,  a  group  of  about  three  hun¬ 
dred  islands  in  the  South  Pacific  Ocean; 
discovered  in  1643,  and  annexed  to  Great 
Britain  in  1874.  The  efforts  of  missionaries 
among  these  islanders  have  been  greatly 
blest.  The  English  Wesleyans  began  work 
here  in  1835,  and  have  carried  it  on  with  in¬ 
creasing  success  ever  since.  Roman  Catholic 
priests,  who  first  came  in  1846,  have  made 
many  converts.  Cannibalism  and  polygamy 
have  been  given  up,  except  by  a  few  moun¬ 
tain  tribes,  and  there  are  at  present  over 
fourteen  hundred  schools  and  nine  hundred 
churches.  The  present  population  is  about 
120,000,  including  some  2,000  whites.  Miss 
Cumming  says,  in  her  At  Home  in  Fiji 
(1881),  “  I  often  wish  that  some  of  the 
cavillers  who  are  forever  sneering  at  Chris¬ 
tian  missions  could  see  something  of  their 
results  in  these  islands.”  Besides  Miss 
Cumming’s  work,  see  S.  E.  Scholes:  Fiji 
and  Friendly  Isles  (1882);  Williams  and 
Calvert:  Fiji  and  Fijians  (London  and  New 
York,  1858). 

Filioque  Controversy.  The  Apostle’s 
Creed  has  simply,  “and  in  the  Holy 
Ghost;”  the  Nicene  Creed  added  to  this 
the  words,  “  who  proceedeth  from  the 
Father.”  The  Latin  Church,  without  the 
sanction  of  an  oecumenical  council,  and 
without  consultation  with  the  Greek 
Church,  added  ( Filioque ),  “and  the  Son.” 
The  Greek  Church  objected  to  this  in  the 
strongest  terms,  and  the  two  churches 
have  always  found  that  any  attempt  at  re¬ 
union  has  proved  futile,  because  of  the 
difference  of  opinion  growing  out  of  the 
use  of  this  word. 

The  third  Council  of  Toledo(58g)  allowed 


Fin 


(  33S  ) 


Fin 


this  addition  for  the  first  time.  When 
Charlemagne  came  to  the  throne  it  was  gen¬ 
erally  accepted  by  the  Western  Church, 
and  the  council  held  at  Aix-la-Chapelle 
sanctioned  its  use.  Charlemagne  asked 
Pope  Leo  III.  to  formally  incorporate  the 
Filioquc  with  the  Creed,  but  he  declined  to 
do  this,  although  he  admitted  the  correct¬ 
ness  of  the  doctrine.  The  Greek  Church 
took  a  more  decided  attitude  of  hostility  to 
the  use  of  the  word,  and  the  Council  of 
Constantinople  anathematized  it.  Bene¬ 
dict  VIII.,  in  1014,  used  the  word  in  con¬ 
nection  with  the  Creed  at  the  crowning  of 
Henry  II. 

“  The  doctrine  in  whose  statement  the 
word  Filioquc  was  destined  to  play  so 
prominent  a  part  is  called  the  ‘  Procession 
of  the  Holy  Ghost.’  The  term  comes  from 
John  xv.  26,  in  which  Christ  speaks  of  the 
Spirit  of  truth  who  ‘  proceedeth  from  the 
Father.’  Inasmuch  as  nothing  is  said  in 
this  passage  or  in  any  other  of  the  ‘double 
procession,’  and  defends  its  position,  not 
only  by  an  appeal  to  the  text  of  Scripture, 
and  to  the  original  form  of  the  Nicene 
Creed,  but  also  to  the  ‘monarchy’  of  the 
Father  as  the  sole  fountain,  root,  and  cause 
of  the  deity.  It  distinguishes  sharply  be¬ 
tween  the  eternal  metaphysical  procession 
of  the  Sprit  from  the  Father  alone,  and  the 
temporal  mission  of  the  Spirit,  by  the  Father 
and  the  Son.  (John  xiv.  26;  xvi.  7.)  The 
former  belongs  to  the  trinity  of  essence,  the 
latter  to  the  trinity  of  revelation,  and  begins 
with  the  day  of  Pentecost.  The  Latin  Church 
defends  the  double  procession  on  the 
grounds  of  the  double  mission  of  the  Spirit, 
and  the  essential  unity  of  the  Son  with  the 
Father,  so  that  if  the  Spirit  proceed  from 
the  essence  of  the  Father,  he  must  also 
proceed  from  the  essence  of  the  Son,  be¬ 
cause  they  have  the  same  essence.  The 
Greek  patriarchs  declined  to  attend  the 
Vatican  Council  of  1S70,  on  the  ground  of 
the  heresy  of  the  Latin  Church  upon  this 
point. 

“  A  compromise  was  suggested  from  the 
writings  of  John  of  Damascus,  to  say  that 
the  Spirit  proceeds  from  the  Father,  through 
the  Son.  This  was  accepted  by  the  confer¬ 
ence  held  at  Bonn  (August  1875),  between 
the  Old  Catholics,  Orientals,  and  Anglo- 
Catholics,  in  which  the  Filioquc  was  sur¬ 
rendered  as  an  unauthorized  addition  to 
the  Creed.” — Schaff-Herzog:  Ency. 

Finland.  The  earliest  mention  of  the 
Finns  refers  to  their  passion  for  piracy  and 
plunder.  In  the  twelfth  century,  King 
Eric  the  Saint,  of  Sweden,  made  war  upon 
them,  and  with  their  partial  conquest 
sought  to  establish  Christianity  at  the 
point  of  the  sword.  The  great  majority  of 


the  people  remained  heathen  even  after 
1300,  when  further  conquests  brought  them 
under  the  control  of  Sweden.  The  Luther¬ 
an  ministers  who  entered  the  country  after 
the  Reformation,  found  themselves  on  mis¬ 
sionary  ground.  At  the  present  time, 
ninety-eight  per  cent,  of  the  population, 
numbering  upward  of  two  millions,  belong 
to  the  Lutheran  Church.  In  1809  the 
country  came  under  Russia,  but  the  largest 
measure  of  ecclesiastical  liberty  is  per¬ 
mitted.  Finnish  is  the  official  and  common 
language. 

Finley,  James  B.,  one  of  the  most  dis¬ 
tinguished  of  the  early  pioneers  of  Meth¬ 
odism;  b.  in  North  Carolina,  July  1,  1781: 
d.  at  Cincinnati,  Sept.  6,  1856.  He  was 
remarkable  in  his  power  to  reach  and  in¬ 
fluence  the  great  crowds  that  gathered  at 
camp-meetings.  Six  years  of  his  life  were 
spent  in  successful  labor  among  the  Indians 
at  Upper  Sandusky.  During  the  forty-five 
years  of  his  laborious  ministry,  he  was 
eight  times  elected  as  delegate  to  the  Gen¬ 
eral  Conference. 

Finnan,  an  Irishman  by  birth,  and  monk 
at  Iona.  He  was  made  bishop  of  Lindis- 
farne,  652,  and  d.  there,  Aug.  31,  661.  He 
was  a  very  successful  missionary:  conse¬ 
crated  Caedmon,  and  baptized  Peada,  King 
of  Mercia,  and  Siegbert,  King  of  the  East 
Saxons.  He  belonged  to  the  Culdee 
Church  and  strongly  opposed  the  Roman 
ritual.  See  Bede:  Hist.  Eccl.  iii.  21-25. 

Finney,  Charles  G.,  Congregationalist, 
a  great  and  successful  revivalist  preacher; 
b.  at  Warren,  Conn.,  Aug.  29,  1792;  d.  at 
Oberlin,  O.,  Aug.  16,  1875.  His  early  life 
was  spent  in  Western  New'  York,  and  wras 
without  religious  training.  He  wras  a  law¬ 
yer  at  the  time  of  his  conversion  in  1821. 
Feeling  an  immediate  call  to  preach,  he 
left  his  profession,  and  in  1824  vras  licens¬ 
ed  as  a  preacher.  From  this  time  his  evan¬ 
gelistic  work  was  carried  on  until  i860, 
when  the  infirmities  of  age  compelled  him 
to  retire.  Both  in  this  country  and  Eng¬ 
land,  his  labors  were  followed  by  revivals 
in  vrhich  thousands  professed  conversion. 
For  a  time  he  was  pastor  in  New  York  City, 
and  in  1S35  he  went  to  Oberlin,  where  he 
labored  as  professor  of  theology,  pastor, and 
college  president(iS52).  Duringthese  years 
he  still  continued  his  evangelistic  wrork  a 
portion  of  the  time.  He  was  noted  for  his 
clear,  logical  method  and  statement  of 
truth.  His  appeals  vrere  directed  to  the 
conscience  rather  than  the  affections,  and 
they  often  produced  intense  feeling.  At 
one  time  his  methods  aroused  much  crit¬ 
icism  and  opposition  even  from  revival 


Fir 


(  339  ) 


Fis 


preachers  like  Dr.  Keecher  and  Mr.  Net- 
tieton,  but  this  passed  away.  His  influence 
as  a  teacher  was  marked.  His  Lectures  on 
Revivals  (1S35)  passed  through  many  edi¬ 
tions,  and  his  Lectures  on  Theology  (1840) 
are  well  known.  Other  volumes  are:  Sys¬ 
tematic  Theology ,  2  vols.  (1846);  Autobiog¬ 
raphy  (1876);  Gospel  Themes  (1S76).  See  his 
Life  by  G.  F.  Wright  (New  York,  1S90). 

Fire,  Baptism  of.  “  Fire,  or  flame,  is 
used  in  a  metaphorical  sense  to  express 
excited  feeling  and  divine  inspiration.  (Psa. 
xxxix.  3;  Jer.  xx.  9.)  The  influences  of 
the  Holy  Ghost  are  compared  tofire(Matt. 
iii.  11);  and  the  descent  of  the  Holy  Spirit 
was  denoted  by  the  appearance  of  lambent 
flames  or  tongues  of  fire.  (Acts  ii.  3.)  The 
angels  of  God  also  are  represented  under 
the  emblem  of  fire.  (Psa.  civ.  4.)  These  are 
the  more  benign  applications  of  the  figure, 
in  the  sense  of  warmth,  activity,  and  illu¬ 
mination.” — McClintock  and  Strong:  Ency. 

Fire-Worship.  See  Parseeism. 

First-Born.  “  That  some  rights  of 
primogeniture  existed  in  very  early  times 
is  plain,  but  it  is  not  so  clear  in  what  they 
consisted.  They  have  been  classed  as:  ( a ) 
authority  over  the  rest  of  the  family;  (b) 
priesthood;  (c)  a  double  portion  of  the  in¬ 
heritance.  Under  the  Law,  in  memory  of 
the  Exodus,  the  eldest  son  was  regarded 
as  devoted  to  God,  and  was  in  every  case 
to  be  redeemed  by  an  offering  not  exceed¬ 
ing  five  shekels,  xvithin  one  month  from 
birth.  If  he  died  before  the  expiration  of 
thirty  days,  the  Jewish  doctors  held  the 
father  excused,  but  liable  to  the  payment  if 
he  outlived  that  time.  (Ex.  xiii.  12-15;  xxii. 
29;  Num.  viii.  17;  xviii.  15,  16;  Lev.  xxvii. 
6.)  This  devotion  of  the  first-born  was 
believed  to  indicate  a  priesthood  belonging 
to  the  eldest  sons  of  families,  which,  being 
set  aside  in  the  case  of  Reuben,  was  trans¬ 
ferred  to  the  tribe  of  Levi.  The  eldest  son 
received  a  double  portion  of  the  father’s 
inheritance  (Deut.  xxi.  17),  but  not  of 
the  mother’s.  Under  the  monarchy  the 
eldest  son  usually,  but  not  always,  as  ap¬ 
pears  in  the  case  of  Solomon,  succeeded 
his  father  in  the  kingdom.  (1  Kings  i.  30; 
ii.  22.)  The  male  first-born  of  animals  was 
also  devoted  to  God.  (Ex.  xiii.  2,  12,  13; 
xxii.  29;  xxxiv.  19,  20.)  Unclean  animals 
were  to  be  redeemed  with  the  addition  of 
one-fifth  of  the  value,  or  else  put  to  death; 
•or,  if  not  redeemed,  to  be  sold,  and  the 
price  given  to  the  priests.  (Lev.  xxvii.  13, 
27,  28.)” — Smith:  Diet,  of  the  Bible. 

First-Fruits,  “  among  the  Hebrews,  were 
oblations  of  part  of  the  fruits  of  the  harvest. 


consecrated  to  God  as  an  acknowledgment 
of  his  sovereign  dominion.  In  this  sense 
of  special  consecration  to  God,  it  is,  that 
the  regenerate  are  called  “  a  kind  of  first- 
fruits  of  his  creatures.”  (James  i.  18.)  It 
may  mean,  also,  that  the  first  Christians 
were  converted  as  an  earnest  of  the  future 
conversion  of  the  whole  world.  There  was 
another  sort  of  first-fruits  which  was  paid 
to  God.  When  bread  was  kneaded  in  a 
family,  a  portion  of  it  was  set  apart  and 
given  to  the  priest  or  Levite  who  dwelt  in 
the  place.  If  there  were  no  priest  or  Le¬ 
vite  there,  it  was  cast  into  the  oven,  and 
consumed  by  the  fire.  These  offerings 
made  a  considerable  part  of  the  revenues 
of  the  priesthood.  (Lev.  xxiii.;  Ex.  xxii. 
29;  2  Chron.  xxiii.  18;  Num.  xv.  19,  20.) 

“  The  first-fruits  of  the  Spirit  are  such 
communications  of  his  grace  on  earth  as 
fully  assure  us  of  the  full  enjoyment  of 
God  in  heaven.  (Rom.  viii.  23.)  Christ  is 
called  the  first-fruits  of  them  that  slept; 
for,  as  the  first-fruits  were  earnests  to  the 
Jews  of  the  succeeding  harvest,  so  Christ 
is  the  first-fruits  of  the  resurrection,  or  the 
earnest  of  a  future  resurrection;  that  as  he 
rose,  so  shall  believers  also  rise  to  happi¬ 
ness  and  life.  (1  Cor.  xv.  20.) 

“  First-fruits  are  mentioned  in  ancient 
writers  as  one  part  of  the  Church  revenue. 

“  First-fruits  in  the  Church  of  England 
are  the  profits  of  every  spiritual  benefice 
for  the  first  year,  according  to  the  valua¬ 
tion  thereof  in  the  king’s  book.” — Hend. 
Buck. 

Fisch,  George,  D.  D.,  b.  at  Nyon, 
Switzerland,  July  6,  1814;  d.  at  Vallorbes, 
Switzerland,  July  3,  1881.  He  studied 
theology  at  Lausanne,  and  was  pastor  of 
a  church, at  Vevay  for  five  years.  In  1846 
he  became  colleague  to  Adolphe  Monod, 
of  the  Free  Church  in  Lyons,  whom  he 
succeeded.  In  1S55  he  was  called  to  Paris, 
as  the  colleague  of  Pressense.  He  took  a 
prominent  part  in  the  Synod  of  1849,  which 
formed  the  union  of  the  Evangelical 
Churches  of  France,  and  from  1863  until 
the  time  of  his  death  he  was  president  of 
the  synodal  commission  which  directs 
the  work  of  the  Free  Churches.  He  was 
one  of  the  founders  of  the  Evangelical  Al¬ 
liance,  and  was  a  prominent  delegate  at 
the  Conference  held  in  New  York  in  1873. 

Fish,  Henry  Clay,  Baptist;  b.  at  Hal¬ 
ifax,  Vt. ,  Jan.  27,  1820;  d.  in  Newark, 
N.  J.,  Oct.  2,  1877.  A  graduate  of  Union 
Theological  Seminary,  New  York  City, 
1845,  he  was  for  five  years  pastor  at  Som¬ 
erville,  N.  J.,  and  from  1850  until  his 
death,  pastor  of  the  First  Baptist  Church 
of  Newark.  He  was  an  able  and  success- 


Fis 


(  34<J  ; 


Fla 


ful  minister,  and  in  the  midst  of  earnest 
pastoral  labors  prepared  several  volumes: 
Primitive  Piety  Revived  (1855)  [20,000  cop¬ 
ies  sold  in  two  years];  History  and  Repos¬ 
itory  of  Pulpit  Eloquence  (1856);  Pulpit 
Eloquence  of  the  Nineteenth  Century  (1857); 
Handbook  of  Revivals  (1874);  Bible  Lands 
(1876). 

Fish.  The  Fish  is  a  symbol  of  almost 
universal  occurrence  in  the  painting  and 
sculpture  of  the  primitive  Church.  Like  the 
Dove  or  the  Lamb,  it  is  used  in  more  than 
one  sense;  and  its  non-scriptural  or  an- 
agrammatic  meaning  is,  perhaps,  the  most 
popular  at  the  present  day.  The  Greek 
ichthys,  “  a  fish,”  is  formed  from  the  initials 
of  the  words,  Icsus  Christos ,  Theoil  Uibs, 
Sote'r ,  “  Jesus  Christ,  God’s  Son,  Saviour.” 
Tertullian  is  the  first  writer  who  refers  to 
the  acrostic  in  connection  with  the  symbol. 
See  Smith  and  Cheetham:  Diet.  Chris. 
A  ntiquities. 

Fisher,  John,  bishop  of  Rochester;  b. 
at  Beverly,  Yorkshire,  in  1459;  beheaded 
at  Tower  Hill,  June  22,  1535.  He  was  a 
graduate  of  Cambridge,  where  he  after¬ 
ward  became  the  first  professor  of  divinity. 
Made  bishop  of  Rochester  in  1504,  he  was 
among  the  favorites  of  Henry  VIJ.I. ,  until 
he  refused  to  join  the  other  bishops  in  ac¬ 
ceding  to  his  requests  in  the  matter  of  his 
divorce.  A  pretext  was  found  for  bringing 
him  to  trial  for  treason  in  failing  to  expose 
the  so-called  Maid  of  Kent,  whom  he  knew 
to  be  an  impostor.  He  refused  to  acknowl¬ 
edge  the  validity  of  the  king’s  marriage  to 
Anne  Boleyn.  and  denied  his  supremacy 
as  head  of  the  Church.  This  led  to  his 
further  trial  and  execution.  He  bitterly 
opposed  the  Reformation.  A  learned  man, 
of  inflexible  will  and  honesty  of  purpose, 
his  death  “  was  a  sad  tragedy.”  See  his 
Life ,  by  John  Lewis  (London,  1855),  2  vols. ; 
and  by  T.  E.  Bridgett  (London  and  New 
York,  1888). 

Fisher,  George  Park,  D.  D.  (Brown 
University,  1866;  Edinburgh  University, 
1886),  LL.  D.  (Princeton,  1879),  Congrega- 
tionalist;  b.  at  Wrentham,  Mass.,  Aug.  10, 
1827;  was  graduated  at  Brown  University, 
1847,  and  at  AndoverTheological  Seminary, 
1851;  became  professor  of  divinity  (college 
preacher)  in  Yale  University,  1854;  profess¬ 
or  of  ecclesiastical  history,  1861.  He  is 
the  author  of  :  Essays  on  the  Supernatural 
Origin  of  Christianity  (New  York,  1865, 
4th  ed.,  1887);  Life  of  Benjamin  Silliman 
(1866),  2  vols.  (n.  e.,  Philadelphia,  1877, 
1  vol.);  The  Refort7iation  (New  York,  1873, 
n.  e.,  1883);  The  Beginnings  of  Christianity 
(1877,  n.  e.,  1886);  Faith  and  Rationalism 


(1879);  Discussions  in  History  and  Theology 
(1S80);  The  Christian  Religion  (1882); 
Grounds  of  Theistic  and  Christian  Belief 
(1883);  Outlines  of  Universal  History  (1885); 
History  of  the  Christian  Church  (1887);  The 
Nature  and  Method  of  Revelation  (1890). 

Fisk,  Pliny,  b.  in  Shelburne,  Mass., 
June,  1792;  d.  at  Beyrout,  Oct.  23,  1825. 
He  was  a  graduate  of  Middlebury  College 
and  Andover  Seminary,  and  entered  the 
American  Board  of  Missions  in  1818.  He 
was  an  enthusiastic  missionary,  and  will 
be  remembered  as  one  of  the  founders  of 
the  missionary  station  at  Beyrout. 

Fisk,  Wilbur,  D.  D.,  first  president  of 
Wesleyan  University;  b.  in  Brattleboro’, 
Vt. ,  Aug.  31,  1792;  d.  at  Middletown, 
Conn.,  Feb.  22,  1839.  He  was  graduated 
at  Brown  University ,  and  entered  the  min¬ 
istry  of  the  Methodist  Church  in  1818. 
From  this  time  on  until  his  death  he  was 
intimately  connected  with  the  educational 
interests  of  that  denomination.  “  As  a 
preacher,  few  surpassed  him  in  eloquence, 
none  in  fervor.  As  a  teacher,  he  had  that 
highest  of  all  qualities,  the  power  to  kin¬ 
dle  the  enthusiasm  of  his  pupils.  Take 
him  for  all  in  all,  he  was  a  man  of  rare 
symmetry  of  character,  moral  and  intel¬ 
lectual.” — McClintock  and  Strong:  Ency. 
Among  his  works  are:  The  Calvinistic  Con¬ 
troversy  (1837);  Notes  of  Travels  in  Europe 
(1838);  Sermons  and  Lectures  on  Universal- 
ism,  and  Reply  to  Pierpont  on  the  Atonement. 
See  his  Life ,  by  Prof.  George  Prentice 
(Boston,  1890). 

Five-Mile  Act,  an  oppressive  statute 
passed  in  the  seventeenth  year  of  Charles 
II.,  1665.  It  obliged  Nonconformist  teach¬ 
ers,  who  refused  to  take  the  non-resistance 
oath,  not  to  come  within  five  miles  of  any 
corporation  where  they  had  preached  since 
the  Act  of  Oblivion  (unless  they  were  trav¬ 
eling),  under  the  penalty  of  forty  pounds, 
or  liability  to  imprisonment  for  six  months. 
See  Neal:  Hist,  of  Puritans,  ii. ,  p.  255  sqq. ; 
Green:  Hist,  of  Eng.  People ,  iii.,  375  sq. 
(Harpers’  ed.). 

Five  Points  of  Calvinism.  These  are  the 
five  doctrines  controverted  between  the 
Calvinists  and  Arminians,  viz. ,  predestina¬ 
tion,  extent  of  the  atonement,  grace,  free¬ 
will,  and  final  perseverance.  They  were 
defended  by  the  Synod  of  Dort  (161S,  1619) 
in  answer  to  the  Five  Articles  which  the 
Arminians  put  forth  in  1610.  See  Cal¬ 
vinism. 

Flagellants,  the  name  given  to  bands  of 
fanatics  which  appeared  in  Europe  from 


Fla 


(  341  ) 


Fie 


the  thirteenth  to  the  fifteenth  century. 
The  preaching  of  Anthony  of  Padua (1210) 
gi  e  impetus  to  the  custom  of  self-flagella¬ 
tion  as  a  form  of  penance,  by  the  formation 
of  a  fraternity  who  went  about  singing  and 
scourging  themselves.  In  1260-61  large 
numbers  in  the  city  of  Perugia,  stirred  by 
the  exhortations  of  a  hermit  named  Rainer, 
as  if  moved  by  a  common  impulse,  formed 
processions,  and,  marching  through  the 
streets  singing  psalms,  lacerated  their 
bodies  with  leathern  thongs.  Many  jour¬ 
neyed  through  Lombardy  into  Provence, 
and  some  went  as  far  as  Rome.  For  a 
time,  as  the  spirit  of  the  movement  seem¬ 
ed  favorable  to  morality,  it  was  not  resisted 
by  the  Church  authorities;  but  as  soon  as 
the  Flagellants  were  suspected  of  disloyalty 
to  the  supremacy  of  Rome,  they  were  bit¬ 
terly  opposed  by  the  priests.  The  sect 
again  arose  during  the  dreadful  plague 
years  of  1347-49.  By  their  fierce  flagella¬ 
tions  they  hoped  to  appease  the  divine 
anger,  and  prepare  for  the  end  of  the 
world,  which  they  thought  was  near  at 
hand.  The  movement  spread  through 
Germany,  and  extended  as  far  as  Denmark 
and  England,  although  no  converts  were 
made  in  Britain.  They  marched  from  town 
to  town,  only  tarrying  for  a  day  in  a 
place.  They  sang  psalms,  until  halted  at 
some  square,  church-yard,  or  field.  Re¬ 
moving  their  shoes  and  stockings,  they 
formed  a  circle,  and,  while  lying  down,  the 
leader  stepped  over  each  one,  and  with  the 
touch  of  a  whip  bade  them  arise.  Then 
the  flagellation  began,  until  the  blood 
trickled  from  the  wounds.  The  ceremony 
closed  with  a  collection,  and  the  reading 
of  a  letter  from  Christ,  which  an  angel 
had  brought  to  earth,  commending  the  pil¬ 
grimages  of  the  Flagellants.  The  people 
soon  tired  of  the  burden  of  their  support. 
Clement  issued  a  bull  against  them  in 
1349,  which  hastened  their  suppression. 
In  1398  a  band  in  Genoa,  which  claimed 
special  direction  from  Christ  and  the  Virgin 
Mary,  attempted  to  revive  the  strange 
fanaticism,  but  they  were  stopped  by  Bon¬ 
iface  IX.,  who  executed  one  of  their  num¬ 
ber.  They  were  condemned  by  the  Coun¬ 
oil  of  Constance  in  1414.  See  Cooper:  Fla¬ 
gellation  and  the  Flagellants  (London,  1872). 

Flavel,  John,  an  eminent  English  Non¬ 
conformist  minister;  b.  in  Worcestershire 
about  1627;  d.  in  Exeter,  June  26,  1691. 
He  studied  at  Oxford  and  was  curate,  first 
of  Deptford,  and  then  at  Dartmouth.  In 
1656  he  was  deprived  of  his  living  by  the 
Act  of  Uniformity.  Supported  by  wealthy 
friends,  he  preached  privately,  in  secluded 
places.  Flavel  wrote  a  large  number  of 
books  on  practical  religion,  some  of  which 


have  been  published  in  this  country  by  the 
American  Tract  Society,  among  them 
his  Fountain  of  Life ;  Method  of  Grace;  On 
Keeping  the  Heart ,  etc.  His  entire  Works, 
published  in  London  (1820) ,  6  vols. ,  contain 
a  memoir. 

Flavian,  Jpishop  of  Constantinople  (447- 
449),  eminent  for  his  piety.  He  earnestly 
opposed  the  Eutychian  heresy,  and  for  this 
was  deposed  in  449,  and  died  soon  after, 
while  on  his  way  into  exile  at  Epipa,  in 
Lydda.  After  the  heresy  was  suppressed 
his  remains  were  brought  back  and  buried 
at  Constantinople.  See  Eutychians. 

Flechier  {Jld-she-a '),  Esprit,  bishop  of 
Nismes,  famed  for  his  funeral  orations;  b. 
near  Avignon,  June  10,  1632;  d.  at  Mont¬ 
pellier,  Feb.  16,  1710.  He  studied  theology 
under  the  Jesuits  at  Paris.  He  was  or¬ 
dained  in  1673,  and  in  1685  he  went  to  con¬ 
vert  the  Protestants  in  Poitou  and  Brit¬ 
tany;  and,  on  his  return,  was  made  bishop 
of  Lavaur,  and,  two  years  later,  of  Nismes. 
It  was  during  his  episcopate  that  the  Edict 
of  Nantes  was  revoked;  but  Flechier  en¬ 
deavored  to  carry  out  his  orders  in  as  mild 
a  form  as  possible,  and  was  beloved  both 
by  Catholics  and  Protestants.  A  collected 
edition  of  his  works  was  published  at 
Nismes  (1782),  10  vols.  See  his  Life ,  by 
A.  Delacroix  (Paris,  1865),  2  vols. 

Fleetwood,  John,  probably  the  assumed 
name  of  an  author  of  a  Life  of  Christ ,  very 
popular  in  the  last  century,  but  without 
critical  value.  Two  other  volumes  are 
attributed  to  him:  The  Christian  Prayer- 
book  (1772),  and  the  Christian' s  Dictionary 
(1773)- 

Fleetwood,  William,  a  very  learned 
English  prelate,  and  famous  as  a  preacher; 
b.  in  London,  Jan.  21,  1650;  d.  at  Totten¬ 
ham,  Middlesex,  Aug.  4,  1723.  Educated 
at  Cambridge,  he  became  canon  of  Wind¬ 
sor,  1702;  bishop  of  St.  Asaph,  1706,  and 
of  Ely,  1714.  His  Complete  Works  were 
published  at  Oxford  (1854),  3  vols. 

Flesh  “  is  used,  figuratively,  for  every¬ 
thing  living  (Gen.  vi.  13,  17,  19);  some¬ 
times  mankind  (Gen.  vi.  12);  sometimes 
the  body  as  distinguished  from  the  soul  or 
spirit.  (Col.  ii.  5;  1  Pet.  iv.  6.)  In  a  the¬ 
ological  sense  ‘the  flesh’  is  the  natural 
man,  including  the  unrenewed  will  and 
mind,  moving  in  the  world  of  self  and 
sense  only.  (Rom.  vii.  5;  viii.  1,  5,  9;  Gal. 
v.  17,  19;  Eph.  ii.  3.)  Self-imposed  ordi¬ 
nances  gratify  the  flesh,  i.  e.,  self,  whilst 
seemingly  mortifying  it.” — Schaff:  Bible 
Dictionary, 


Fie 


(  342  ) 


Foi 


Fletcher,  John  William, b.  Sept.  12,1729, 
at  Nyon,  Vaud;  d.  atMadeley ,  Aug.  14, 1785. 
About  1755  he  joined  the  Methodist  So¬ 
ciety,  and  in  1757  took  orders  in  the  Church 
of  England,  and  became  rector  of  Madeley. 
His  saintly  life  and  diligent  pastoral  labors 
endeared  him  to  the  poor  and  distressed, 
and  won  the  reverence  and  esteem  of 

9 

many  who  were  at  first  opposed  to  him. 
He  was  an  advocate  of  Wesley’s  doctrine 
of  Perfection,  and  wrote  in  its  defense. 
Southey,  in  his  Life  of  Wesley,  says:  “  No 
age  or  country  has  ever  produced  a  man 
of  more  fervent  piety  or  more  perfect 
charity.”  The  relation  of  Wesley  and 
Fletcher  was  that  of  strong  and  helpful 
friendship. 

Fletcher  presided  over  Lady  Hunting¬ 
ton’s  College  at  Trevecca,  Wales,  from  1768 
to  1771.  He  was  a  very  strong  Arminian  in 
his  theological  views,  and  most  of  his  pub¬ 
lished  works  were  directed  against  Calvin¬ 
ism,  and  grew  out  of  controversies  with 
Topladyand  Mr.  Richard  Hill.  An  edition 
of  his  works  is  published  by  the  Methodist 
Book  Concern,  New  York,  and  they  have 
found  a  large  sale  in  the  Methodist  Church. 
See  his  Life ,  by  Luke  Tyerman  (New  York, 
1882). 

Fleury,  Claude,  Roman  Catholic;  b.  in 
Paris,  Dec.  6,  1640;  d.  there,  July  14,  1723. 
Educated  for  the  law,  he  became  a  priest 
and  was  ordained  in  1672,  and  from  this 
time  till  his  death  was  connected  with  the 
court  in  various  positions  as  a  tutor  and 
spiritual  confessor.  He  was  a  prolific 
writer,  but  his  principal  work  is  his  Eccle¬ 
siastical  History  (Paris,  1691),  20  vols. 
Eng.  trans.  by  Cardinal  Newman  (in  part) 
(Oxford,  1842-44),  3  vols. 

Fliedner,  Theodor,  D.  D.,  an  eminent 
philanthropist;  b.  at  Epstein,  near  Wies¬ 
baden,  Jan.  21,  1800,  and  d.  at  Kaisers- 
werth,  Oct.  4,  1864.  After  completing  his 
studies,  he  became  pastor  of  a  small  Prot¬ 
estant  church  at  Kaiserswerth,  on  the  lower 
Rhine.  The  failure  of  a  silk  manufactory 
weakened  the  financial  strength  of  his  con¬ 
gregation  to  such  an  extent  that  in  the 
spring  of  1822  he  went  away  to  solicit 
funds  to  carry  on  his  work.  He  met  with 
good  success,  and  in  the  following  year  he 
visited  Holland  and  England  and  secured  a 
permanent  endowment  for  his  church.  It 
Avas  at  this  time  that  he  decided  to  organize 
schools  and  other  benevolent  institutions 
for  the  sick  and  poor.  In  1835  he  gave 
shelter,  in  a  little  summer-house  in  his  gar¬ 
den,  to  a  poor  woman  just  discharged  from 
prison,  who  wished  to  reform.  A  friend  of 
his  wife  was  engaged  to  look  after  this  ser¬ 
vice  and  Avas  called  a  deaconess.  The  cases 


of  need  multiplied  and  the  number  of  help¬ 
ers  Avas  increased.  This  suggested  the 
order  of  deaconesses  for  the  sick  poor. 
His  great  hospital  work  Avas  started  Avith 
one  table,  some  broken  chairs,  and  other 
Avell-Avorn  articles  of  furniture.  He  trav¬ 
eled  far  and  near  soliciting  funds  to  carry 
on  his  benevolent  Avork,  and  in  1849  visit¬ 
ed  the  United  States.  King  William  of 
Prussia  and  his  Queen  became  deeply  in¬ 
terested  in  his  labors  and  gave  him  gener¬ 
ous  assistance.  At  his  death  over  four 
hundred  deaconesses  Avere  connected  Avith 
the  establishment  at  KaisersAverth  and  its 
branches.  In  187S  the  number  of  institu¬ 
tions  in  Germany,  SAvitzerland,  France, 
Scandinavia,  Russia,  and  Austria  was  fifty- 
two  ,  and  the  number  of  sisters  nearly  four 
thousand,  laboring  at  eleven  hundred  sta¬ 
tions.  See  his  Life ,  translated  by  Miss 
WinkAvorth  (London,  1867),  and  Life  by  G. 
Fliedner  (Kaiserswerth,  1886). 

Flood.  See  Noah. 

Florence,  Council  of.  See  Ferrara- 
Florence,  Council  of. 

Florian,  a  Roman  Catholic  saint  and 
martyr.  While  a  soldier  in  the  armyof  Dio¬ 
cletian,  he  confessed  his  faith  as  a  Chris¬ 
tian  and  Avas  droAvned  in  the  river  Enns. 
Later  his  body  Avas  taken  to  Rome,  and  in 
1183  Pope  Lucius  III.  presented  them  to 
King  Casimir  of  Poland.  He  thus  became 
the  patron  saint  of  Poland.  His  day  falls 
on  the  4th  of  March. 

Fo-ism.  China  is  the  birthplace  of  the 
oldest  institutions  known  in  history.  It 
Avas  an  ancient  nation  before  Athenian  in¬ 
fluence  or  Roman  conquest  began.  The 
religion  of  this  Avonderful  people  has  taken 
a  threefold  form:  (1)  The  State  religion,' 
Confucianism  (Confucius);  (2)  Tao  -  ism 
((/.  v. );  and  (3)  Fo-ism,  or  Chinese  Bud¬ 
dhism.  The  name  Fo  is  the  first  syllable  of 
Foe-t’a=Buddha.  It  is  of  later  date  than 
either  of  the  others,  and,  in  fact,  OAves  its 
origin  to  their  failure.  One  of  them  had 
succeeded  in  imparting  form  to  Chinese 
society,  but  it  Avas  altogether  secularist, 
and  tended  continually  to  ignore  everything 
invisible.  The  other  Avas  mystic  and  wild 
in  its  imaginations,  becoming  more  and 
more  a  system  of  demonology.  It  Avas 
Avhile  brooding  sadly  over  the  deficiencies 
of  these  religious  systems  that  the  Emperor 
Ming-te,  about  a.  d.  60,  is  said  to  have 
seen  a  A’ision  of  a  gigantic  and  glorious 
figure.  Consulting  his  ministers  of  State 
upon  it,  they  bade  him  seek  over  the  Avest- 
ern  mountains  for  the  interpretation.  A 
deputation  was  accordingly  sent,  Avhich  re'- 


Foi 


(  343  ) 


Foo 


turned  accompanied  by  a  Hindu  teacher, 
who  brought  with  him  a  collection  of  sacred 
books  and  a  portrait  of  Sakya  -  Mouni. 
(Buddhism.)  And  thus  Buddhism  gained 
a  footing  in  China,  though  it  has  never  dis¬ 
placed  the  old  religion.  Some  monarchs 
patronized ,  others  persecuted ,  it  as  a  foreign 
religion.  But  the  growing  intercourse  with 
India  was  favorable  to  the  growth  of  Bud¬ 
dhism,  which  culminated  with  the  fall  of  the 
Mongol  dynasty  in  1368.  But  the  tran¬ 
scendentalism  which  characterizes  the  Bud¬ 
dhism  of  India  forms  no  part  of  the  Fo-ism 
of  the  Chinese.  There  was  probably  no 
room  for  it  in  the  matter-of-fact  worldly 
sharpness  of  the  Chinese  character.  The 
only  genuine  devotees  are  the  monks  and 
mendicants.  The  rest  of  the  professors  are 
expected  to  confide  in  some  particular 
Buddha,  to  reverence  the  books,  to  abstain 
from  gross  vice,  to  support  the  monks. 
The  devotees  of  Fo  recognize  the  excel¬ 
lence  of  the  Confucian  moralitv,  but  hold 
Fo  superior  to  Confucius,  as  being  an 
object  of  worship.  Unlike  other  forms 
of  Buddhism,  Fo-ism  has  no  regular 
graduated  hierarchy,  and  though,  as  we 
have  said,  a  worship  of  Fo  is  recog¬ 
nized,  it  is  of  a  shadowy  character,  almost 
impalpable.  Ethical  writings  are  devoid 
of  reference  to  his  personal  rule,  and  there 
are  no  precepts  on  duties  owed  to  him. 
When  the  Buddhist  monk  is  called  to  his 
devotions  by  the  sound  of  the  wooden  bell, 
he  utters  the  aspiration  that  “all  living 
creatures  may  become  enlightened;  ”  there 
is  no  address  to  the  Supreme,  no  sympathy 
even  with  good  in  the  struggle  against  evil. 
Yet  China  is  studded  with  Fo-ist  temples, 
in  which  the  colossal  forms  of  Buddha  and 
two  attendants  are  almost  always  seen; 
many  of  these,  however,  are  in  ruins,  and 
the  offerings  are  most  meagre.  Flowers 
and  perfumes  are  offered  to  him.  But, 
generally  speaking,  it  is  not  the  Buddha  of 
India,  Sakya-Mouni.  He  is  superseded  by 
Amitabha,  or  Ometo  (i.  e.  ‘ 1  Infinite  Light  ”), 
who  is  held  to  be  a  more  perfect  Buddha 
than  Sakya-Mouni,  who  is  thought  to  have 
retired  into  deep  abstraction.  To  Amitabha, 
enthroned  for  ever  on  a  lotus,  the  Fo-ist 
looks  for  deliverance  from  evil,  and  hopes 
to  enter  into  his  paradise.  The  history  of 
this  change  of  deities  is  obscure,  but  there 
seems  strong  reason  to  believe  that  the 
Christian  missions  in  the  seventh  and  fol¬ 
lowing  centuries  had  much  to  do  with  it. 
Fo-ism  is  a  flexible  creed,  and  when  Chris¬ 
tian  preachers  —  Latins,  Nestorians,  and 
others — dared  to  plant  their  missions  in 
Peking,  the  speculation  which  they  excited 
in  the  Chinese  mind  seems  to  have  led  to 
a  considerable  adoption  of  Christian  phra¬ 
seology  and  some  mingling  with  the  ancient 


faith.  The  same  thing  showed  itself  some 
years  later  in  the  case  of  the  Taeping  Re¬ 
bellion.  Some  of  the  descriptions  of 
Amitabha’s  paradise  are  apparently  bor¬ 
rowed  from  the  Book  of  Revelation  (see 
Christ  and  other  Masters,  by  Hardwick,  vol. 
ii. ,  p.  102),  only  the  central  thought  of  the 
New  Testament  is  omitted  altogether — 
namely,  the  primary  necessity  of  holiness 
of  heart  and  life  as  the  condition  of  blessed¬ 
ness.  Thus,  whereas  faith  in  Amitabha  is 
declared  to  be  absolutely  necessary  to  him 
who  will  be  delivered  from  evil,  and  the 
phraseology  seems  clearly  to  echo  parts 
of  St.  Paul’s  Epistles,  there  is  no  hint 
of  faith  resulting  in  repentance  or  good 
works:  the  monks  of  Fo-ism  are  said, 
indeed,  to  surpass  their  pupils  in  the 
puerility  of  their  superstitions  and  the 
immorality  of  their  lives. — Benham:  Did. 
of  Religion. 

Font,  the  vessel  containing  water  for 
baptism.  It  was  at  first  a  cistern  built 
below  the  level  of  the  floor,  and  reached 
by  steps.  Later,  vases  of  stone  were  used, 
elevated  three  or  four  feet  from  the  floor. 
It  was  usually  octagonal  in  form,  with  a 
mystical  reference  to  the  eighth  day  as  the 
day  of  our  Lord’s  resurrection.  In  the 
Western  Church  the  material  used  was,  as 
a  rule,  stone;  but  sometimes  porphyry  or 
marble.  In  the  Eastern  Church  wood  or 
metal  was  commonly  used. 

Fontevraud,  Order  of,  a  religious  order 
both  of  men  and  women  founded  by  Rob¬ 
ert  of  Arbresle  in  1093,  under  the  name  of 
Paupercs  Christi.  The  separation  between 
the  two  sexes  was  strict,  and  the  rules  en¬ 
forced  perpetual  silence,  and  total  absti¬ 
nence  from  flesh  and  wine.  This  order 
flourished  up  to  the  time  when  it  was  dis¬ 
solved  by  the  Revolution. 

Foot- washing  was  one  of  the  most  ob¬ 
ligatory  of  the  rites  of  Eastern  hospitality. 
(Gen.  xviii.  4;  Judg.  xix.  21;  1  Sam.  xxv. 
41.)  The  washing  of  the  feet  of  the  dis¬ 
ciples  by  the  Saviour,  after  the  Last  Sup¬ 
per  (John  xiii.  1-17),  and  his  command  “  to 
wash  one  another’s  feet”  has  given  rise  to 
singular  customs  that  still  exist  in  the 
Roman  and  Greekchurches  and  among  the 
Dunkers  and  Winebrennarians.  On  the 
Thursday  before  Easter  the  Czar  of  Rus¬ 
sia,  the  Emperor  of  Austria,  and  the  Kings 
of  Spain,  Portugal,  and  Bavaria  wash  the 
feet  of  twelve  beggars,  and  the  pope  on 
the  same  day  sprinkles  water  on  the  feet 
of  thirteen  poor  men  robed  in  white  tunics 
and  seated  in  the  Clementine  Chapel.  The 
ceremony  is  intended  to  illustrate  Chris¬ 
tian  humility.  See  Dunkers. 


\ 


For 


(  344  ) 


Fox 


Fortunatus,  Venantius,  bishop  of  Poi¬ 
tiers  ;  b.  about  530  at  Treviso;  d.  at  Poi¬ 
tiers,  609.  His  fame  rests  upon  his  rep¬ 
utation  as  the  last  great  poet  before  the 
time  of  Charlemagne.  Two  of  his  hymns, 
translated  by  Neale,  are  found  in  Schaff’s 
Christ  in  Song  (N.  Y.,  1869). 

Foster,  John,  the  distinguished  essayist; 
b.  at  Halifax,  Yorkshire,  Sept.  17,  1770;  d. 
at  Stapleton,  near  Bristol,  Oct.  15,  1843. 
In  his  youth  he  was  a  wool  weaver,  but  at 
the  age  of  seventeen  he  united  with  a  Bap¬ 
tist  church  and  began  to  study  for  the  min¬ 
istry.  He  was  pastor  of  several  small 
churches.  While  at  Downend  he  wrote 
the  Essays  which  won  for  him  the  reputa¬ 
tion  of  being  “  one  of  the  most  profound 
and  eloquent  writers  England  has  pro¬ 
duced.”  His  principal  work  is  Essays  on 
Decision  of  Character.  The  latter  part  of 
his  life  was  entirely  devoted  to  literary 
pursuits.  See  Ryland:  Life  and  Corre¬ 
spondence  of  J.  Foster  (Boston,  1846);  W.  W. 
Everts:  Life  and  Thoughts  of  /.  Foster 
(N.  Y.,  1849). 

Foster,  Randolph  Sinks,  D.  D.  (Ohio 
Wesleyan  University,  Delaware,  O.,  1S53), 
LL.  D.  (the  same,  1858),  Methodist  Episco¬ 
pal  bishop;  b.  at  Williamsburg,  Claremont 
Co.,  O.,  Feb.  22,  1820.  He  studied  at 
Augusta  College,  Ky.,  and  entered  the 
ministry  of  the  Methodist  Church  in  1S37. 
After  laboring  in  Ohio  until  1850,  he  was 
transferred  to  the  New  York  Conference; 
became  president  of  the  Northwestern 
University  at  Evanston,  Ill.,  in  1856;  re¬ 
turned  to  the  pastorate  in  i860;  became  pro- 
lessor  in  Drew  Theological  Seminary, 
Madison,  N.  J.,in  1868;  president  in  1870, 
and  in  1872  was  elected  a  bishop.  He  is 
the  author  of:  Christian  Purity  (New  York, 
1851);  M inistry  for  the  Times  ( 1 S  5  2 ) ;  Be¬ 
yond  the  Grave { 1 S79,  many  editions) ;  Studies 
in  Theology  (188G). 

Fox,  George,  the  founder  of  the  Society 
of  Friends;  b.  at  Drayton,  Leicestershire, 
in  July,  1624;  d.  in  London,  Nov.  13,  1690. 
The  child  of  devout  Christian  parents,  his 
early  years  were  marked  by  religious  ex¬ 
periences  of  peculiar  intensity.  Appren¬ 
ticed  to  a  shoemaker  who  also  dealt  in  wool 
and  cattle,  he  remained  in  this  service  till 
his  nineteenth  year.  Under  a  deep  convic¬ 
tion  of  the  sin  of  a  life  of  mere  selfish'pleas- 
ure  and  enjoyment,  he  broke  away  from 
home  ties,  and  intercourse,  as  far  as  possi¬ 
ble,  with  young  and  old.  Perplexed  and 
distressed,  he  wandered  to  many  places, 
hoping  to  find  spiritual  relief  and  guidance. 
About  1646  he  began  to  receive  further 
“  revelations.”  When  in  deep  solicitude  as 


to  the  possibility  of  his  salvation,  he  says: 
“  Christ  opened  to  me  how  he  was  tempted 
by  the  same  devil,  and  overcame  him  anil 
bruised  his  head,  and  that  through  him 
and  his  power,  light,  grace,  and  spirit,  I 
should  overcome  also:  I  had  confidence  in 
him;  so  he  it  was  that  opened  to  me,  when 
I  was  shut  up  and  had  no  hope  or  faith. 
Christ,  who  had  enlightened  me,  gave  me 
his  light  to  believe  in;  he  gave  me  hope 
which  he  himself  revealed  in  me;  and  he 
gave  me  his  spirit  and  grace,  which  I  found 
sufficient  in  the  deeps  and  in  weakness.” 
We  find  here  the  underlying  principle  or 
element  of  his  instruction  when  he  began  to 
preach  in  1647,  viz.,  that  the  way  of  salva¬ 
tion  is  found  by  giving  earnest  heed  to  the 
inner  light — the  light  of  Christ,  which  is 
the  God-given  heritage  of  the  seeking  soul. 

Fox  soon  made  many  converts  in  the 
neighborhood  of  Dukinfield  and  Manches¬ 
ter.  It  was  in  1648  that  he  received  the 
“  revelations  ”  which  forbade  him  to  take 
off  his  hat  to  any  person,  and  to  abstain 
from  the  ordinary  civilities  of  greeting,  and 
use  only  the  pronouns  “  thou  ”  and  “  thee  ” 
in  speaking  to  individuals  of  whatever  rank. 
Bold  in  his  denunciation  of  what  he  con¬ 
sidered  false  doctrines,  he  was  placed  un¬ 
der  frequent  arrest,  and  suffered  imprison¬ 
ment  in  many  places.  The  term  “  Quaker  ” 
was  first  applied  to  Fox  and  his  followers, 
about  1650,  it  is  said,  by  a  certain  justice, 
because  “  they  bade  the  people  tremble  at 
the  word  of  the  Lord.”  In  prison  or  at 
liberty  Fox  was  indefatigable  in  laboring 
with  pen  and  voice.  He  visited  Barbadoes 
and  America,  where  he  attended,  in  1672, 
the  Yearly  Meeting  at  Newport,  R.  I.  In 
1677  and  1684  he  visited  his  followers  in 
Holland  and  Germany.  The  last  years  of 
his  life  were  spent  in  London.  Fox  was  an 
enthusiast,  and  sometimes  carried  beyond 
bounds  in  action  and  expression,  but  the 
verdict  of  history,  as  found  in  the  study  of 
his  life  and  labors,  condemns  the  cruel  rid¬ 
icule  of  Macaulay,  and  corroborates  the 
statement  that  he  was  “  valiant  in  asserting 
the  truth,  bold  in  defending  it,  patient  in 
suffering  for  it,  immovable  as  a  rock.” 
His  Journal  is  the  most  interesting  and 
widely  known  of  his  writings.  Sir  James 
Mackintosh  has  said  that  “  it  is  one  of  the 
most  extraordinary  and  instructive  narra¬ 
tives  in  the  world,  which  no  reader  of  com¬ 
petent  judgment  can  peruse  without  rever¬ 
ing  the  virtue  of  the  writer.”  See  Bickley: 
Fox  and  the  Early  Quakers  (London,  1884); 
F.  S.  Turner:  The  Quakers  (London,  1S89). 
See  Friends. 

Fox  (or  Foxe),  John,  the  author  of  the 
famous  Book  of  Martyrs,  was  b.  at  Boston, 
Lincolnshire,  1517;  d.  in  London,  April 


Fra 


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Fra 


15.  1587*  He  was  graduated  at  Oxford  in 
1543,  and  elected  a  fellow  of  Magdalen  Col¬ 
lege.  Two  years  after  this  he  became  a 
convert  to  Protestantism,  and  was  expelled 
from  his  college  on  account  of  his  heresy. 
During  the  reign  of  Mary  he  retired  to  the 
continent,  but  returned  on  the  accession  of 
Elizabeth,  and  was  appointed  prebend  of 
Salisbury  Cathedral.  He  wrote  numerous 
controversial  works,  but  his  name  is  im¬ 
mortalized  by  the  Book  of  Martyrs ,  which 
he  spent  eleven  years  in  preparing  for  the 
press.  Elizabeth  ordered  the  book  placed 
in  all  the  colleges,  chapels,  and  halls  of  the 
clergy,  throughout  the  kingdom.  It  con¬ 
tains  many  errors  of  statement,  but  its  in¬ 
fluence  has  been  great,  and  it  has  passed 
through  a  great  number  of  editions. 

France,  Ecclesiastical  History  and 
Statistics.  See  Gallican  Church. 

France,  Reformed  Church.  See  Hugue¬ 
nots. 

Francis,  St.,  the  founder  of  the  order  of 
the  Franciscans;  b.  at  Assisi,  1182;  d. 
there,  Oct.  4,  1226.  As  a  youth  he  was 
pleasure-loving,  but  generous  toward  the 
poor.  He  led  the  life  of  a  soldier  for  a 
time,  and  was  taken  captive  in  a  campaign 
against  Perugia,  and  lay  in  prison  for  a 
year.  In  his  twenty-fifth  year,  after  re¬ 
covery  from  a  severe  illness,  the  entire 
current  and  purpose  of  his  life  was  changed. 
Calling  poverty  “  his  bride,”  after  a  season 
of  solitude  he  visited  Rome,  and  cast  in 
his  lot  with  the  poorest  class,  and  found 
service  in  attending  the  lepers  in  the  hos¬ 
pital  at  Gubbio.  His  friends  tried  to  draw 
him  from  his  lowly  and  menial  service,  but 
he  returned  to  Assisi,  firm  in  his  determi¬ 
nation  to  preach  the  doctrines  of  penitence 
and  self-sacrifice.  Other  young  men  joined 
him,  and  in  1210,  with  ten  others,  he  lived 
a  hermit  life  near  the  Portincula  Church  at 
Assisi,  which  had  been  restored  through 
his  efforts.  He  prepared  a  set  of  rules, 
containing  the  ordinary  monastic  vows,  but 
placing  special  emphasis  on  the  vow  of 
poverty.  Visiting  Rome,  he  gained  the 
verbal  approval  of  Innocent  III.  Not  long 
after,  he  was  joined  by  Clara  of  Assisi,  the 
foundress  of  the  order  of  Clarisses.  This 
brought  his  work  into  greater  prominence. 
In  1212  he  sent  out  the  members  of  his 
order,  two  by  two,  on  far  extended  preach¬ 
ing  tours.  Those  sent  among  the  Moham¬ 
medans  were  martyred,  and  he  decided  to 
go  and  preach  to  them  himself  He  was 
detained  in  Spain  by  sickness,  and  com¬ 
pelled  to  return  home.  The  order  grew 
rapidly  in  Italy,  and  as  early  as  1219  it 
numbered  many  thousands.  The  brethren 


were  sent  to  almost  every  known  country'. 
In  1221  the  order  gained  a  foothold  in 
Germany,  and  Francis  visited  Egypt,  and 
even  preached  before  the  Sultan.  Byr  a 
bull  of  1223  Honorius  III.  gave  official 
sanction  to  the  order,  and  Francis  was  ap¬ 
pointed  its  first  general.  The  following 
year  he  resigned  the  office,  and  retired  to 
Assisi,  where  he  died.  See  his  life  by  Mrs. 
Oliphant  (1868);  and  translation  of  St. 
Bonaventura’s  Life  of  St.  Francis ,  by  Miss 
Lockhart  (1868,  3d  ed.,  1890).. 

Francis  of  Paula, St.  , b.  at  Paula,  Naples, 
1416;  d.  at  Plessis-les-Tours,  France,  April 
2,  1507.  In  early  life  he  became  famous  as 
a  hermit,  and  he  endeavored  to  outdo  St. 
Francis  himself  in  austerity  of  life.  He 
gained  followers,  and  became  head  of  the 
order  called  Minims,  on  account  of  their 
professed  humility. 

Francis  of  Sales,  St.,  b.  at  Sales,  Savoy’ 
1567;  d.  at  Lyons,  Dec.  28,  1622.  Against 
the  will  of  his  parents,  he  became  a  priest 
in  1591,  and  soon  gained  fame  as  a  mis¬ 
sionary  among  Protestants.  He  was  very 
influential  in  the  reaction  that  set  in  soon 
after  the  Reformation,  and  Roman  Catholic 
writers  assert  that  more  than  seventy  thou¬ 
sand  Protestants  returned  to  the  Roman 
Church  through  his  efforts.  He  became 
bishop  of  Geneva  in  1602.  Extracts  from 
his  Spiritual  Letters,  in  English,  were  pub¬ 
lished  in  London,  1871.  See  his  Life ,  by 
H.  L.  Sidney  Lear  (London,  1882). 

Francis  Xavier.  See  Xavier. 

Franciscans,  one  of  the  principal  orders 
of  Mendicant  or  Preaching  Friars,  named 
from  their  founder,  St.  rrancis  of  Assisi 
( q .  v.).  The  rules  first  laid  down  by  St. 
Francis  were  very'  strict,  especially  in  the 
enforcement  of  the  vow  of  poverty.  The 
relaxations,  which  were  finally'  sanctioned 
byr  decrees  of  the  popes  and  general 
usage,  were  strongly  opposed  byr  some  of 
the  members,  and  these  struggles  brought 
about  divisions  in  the  order.  “  Since  the 
time  of  Leo  X.  and  his  Union  bull,  these 
divisions  have  been  reduced  to  three — the 
Observants,  the  Conventuals,  and  the  Cap¬ 
uchins,  all  of  whom  belong  to  the  first 
order  of  the  Franciscans;  and  they  are  the 
survivals  of  a  much  more  numerous  divis¬ 
ion.  The  Observants  are  supposed  to 
keep  the  rule  of  Francis  with  some  strict¬ 
ness,  and  they  take  the  first  rank  among 
Franciscans;  their  minister-general  has  pre¬ 
eminence.  The  Conventuals  follow  the 
rule  of  Francis  with  certain  relaxations, 
permitted  by'  successive  popes.  Their  gen¬ 
eral  has  to  De  confirmed  by’  the  great  min- 


Fra 


(  34U  ) 


F're 


istcr-general,  but  otherwise  they  are  inde¬ 
pendent.  Since  1528  the  Capuchins  have 
had  an  independent  general  under  the  min¬ 
ister-general.” — Ency.  Britannica ,  vol.  ix. 
p.  698.  (See  Capuchins.) 

The  Franciscan  nuns  were  founded  by 
Clara  of  Assisi.  Of  noble  birth  (1193),  she 
left  her  home  and  found  refuge  under  the 
protectioh  of  Francis  at  the  Portiuncula, 
where  she  was  joined  by  three  of  her  sis¬ 
ters  and  other  ladies,  and  founded  the 
order,  which  spread  rapidly.  Like  the 
friars,  they  have  divisions  of  varying  sti  ict- 
ness  of  rule.  Another  of  the  Franciscan 
orders  is  known  as  the  Tertiaries.  They 
consist  of  lay  brethren  and  sisters  in  the 
monasteries,  and  also  of  men  and  women 
who  live  in  society  outside,  who  have 
taken  the  third  rule.  This  rule  was  adapt¬ 
ed  to  meet  the  wants  of  those  who  wish  to 
live  a  higher  religious  life,  but  whose  cir¬ 
cumstances  would  not  permit  them  to  en¬ 
ter  the  monastic.  Among  the  distinguished 
theologians  who  have  belonged  to  the 
Franciscans  are  found  the  names  of  Hales, 
John  Duns  Scotus,  and  William  of  Ocean. 
See  Francis,  St. 

Francke,  August  Hermann,  a  distin¬ 
guished  German  philanthropist;  b.  at  Lii- 
beck,  1663;  d.  at  Haile,  1727.  After  com¬ 
pleting  his  thelogical  studies  he  developed 
great  devotion  and  deep  piety.  His  views 
did  not  meet  with  approval  from  the  author¬ 
ities,  and  he  was  compelled  to  give  up  his 
work  as  a  lecturer  at  Leipzig,  and  soon 
after  he  was  driven  from  his  pulpit  at 
Erfurt  In  1691  he  was  appointed  profess¬ 
or  of  Oriental  languages  at  Halle,  and 
was  permitted  to  hold  his  pietistic  opin¬ 
ions  without  further  opposition.  In  the 
autumn  of  1695  he  received  an  orphan  into 
his  home.  The  number  soon  increased, 
and  in  1698  the  foundations  of  the  orphan 
asylum  were  laid,  which  gave  shelter  to 
over  two  thousand  children  before  the 
death  of  Francke.  Departments  of  indus¬ 
trial  work  and  training  have  been  added, 
and  it  is  now  one  of  the  greatest  publish¬ 
ing  establishments  of  Germany.  This  was 
the  first  orphan  asylum,  and  is  still  one  of 
the  greatest  in  the  world.  See  R.  Brown: 
A.  H.  Francke  and  the  Orphanage  at  Halle 
(Philadelphia,  Am.  S.  S.  Union,  1884). 

Frankfurt  Concordat.  See  Concordat. 

Frankfurt,  The  Council  of,  a  synod  of 
great  importance,  held  at  Frankfurt-on-the- 
Main,  794.  It  was  convened  by  Charle¬ 
magne,  and  attended  by  three  hundred 
bishops.  Among  the  fifty  -  six  canons 
adopted  by  the  council  was  one  condemn¬ 
ing  Felix  and  Elipandus,  the  propagators 


of  the  Adoption  heresy,  and  another  con¬ 
demning  the  second  Council  of  Nicjea  and 
the  worship  of  images. 

Franks,  the  name  of  powerful  confeder¬ 
ate  German  tribes  who  established  them¬ 
selves  in  the  Roman  Empire  in  the  fifth 
century.  Crowding  the  Goths  into  the 
southern  part  of  France  they  established  a 
kingdom,  and  entered  into  alliance  with  the 
clergy  of  the  Roman  Church.  The  first 
dynasty,  known  as  the  Merovingian,  was 
ruled  by  Clovis;  the  second,  the  Carlovin- 
gian,  was  named  after  Charles  Martel.  His 
grandson  was  Charlemagne,  under  whom, 
in  800,  the  Roman  Empire  was  restored. 
It  was  known  as  the  “  Holy  Roman  Em¬ 
pire,”  and  existed  until  1806,  when  the 
changes  brought  about  by  Napoleon  put  an 
end  to  it. 

Fraternity,  “  the  name  of  associations  in 
the  Roman  Catholic  Church  which  pursue 
special  religious  and  ecclesiastical  pur¬ 
poses,  observe  corresponding  statutes  and 
religious  exercises,  and  are  endowed  with 
indulgences,  and  sometimes  with  other 
privileges.  Among  the  purposes  to  which 
fraternities  are  devoted  are  the  nursing  of 
the  sick,  support  of  the  poor,  the  practice 
of  a  special  devotion  to  some  part  of  the 
Roman  Catholic  worship,  the  veneration 
of  a  particular  saint, etc.” — McClintock  and 
Strong:  Ency. 

Frederick  III.,  The  Pious,  Elector  of  the 
Palatinate,  1559-76.  He  united  with  the 
Lutheran  Church  in  1549.  In  the  contro¬ 
versy  that  broke  out  between  the  Lutheran 
and  Reformed  theologians  he  finally  es¬ 
poused  the  cause  of  the  Calvinists,  and 
exerted  great  influence  in  advancing  the 
interests  of  the  Reformed  Church,  both  in 
France  and  the  Netherlands.  The  Heidel¬ 
berg  Catechism  was  prepared  under  his 
special  oversight. 

Frederick  III.,  The  Wise,  Elector  of 
Saxony,  was  b.  at  Torgau,  Jan.  17,  1463, 
and  d.  at  Lochau,  May  5,  1525.  He  was 
the  founder  of  the  University  of  Witten¬ 
berg,  and  appointed  Luther  and  Melanch- 
thon  as  professors.  He  did  not  commit 
himself  to  the  Reformation,  but  in  many 
ways  shielded  Luther  from  harm.  It  was 
at  his  suggestion  that  Luther  was  removed 
to  the  Wartburg  after  the  Diet  of  Worms. 

Free  Congregations  (Friends  of  Light, 
Protestant  Friends),  an  organization  of 
German  rationalists  who  have  formally 
seceded  from  the  State  Church.  In  1844  a 
hundred  and  thirty  theologians  and  about 
five  hundred  laymen,  at  a  meeting  at  Cor- 


Fre 


(  347  ) 


Fre 


then,  listened  to  addresses  from  their  lead¬ 
ers,  which  openly  rejected  the  doctrines  of 
hereditary  sin,  atonement,  the  trinity,  and 
the  divinity  of  Christ.  Wislicenus,  then 
pastor  at  Halle,  took  even  a  more  advanced 
rationalistic  stand  than  this.  The  author¬ 
ities  interfered  at  this,  and  he  separated 
from  the  Established  Church  and  organized 
a  Free  Congregation  at  Halle.  Other  con¬ 
gregations  were  formed,  which  in  1847  were 
combined  with  the  German  Catholics.  In 
1868  there  were  a  hundred  and  twenty-one 
Free  Congregations  in  Germany, with  about 
twenty-five  thousand  members.  There  are 
congregations  in  Philadelphia,  St.  Louis 
and  Hoboken.  They  fraternize  with  all 
classes  of  freethinkers. 

Free  Church  of  Scotland.  See  Scot¬ 
land,  Free  Church  of. 

Freemantle,  Rev.  The  Honorable  Wil¬ 
liam  Henry,  Church  of  England;  b.  at 
Swanbourne,  Buckinghamshire,  Dec.  12, 
1831;  educated  at  Oxford.  Ordained  in 
1856,  he  became  rector  of  St.  Mary’s,  Bry- 
anstone  Square,  London,  1866-83;  fellow 
and  tutor  of  Balliol  College,  Oxford,  since 
1882;  Bampton  lecturer  in  1883.  He  is 
the  author  of:  The  Doctrine  of  Reconciliation 
to  God  through  Jesus  Christ  (1870);  The  Gos¬ 
pel  of  the  Secular  Life  (1882);  The  World 
as  the  Subject  of  Redemption  (Bampton  Lec¬ 
tures,  1885). 

Free  Religious  Association,  organized  at 
Boston,  Mass.,  May  30,  1867.  The  object 
of  the  Association,  as  declared  in  its  con¬ 
stitution,  is  to  emancipate  religion  from 
sectarian  limits,  encourage  the  scientific 
method  in  the  study  of  theology,  and  per¬ 
mit  the  utmost  freedom  of  personal  opin¬ 
ion.  Mr.  O.  B.  Frothingham  was  the  first 
president.  The  leaders  in  this  movement 
are  prominent  freethinkers,  and  the  Index , 
of  Boston,  is  its  organ. 

Free-Spirit  Brethren.  See  Brethren  of 
the  Free  Spirit. 

Freethinkers,  a  name  applied  to  those 
who  deny  the  truth  of  revealed  religion. 
It  was  first  used  to  designate  the  deists  of 
England.  More  recently  the  term  has  be¬ 
come  a  synonym  for  rationalism  and  infi¬ 
delity.  See  Deism;  Rationalism. 

Free-Will  Baptists.  The  first  church  of 
this  denomination  was  organized  at  New 
Durham,  N.  H.,  in  1780,  by  Benjamin 
Randell,  a  convert  of  George  Whitefield. 
They  baptize  by  immersion,  but  are  open 
communionists.  In  doctrine  they  are  Ar- 
minians,  and  their  church  government  is 


intermediate  between  the  Congregational 
and  the  Presbyterian.  The  churches  are 
independent  organizations,  the  members  of 
which  are  governed  by  elders  and  deacons. 
There  is  no  court  of  appeal  from  their  de¬ 
cisions.  The  Quarterly  Meeting  is  com¬ 
posed  of  two  or  more  ministers  who  vol¬ 
untarily  unite  together.  The  Yearly  Meet¬ 
ings  are  composed  of  two  or  more  Quar¬ 
terly  Meetings,  and  the  General  Conference 
is  composed  of  delegates  from  the  Yearly 
Meetings,  and  is  called  together  triennially. 
These  associations  are  simply  advisory  in 
their  relation  to  each  other.  The  Free- 
Will  Baptist  Foreign  Mission  Society  was 
organized  in  1833,  and  has  been  especially 
successful  in  its  work  in  India.  A  Home 
Mission  Society  was  formed  in  1834,  and 
an  Education  Society  in  1840.  Hillsdale 
College,  in  Michigan,  and  Bates  College, 
in  Maine,  are  sustained  by  this  denomina¬ 
tion.  They  have  a  publication  house  lo¬ 
cated  at  Boston,  Mass.,  from  which  is 
published  the  Morning  Star ,  a  weekly 
paper.  They  now  number  82,686  members 
and  have  1,531  churches  and  1,314  minis¬ 
ters. 

Frelinghausen,  Johann  Anastasius,  a 
German  hymn  writer  and  a  prominent 
leader  of  the  Pietistic  movement  in  Ger¬ 
many;  b.  at  Gandersheim,  near  Wolfen- 
biittel,  in  Hanover,  Dec.  2,  1670;  d.  at 
Halle,  Feb.  12,  1739.  He  studied  theology 
with  Francke,  the  founder  of  the  Orphan 
House  at  Halle,  and  married  his  only 
daughter.  He  was  an  active  and  efficient 
teacher  and  pastor,  and  wrote  several 
works  on  theology.  Many  of  his  hymns 
still  find  a  place  in  German  hymn-books. 

Frelinghuysen,  Hon.  Theodore,  an  emi¬ 
nent  Christian  statesman,  was  born  at 
Franklin,  N.  J.,  March  2S,  1787 ;  and  d.  at 
New  Brunswick,  N.  J.,  April  12,  1861. 
From  1817  to  1S29  he  wTas  attorney-general 
of  New  Jersey,  and  served  for  one  term  in 
the  Senate  of  the  United  States.  In  1839 
he  became  chancellor  of  the  University  of 
the  City  of  New  York,  and  in  1S50  he  ac¬ 
cepted  the  presidency  of  Rutgers  College, 
New  Brunswick,  N.  T. ,  where  he  remained 
until  his  death.  His  character  and  influ¬ 
ence  are  seen  in  the  fact  that  at  different 
times  he  was  president  of  the  American 
Bible  Society,  the  American  Tract  Society, 
and  the  American  Board  of  Commissioners 
for  Foreign  Missions.  See  Memoir ,  by  T. 
W.  Chambers,  D.  D.  (N.  Y.,  1861). 

French  Prophets  were  Camisards  who 
visited  England  in  1706,  and  announced  the 
speedy  establishment  of  Christ’s  King- 
I  dom.  For  a  time  they  gained  the  adher- 


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ence  of  several  distinguished  men,  but 
their  fanatical  zeal  soon  involved  them  in 
failure  and  disgrace. 

French  Protestantism.  See  France, 
Protestantism  in. 

French  Reformed  Church.  See  Hugue¬ 
nots. 

Friendly  Islands  were  discovered  by  Tas¬ 
man  in  1643,  but  were  named  by  Capt. 
Cook.  The  first  attempt  to  introduce 
Christianity  was  made  in  1797.  Of  the  ten 
missionaries,  three  were  murdered,  and 
the  rest  were  robbed  and  left  in  a  suffer¬ 
ing  condition.  They  finally,  in  1800,  took 
passage  in  a  ship  sailing  to  New  South 
Wales.  In  1822  the  Wesleyan  Missionary 
Society  sent  a  missionary  to  the  Islands. 
Others  followed  in  1825-27.  Converts 
were  made;  the  Chief  of  the  island  of  Li- 
fuka  became  a  believer,  schools  were 
opened,  and  in  1834  a  great  religious  re¬ 
vival  extended  to  many  of  the  islands. 
King  George  Tubou  was  an  active  Chris¬ 
tian  worker.  One  of  the  last  reports  gave 
’  126  churches,  8,200  members,  and  17,000 
attendants  in  worship.  In  1869  they  raised 
$1,500  for  missionary  purposes. 

Friends,  The  Society  of,  a  religious 
body,  commonly  known  by  the  name  of 
“  Quakers,”  founded  in  1646  by  George 
Fox,  the  son  of  a  Leicestershire  weaver, 
whose  tenets  stand  in  the  strongest  antag¬ 
onism  to  what  we  may  call  external 
worship,  and  who,  it  has  been  well  said, 
offer  the  remarkable  spectacle  of  a  Chris¬ 
tian  body  “without  a  creed,  a  liturgy,  a 
priesthood,  or  a  sacrament.”  The  name 
Quakers  was  given  to  the  Friends  by  Ger- 
vase  Bennett,  a  magistrate,  on  Fox  exhort¬ 
ing  him  to  tremble  at  the  Word  of  God. 
Fox  was  only  twenty-two  when  he  com¬ 
menced  to  preach  his  doctrines.  Amongst 
these,  he  taught  that  preaching,  to  be  effect¬ 
ual,  must  come  from  the  direct  operation 
of  the  Holy  Spirit  on  the  soul,  and  that, 
therefore,  it  was  not  necessary  to  have  a 
separate  order  of  men  educated  for  the 
ministry,  but  that  the  humblest  person, 
whether  male  or  female,  who  had  an  inward 
call  from  the  Spirit  of  God,  was  qualified 
for  the  office  of  a  Christian  preacher.  He 
abandoned  all  the  ceremonies  which  the 
Reformation  had  allowed  to  survive,  even 
the  rites  of  baptism  and  the  celebration  of 
the  Lord’s  Supper,  holding  them  as  out¬ 
ward  signs  which  had  in  them  the  danger 
of  gradually  coming  to  be  regarded  as  pos¬ 
sessing  in  themselves  the  saving  power 
which  they  were  meant  only  to  represent. 
He  allowed  no  prescribed  form  of  devotion, 


saying  that  the  silent  converse  of  the  soul 
is  as  acceptable  a  worship  to  God  as  the 
utterance  of  prayer  and  praise.  He  opposed 
all  adornment  of  places  of  worship,  the  use 
of  music  in  the  praise  of  God,  and  the  ob¬ 
servance  of  fasts,  whether  national  or  pri¬ 
vate.  As  regards  other  matters,  there  is 
ample  evidence  that  Fox  and  his  early  col¬ 
leagues,  as  a  body,  held  firmly  what  are 
commonly  understood  as  the  fundamental 
truths  of  the  Gospel,  which  are  set  forth 
with  great  clearness  in  a  letter  on  Christian 
doctrine  addressed  to  the  Governor  of  Bar- 
badoes  in  1671.  At  a  somewhat  later  pe¬ 
riod  the  writings  of  Renn  and  Barclay  gave 
a  more  dogmatic  form  to  the  principles  of 
the  Society. 

The  Friends  profess  to  endeavor  to  carry 
out  the  admonitions  of  the  New  Testament 
in  a  literal  and  practical  sense,  and  to  ob¬ 
serve  the  spirit  of  Christ’s  teaching  in  all 
the  relations  of  life.  Thus,  in  obedience 
to  the  injunction  not  to  swear ,  they  refuse 
to  take  an  oath  in  a  court  of  justice;  to  love 
our  enemies  they  consider  involves  a  denun¬ 
ciation  of  all  war,  and  consequently  refuse 
to  take  military  service;  not  to  render  honor 
to  each  other  was  carried  out  by  ignoring 
the  usual  complimentary  salutations  and 
honorary  titles,  and  by  addressing  every 
individual  by  the  Christian  name,  and  the 
singular  pronouns  “thee”  and  “thou.” 
They  also  adopted  great  simplicity  of  dress 
and  manner,  and  refused  to  join  in  any 
frivolous  amusement,  such  as  cards,  danc¬ 
ing,  etc.,  even  discouraging  music  and  art. 
These  points  were  formerly  general,  and 
even  carried  to  great  extremes;  but  of  late 
years  considerable  change  has  been  observ¬ 
able  in  the  practice  of  the  Society  in  these 
respects,  especially  amongst  the  younger 
members.  The  greater  portion  of  these 
now  speak  and  dress  plainly  and  unobtru¬ 
sively,  but  otherwise  like  other  people;  and 
quite  recently  the  Yearly  Meeting  author¬ 
itatively  withdrew  the  customary  insistence 
upon  “  plainness  of  speech,  behavior,  and 
apparel,”  leaving  such  matters  to  the  con¬ 
science  of  individual  members,  whilst  art 
and  literature  are  no  longer  frowned  upon. 

Whilst  professing  to  bring  all  questions 
to  the  test  of  the  Holy  Scriptures,  the  Di¬ 
vine  authority  of  which  is  fully  acknowl¬ 
edged,  Friends  believe  that  the  help  of  the 
same  Spirit  who  inspired  them  is  needful 
for  their  right  understanding,  and  that, 
moreover,  the  light  of  the  Spirit  truly 
shines  in  the  heart  of  man,  and  if  heeded, 
and  its  teaching  humbly  obeyed,  is  a  pres¬ 
ent  guide  and  director  to  him.  This  doc¬ 
trine  of  the  “  Inward  Light,”  which  they 
believe  is  given  to  all  men — heathen  as  well 
as  Christian — in  sufficient  measure,  is  their 
central,  cardinal,  and  principal  doctrine. 


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In  their  public  worship,  therefore,  they 
wait  in  silence  for  the  immediate  influence 
of  the  Spirit  on  the  heart,  allowing  those  to 
engage  in  preaching  or  prayer — both  men 
and  women — who  really  believe  themselves 
called  of  God  to  do  so,  and  give  evidence, 
acceptable  to  their  brethren,  of  true  spirit¬ 
ual  gifts,  as  well  as  of  sincerity  and  Chris¬ 
tian  consistency.  They  allow  at  such  meet¬ 
ings  no  stated  reading,  even  of  the  Script¬ 
ures,  and  formerly  these  were  never  read 
at  all  in  their  public  worship;  but  of  late, 
in  many  meetings,  the  practice  of  publicly 
reading  a  portion  of  Scripture  at  the  com¬ 
mencement  of  the  meeting  is  adopted. 
They  do  not,  however,  consider  themselves 
to  be  dependent  upon  any  audible  ministry 
whatever,  regarding  the  silent  worship  of 
the  assembled  members,  if  so  it  be,  as  a 
quite  normal  state  of  things — as  equally 
acceptable  to  God,  and  equally  beneficial  to 
those  who  can  engage  in  it.  They  attach 
no  peculiar  sanctity  to  one  day  more  than 
another, 'regarding  the  Sabbath  as  a  Jewish 
institution  done  away  with  by  Christianity, 
and  all  days  alike,  as  claimed  by  the  Son  of 
Man;  but  they  consider  it  in  accordance 
with  the  Divine  will  to  give  up  one  day 
out  of  seven  to  public  worship  and  to  the 
good  of  others,  as  well  as  to  rest  and  medi¬ 
tation. 

The  discipline  of  the  community  of 
Friends  is  much  the  same  as  the  Presby¬ 
terian.  They  have  three  gradations  of 
meetings:  Monthly  Meetings ,  composed  of 
the  congregations  from  a  definite  circuit, 
who  choose  Elders  to  watch  over  the  minis¬ 
try,  and  Overseers  to  attend  to  the  education 
of  the  children  of  such  members  as  are  in 
humble  circumstances,  to  the  provision  for 
the  poor,  and  to  various  other  duties.  At 
these  meetings  marriages  are  sanctioned, 
previous  to  their  ratification  in  public  wor¬ 
ship — the  Friends  holding  marriage  to  be 
“  not  a  mere  civil  compact,  but  a  Divine 
ordinance,  and  that  it  is  the  prerogative  of 
God  alone  to  join  persons  in  that  solemn 
covenant,  and  the  interference  of  a  priest  is 
an  assumption  altogether  unwarranted  by 
Holy  Scripture,  or  the  example  of  the 
primitive  Church.”  Quarterly  Meetings  are 
held  to  receive  general  reports  from  the 
monthly  meetings,  and  to  hear  appeals 
from  their  decisions;  and  the  Yearly  Meet¬ 
ing  has  the  general  superintendence  of  the 
Society  in  the  whole  of  a  particular  coun¬ 
try,  that  held  in  London  comprehending  the 
whole  of  Great  Britain.  Formal  discipline 
or  organization  was,  at  its  inception,  con¬ 
sidered  inconsistent  with  their  own  princi¬ 
pal  tenet  by  many  of  the  earlier  Friends, 
and  much  resisted  by  Story  and  others. 

From  their  rise  till  the  Revolution,  the 
F riends  were  much  persecuted ,  except  dur¬ 


ing  a  brief  period  of  Charles  II. ’s  reign, 
when  Fox  obtained  some  indulgence  for  his 
followers.  These  early  persecutions  were 
largely  connected  with  their  refusal  to 
swear,  and  to  acknowledge  ecclesiastical 
supremacy  by  the  payment  of  tithes  and 
Church-rates;  but  no  doubt  were  consider¬ 
ably  increased  by  the  obtrusive  manner  in 
which  some  of  them  “  testified  ”  against 
“  man- ministry  ”  and  respect  to  human  au¬ 
thorities.  There  can  be  no  question  that 
some  of  the  excesses  of  the  earlier  members 
— as  Nayler  and  others — were  really  due  to 
disorder  of  mind,  caused  by  excitement,  in 
an  age  peculiarly  given  to  religious  fanat¬ 
icism.*  Since  1688  the  Friends  have  bene¬ 
fited  by  the  Toleration  Act.  In  1S33  the 
British  Legislature  recognized  the  objec¬ 
tion  of  Friends  to  taking  oaths,  and  the 
simple  affirmation  of  a  Friend  has  since  that 
time  been  accepted  in  place  of  it.  This, 
the  legal  recognition  of  their  marriages, 
and  other  privileges,  have  been  won  solely 
by  the  power  of  passive  resistance,  and  are 
a  singular  proof  of  the  efficacy  of  it. 

By  the  year  1652  the  Society  of  Friends 
had  spread  through  all  the  northern  coun¬ 
ties,  and  by  the  time  of  the  Restoration 
there  were  meetings  not  only  throughout 
Great  Britain  and  Ireland,  but  in  the  West 
Indies  and  British  America.  They  are 
more  numerous  now  in  America  than  in 
England.  The  founding  of  the  colony  of 
Pennsylvania  by  William  Penn  induced 
many  of  the  British  Friends  to  emigrate 
thither,  and  the  free  institutions  of  the  New 
World  favored  the  increase  of  the  Quaker 
communities  in  other  States  also.  Like 
other  bodies,  they  have  been  somewhat 
weakened  by  division  or  secession ;  indeed, 
their  leading  tenet  was  peculiarly  likely  to 
lead  to  great  differences  of  view,  and  there 
can  be  little  doubt  that  some  of  the  earlier 
and  stricter  Friends  placed  the  inward 
teaching  of  the  Spirit  in  reality  above  that 
of  the  Scriptures  themselves.  This  doc¬ 
trine  of  the  “  Inward  Light”  was  pushed 
to  excess  in  the  earlier  part  of  the  present 

*  James  Nayler  had  formerly  been  an  officer  in 
Cromwell’s  army,  a  fact  which  increased  the  fury  of 
his  Puritan  persecutors.  At  an  early  stage  of  his  dis¬ 
order  he  was  remonstrated  with,  and  finally  disowned 
by  Friends  for  his  excesses,  and  was  punished  in  the 
most  barbarous  and  torturing  manner,  to  which  death 
would  have  been  preferable,  both  at  London  and  Bris¬ 
tol,  bearing  his  sufferings  with  unexampled  fortitude. 
For  a  full  account  of  them  see  Sewell’s  History  0/ 
Friends,  and  also  Seyer’s  History  0/  Bristol.  At  a 
later  period,  when  Nayler  returned  to  his  right  mind, 
he  himself  recanted  his  errors,  expressed  deep  repent¬ 
ance  for  his  excesses,  was  received  again  by  his  friends 
into  full  communion,  and  died  in  perfect  peace.  Noth¬ 
ing  can  be  more  distressing  than  to  read  how  men  who 
chiefly  needed  the  kind  care  of  a  judicious  physician 
were  tortured  in  a  manner  worthy  of  the  Inquisition; 
while  in  New  England,  not  only  male  but  female  Friends 
were  actually  hung  by  the  Puritans  for  returning  after 
banishment. 


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century  by  Elias  Hicks,  a  very  popular 
minister  in  the  United  States,  and  a  man  of 
remarkable  powers.  He  ultimately  em¬ 
braced — if  he  had  not  held  them  all  along 
— -  Unitarian  views,  which  were  widely 
spread  amongst  other  American  Friends; 
and  the  result  of  the  controversy  which 
could  not  but  arise  upon  such  a  vital  point, 
was  a  great  schism,  about  one-half  of  the 
body  in  America  seceding,  and  being  known 
as  Hicksite  Friends,  holding  Arian  views, 
and  the  remainder  being  known  as  Ortho¬ 
dox  Friends.  The  reaction  against  the 
Hicksites  was  carried  too  far,  in  the  opinion 
of  some  of  the  stricter  of  the  Orthodox 
Friends,  and  the  result  was  a  second  small 
secession,  who  followed  John  Wilbur,  and 
who  adhere  more  closely  than  the  main 
body  to  the  peculiarities  and  original  tenets 
of  the  founders  of  the  Society.  In  England 
Friends  were  almost  unanimously  ortho¬ 
dox,  and  the  Hicksite  controversy  excited 
great  alarm.  Isaac  Crewdson,  an  acknowl¬ 
edged  minister  of  Manchester,  published  a 
small  book  called  The  Beacon ,  containing 
extracts  from  the  writings  of  older  Friends, 
of  which  many  could  be  cited  placing  the 
“  Inward  Light”  apparently  above  the  au¬ 
thority  of  Scripture,  and  pointing  out  their 
dangerous  tendency.  Such  a  course  pro¬ 
voked  retorts,  in  which  many  joined  who 
Uvere  as  orthodox  as  Crewdson  and  his 
party,  but  who  resented  the  implied  cen¬ 
sure  brought  upon  their  predecessors.  This 
controversy — known  amongst  Friends  as 
The  BeacoJi  controversy,  from  the  title  of 
Crewdson’s  publication  —  also  grew  in 
sharpness,  and  the  result  was  that  all  over 
the  United  Kingdom  a  considerable  num¬ 
ber  of  Friends  left  the  Society.  This  seces¬ 
sion,  however  (about  1836),  was  merely  of 
individuals,  who  mostly  joined  other  Chris¬ 
tian  bodies,  and  never  became  a  separate 
communion.  The  body  in  England,  so  far 
as  know'n,  is  now  not  only  uniformly  ortho¬ 
dox,  but  in  practice,  as  pointed  out  above, 
has  approximated  perceptibly  in  many 
points  to  that  of  other  Christians,  especial¬ 
ly  in  regard  to  greater  recognition  of  the 
desirability  of  audible  ministry,  and  the 
partial  use  of  the  Scriptures  in  public  wor¬ 
ship.  In  at  least  one  large  mission  con¬ 
ducted  by  Friends  (at  Bristol)  even  hymns 
are  employed,  as  at  ordinary  mission-halls; 
and  although  the  Friends  would  not  con¬ 
sider  such  a  meeting  as  one  of  their  own, 
still  such  practice  marks  a  change,  which 
in  the  early  part  of  the  present  century  it 
would  have  been  impossible  to  foresee. 
This  change  is  distinctly  traceable  to  the 
controversy  here  briefly  described,  and 
gives  it  considerable  importance  in  the  his¬ 
tory  of  the  Society. 

The  number  of  Friends  in  Great  Britain 


and  Ireland  is  about  18,000,  to  which  should 
be  added  about  5,000  regular  attendants  of 
their  worship,  though  not  formally  in  mem¬ 
bership,  which  is  guarded  somewhat  strict¬ 
ly.  There  are  small  communities  in  the 
south  of  France,  Germany,  Norway,  etc. 
They  are  most  numerous  in  America, 
where  they  number  80,000,  and  the  total 
number  in  the  whole  world  is  not  far  from 
127,000.  They  have  at  no  time  exceeded 
200,000  in  total  numbers,  and  nothing  is 
more  remarkable  than  the  extraordinary 
influence  in  religious,  social,  and  even  po¬ 
litical  life  exercised  by  so  small  a  body.  Ow¬ 
ing  to  their  rejection  of  any  paid  ministry, 
they  are  not  able  to  “  organize  ”  foreign 
missions  on  any  large  scale,  but  of  late 
years  an  association  has  been  formed  by 
some  members,  which  supports  missions  in 
Madagascar,  worked  in  harmony  with  the 
London  Missionary  Society;  one  in  Pales¬ 
tine  conducted  by  Theophilus  Waldemeir, 
one  of  the  captives  rescued  by  our  country 
from  King  John  of  Abyssinia,  and  in  India. 
They  have  also  some  mission  work  in 
Japan,  and  even  in  Constantinople.  What 
they  do  is  very  thoroughly  done.  Their 
principle  is  that  all  should  be  done  for  love, 
and  nothing  for  payment;  and  ministers 
who  are  led  to  engage  in  any  service  from 
home,  are  entertained  freely  by  other 
Friends,  or  have  their  wants  supplied. 
Their  home  mission  work,  however,  is 
very  large,  and  very  practical  in  character, 
especially  as  regards  their  Sabbath-schools. 
— Benham:  Dictionary  of  Religion. 

The  Friends  in  the  United  States  provide 
that  all  of  their  number  shall  have  the  ad¬ 
vantages  of  a  good  practical  education. 
They  have  colleges  at  Haverford,  Penn., 
Richmond,  Ind.,  Wilmington,  O.,  and  Os- 
kaloosa,  Io.,  and  one  for  young  women  at 
Bryn  Mawr,  Penn.  The  Hicksites  (so 
called),  are  a  branch  of  the  Friends  found 
only  in  America,  with  a  membership  of 
about  twenty-five  thousand.  They  have 
a  flourishing  college  for  both  sexes  at 
Swarthmore,  near  Philadelphia.  (See 
Hicks,  Elias.) 

Literature.  —  George  Fox:  Journals 
(London,  1694;  Phila. ,  1852);  Robert  Bar¬ 
clay:  An  Apology  for  the  True  Christianity , 
etc.  (Amsterdam,  1676,  12th  ed.,  1855, 
Philadelphia);  William  Sewrell:  History 
of  the  People  called  Quakers  (London. 
1722);  William  Penn:  Select  Works  (Lon¬ 
don,  1771)  ;  John  Woolman  :  Journal 
(1775,  ed.  with  preface  by  J.  G.  Whit¬ 
tier,  Boston,  1871);  Thomas  Evans:  Ex¬ 
position  of  the  Faith  of  the  Friends ;  James 
Bowden  :  History  of  Friends  in  America 
(London,  1850);  Charles  Evans,  M.  D. : 
Friends  in  the  Seventeenth  Century  ( Phila. , 
1875);  Frances  Anne  Budge:  Annals  of  the 


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Ful 


Early  Friends  (London,  1877).  For  history 
of  the  Hicksites,  see  Elias  Hicks:  Extem¬ 
poraneous  Discourses  (Phila. ,  1825);  Journal 
(N.  Y.,  1832);  Letters^ N.  Y.,  1834);  Samuel 
M.  Janney  :  History  of  Friends  (Phila., 
1859-67).  4  vols. 

Friends  of  God,  the  name  of  a  body  of 
mystics  which  sprang  up  in  Western  Ger¬ 
many  during  the  fourteenth  century.  They 
never  organized  a  sect,  but  held  com¬ 
munication  through  letters  and  personal 
intercourse.  They  lived  simple,  devout 
lives,  and  protested  earnestly  against  the 
corruptions  that  had  crept  into  the  Church. 
John  Tauler  was  their  great  preacher,  and 
Nicholas  of  Basel  their  most  prominent 
leader.  See  Neander:  Church  History ,  v. 
380;  Milman:  Latin  Christianity ,  viii.  399. 

Friends  of  Light.  See  Free  Congre¬ 
gations. 

Frith,  John,  an  English  reformer  and 
martyr;  b.  at  Sevenoaks,  Kent,  about  1503; 
d.  at'the  stake,  1533.  He  was  educated  at 
Oxford,  and  became  acquainted  with  Tyn- 
dale,  through  whose  influence  he  espoused 
the  cause  of  the  Reformation.  He  was 
imprisoned,  but  escaped,  and  retired  to 
the  Continent.  After  an  absence  of  two 
years  he  returned  to  England,  and  engaged 
in  a  discussion  with  Sir  Thomas  More,  in 
which  he  denied  the  doctrine  of  purgatory, 
efficacy  of  papal  indulgences,  and  the  doc¬ 
trine  of  transubstantiation.  He  was  im¬ 
prisoned  at  Newgate,  and  finally  tried, 
condemned,  and  burned  at  Smithfield.  His 
writings  are  published  in  vol.  iii.  of  the 
Writings  of  the  Brit.  Fathers  (London, 
Rel.  Tract  Soc.). 

Frumentius.  See  Abyssinian  Church. 

Fry,  Elizabeth,  an  eminent  philanthro¬ 
pist;  b.  near  Norwich,  Eng.,  May  21,  1780; 
d.  at  Ramsgate,  Oct.  13,  1845.  Her  father, 
John  Gurney,  was  a  Quaker.  Engaging  in 
manners,  and  thoughtful  of  the  welfare  of 
the  poor,  she  was  skeptical,  and  took  little 
interest  in  the  subject  of  religion  until 
brought  under  the  influence  of  the  preach¬ 
ing  of  William  Savery,  an  American  Quak¬ 
er.  At  the  age  of  twenty  she  married 
Joseph  Fry,  a  wealthy  merchant  of  Lon¬ 
don.  In  the  spirit  of  a  noble  consecration, 
she  entered  upon  an  enlarged  career  of 
usefulness.  As  early  as  1813  her  attention 
was  called  to  the  miserable  condition  of 
the  female  prisoners  in  Newgate.  Through 
personal  visitation  and  preaching,  she  ac¬ 
complished  a  great  work  of  moral  refor¬ 
mation,  and  ministered  to  their  necessities 
of  body  and  mind.  A  school  and  indus¬ 


trial  department  were  opened  within  the 
prison.  Through  her  efforts  similar  im¬ 
provements  were  made  in  other  penal 
establishments.  She  also  visited  the  pris¬ 
ons  of  France,  Belgium,  Germany,  and 
Holland,  and  sought  to  interest  the  author¬ 
ities  in  their  reform.  Besides  her  labors  in 
this  direction, "she  was  deeply  interested  in 
the  abolition  of  slavery,  and  actively  en¬ 
gaged  in  the  work  of  furnishing  libraries 
of  religious  and  instructive  reading  for  the 
use  of  British  sailors,  both  in  the  marine 
and  naval  service.  In  the  midst  of  her 
great  public  labors,  she  carefully  reared  a 
large  family.  Her  Memoirs ,  with  Extracts 
from  her  Jo^irnals  and  Letters ,  edited  by  her 
two  daughters,  were  published  in  1847. 

Fulda,  Monastery  of,  one  of  the  most 
remarkable  institutions  of  its  kind,  found¬ 
ed  under  Benedictine  rule  in  744  by  Sturm, 
a  pupil  of  St.  Boniface,  the  apostle  of  Ger¬ 
many.  It  was  richly  endowed  by  Pepin 
and  Charlemagne,  and  became  the  centre 
of  German  learning  and  progress.  It  was 
not  destroyed  at  the  Reformation,  but  its 
wealth  was  lost,  and  its  influence  has 
waned  since  that  time. 

Fulgentius,  bishop  of  Ruspe,  in  Africa; 
b.  at  Telepte,  in  North  Africa,  in  468;  d. 
at  Ruspe,  Jan.  1,  533.  He  was  made  bishop 
in  508,  and  two  years  later  banished  from 
Africa  by  the  Vandal  king,  Thrasimund 
(who  was  an  Arian),  to  Cagliari,  Sardinia. 
In  523  he  was  allowed  to  return.  He  was 
recognized  as  one  of  the  strongest  oppo¬ 
nents  of  the  Arians.  See  his  works  in 
Migne:  Pat.  Lat.  LXV. 

Fulke,  William,  D.  D.,  a  famous  Puri¬ 
tan  divine;  b.  in  London,  1538;  d.  at  Den- 
nington,  Suffolk,  Aug.  28,  1589.  He  was 
educated  at  Cambridge,  and  in  1578  was 
elected  Master  of  Pembroke  Hall  and  Mar¬ 
garet  professor  of  divinity.  “  In  force  of 
argument  he  was  one  of  the  ablest  divines 
of  his  time,  and  one  of  the  principal  oppo¬ 
nents  of  the  Roman  Church.”  He  was  a 
prolific  writer. 

Fuller,  Andrew,  an  eminent  Baptist 
divine  and  theologian,  b.  at  Wicken,  Cam¬ 
bridgeshire,  Feb.  6,  1754;  d.  at  Kettering, 
May  7,  1815.  The  son  of  a  small  farmer, 
his  early  educational  advantages  were  lim¬ 
ited.  In  his  seventeenth  year  he  united 
with  the  Baptist  Church  at  Soham,  and 
soon  developed  such  gifts  as  a  speaker 
that  he  was  called  to  its  pastorate.  In  1782 
he  removed  to  Kettering,  where  he  came 
into  close  relation  with  Drs.  Ryland,  Hall, 
and  other  prominent  ministers.  While  at 
Soham  he  began  the  theological  studies 


Ful 


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Fur 


which  were  embodied  in  his  treatise  pub¬ 
lished  under  the  title,  The  Gospel  Worthy 
of  all  Acceptance.  This  work  sought  to 
counteract  hyper  -  Calvinistic  views  then 
prevalent.  It  involved  him  in  discussions 
that  covered  a  period  of  nearly  twenty 
years;  but  the  ultimate  result  was  the  gen¬ 
eral  acceptance  of  the  fundamental  principle 
which  he  advocated,  “  that  all  may  apply 
for  the  gospel,  confidently  expecting  to  re¬ 
ceive  its  benefits.”  Another  of  his  princi¬ 
pal  works,  The  Gospel  its  Own  Wittiess,  is 
an  able  criticism  of  Deism.  The  attacks 
made  upon  this  volume  by  Toulmin  and 
Kentish  led  to  the  preparation  of  The  Cal¬ 
vinistic  and  Socinian  Systems  Examined , 
which  Robert  Hall  pronounced  his  great¬ 
est  work.  Fuller  was  a  man  of  deep  relig¬ 
ious  convictions  and  profound  intellectual 
vigor.  His  friend  and  biographer  (Dr. 
Ryland)  called  him,  “the  most  judicious 
and  able  theological  writer  that  ever  be¬ 
longed  to  the  Baptist  denomination.”  Not 
only  was  he  a  great  theologian,  but  as  one 
of  the  founders  of  the  Baptist  Missionary 
Society,  and  secretary  from  its  organiza¬ 
tion  in  1792,  until  his  death  in  1815,  his 
name  must  be  enrolled  among  the  ablest 
leaders  and  workers  in  the  cause  of  mis¬ 
sions.  His  Complete  Works  {Am.  ed.,  1833, 
2  vols.),  with  memoir  by  his  son,  were 
published  under  the  direction  of  Dr.  Ry¬ 
land  (London.  1816). 

Fuller,  Richard,  D.  D.,  an  eminent  Bap¬ 
tist  minister;  b.  in  Beaufort,  S.  C.,  April 
22,  1804;  d.  in  Baltimore,  Oct.  20,  1876. 
He  was  graduated  at  Harvard  (1824),  and 
became  a  successful  lawyer.  Converted 
under  the  preaching  of  the  revivalist, 
Daniel  Baker,  in  1831,  he  joined  the  Bap¬ 
tist  Church  and  began  to  preach  in  his  na¬ 
tive  place.  He  was  called  to  the  pastorate 
of  the  Seventh  Baptist  Church,  in  Balti¬ 
more,  in  1847,  where  he  labored  until  his 
death.  The  fame  of  his  eloquence  drew 
large  congregations.  He  published:  Letters 
on  the  Roman  Chancery  ( Balt.,  1840);  Bap¬ 
tism  and  Communion  (Balt. ,  1849),  and  many 
sermons.  SeeCuthbert:  Life  of  R.  Fuller , 
(N.  Y.  1879). 

Fuller,  Thomas,  the  Church  historian, 
was  born  in  1608,  at  Aldwinckle,  in  North¬ 
amptonshire,  of  which  place  his  father  was 
the  clergyman.  He  went  in  1620  to  Queen’s 
College,  Cambridge,  and  became  M.  A.  in 
1628.  He  was  ordained,  and  in  1638  be¬ 
came  prebendary  of  Salisbury.  Here  he 
wrote  his  first  literary  work,  a  poem  which 
is  now  forgotten.  From  Salisbury  he  went 
to  Dorset,  becoming  rector  of  Broadwind- 
sor.  While  here  he  married,  but  his  wife 
soon  died.  In  1640  he  wrote  his  first  prose 


work,  The  Holy  War:  a  History  of  the  Cru¬ 
sades,  and  in  the  same  year  became  member 
of  the  Convocation  at  Westminster.  Two 
years  after  appeared  his  Holy  and  Profane 
State.  He  had  given  great  offence  to  the 
Puritans  by  a  sermon  which  he  had  preach¬ 
ed  at  the  Abbey;  now,  refusing  to  take  an 
oath  to  the  Parliament,  except  on  certain 
reservations,  he  joined  the  king’s  party  at 
Oxford,  where  he  managed  in  the  pulpit  to 
disgust  the  Royalists  as  much  as  he  had 
the  Roundheads.  However,  he  obtained  a 
chaplaincy  in  the  royal  army,  and  employed 
his  leisure  time,  while  travelling  through 
the  country,  in  collecting  materials  for  his 
future  work,  The  Worthies  of  England.  In 
1648  the  Earl  of  Carlisle  presented  him  to 
the  rectory  of  Waltham.  Here  he  imme¬ 
diately  set  about  the  quaintest  of  all  his 
writings,  Palestine.  He  managed  to  pass 
the  “  Triers,”  and  continued  his  ministerial 
functions  during  the  Commonwealth.  In 
1656  he  wrote  his  Church  History  of  Britain , 
to  which  was  appended  the  History  of  Cam¬ 
bridge  and  of  Waltham  Abbey.  In  165S  he 
was  presented  to  the  living  of  Cranford,  in 
Middlesex,  and  was  within  sight  of  a 
bishopric  at  the  Restoration,  when  he  died 
in  1661.  He  was  buried  at  Cranford. 

The  chief  characteristics  of  Fuller’s  writ¬ 
ings  are  their  quaintness  and  humor,  which 
show  themselves  in  every  page — indeed, 
in  almost  every  line.  His  works  are  very 
voluminous,  but  never  grow  tedious. 
Wherever  the  reader  opens  one  there  is  al¬ 
ways  something  to  instruct  and  amuse. 
He  is  rarely  satirical,  and  the  little  satire 
he  shows  is  never  bitter,  but  always  good- 
natured.  He  has  been  compared  to  Jeremy 
Taylor  and  Edmund  Burke,  but  in  some 
points  is  very  unlike  both.  See  a  very 
brilliant  essay  upon  his  life  and  works  by 
Mr.  Henry  Rogers. — Benham:  Did.  of 
Religion. 

'  Funk,  Isaac  Kaufmann,  D.  D.  (Witten¬ 
berg  College, Springfield,  O.,  1S82),  Luther¬ 
an  (General  Synod);  b.  at  Clifton,  Greene 
County,  O.,  Sept.  10,  1S39;  was  graduated 
at  Wittenberg  College,  i860;  entered  the 
ministry,  1S61;  pastor  in  Brooklyn,  N.  Y. , 
1S65-72;  associate  editor  of  the  Christian 
Radical ,  Pittsburg,  Pa.,  1872-73;  editor  of 
the  Union  Advocate,  New  York,  1873-75; 
of  the  Metropolitan  Pulpit,  1876,  and  Com¬ 
plete  Preacher,  1877,  combined  in  Homi¬ 
letic  Monthly,  1878,  now  called  Homiletic 
Review.  He  is  the  head  of  the  well-known 
firm  of  Funk  &  Wagnalls,  founded  in  1S77. 

Furness,  William  Henry,  D.  D.  (Har¬ 
vard,  1847),  LL.  D.  (Columbia,  18S7),  Uni¬ 
tarian;  b.  in  Boston,  Mass.,  April  20,  1802; 
was  graduated  at  Harvard  College ,  1S20; 


Fun 


(  353  ) 


Gal 


pastor  of  the  First  Unitarian  Congrega¬ 
tional  Church,  Philadelphia,  1825,  where 
he  remained  until  his  retirement  in  1875. 
He  has  published  several  volumes  treating 
upon  the  life  and  work  of  Jesus.  Among 
them  are  :  Remarks  on  the  Four  Gospels 
(Philadelphia,  1835);  Jesus  and  His  Biog¬ 
raphers  (1838);  A  History  of  Jesus  (1850, 
2d  ed.,  Boston,  1853);  Thoughts  on  the  Life 
and  Character  of  Jesus  of  Nazareth  (Boston, 
1859);  The  Veil  Partly  Lifted ,  and  Jesus 
Becoming  Visible  (1864);  The  Unconscious 
Truth  of  the  Four  Gospels  (Philadelphia, 
1868);  Jesus  (1871);  The  Power  of  Spirit 
Manifested  in  Jesus  of  Nazareth  (1877); 
The  Story  of  the  Resurrection  Told  Once 
More  (1885).  He  also  translated  Schenkel’s 
Character  of  Jesus  Portrayed  (Boston, 1866), 
2  vols. 

Funeral.  See  Burial. 

Future  Punishment.  See  Punishment, 
Future. 

Future  State.  See  Eschatology. 

a. 

Gab'batha  {platform),  the  name  of  a 
place,  called  also  “  the  pavement,”  where 
the  judgment  seat  or  bema  was  situated, 
from  which  Pilate  delivered  our  Lord  to 
death.  (John  xix.  13.)  The  judgment  hall 
was  the  Praetorium,  on  the  western  hill  of 
Jerusalem,  and  the  Gabbatha  was  probably 
a  tessellated  pavement  outside  the  hall. 

Ga'briel  {champion  of  God),  the  angelic 
messenger  sent  to  explain  to  Daniel  the 
vision  of  the  ram  and  he-goat  (Dan.  vii.), 
and  the  prediction  of  the  Seventy  Weeks. 
(Dan.  ix.  21-27.)  He  announced  the  birth 
of  John  the  Baptist  to  his  father  Zacha- 
rias  (Luke  i.  11),  and  that  of  the  Messiah 
to  the  Virgin  Mary.  (Luke  i.  26.)  In  the 
Book  of  Enoch  he  is  described  as  one  of 
the  four  great  archangels.  The  Targum 
speaks  of  him  as  the  angel  who  smote  the 
host  of  Sennacherib.  The  Mohammedans 
regard  him  with  peculiar  reverence  as  the 
medium  of  divine  revelation.  They  call 
him  the  “Holy  Spirit”  and  “Spirit  of 
Truth.” 

Gad,  “  properly  ‘  the  Gad,’  with  the  ar¬ 
ticle.  In  the  A.  V.  of  Isa.  lxv.  11,  the 
clause  ‘  that  prepare  a  table  for  that 
troop  ’  has  in  the  margin,  instead  of  the 
last  word,  the  proper  name  ‘  Gad,’  which 
evidently  denotes  some  idol  worshipped 
by  the  Jews  in  Babylon,  though  it  is  im¬ 
possible  positively  to  identify  it.  Th'at 
Gad  was  the  deity  Fortune,  under  whatever 


outward  form  it  was  worshipped,  is  sup¬ 
ported  by  the  etymology,  and  by  the  com¬ 
mon  assent  of  commentators.”  —  Smith: 
Bible  Did. 

Gad.  See  Tribes  of  Israel. 

Gad'ara,  a  strong  city  situated  near  the 
river  Hieromax,  east  of  the  sea  of  Galilee, 
over  against  Scythopolis  and  Tiberias,  and 
sixteen  Roman  miles  distant  from  each  of 
those  places.  Josephus  calls  it  the  capital 
of  Peraea.  A  large  district  was  attached 
to  it.  Gadara  itself  is  not  mentioned  in 
the  Bible,  but  it  is  evidently  identical  with 
the  “  country  of  the  Gadarenes.”  (Mark  v. 
1;  Luke  viii.  26,  37.)  Dr.  William  M. 
Thomson  identifies  the  spot  where  the 
miracle  occurred  with  Chersa  or  Kersa ,  on 
the  eastern  shore  of  the  sea  of  Galilee,  on 
the  slope  of  a  hill  only  a  few  feet  from  the 
water’s  edge. 

Galatia,  a  Roman  province  in  the  central 
part  of  Asia  Minor.  It  is  bounded  north 
by  Bithynia  and  Paphlagonia,  east  by  Pon- 
tus,  south  by  Cappadocia  and  Lycaonia, 
and  west  by  Phrygia.  It  became  a  Roman 
province  in  the  year  25  b.  c.  Paul  visited 
the  country  twice — on  his  second  and  on 
his  third  missionary  tours.  (Acts  xvi.  6; 
xviii.  23.) 

Galatians,  Epistle  to  the.  See  Paul. 

Gale,  Theophilus,  a  learned  Noncon¬ 
formist  writer;  b.  in  Devonshire  in  1628; 
d.  at  Newington  in  1678.  A  graduate  of 
Oxford  and  a  fellow  of  Magdalen  College, 
he  refused  to  submit  to  the  Act  of  Uni¬ 
formity,  and  lost  his  fellowship  and  the 
cure  at  Winchester  which  he  held.  As 
tutor  to  the  son  of  Lord  Wharton  he  trav¬ 
eled  on  the  continent  for  a  time,  when  he 
became  assistant  pastor  to  a  congregation 
in  Holborn.  Among  his  most  important 
works  are:  The  Cozirt  of  the  Gentiles ,  “  an 
argument  that  the  great  heathen  philos¬ 
ophies  of  Plato,  etc.,  were  corruptions  of 
the  original  revelations  of  Divine  truth  to 
the  Jewish  people;  ”  The  True  Ldea  of  Jan¬ 
senism The  Anato?ny  of  Lnfidelity,  etc. 

Gal'ilee.  See  Palestine. 

Galilee,  Sea  of,  a  lake  named  from  the 
district  or  province  of  Galilee.  It  was 
also  called  the  sea  of  Chinnereth  (Num. 
xxxiv.  1 1 ) ;  the  lake  of  Gennesaret  (Luke 
v.  1),  from  the  plain  of  that  name  on  its 
northwestern  shore;  the  sea  of  Tiberias, 
from  the  city  of  that  name  (John  vi.  1),  and 
the  sea.  (Matt.  iv.  15.)  The  lake  is  an  ex¬ 
pansion  of  the  Jordan,  and  is  twelve  and  a 


(  354  ) 


SEA  OF  GALILEE,  FROM  THE  HOT  SPRINGS  OF  TIBERIAS, 


Gal 


(  355  ) 


Gal 


half  miles  long,  and  at  no  point  over  eight 
miles  wide.  Its  surface  is  682  feet  below 
the  level  of  the  Mediterranean.  It  is  en¬ 
closed  on  all  sides  by  steep  mountains, 
except  on  the  northwest,  where  it  is  allu¬ 
vial.  “  The  sea  is  remarkable  for  its 
shoals  of  fish,  for  the  violence  of  its  sud¬ 
den  thunder-storms,  and  for  the  hot 
springs  along  its  shores.  The  neighbor¬ 
hood  of  the  lake  is  also  peculiarly  subject 
to  volcanic  disturbances.” — Porter.  Of  the 
nine  or  more  populous  cities  which  stood 
upon  its  shore,  all  are  now  in  ruins  and 
deserted,  with  the  exception  of  Tiberias. 

Galile'o.  See  Inquisition. 

Gall,  The  Monastery  of  St.,  is  situated 
on  the  Steinach  in  Switzerland.  It  was 
founded  by  St.  Gall,  an  Irish  monk,  in  the 
seventh  century.  At  one  time  it  had  a  re¬ 
markable  library,  and  its  monks  were  fa¬ 
mous  as  transcribers.  In  1798  its  estates 
were  confiscated,  and  its  territory  formed 
into  a  bishopric. 

Gallaudet,  Thomas  H.,  b.  at  Philadel¬ 
phia,  Dec.  10,  1787;  d.  at  Hartford,  Sept. 
9,  1851.  After  graduating  at  Yale  College 
and  Andover  Seminary  he  became  interest¬ 
ed  in  the  subject  of  deaf-mute  instruction, 
and  interested  others  in  laying  the  founda¬ 
tion  of  an  institution  in  Hartford.  He 
visited  Europe  and  studied  the  methods 
there  in  use.  Upon  his  return  in  April, 
1817,  he  opened  a  school  with  seven  pupils. 
With  indomitable  zeal  he  labored  on  with 
great  success,  untilfailing  strength  compel¬ 
led  him  to  resign  the  principalship  of  the 
school,  in  1830.  His  name  will  always  be 
held  in  honor  as  the  founder  of  deaf-mute 
instruction  in  the  United  States. 

Gallican  Church.  The  circumstances  of 
the  foundation  of  the  Gallican  Church  are 
unknown,  and  it  is  doubtful  whether  it 
was  of  Greek  or  Asiatic  origin.  A  letter 
quoted  by  Eusebius,  written  in  the  second 
century,  is  the  first  reliable  account  of 
Christianity  in  Gaui,  and  tells  of  the  per¬ 
secutions  which  the  Christians  suffered 
under  Marcus  Aurelius,  at  Lyons,  the 
chief  missionary  city  of  the  province,  and 
the  See  of  the  bishop.  During  this  perse¬ 
cution,  Pothinus,  bishop  of  Lyons,  suffered 
martyrdom  when  ninety  years  of  age,  and 
the  names  of  many  others  are  recorded. 
Among  the  survivors  was  Irenaeus,  who 
was  presbyter  in  Lyons,  and  who  was 
probably  the  author  of  the  above-named 
letter.  During  the  persecution  he  was  in¬ 
defatigable  in  his  exertions  to  help  his 
brethren,  and  was  commissioned  by  some 
who  were  in  prison  to  take  a  letter  from 


them  to  the  bishop  of  Rome;  it  contained 
a  protest  against  the  heresies  which  were 
creeping  into  the  Church,  and  which  so 
shocked  Irenaeus  that,  on  returning  from 
Rome  to  Lyons,  he  devoted  himself  heart 
and  soul  to  contesting  the  false  doctrines. 
He  was  appointed  bishop  of  Lyons  in  the 
place  of  Pothinus,  and  was  therefore  in  a 
better  position  for  carrying  out  the  task  he 
had  set  himself.  Many  of  his  works  have 
perished,  but  those  which  are  still  extant 
mark  him  out  as  the  greatest  theologian  of 
the  early  Church.  The  persecution  served, 
as  usual,  to  promote  the  cause  of  the 
Church,  but  the  Christians  remained  a  mi¬ 
nority  until  the  time  of  Constantine,  when 
Christianity  became  the  established  re¬ 
ligion.  It  was  adopted  by  numbers  who 
had  hitherto  been  pagans,  but  the  new  con¬ 
verts  brought  it  down  in  some  degree 
toward  their  own  level,  and  it  lost  some  of 
the  life  and  energy  which  had  marked  it 
during  the  persecution.  As  a  remedy  for 
this  state  of  things,  some  of  the  earnest- 
minded  Christians,  foremost  among  whom 
was  St.  Martin,  introduced  monasticism 
into  Gaul.  But  a  deadly  danger  threatened 
the  nations  which  lay  on  the  borders  of  the 
Empire.  They  had  received  the  faith  from 
Arian  missionaries,  and  therefore  rejected, 
more  or  less,  the  Perfect  Divinity  of  our 
Lord.  There  was,  therefore,  a  gulf  be¬ 
tween  them  and  the  orthodox  Christians, 
and  this  proved  disastrous  to  some  of  the 
Gothic  States,  and,  as  Gibbon  has  shown, 
went  far  to  prepare  the  way  for  the  Ma¬ 
hometan  invasion  of  Spain.  It  appears 
clear  that  the  invasion  of  Gaul  by  the 
Frank  king,  Clovis,  heathen  though  he 
was,  was  on  the  invitation  of  the  Catholic 
bishops,  who  believed  that  there  was  less 
danger  to  be  apprehended  for  the  Church 
from  him  than  from  heretical  patrons. 
That  invasion  was  the  beginning  of  the 
kingdom  of  the  Franks.  It  was  speedily 
followed  by  the  conversion  of  King  Clovis, 
at  the  close  of  the  fifth  century,  through 
the  influence  of  his  wife  Clotilda,  herself 
a  Christian.  In  his  warlike  zeal  for  the 
cause  of  the  Church  he  defeated  the  Arians 
in  battle  at  Poitiers,  and  he  not  only  gave 
lands  for  the  maintenance  of  churches,  but 
invited  foreign  missionaries  to  preach  to 
the  people.  Toward  the  close  of  this  dy¬ 
nasty  the  Moslem  invasion,  by  way  of 
Spain,  threatened  to  overwhelm  Christen¬ 
dom,  but  was  beaten  back  by  the  hand  of 
Charles  Martel,  at  Tours,  in  732.  No 
further  invasion  took  place  from  that  time, 
and  at  the  accession  of  Charlemagne  the 
power  of  the  Church  was  greatly  increased. 
He  realized  the  fact  that  the  State  would 
be  strengthened  and  civilized  by  an  alli¬ 
ance  with  the  Church,  and  he  organized 


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the  ecclesiastical  system  so  carefully  that 
after  his  death  the  Church’s  influence  con¬ 
tinued  to  extend  itself  on  all  sides,  though 
his  enormous  empire  fell  to  pieces.  All 
through  the  changes  which  took  place, 
Church  government  remained  the  same; 
the  country  was  divided  into  120  bishop¬ 
rics,  which  were  contained  in  eighteen 
provinces,  each  of  these  being  under  the 
rule  of  an  archbishop.  The  pope  became 
possessed  of  almost  unlimited  power 
through  the  general  confusion  in  the  State, 
and  the  clergy,  as  a  whole,  realized  that 
by  maintaining  a  union  with  him  they 
would  best  advance  the  cause  of  the 
Church.  After  the  death  of  Charlemagne 
succeeded  a  period  of  inactivity,  in  which 
the  religious  zeal  which  had  characterized 
its  predecessor  seemed  to  be  dying  out, 
and  this  lasted  till  the  eleventh  century. 
Toward  the  close  of  that  century,  the  suf¬ 
ferings  undergone  by  pilgrims  in  the  East 
originated  the  first  Crusade  (Crusades), 
the  cause  of  which  induced  men  who  had 
hitherto  been  only  fighting  one  against  the 
other  to  take  up  arms  against  a  common 
enemy.  The  Crusades,  which  lasted  at 
intervals  until  the  end  of  the  thirteenth 
century,  gave  a  large  accession  of  power 
to  the  popes  and  to  the  Church,  while  the 
power  of  the  nobles  was  declining  through 
the  amount  which  they  expended  on  war. 
With  the  end  of  the  Holy  Wars  the  papal 
power  began  to  decline,  owing  partly  to 
the  increase  of  power  of  the  French  Gov¬ 
ernment,  the  advanced  civilization  of  the 
laity,  and  the  degeneracy  of  the  clergy; 
and  the  conduct  of  Philip  the  Fair,  who 
took  advantage  of  his  own  influence  to 
bring  contempt  on,  and  finally  to  cause  the 
death  of,  Pope  Boniface  VIII.,  brought 
matters  to  a  crisis.  The  successors  of 
Boniface,  who  had  now  taken  up  their  res¬ 
idence  at  Avignon,  were  remarkable  for 
the  voluptuousness  of  their  lives,  and  the 
Church’s  influence  grew  weaker  year  by 
year,  especially  after  their  return  to  Rome, 
when  the  French  clergy  appointed  a  pope 
of  their  own  to  remain  at  Avignon,  and  the 
schism  thus  occasioned  lasted  from  1378  to 
1417,  and  was  terminated  by  a  council  held 
at  Constance,  which  deposed  both  popes, 
and  appointed  Martin  V.  over  the  whole 
Church.  The  power  of  the  papacy  con¬ 
tinued  to  decline,  and  the  right  of  nom¬ 
inating  bishops,  besides  other  privileges, 
was  transferred  to  the  French  Crown. 
Among  the  earnest-minded  clergy  the 
need  for  reformation  was  strongly  felt,  and 
the  first  attempt  to  effect  it  was  made  by  a 
few  men  in  the  south  of  France,  under 
Peter  Waldo.  The  persecutions  which 
they  suffered  compelled  them  to  escape  to 
Piedmont,  where  they  were  little  able  to 


influence  the  religion  of  their  country,  and 
their  opinions  were  accordingly  disregard¬ 
ed,  as  harmless  to  all  but  themselves. 

Only  when  the  Reformed  doctrines  which 
originated  in  Germany  began  to  spread 
was  there  any  considerable  movement  in 
France  in  the  same  direction,  when  the 
Huguenots  first  began  to  excite  alarm  in 
the'Church.  (Huguenots.)  Under  Henry1 
II.  the  Protestant  doctrines  were  allowed 
to  spread,  but  after  his  death  the  contest 
between  the  Houses  of  Guise  and  Bourbon, 
which  was  as  much  political  as  religious, 
changed  the  whole  nature  of  the  struggle. 
On  the  minds  of  the  people  the  Reformed 
Religion  took  little  hold,  and  the  atrocious 
massacre  of  St.  Bartholomew,  in  1572,  was 
a  deadly  blow  to  the  Huguenots;  but  the 
turning  point  of  the  contest  was  the  decis¬ 
ion  of  Henry  of  Navarre  to  become  a  Ro¬ 
man  Catholic,  an  act  which  destroyed  the 
Protestant  hope  of  ascendancy.  A  small 
proportion  of  the  population  still  remained 
Protestant,  and  Henry  protected  them  by 
the  Edict  of  Nantes,  securing  toleration 
for  them.  But  in  an  evil  hour  for  France 
this  Edict  was  revoked  by  Louis  XIV.,  in 
1685.  Meanwhile  the  Order  of  the  Jesuits 
under  Ignatius  Loyola  ( q .  v. )  had  arisen, 
pledged  to  obey  implicitly  the  will  of  the 
pope.  The  Jesuits  were  looked  upon  with 
anger  and  suspicion  by  men  of  all  religions. 
Not  only  Protestants,  but  Catholics  were 
arrayed  against  them;  for  their  unqualified 
submission  to  the  Vatican  implied  enmity 
to  the  ancient  liberties  of  the  Church  and 
the  nation.  They  were  in  constant  conflict 
with  the  divines  of  the  Sorbonne,  who  ac¬ 
cused  them  of  treason  toward  the  State; 
and  on  the  murder  of  Henry  III.  by  the 
monk  Clement,  such  a  storm  of  popular 
fury  was  raised  against  the  order  that  they 
were  banished  from  France.  Henry  IV. , 
however,  who  at  heart  was  a  skeptic 
(“  Paris  is  well  worth  a  mass  ”  was  the 
phrase  which  truly  summed  up  his  mo¬ 
tives),  favored  the  Jesuits  from  motives  of 
policy,  and  selected  one  for  his  confessor, 
and,  the  practice  being  kept  up  during  the 
reigns  of  his  successors,  the  influence  of 
the  order  was  greatly  increased.  Event¬ 
ually  such  influence  resulted  in  much  evil 
to  the  Church  and  nation;  for  the  high  aims 
which  had  characterized  the  founders  of 
the  movement  gave  way  in  their  succes¬ 
sors  to  the  desire  to  increase  their  own 
power,  and  even  the  popes,  whom  they  pro¬ 
fessed  to  obey,  had  to  give  way  to  them  and 
conciliate  them.  Their  controversy  with 
the  Jansenists  ( q .  v.),  lasted  till  far  into 
the  eighteenth  century,  and  resulted  in  the 
pope’s  censure  of  the  Jansenist  doctrines, 
though  these  were,  nevertheless,  far  from 
being  exterminated.  The  Jansenists  had 


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effected  a  reformation  in  the  convents  and 
other  religious  houses  throughout  France, 
and  the  Jesuits  found  a  moans  of  showing 
their  animosity  by  persecuting  the  Sister¬ 
hoods  and  destroying  their  houses.  In  re¬ 
turn  an  adherent  of  the  Jansenists  publish¬ 
ed  anonymously  the  Provincial  Letters , 
which  became  exceedingly  popular,  and 
dealt  a  severe  blow  to  the  Jesuits.  (Pas¬ 
cal.)  Besides  the  Jesuits,  there  were 
others  whose  zeal  was  as  great  as  theirs, 
but  far  higher  in  motive,  and  who  en¬ 
dured  all  kinds  of  hardships  in  the  en¬ 
deavor  to  stir  up  a  revival  of  religious 
feeling  in  France.  Francis  de  Sales  was 
one  of  these,  and  was  said  to  have  convert¬ 
ed  seventy  thousand  Calvinists  to  the 
Church  of  Rome,  besides  having  carried 
out  a  reformation  of  the  religious  orders. 
Scarcely  less  famous  than  he  was  St.  Vin¬ 
cent  de  Paul,  the  founder  of  so  many  re¬ 
ligious  institutions  in  France.  (Vincent.) 
The  reign  of  Louis  XIV.  saw  the  power  of 
the  Gallican  Church  increase,  and  in  pro¬ 
portion  the  pope’s  authority  was  dimin¬ 
ished.  The  king  claimed  the  right  of  ap¬ 
pointment  to  vacant  sees,  and  this  being 
refused,  he  caused  a  series  of  articles  to  be 
drawn  up  limiting  the  papal  power  in 
France,  and  declaring  it  should  be  con¬ 
trolled  by  the  Church’s  ordinances,  and  by 
canons  and  local  customs.  Here  we  have 
the  origin  of  what  is  known  as  “  Gallican- 
ism,”  the  tendency  towards  Nationalism, 
as  opposed  to  papal  centralization  ;  the 
same  tendency,  in  fact,  as  was  shown  by 
men  like  Gardiner,  in  England,  who,  while 
holding  Romish  doctrines  firmly,  were  also 
zealous  for  national  independence.  The 
opposite  tendency  is  known  as  Ultramon- 
tanism  (y.  v.).  We  have  noted  in  the 
article  on  Bossuet,  how  that  great  prel¬ 
ate,  while  earnest  on  behalf  of  a  Christen¬ 
dom  united  under  Rome,  yet  was  jealous 
lest  the  unity  should  be  corrupted  into 
tyranny.  He  declared  that  the  pope  had 
no  deposing  power  over  monarchs,  and, 
indeed,  no  control  over  temporal  affairs; 
that  the  authority  of  the  pope  is  not  above 
that  of  general  councils,  and  that  his  de¬ 
cisions  require  confirmation  from  the 
Church.  This  last  proposition  would  now 
be  reckoned  heresy,  after  the  Vatican  De¬ 
crees  of  1870.  Louis  XIV.  was  fortunate 
in  his  clergy,  two  of  whom  (Bossuet  and 
Fenelon)  stand  in  the  first  place  among 
French  ecclesiastics.  The  doctrine  of 
“  Quietism,”  which  was  put  forward  by 
Fenelon  in  one  of  his  books,  and  in  which 
he  had  numerous  followers,  was  condemn¬ 
ed  as  unsound  mysticism  by  a  papal  brief, 
which  was,  however,  only  issued  in  accord¬ 
ance  with  the  threats  of  the  king.  As  Cal¬ 
vinism  and  Jansenism  had  been  repressed, 


so  now  was  Quietism  ( q .  v.)  by  King  Louis, 
who  cared  little  for  theological  discus¬ 
sions,  but  was  entirely  under  the  control 
of  his  Jesuit  Ministers,  and  was  also  much 
influenced  by  Madame  de  Maintenon.  Un¬ 
der  their  rule  the  religion  of  the  Court, 
and,  to  a  certain  extent,  of  the  people,  be¬ 
came  cold  and  formal,  wanting  in  fervor, 
though  the  services  were  conducted  with 
elaborate  ritual.  Thus  it  became  hollow  and 
unmeaning,  and  it  is  no  wonder  that  after 
the  king’s  death  the  people  freed  themselves 
from  the  restraint,  and  cast  off  even  the  out¬ 
ward  show  of  religion.  But  that  which  did 
most  to  bring  about  the  downfall  of  the 
Church  was  the  growth  of  the  different 
schools  of  philosophy  of  Voltaire, Rousseau, 
D’Alembert  and  others,  all  of  whom  held 
Christianity  in  contempt,  though  they 
used  different  methods  of  expressing  their 
hatred.  Through  all  classes  of  people  in¬ 
fidelity  spread,  and  a  great  number  of  the 
bishops  and  clergy  were  skeptics,  though 
they  felt  bound  to  preach  against  the 
progress  of  science,  a  manifest  hypocrisy 
which  brought  religion  into  further  con¬ 
tempt.  At  the  close  of  the  eighteenth  cen¬ 
tury  the  downfall  came.  The  Jesuits  were 
suppressed  by  a  papal  bull  in  1773,  under 
the  compulsion  of  Louis  XV.  When  the 
tremendous  revolution  of  1789  came,  the 
clergy  were  compelled  to  form  part  of  the 
National  Assembly,  where,  being  outnum¬ 
bered,  they  were  forced  to  consent  to  meas¬ 
ures  which  destroyed  the  little  power  that 
still  remained  to  them;  tithes  were  abol¬ 
ished,  Church  lands  confiscated,  the  mon¬ 
asteries  dissolved,  and  the  clergy  required 
to  take  an  oath  of  fidelity  to  the  Constitu¬ 
tion,  which  now  proposed  a  redistribution 
of  dioceses  to  coincide  with  the  depart¬ 
ments.  The  confusion  into  which  all  was 
plunged  by  the  Reign  of  Terror  put  a  stop 
to  all  such  plans.  When  this  was  over 
there  came  a  reaction,  and  Napoleon  fos¬ 
tered  this  by  seeking  a  reconciliation  with 
Rome.  It  was  a  difficult  matter  to  carry 
out,  for  many  of  the  clergy  were  strongly 
opposed  to  a  compromise,  while  the  army 
were  determined  that  the  clergy  should 
have  no  favor  shown  them.  A  Concordat 
was,  nevertheless,  drawn  up  and  signed, 
and,  in  accordance  with  its  conditions, 
public  worship  was  renewed,  and  the 
Church  reestablished.  The  restoration 
of  the  Bourbons  gave  hopes  to  the  Jes¬ 
uits  and  the  Ultra- Papalists  ;  and  Lamen- 
nais,  a  Breton  priest,  published  an  es¬ 
say  on  religious  indifference,  denouncing 
all  compromise,  and  “  Gallicanism  ”  as  a 
spurious  form  of  religion.  (Lamennais.) 
It  had  the  effect  of  strengthening  the  Ul¬ 
tramontane  spirit  among  the  clergy  im¬ 
mensely,  and  Pope  Leo  XII.  regarded  him 


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Gar 


as  a  new  St.  Bernard  or  Dominic.  When 
the  Revolution  of  1830  came,  Lamennais 
and  others  of  like  opinions  (Lacordaire, 
Montalembert)  threw  themselves  into  it, 
with  the  design  of  combining  papal  author¬ 
ity  with  democratic  opinions.  But  they 
found  little  favor  as  their  views  developed , 
and  ever  since  the  Church  has  remained  in 
opposition  to  republicanism,  withapparent- 
ly  little  hope  of  becoming  reconciled.  The 
present  relations  of  the  Church  and  civil 
power  in  France  are  strained  apparently  as 
far  as  they  can  be.  The  clerical  party  are 
in  a  minority;  Acts  attacking  them  as  in¬ 
structors  of  the  young  are  passed  on  every 
occasion,  and  men  who  glory  in  unbelief 
have  more  than  once  been  appointed  Min¬ 
isters  of  Public  Worship.  But  the  French 
clergy  were,  probably,  never  more  exem¬ 
plary  in  personal  life,  and  there  are  some 
signs,  in  the  midst  of  all  the  conflict,  of 
aspirations  after  a  better  state  of  things. 

Belonging  to  the  Gallican  Church  and 
her  dependencies  there  are  now  eighteen 
archbishoprics,  viz.,  Aix,  Albi,  Algiers, 
Auch,  Avignon,  Besan5on,  Bordeaux, 
Bourges,  Cambray,  Chambery,  Lyons, 
Paris,  Rheims,  Renues,  Rouen,  Sens,  Tou¬ 
louse,  Tours;  and  seventy-two  bishoprics. 
The  parochial  clergy,  about  42,000  in  num¬ 
ber,  comprise  cure's  cantonaux  (the  minis¬ 
ters  of  the  chief  places  in  each  canton),* 
and  desservants ,  who  serve  the  other 
churches  in  the  canton.  They  are,  how¬ 
ever,  substantially  the  same  as  the  cures, 
and  each  in  his  own  locality  is  called  “  M. 
le  Cure,”  only  the  cure  proper  has  to  be 
appointed  by  the  bishop,  with  the  approval 
of  the  Government;  the  desservant  is  the 
nominee  of  the  bishop  alone.  The  stipend 
of  a  cure,  which  is  paid  by  the  State,  is 
from  1,200  to  1,500  francs  a  year,  and  the 
commune  provides  him  a  house,  rent-free. 
The  churches  are  under  a  conseil  de  fab- 
rique . — Benham:  Diet,  of  Religion. 

Gallican  Confession,  The,  was  adopted 
at  Paris  in  1559,  by  the  first  national  synod 
of  the  Reformed  Church  of  France.  Pre¬ 
vious  to  the  revocation  of  the  Edict  of 
Nantes  (1685),  every  minister  and  new 
member  of  a  congregation  had  to  subscribe 
to  it.  The  Reformed  Church  now  gives  a 
general  assent  to  it  in  a  brief  summary  of 
faith.  See  Schaff:  Creeds  of  Christendom , 
vol.  i.,  pp.  490,  sqq. 

Gallicanism  denotes  that  spirit  of  nation¬ 
ality,  which,  within  the  Church  of  France, 
developed  a  peculiar  set  of  customs,  privi¬ 
leges,  maxims,  and  views,  especially  with 
respect  to  her  relations  to  Rome. — Mather. 

*  Each  arrondisseinent  is  divided  into  cantons,  con¬ 
taining  from  ten  to  twenty  communes. 


Games.  The  notices  in  the  Scriptures  of 
the  pastimes  of  Hebrew  youth  are  very  few. 
They  enjoyed  music,  song,  and  dancing. 
(Psa.  xxx.  11 ;  Jer.  xxxi.  13.)  There  are 
references  that  show  that  among  the  men 
the  lifting  of  heavy  stones  (Zech.  xii.  3), 
target-shooting  (1  Sam.  xx.  20),  and  ball¬ 
throwing  (Isa.  xxii.  18),  were  common 
amusements.  Public  games  were  frowned 
upon.  The  erection  of  a  theatre  and  am¬ 
phitheatre  at  Jerusalem,  by  Herod,  in¬ 
creased  the  hatred  of  the  Jews  against 
him.  St.  Paul’s  Epistles  abound  in  illus¬ 
trations  taken  from  the  Grecian  athletic 
contests,  which  he  may  have  witnessed  dur¬ 
ing  his  first  visit  to  Corinth. 

Gangra,  Council  of,  held  at  an  uncer¬ 
tain  date  in  the  fourth  century.  Its  object 
was  to  confirm  decrees  already  passed 
against  the  Eustathians  (q.  v.).  The  coun¬ 
cil  has  always  been  a  source  of  embarrass¬ 
ment  to  the  Roman  Catholic  Church,  since 
it  recommended  marriage  for  priests. 

Garden.  “The  term  ‘garden,’  when 
used  in  the  Scriptures,  refers  not  to  a 
place  where  vegetables  were  raised  for  the 
support  of  life,  but  to  one  planted  with 
flowers,  shrubs,  and  ornamental  as  well  as 
fruit-bearing  trees,  intended  to  minister 
especially  to  the  enjoyment  of  life.  They 
were  not  often  found  in  connection  with 
private  houses,  unless  they  were  those  of 
the  rich,  and  persons  in  high  station.  (2 
Kings  xxv.  4;  Esther  1.  5.)  Such  gardens 
in  the  Occident  are  called  ‘  parks.’  The 
‘  Garden  of  Eden,’  in  which  our  first  par¬ 
ents  were  put,  seems  to  have  been  princi¬ 
pally  a  garden  of  this  kind;  and  doubtless 
the  memorable  spot  known  as  the  ‘  garden 
of  Gethsemane,’  was  originally  such,  al¬ 
though  now  marked  only  by  a  few  gnarled, 
struggling  olive-trees.  These  places  were 
well  fitted  for  quiet  meditation  and  prayer, 
and  for  the  burial  of  those  beloved.  (1 
Kings  xxi.  18;  Matt.  xxvi.  36;  John  xix.  41.) 
Previous  to  the  exile  they  were  the  favor¬ 
ite  resort  of  idolaters  too,  who  sought 
their  shade  and  retirement  for  the  celebra¬ 
tion  of  forbidden  rites.  (2  Kings  xvi.  4;  Isa. 
i.  29.)” — Bissell:  Biblical  Antiquities. 

Gardiner,  Frederic,  D.  D. ,  Episcopalian; 
b.  at  Gardiner,  Me.,  Sept.  11,  1822.  Edu¬ 
cated  at  Bowdoin  College  (1S42),  he  served 
in  the  ministry  from  1S45  to  1856,  when  he 
became  professor  of  the  literature  and  in¬ 
terpretation  of  the  Scripture  at  the  Theo¬ 
logical  Seminary,  Gambier,  O. ;  in  1868  he 
accepted  a  professorship  in  the  Berkeley 
(Episcopal)  Divinity  School,  Middletown, 
Conn.,  where  he  remained  until  his  death, 
July  17,  1S89.  He  wrote  a  Commentary  on 


Gar 


(  359  ) 


Gau 


the  Epistle  of  St.  Jude  (1856);  The  Life  of 
Our  Lord  in  the  Words  of  the  Gospels  (1871); 
The  Commentary  on  Leviticus  in  the  Lange 
series  (1876);  The  Old  and  New  Testaments 
in  Their  Mutual  Relations  (1885),  and  other 
works. 

Gardiner,  James,  Col.,  b.  in  Scotland, 
1688;  killed  at  the  battle  of  Prestonpans, 
Sept.  21,  1745.  The  story  of  his  early  life 
of  dissipation,  and  his  remarkable  conver¬ 
sion,  is  told  in  Doddridge’s  Life  of  Col. 
Gardiner ,  which  has  had  a  wide  sale. 

Gardiner,  Stephen,  bishop  of  Win¬ 
chester,  and  Lord  Chancellor  of  England; 
b.  at  Bury  St.  Edmunds,  in  1483;  d.  Nov. 
12,  1555.  Educated  at  Cambridge,  he  be 
came  very  proficient  in  civil  and  canon  law. 
He  was  made  bishop  by  Henry  VIII., 
whom  he  aided  in  seeking  to  obtain  from 
the  pope  the  divorce  of  Catherine  of 
Aragon,  and  received  his  chancellorship 
from  Queen  Mary.  He  was  opposed 
to  the  Reformation,  but  did  not  favor 
the  extreme  measures  which  were  re¬ 
sorted  to  in  the  persecution  of  the  Prot¬ 
estants. 

Garnet,  Henry  Highland,  D.  D.,  a  well- 
known  colored  clergyman;  b.  at  Newmar¬ 
ket,  Md.,  April  15,  1815;  d.  at  Monrovia, 
Liberia,  Feb.  13,  1882.  He  was  born  in 
slavery,  but  by  the  escape  of  his  father  re¬ 
ceived  an  education  in  the  North.  He  was 
graduated  at  the  Oneida  Institute  in  1840, 
and,  after  receiving  a  license  from  the  pres¬ 
bytery  of  Troy,  became  pastor  of  a  church 
in  Troy  in  1842.  For  many  years  he  was 
settled  in  New  York,  and  was  recognized 
as  a  leader  among  the  colored  people,  and 
a  preacher  of  marked  ability  and  eloquence. 
He  was  appointed  Minister  to  Liberia  by 
President  Garfield,  in  June,  1881. 

Gasparin,  Agenor,  Comte  de,  an  em¬ 
inent  layman  of  the  French  Protestant 
Church;  b.  in  Orange,  France,  July  12, 
1810;  d.  at  Geneva,  May  8,  1871.  He  was 
for  a  time  interested  in  politics,  but  soon 
became  engrossed  in  the  study  of  religious 
subjects.  In  1846  he  published,  Christianity 
and  Paganism.  The  last  twenty  -  three 
years  of  his  life  were  spent  in  Geneva, 
where  he  delivered  many  lectures.  He 
was  an  earnest  opponent  of  slavery,  and 
wrote  two  volumes  upholding  the  cause  of 
the  North  in  the  struggle  for  freedom: 
Eng.  trans.,  A?nerica  before  Europe  (N.  Y. , 
1862).  His  wife,  Madame  Gasparin,  was 
the  author  of  several  books,  of  which  her 
Near  and  Heavenly  Horizons  (N.  Y.,  1864), 
and  Human  Sadness  (Boston,  1864),  have 
been  translated. 


Gataker,  Thomas,  a  member  ot  the  West¬ 
minster  Assembly  of  Divines;  b.  in  Lon¬ 
don,  1574;  d.  at  Rotherhithe,  1654.  Edu¬ 
cated  at  Cambridge;  preacher  at  Lincoln’s 
Inn  in  1601,  and  rector  of  Rotherhithe, 
1611.  He  was  a  learned  author,  and  pre¬ 
pared  a  work  on  Transubstantiation;  Anno¬ 
tations  on  Isaiah  and  Jeremiah,  etc.  His 
first  book,  Of  the  Nature  and  Use  of  Lots 
(1619),  was  written  to  vindicate  the  lawful¬ 
ness  of  games  of  chance,  and  to  condemn 
the  use  of  “  divinatory  or  consultory  lots.” 
He  edited  several  classics.. 

Gate.  “One  of  the  most  conspicuous 
and  important  features  of  an  eastern  city 
was  its  gates.  Although  directly  connected 
with  the  walls,  they  formed  a  peculiar 
structure  by  themselves.  Their  material 
was  mostly  wood  or  stone,  or  wood  heav¬ 
ily  armored  with  metal.  The  Bible  speaks 
of  gates  of  both  brass  and  iron.  (Psa.  cvii. 
16;  Acts  xii.  10.)  Gates  were  often  two¬ 
leaved,  and  provided  with  heavy  locks  and 
bars.  (1  Sam.  xxiii.  7;  Isa.  xlv.)  In  some 
instances  there  were  two  gates,  with  an 
open  space  between  them.  This  was  the 
case  at  Mahanaim,  where  David  awaited 
the  issue  of  the  battle  with  Absalom.  A  sen¬ 
tinel  kept  watch  on  the  tower  over  the  first 
gate.  A  warder  with  his  attendants  guard¬ 
ed  the  gate  below.  King  David  himself 
was  in  the  open  space  between  the  two 
gates.  (2  Sam.  xviii.  24.)  This  space  was 
used  for  a  great  variety  of  purposes.” — 
Bissell:  Biblical  Antiquities. 

Gath  ( wine-press ),  one  of  the  five  cities 
of  the  Philistines.  (Josh.  xiii.  3.)  It  was 
the  home  of  Goliath  (1  Sam.  xvii.  4);  hither 
the  ark  was  carried,  and  David  sought  ref¬ 
uge.  (1  Sam.  v.  8;  xxi.  10-15.)  Fortified  by 
Rehoboam  (2  Chron.  xi.  8),  it  was  probably 
destroyed  before  the  time  of  the  later 
prophecies,  as  it  is  not  mentioned  among 
the  royal  cities.  Its  inhabitants  were  call¬ 
ed  Gittites.  (Josh.  xiii.  3.)  Porter,  War¬ 
ren,  and  Conder  identified  it  with  Telles- 
Safiy  15  miles  south  of  Ramleh. 

Gauden,  John,  b.  at  Mayfield,  in  Essex, 
1605;  d.  at  Worcester  in  1662.  Educated 
at  Cambridge;  rector  in  Berkshire,  and 
then  at  Booking;  he  sided  with  the  royal¬ 
ists,  and  at  the  Restoration  became  chap¬ 
lain  to  Charles  II.;  bishop  of  Exeter,  1660, 
and  of  Worcester,  1662.  He  is  famous  as 
the  reputed  author  of  a  remarkable  work, 
Eikon  Basilike:  ory  the  Portraiture  of  his 
Sacred  Majestie  in  his  Solitudes  and  Suffer¬ 
ings ,  which  appeared  in  1648.  It  is  an  ac¬ 
count  of  the  life  of  Charles  I.,  from  1640- 
48,  and  is  written  in  the  first  person.  Mr. 
Green  and  others  think  it  is  the  work  of 


Gau 


(  3^0  ) 


Gel 


Gauden,  while  many  scholars  of  repute  as 
earnestly  contend  that  it  was  written  by 
the  king.  It  seems  still  to  be  an  open 
question.  Gauden  was  a  member  of  the 
Savoy  Conference. 

Gaul.  See  Gallican  Church. 

Gautama.  See  Buddhism. 

Gavazzi  {ga-vat-see ),  Alessandro,  Free 
Christian  Church  of  Italy;  b.  of  Roman 
Catholic  parents,  March  21,  1809;  d.  at 
Rome,  Jan.  9,  1889.  He  became  professor  in 
the  college  of  Caravaggio,  at  Naples,  1829, 
and  after  entering  the  priesthood  was  a 
popular  preacher.  When  Pius  IX.  changed 
his  liberal  policy,  under  the  influence  of 
the  Jesuits,  Gavazzi  came  to  England,  and 
renounced  the  Roman  Church.  His  after¬ 
life  was  devoted,  to  a  great  extent,  to 
lecturing  in  Great  Britain  and  America  on 
the  evils  of  the  papal  system.  He  was  a 
friend  of  Garibaldi,  and  one  of  the  organ¬ 
izers  of  the  Free  Italian  Church  (1870), 
and  a  professor  in  its  theological  college  in 
Rome  (1875).  He  was  the  author  of: 
Memoirs  (London,  1851);  Orations  (1852); 
Recollections  of  the  Last  Four  Ropes  (1859); 
No  Union  with  Rome:  an  Antieirenicon 
(1871)  ;  The  Priest  in  Absolution  (1877). 
See  Father  Gavazzi  s  Life  and  Lectures  (New 
York,  1853). 

Geddes,  Janet.  The  purpose  of  Arch¬ 
bishop  Laud  to  introduce  the  English  litur¬ 
gy  into  Scotland  met  with  universal  pro¬ 
test.  The  Sunday  that  the  dean  of 
Edinburgh  attempted  to  read  it  in  the 
Cathedral  Church  (July  23,  1637),  it  is  said 
that  Janet  Geddes,  who  kept  a  green-stall 
near  by,  misunderstanding  some  phrase, 
cried  out,  “  Villain,  dost  thou  say  mass 
at  my  lug  ?”  (ear)  and  hurled  the  stool 
upon  which  she  had  been  sitting,  at  the 
dean’s  head.  A  riot  was  precipitated,  and 
the  people  marched  through  the  streets, 
shouting,  “  A  pope  !  a  pope  !  Antichrist  ! 
the  sword  of  the  Lord,  and  of  Gideon  !” 
This  popular  uprising  proved  the  death¬ 
blow  of  the  liturgy  in  Scotland.  An  at¬ 
tempt  has  been  made  to  prove  that  the 
name  of  the  heroine  of  this  incident  was 
Barbara  Hamilton. 

Gehen'na  is  a  Greek  word,  translated 
“  hell  ”  in  the  authorized  version  of  the 
New  Testament.  It  is  employed  in  dis¬ 
tinction  from  “hades”  to  represent  the 
place  of  the  wicked.  The  word  is  the  Greek 
representative  of  the  Hebrew  for  “the 
valley  of  Hinnom.”  This  spot  was  adeep, 
narrow  gien  to  the  south  of  Jerusalem, 
where  idolatrous  Jews  offered  their  chil¬ 


dren  to  Molech.  (Jer.  vii.  31,  32;  xix.  2-6; 
2  Kings  xxiii.  10.)  Gehenna,  on  account 
of  its  ever-burning  fires,  became  especially 
the  image  of  the  place  of  everlasting  pun¬ 
ishment. 

Geikie,  Cunningham,  D.  D.  (Queen’s 
University,  Kingston,  Canada,  1871), 
Church  of  England  ;  b.  in  Edinburgh, 
Scotland,  Oct.  26,  1824;  educated  at  Queen’s 
College,  Toronto.  He  was  pastor  of  Pres¬ 
byterian  Churches  at  Halifax,  N.  S.,  1851- 
54;  Sunderland,  Eng.,  1860-67;  London, 
1867-73.  1876  he  took  orders  in  the 

Church  of  England,  and  from  that  year 
until  1879  was  curate  of  St.  Peter’s,  Dul¬ 
wich;  rector  of  Christ  Church,  Paris, 
1879-81;  and  since  1885  has  been  vicar  of 
St.  Martin-at- Palace,  Norwich.  He  is  the 
author  of:  Entering  on  Life:  a  Book  for 
Young  Men  (London,  1874);  The  Great  ana 
Precious  Promises:  or ,  Light  Beyond  (1875); 
The  English  Reformation  (1875);  The  Life 
and  Words  of  Christ  (1876)  [many  edi¬ 
tions];  Old  Testament  Characters  (1877); 
Hours  with  the  Bible  (1880-85),  6  vols. 

Geiler,  Johann,  distinguished  German 
preacher;  b.  near  Schaffhausen,  1445;  d.  at 
Strasburg,  1510.  From  1478  until  the 
close  of  his  life  he  was  preacher  of  the  ca¬ 
thedral  at  Strasburg.  Geiler  was  one  of 
the  first  to  “  throw  off  the  yoke  of  scholas¬ 
ticism,  and  to  give  to  the  sermon  a  freer 
course,  a  greater  life,  a  deeper  impressive¬ 
ness.”  He  found  his  texts  often  in  the 
most  out-of-the-way  places,  but  sought  to 
bring  their  lessons  into  close  relation  with 
the  every-day  life  and  thought  of  the  peo¬ 
ple.  Several  collections  of  his  sermons 
are  still  extant. 

Gelasius  I.,  Pope,  succeeded  Felix  III. 
(or  II.)  in  492.  His  pontificate  was  most¬ 
ly  taken  up  with  a  correspondence  between 
him  and  the  Eastern  Church  under  Euphe- 
mius,  patriarch  of  Constantinople,  con¬ 
cerning  Acacius,  whom  Felix  had  excom¬ 
municated.  Gelasius  died,  496.  His  writ¬ 
ings,  several  of  which  still  exist,  express 
views  very  difficult  to  reconcile  with  those 
of  his  successors.  Thus,  he  rebukes  the 
Manichaeans  for  communion  in  one  kind, 
and  speaks  of  the  bread  and  wine  as  so  re¬ 
maining  after  consecration.  See  Milman: 
Lat.  Christ . ,  i.  235.  One  of  the  chief 
works  attributed  to  him  is  his  Sacrament¬ 
ary  {q.  v.). 

Gellert,  Christian  F urchtegott,  b.  1 71 5 ; 
d.  at  Leipzig,  1769.  He  studied  theology 
at  Leipzig,  and  became  professor  extraor¬ 
dinary  there  in  1751.  He  was  a  versatile 
writer  and  his  Fables  was  one  of  the  most 


Gem 


(  36i  ) 


Gen 


popular  books  in  Germany  during  the  last 
century.  He  wrote  many  hymns  that  were 
translated  into  most  of  the  languages  of 
Europe.  One  of  his  hymns,  “  Jesus  lives, 
and  I  with  him,”  is  found  in  many  English 
hymn-books. 

Gem.  See  Precious  Stones. 

Gemara.  See  Talmud. 

Genealogy  of  Jesus  Christ.  “The  New 
Testament  gives  us  the  genealogy  o’f  but 
one  person,  that  of  our  Saviour.  The  fol¬ 
lowing  propositions  will  explain  the  true 
construction  of  these  genealogies  :  (1) 

They  are  both  the  genealogies  of  Joseph, 
i.  e.,  of  Jesus  Christ,  as  the  reputed  and 
legal  son  of  Joseph  and  Mary.  (2)  The  gen¬ 
ealogy  of  St.  Matthew  is,  as  Grotius  most 
truly  and  unhesitatingly  asserted,  Joseph’s 
genealogy  as  legal  successor  to  the  throne 
of  David.  St.  Luke’s  is  Joseph’s  private 
genealogy,  exhibiting  his  real  birth,  as 
David’s  son,  and  thus  showing  why  he  was 
heir  to  Solomon’s  crown.  The  simple 
principle  that  one  evangelist  exhibits  that 
genealogy  which  contained  the  successive 
heirs  to  David's  and  Solomon’s  throne, 
while  the  other  exhibits  the  paternal  stem 
of  him  who  was  the  heir,  explains  all  the 
anomalies  of  the  two  pedigrees,  their 
agreements  as  well  as  their  discrepancies, 
and  the  circumstance  of  their  being  two  at 
all.  (3)  Mary,  the  mother  of  Jesus,  was  in 
all  probability  the  daughter  of  Jacob,  and 
first  cousin  to  Joseph,  her  husband.  But 
besides  these  main  difficulties,  as  they  have 
been  thought  to  be,  there  are  several 
others  which  cannot  be  passed  over  in  any 
account,  however  concise,  of  the  geneal¬ 
ogies  of  Christ.  The  most  startling  is  the 
total  discrepancy  between  them  both  and 
that  of  Zerubbabel  in  the  O.  T.  (1  Chron. 
iii.  19-24.)  In  this  last,  of  seven  sons  of 
Zerubbabel,  not  one  bears  the  name,  or 
anything  like  the  name,  of  Rhesa  or  Abiud; 
and  of  the  next  generation  not  one  bears 
the  name,  or  anything  like  the  name,  of 
Eliakim  or  Joanna,  which  are  in  the  cor¬ 
responding  generation  in  Matthew  and 
Luke.  Rhesa  is  in  fact  not  a  name  at  all, 
but  it  is  the  Chaldee  title  of  the  princes  of 
the  Captivity.  It  is  very  probable,  there¬ 
fore,  that  this  title  should  have  been  placed 
against  the  name  of  Zerubbabel  by  some 
early  Christian  Jew,  and  thence  crept  into 
the  text.  If  this  be  so,  St.  Luke  will  then 
give  Joanna  as  the  son  of  Zerubbabel. 
But  Joanna  is  the  very  same  name  as  Han- 
aniah,  the  son  of  Zerubbabel,  according  to 
1  Chron.  iii.  19.  In  St.  Matthew  this  gen¬ 
eration  is  omitted,  In  the  next  generation 
we  identify  Matthew’s  Ab-jud  (Abiud) 


with  Luke’s  Juda,  and  both  with  Hodaiah 
of  1  Chron.  iii.  24,  by  the  simple  process 
of  supposing  the  Shemaiah  of  1  Chron.  iii. 
22  to  be  the  same  person  as  the  Shimei  of 
ver.  19.  The  next  difficulty  is  the  differ¬ 
ence  in  the  number  of  generations  between 
the  two  genealogies.  St.  Matthew’s  divis¬ 
ion  into  three  fourteens  gives  only  42, 
while  St.  Luke,  from  Abraham  to  Christ 
inclusive,  reckons  56;  or,  which  is  more  to 
the  point  (since  the  generations  between 
Abraham  and  David  are  the  same  in  both 
genealogies),  while  St.  Matthew  reckons  28 
from  David  to  Christ,  St.  Luke  reckons  43, 
or  42  without  Rhesa.  But  the  genealogy 
itself  supplies  the  explanation.  In  the  sec¬ 
ond  tessaro-decade,  including  the  kings,  we 
know  that  three  generations  are  omitted — 
Ahaziah,  Joash,  Amaziah — in  order  to  re¬ 
duce  the  generations  from  17  to  14;  the 
difference  between  these  17  and  the  19  of 
St.  Luke  being  very  small.  So  in  like 
manner  it  is  obvious  that  the  generations 
have  been  abridged  in  the  same  way  in  the 
third  division  to  keep  to  the  number  14. 
Another  difficulty  is  the  apparent  deficien¬ 
cy  in  the  number  of  the  last  tessaro-decade, 
which  seems  to  contain  only  13  names;  but 
the  explanation  of  this  is,  that  either  in  the 
process  of  translation,  or  otherwise,  the 
names  of  Jehoiakim  and  Jehoiachin  have 
got  confused  and  expressed  by  the  one 
name  Jechonias.  The  last  difficulty  of 
sufficient  importance  to  be  mentioned  here 
is  a  chronological  one.  In  both  the  gene¬ 
alogies  there  are  but  three  names  between 
Salmon  and  David — Boaz,  Obed,  Jesse. 
But,  according  to  the  common  chronology, 
from  the  entrance  into  Canaan  (when  Sal¬ 
mon  was  come  to  man’s  estate)  to  the  birth 
of  David,  was  405  years,  or  from  that  to 
500  years  and  upwards.  Now,  for  about  an 
equal  period,  from  Solomon  to  Jehoiachin, 
St.  Luke’s  genealogy  contains  20  names. 
Obviously,  therefore,  either  the  chronol¬ 
ogy  or  the  genealogy  is  wrong.  It  must 
suffice  here  to  assert  that  the  shortening 
the  interval  between  the  Exodus  and  Da¬ 
vid  by  about  200  years,'  which  brings  it  to 
the  length  indicated  by  the  genealogies, 
does  in  the  most  remarkable  manner  bring 
Israelitish  history  into  harmony  with 
Egyptian,  with  the  traditional  Jewish  date 
of  the  Exodus,  with  the  fragment  of  Edom- 
itish  history  preserved  in  Gen.  xxxvi. 
21-39,  and  with  the  internal  evidence  of  the 
Israelitish  history  itself.  A  careful  com¬ 
parison  of  the  tables  shows  that  the  whole 
number  of  generations  from  Adam  to 
Christ,  both  inclusive,  is  74,  without  the 
second  Cainan  and  Rhesa.” — Smith:  Diet . 
of  the  Bible. 

General,  the  name  given  to  the  head  of 


Gen 


(  362  ) 


Geo 


Roman  Catholic  Orders.  They  are  usually 
elected  for  a  fixed  term,  but  in  the  Society 
of  Jesus  for  life.  They  have  certain  spe¬ 
cial  privileges,  such  as  the  granting  of 
absolution  in  reserved  cases,  and  they  sit 
in  general  synods  as  judges,  and  subscribe 
its  decrees.  They  are  not  allowed,  on  pain 
of  excommunication,  to  bestow  any  office, 
or  remit  any  punishment,  at  the  request  of 
any  person  outside  the  order,  no  matter 
how  exalted  may  be  their  position.  The 
Benedictine  Order  has  no  general,  but 
most  of  the  congregations  have,  which  are 
connected  with  it. 

General  Assembly.  See  Assembly,  Gen¬ 
eral. 

Genesis.  See  Pentateuch. 

Geneva.  The  connection  of  the  life-work 
of  Calvin  with  this  city  is  of  peculiar  in¬ 
terest.  Through  his  influence,  and  those 
associated  with  him  in  Christian  labor, 
Geneva  became  a  stronghold  of  Protestant¬ 
ism,  and  great  changes  were  wrought  in 
the  life  of  the  people.  It  was  from  Gene¬ 
va  that  the  Calvinistic  doctrines  spread 
through  the  countries  in  which  it  exerted 
so  mighty  an  influence.  At  the  present 
time  the  State  Church  of  Geneva  is  ration¬ 
alistic.  A  considerable  part  of  the  popu¬ 
lation  is  Roman  Catholic.  There  is  a  Free 
Church,  which  is  evangelical,  and  there 
are  some  Old  Catholics. 

Geneva  Bible,  The.  See  Bible,  p.  109. 

Genevieve,  St.,  patroness  of  Paris;  b. 
about  419  at  Nanterre ;  d.  in  Paris,  512.  She 
is  said  to  have  predicted  the  invasion  of 
the  Huns,  and  when  the  army  of  Attila  ap¬ 
peared  before  the  city  she  sustained  the 
courage  of  the  people  by  her  prayers  and 
the  assurance,  which  came  true,  that  the 
attack  would  avail  nothing  (451).  Under 
her  direction  the  first  church  was  built  over 
the  tomb  of  St.  Denis.  Her  remains  were 
placed  in  the  chape? bearing  her  name,  now 
known  as  the  Pantheon  or  Eglise  St.  Gene¬ 
vieve. 

Gennadius,  patriarch  of  Constantinople 
(1453-59),  and  one  of  the  most  prolific 
writers  of  his  age.  He  accompanied,  in 
1438,  the  Emperor  Johannes  to  the  Coun¬ 
cil  of  Ferrara-Florence,  as  an  imperial 
councilor,  and  exerted  his  influence  in 
favor  of  the  projected  union  of  the  Greek 
and  Latin  Churches.  After  his  return  to 
Greece,  however,  he  became  very  active 
in  opposition  to  this  plan.  He  was  made 
patriarch  of  Constantinople  by  Mohammed 
II.,  but  he  found  the  position  irksome, 


and  after  a  few  years  he  abdicated  (1459) 
and  retired  to  a  monastery  in  Macedonia, 
where  he  died.  He  was  the  last  great 
representative  of  Byzantine  learning,  and 
is  said  to  have  written  more  than  one 
hundred  books.  His  confession  of  faith, 
given  in  a  Turkish  translation,  to  Moham¬ 
med  II.,  in  the  form  of  a  dialogue  between 
a  Turk  and  a  Christian,  etc.,  is  found  in 
Migne:  Pat.  Gr.  CLX.  See  Schaff:  Creeds 
of  Christendom,  i.  46. 

Gennes'aret,SEAOF.  See  Galilee,  Sea  of. 

Genuflectentes  ( kneelers ),  the  name  given 
to  the  third  order  of  catechumens  in  the 
ancient  Church.  They  knelt  in  the  church 
while  special  prayers  were  offered  for 
them,  before  receiving  imposition  of  hands 
and  the  minister’s  benediction. 

Genuflection,  the  act  of  bending  the  knee 
in  prayer,  as  a  sign  of  adoration  or  rever¬ 
ence. 

Geoffrey  ( jef’re )  of  Monmouth,  the 
noted  English  chronicler;  b.  at  Monmouth 
early  in  the  twelfth  century;  d.  1154.  He 
was  archdeacon  of  Monmouth,  and  in  1152 
bishop  of  St.  Asaph.  His  fame  rests  upon 
his  Chronicon  sive  Historia  Britonum .  The 
work  is  a  mixture  of  fabrications  and  tra¬ 
ditions;  but  it  has  proved  a  rich  mine — 
especially  to  the  poets. 

George,  St. ,  the  patron  saint  of  England; 
said  to  have  been  born  in  Cappadocia,  of 
noble  Christian  parents.  He  rose  to  em¬ 
inence  as  a  soldier  under  Diocletian,  and 
when  that  emperor  entered  upon  the  work 
of  persecuting  the  Christians,  George  made 
public  confession  of  his  faith,  and  resigned 
his  commission.  Arrested  and  put  to  tor¬ 
ture,  he  met  death  by  martyrdom  at  Nico- 
media,  April  23,  303.  Among  other  legends 
connected  with  his  life,  that  of  hisslaying 
the  dragon  is  the  best  known.  His  name 
became  popular  in  England  from  the  time 
of  Richard  Coeur  de  Lion,  who  is  said  to 
have  successfully  invoked  his  aid  in  the 
first  crusade,  but  it  was  not  until  the  time 
of  Edward  III.  that  he  was  made  patron 
of  the  kingdom.  His  day  is  celebrated 
April  23. 

George,  Margrave  of  Brandenburg-Ans- 
bach;  b.  at  Onolzbach,  March  4,  1484;  d. 
there,  Dec.  17,  1543.  He  was  one  of  the 
first  to  espouse  the  cause  of  the  Reforma¬ 
tion,  and  no  other  German  prince  did  more 
than  he  to  secure  its  success.  He  was  an 
intimate  friend  of  Luther. 

George  of  Polentz,  b.  in  Saxony,  1478;  d. 


Geo 


(  363  ) 


Ger 


at  Balga,  near  Konigsberg,  April  28,  1550. 
He  studied  canon  law  in  Italy,  and  in  1519 
was  appointed  bishop  of  Sambia.  In  the 
summer  of  1523  he  allowed  the  doctrines 
of  the  Reformation  to  be  preached  in  the 
cathedral  at  Konigsberg,  and  near  the  close 
of  the  year  joined  the  adherents  of  Luther. 

George,  Duke  of  Saxony,  b.  at  Dres¬ 
den,  Aug.  24,  1471;  d.  there,  April  17,  1539. 
Through  education  and  political  influences 
he  opposed  the  Reformation;  but  in  spite 
of  his  efforts  his  people  and  his  family 
accepted  the  evangelical  doctrines. 

Gerhardt  ( ger-hart ),  Paul,  the  greatest  of 
German  hymn-writers;  b.  at  Grafenhaini- 
chen,  March  12,  1607;  d.  at  Liibben,  June 
7,  1676.  He  was  educated  at  the  Witten¬ 
berg  University,  and  became  preacher  of 
the  Church  of  St.  Nicolai,  Berlin,  in  1657. 
Refusing  to  subscribe  to  edicts  which  he 
thought  looked  to  the  union  of  the  Luther¬ 
an  and  Reformed  Churches,  he  was  dis¬ 
missed,  and  in  1667  made  archdeacon  of 
Liibben,  where  he  spent  the  rest  of  his 
life.  Among  his  hymns  that  have  been 
translated  into  English,  the  best  known  is, 
“  O  Sacred  Head,  now  wounded.”  See 
Life ,  by  Wildenhahn  (Basel,  1844,  Eng. 
trans.,  Philadelphia,  1881). 

Ger'izim,  a  mountain  of  Ephraim,  oppo¬ 
site  Ebal,  from  which  blessings  were  pro¬ 
nounced  as  the  curses  were  from  Mount 
Ebal.  (Deut.  xi.  29;  Josh.  viii.  30-35.)  It 
has  an  elevation  of  800  feet  above  the  val¬ 
ley  in  which  lies  the  village  of  Ndblns 
(Shechem).  It  was  the  scene  of  the  parable 
of  the  trees  and  brambles.  (Judg.  ix.  7-21.) 
Here  was  the  site  of  the  Samaritan  temple 
referred  to  by  the  woman  at  the  well. 
(John  iv.  20.)  There  is  a  remnant  of  the 
Samaritan  sect  still  living  at  N&blus,  who 
make  the  annual  paschal  sacrifices  on 
the  summit  of  Gerizim,  according  to  the 
rules  found  in  Exod.  xii.  The  Samaritan 
tradition  that  it  is  the  place  where  Abra¬ 
ham  offered  Isaac  is  not  sustained  by  the 
best  authorities.  See  Moriah;  Ebal. 

German  Catholics.  As  the  result  of  pro¬ 
tests  against  certain  doctrines  and  practices 
of  the  Roman  Catholic  Church,  the  first 
German  Catholic  congregation  was  formed 
at  Breslau  in  1845.  They  took  an  extreme 
rationalistic  position,  and  soon  lost  the 
sympathy  of  the  better  class  of  people.  In 
1848  they  numbered  about  sixty  thousand 
members,  but  they  have  now  dwindled  to 
a  few  congregations. 

German  Re/ormed  Church.  See  Reform¬ 
ed  Church,  German. 


German  Translations  of  the  Bible.  See 

Bible,  under  subhead  (13)  Versions  in 
Other  Modern  Languages. 

Germany.  According  to  the  census  of 
1875,  there  were,  in  the  German  Empire, 
26,718,823  Protestants,  15,371,227  Roman 
Catholics,  520,575  Jews,  100,608  Dissent¬ 
ers,  and  16,127  of  no  religion  stated.  In 
Southern  Germany  the  Roman  Church 
prevails;  in  Northern,  the  Evangelical. 
Bavaria,  Baden,  and  Alsace-Lorraine  are 
predominantly  Roman  Catholic;  Schleswig- 
Holstein,  Mecklenburg,  Hanover,  Bran¬ 
denburg,  and  Saxony  are  almost  wholly 
Protestant.  The  control  of  religious  af¬ 
fairs  is  left  to  the  different  states,  but  the 
Emperor  of  Germany,  as  the  King  also  of 
Prussia,  is  at  the  head  of  the  Evangelical 
Church  of  Prussia. 

Germanus,  St.,  one  of  the  most  distin¬ 
guished  of  French  prelates;  b.  at  Auxerre 
about  380.  He  studied  law  at  Rome,  and 
gained  a  great  reputation  as  an  orator  and 
an  advocate.  He  was  military  governor  of 
his  native  district,  and  after  his  election  as 
bishop  he  devoted  himself  to  his  duties 
with  intense  zeal.  He  twice  visited  Brit¬ 
ain  and  was  successful  in  his  mission  to 
destroy  the  Pelagian  heresy,  and  led  the 
Britons  in  a  victorious  assault  against  the 
Piets  and  Scots.  He  d.  at  Ravenna,  July 
31,  448,  and  was  buried  at  Auxerre. 

Gerson,  Jean  Charlier,  one  of  the  most 
eminent  scholars  of  his  day,  and  a  founder 
of  Gallicanism;  b.  at  Gerson,  in  the  diocese 
of  Rheims,  Dec.  14,  1363;  d.  at  Lyons, 
July  12,  1429.  He  studied  under  Peter 
d’Ailli  at  Paris,  whom  he  succeeded  as 
Chancellor  of  the  University.  Asa  theolo¬ 
gian  he  denounced  scholasticism,  and  ear¬ 
nestly  opposed  the  fanaticism  that  ran  riot 
in  the  party  of  the  Flagellants.  He  was 
prominent  in  the  Councils  of  Pisa  (1409), 
and  Constance  (1414),  and  earnestly  sought 
to  heal  the  schism  between  the  rival  popes, 
Gregory  and  Benedict,  by  seeking  the  res¬ 
ignation  of  both.  Through  his  influence 
the  doctrine  of  the  Supremacy  of  the 
Church  over  the  popes,  in  matters  of  faith 
and  discipline,  was  asserted.  His  con¬ 
demnation  of  the  assassins  of  the  Duke  of 
Orleans  aroused  the  hatred  of  the  Duke 
of  Burgundy,  and  he  sought  refuge  first  in 
Bavaria,  where  he  spent  some  years  in 
literary  work,  but  finally  retired  to  a  con¬ 
vent  of  Celestine  monks  at  Lyons,  where 
he  died.  Besides  his  works  on  the  papal 
schism  and  against  papal  infallibility,  he 
wrote  various  religious  and  theological 
treatises.  The  Imitation  of  Christ  was  at 
one  time  falsely  ascribed  to  him. 


Ges 


(  364  ) 


Gid 


Gesenius  Wilhelm,  best  known  in  this 
country  as  a  Hebrew  lexicographer;  b.  in 
Nordhausen,  Feb.  3,  1785;  d.  at  Halle, 
Oct.  23,  1842.  He  was  educated  at  Helm- 
stadt  and  Gottingen,  and  after  teaching  at 
Gottingen  for  a  time  he  was  called  to  Halle, 
where  he  spent  the  remainder  of  his  life. 
His  Hebrew  Lexicon  was  published  in  1810- 
1812,  and  his  Grammar  in  1813.  The  Eng¬ 
lish  translations  of  the  Lexicon  by  Tregel- 
les  (1846-52),  and  Edward  Robinson (1855), 
and  that  of  the  Grammar ,  by  Moses  Stuart 
(1826),  T.  J.  Conant  (1839),  and  B.  Davies 
(London,  1869),  ed.  by  E.  C.  Mitchell  (An¬ 
dover,  1881),  on  the  basis  of  the  22d  edi¬ 
tion  of  the  original,  have  given  this  work 
a  wide  circulation.  Gesenius  wrote  a 
Commentary  on  Lsaiah  and  several  other 
volumes.  He  belonged  to  the  rationalistic 
school,  and  for  a  longtime  was  considered 
its  leading  representative  at  Halle. 

Gesta  Romanorum,  a  collection  of  anec¬ 
dotes,  generally  with  a  moral  attached, 
turning  them  into  parables.  The  title  is 
from  the  fact  that  the  greater  part  of  the 
stories  begin  with  the  words,  “  There  was 
an  Emperor  of  Rome,”  etc.  These  were 
used  by  the  mediaeval  preachers  in  their 
sermons.  The  anecdotes  are  all  fictitious. 
We  are  told  that  there  was  an  emperor  of 
Rome  “  named  Cyrus,”  and  many  of  these 
emperors  did  impossible  things.  Some  of 
the  stories  are  worthless  and  even  repul¬ 
sive,  but  some  are  excellent,  and  are  the 
germs  of  classical  pieces  of  modern  liter¬ 
ature;  e.  g.y  the  story  of  the  caskets,  which 
Shakespeare  has  wrought  into  the  Mer¬ 
chant  of  Venice .  They  probably  date  from 
the  thirteenth  century. — Benham . 

Gethsem'ane,  “  a  small  ‘farm’  (A.  V. 
‘  place;’  Matt.  xxvi.  36;  Mark  xiv.  32), 
situated  across  the  brook  Kedron  (John 
xviii.  1),  probably  at  the  foot  of  Mount  Ol¬ 
ivet  (Luke  xxii.  39),  to  the  N.  W.,  and 
about  one-half  or  three-quarters  of  a  mile 
(English)  from  the  walls  of  Jerusalem. 
There  was  a  ‘  garden,’  or  rather  orchard, 
attached  to  it,  to  which  the  olive,  fig,  and 
pomegranate  doubtless  invited  resort  by 
their  hospitable  shade.  And  we  know 
from  the  Evangelists  Luke  (xxii.  39)  and 
John  (xviii.  2),  that  our  Lord  ofttimes  re¬ 
sorted  thither  with  his  disciples.  Accord¬ 
ing  to  Josephus,  the  suburbs  of  Jerusalem 
abounded  with  gardens  and  pleasure- 
grounds.  But  Gethsemane  has  not  come 
down  to  us  as  a  scene  of  mirth;  its  inex¬ 
haustible  associations  are  the  offspring  of 
a  single  event — the  Agony  of  the  Son  of 
God  on  the  evening  preceding  his  Passion. 
A  modern  garden,  in  which  are  eight  ven¬ 
erable  olive-trees,  and  a  grotto  to  the 


north,  detached  from  it,  and  in  closer  con¬ 
nection  with  the  Church  of  the  Sepulchre 
of  the  Virgin, arepointed  out  by  the  Latins  as 
the  true  Gethsemane.  Against  the  contem¬ 
porary  antiquity  of  the  olive-trees,  it  has 
been  urged  that  Titus  cut  down  all  the  trees 
round  about  Jerusalem.  The  probability 
would  seem  to  be  that  they  were  planted 
by  Christian  hands  to  mark  the  spot;  un¬ 
less,  like  the  sacred  olive  of  the  Acropolis, 
they  may  have  reproduced  themselves.” — 
Smith:  Did.  of  the  Bible.  Dr.  Thomson  and 
others  think  this  site  is  too  near  the  city 
and  the  highway,  and  place  the  garden  in 
a  secluded  vale  further  to  the  northeast. 

Ghetto,  or  Getto,  the  Italian  form  of  a 
Hebrew  word  meaning  “  separation,”  or 
“seclusion.”  It  designated  that  quarter 
of  Rome  in  which  the  Jews  were  alone  per¬ 
mitted  to  live.  This  rule  was  enforced, 
first  by  Pius  IV.  in  1569,  and  was  not  abol¬ 
ished  until  1847,  by  Pius  IX. 

Ghibellines.  See  Guelf. 

Giants.  Scripture  history  first  mentions 
giants  in  Gen.  vi.  4,  where  they  are  called, 
(1)  Nephilim.  In  Gen.  xiv.  5,  they  are 
named  (2)  Rephaim.  Og,  king  of  Bashan, 
was  of  this  race.  (Deut.  iii.  11.)  (3)  The 

Anakun  (Num.  xiii.  28,  32,  33;  Deut.  ii. 
10),  destroyed  by  Joshua.  (Josh.  xi.  22; 
Judg  i.  20.)  (4)  The  E?nim  are  mentioned 

in  Deut.  ii.  10;  and  (5)  the  Zamzummim ,  in 
Deut.  ii.  20,  21. 

Gibbons,  James,  D.  D.,  Roman  Catholic 
cardinal;  b.  at  Baltimore,  Md.,  July  23, 
1834.  He  was  ordained  priest  in  1861,  and 
became  assistant  pastor  of  the  cathedral  at 
Baltimore,  1865;  consecrated  bishop,  1868; 
made  archbishop  of  Baltimore,  1877;  and 
in  1886  was  consecrated  cardinal.  He  is 
the  author  of,  The  Faith  of  our  Fathers 
(New  York,  1874).  Trans,  into  several 
languages. 

Gib'eon,  a  city  of  the  Hivites,  about  six 
miles  north  of  Jerusalem.  It  is  identified 
with  the  present  el-Jib ,  a  small  village  in 
the  midst  of  ancient  ruins.  At  the  eastern 
base  of  the  hill  upon  which  it  stands  is  a 
spring  of  water  which  flows  into  a  reser¬ 
voir,  which  is  thought  to  be  the  “  Pool  of 
Gibeon.”  Gibeon made  aleague  with  Joshua 
and  secured  his  aid  when  attacked  by  the 
Canaanites.  (Josh.  ix. ;  x. )  Here  the  tab¬ 
ernacle  remained  for  many  years  (2  Chron. 
i.  3,  4),  and  its  people  helped  to  build  the 
walls  of  Jerusalem  after  the  Captivity. 
(Neh.  iii.  7.) 

Gid'eon,  “  a  Manassite,  youngest  son  of 


Gie 


(  365  ) 


Gif 


Joash,  of  the  Abiezrites,  an  undistinguish¬ 
ed  family  who  .lived  at  Ophrah,  a  town 
probably  on  the  west  of  Jordan  (Judg.  vi. 
15),  although  its  exact  position  is  unknown. 
He  was  the  fifth  recorded  Judge  of  Israel, 
and,  for  many  reasons,  the  greatest  of 
them  all.  When  we  first  hear  of  him  he 
was  grown  up  and  had  sons  (Judg.  vi.  11; 
viii.  20),  and  from  the  apostrophe  of  the 
angel  (vi.  12)  we  may  conclude  that  he  had 
already  distinguished  himself  in  war 
against  the  roving  bands  of  nomadic  rob¬ 
bers  who  had  oppressed  Israel  for  seven 
years,  and  whose  countless  multitudes 
(compared  to  locusts,  from  their  terrible 
devastations,  vi.  5)  annually  destroyed  all 
the  produce  of  Canaan,  except  such  as 
could  be  concealed  in  mountain  fastnesses 
(vi.  2).  It  was  probably  during  this  dis¬ 
astrous  period  that  the  emigration  of  Elim- 
elech  took  place.  (Ruth  i.  1,  2.)  When  the 
angel  appeared,  Gideon  was  threshing 
wheat  with  a  flail  in  the  wine-press,  to 
conceal  it  from  the  predatory  tyrants.  His 
call  to  be  a  deliverer,  and  his  destruction 
of  Baal’s  altar,  are  related  in  Judg.  vi. 
After  this  begins  the  second  act  in  Gid¬ 
eon’s  life.  Clothed  by  the  Spirit  of  God 
(Judg.  vi.  34;  comp.  1  Chron.  xii.  18;  Luke 
xxiv.  49),  he  blew  a  trumpet,  and  was 
joined  by  Zebulun,  Naphtali,  and  even  the 
reluctant  Asher.  Strengthened  by  a  doub¬ 
le  sign  from  God,  he  reduced  his  army  of 
32,000  by  the  usual  proclamation.  (Deut. 
xx.  8;  comp.  1  Macc.  iii.  56.)  By  a  second 
test  at  ‘  the  spring  of  trembling  ’  he  again 
reduced  the  number  of  his  followers  to 
300.  (Judg.  vii.  5,  sq.)  The  midnight  at¬ 
tack  upon  the  Midianites,  their  panic,  and 
the  rout  and  slaughter  that  followed  are 
told  in  Judg.  vii.  The  memory  of  this 
splendid  deliverance  took  deep  root  in  the 
national  traditions.  (1  Sam.  xii.  n;  Psa. 
Ixxxiii.  11 ;  Isa.  ix.  4;  x.  26;  Heb.  xi.  32.) 
After  this  there  was  a  peace  of  forty  years, 
and  we  see  Gideon  in  peaceful  possession 
of  his  well-earned  honors,  and  surrounded 
by  the  dignity  of  a  numerous  household 
(viii.  29-31).  It  is  not  improbable  that, 
like  Saul,  he  had  owed  a  part  of  his  popu¬ 
larity  to  his  princely  appearance.  (Judg. 
viii.  18.)  In  this  third  stage  of  his  life 
occur  alike  his  most  noble  and  his  most 
questionable  acts,  viz.,  the  refusal  of  the 
monarchy  on  theocratic  grounds,  and  the 
irregular  consecration  of  a  jeweled  ephod, 
formed  out  of  the  rich  spoils  of  Midian, 
which  proved  to  the  Israelites’a  temptation 
to  idolatry;  although  it  was,  doubtless,  in¬ 
tended  for  use  in  the  worship  of  Jehovah.” 
— Smith:  Did.  of  the  Bible. 

Gieseler  ( %ee-zeh-ler ),  Johann  Karl  Lud¬ 
wig,  one  of  the  most  distinguished  writers 


on  Church  history  ;  b.  at  Petershagen, 
March  3,  1793;  d.  at  Gottingen,  July  8, 
1854.  He  studied  at  Halle,  and  was  ap¬ 
pointed  professor  of  theology  at  Bonn, 
1819,  and  at  Gottingen  in  1831.  His  great 
work  is  his  Church  History ,  which  still  con¬ 
tinues  to  hold  a  high  place  among  scholars. 
Of  the  three  English  translations,  the 
latest  is  that  of  H.  B.  Smith  and  Miss 
Mary  Robinson  (New  York,  1857-81),  5 
vols. 

Gifts  (Gr.  charismata ).  The  new  Testa¬ 
ment  uses  this  term  to  express  powers 
and  graces  bestowed  on  Christians  by  the 
Holy  Ghost.  These  gifts  are  described  as 
of  two  kinds — ordinary  and  extraordinary. 
The  ordinary  are  those  shared  by  all 
Christians:  wisdom,  understanding,  coun¬ 
sel,  spiritual  strength,  knowledge,  true 
godliness,  holy  fear;  they  are  given  abun¬ 
dantly  or  sparingly,  according  to  the  faith 
of  the  recipient.  With  these  may  be  class¬ 
ed  the  “  fruits  of  the  Spirit,”  enumerated 
in  Gal.  v.  22,  23,  viz.,  “  love,  joy,  peace, 
long-suffering,  gentleness,  goodness,  faith, 
meekness,  temperance.”  To  these  have 
been  added  by  theologians  three  others, 
viz.,  patience,  modesty,  chastity.  The  ex¬ 
traordinary  gifts  of  the  Spirit  were,  for  the 
most  part,  confined  to  the  earliest  ages  of 
the  Church.  It  would  appear  to  have  been 
a  common  thing  in  the  apostles’  time  for 
newly  baptized  converts  to  receive,  with 
the  laying  on  of  the  apostles’  hands,  the 
power  to  speak  in  other  tongues,  or  to  in¬ 
terpret  them,  the  gift  of  prophecy,  heal¬ 
ing,  and  of  the  discerning  of  spirits.  The 
Scripture  teaching  on  these  miraculous 
gifts  will  be  found  in  the  words  of  St.  Paul 
in  1  Cor.  xii.  14.  He  declares  that  all  gifts 
come  from  the  Spirit;  that  they  are  “  given 
to  every  man  t o  profit  withal,"  and  that  the 
Spirit  divideth  “  to  every  man  severally 
as  he  will.”  Hence,  there  is  no  ground  for 
vanity  or  boasting  on  the  part  of  the  re¬ 
cipients.  Moreover,  he  declares  in  1  Cor. 
xiii.  that  these  miraculous  gifts,  although 
excellent  in  themselves,  yet,  without  the 
gift  of  love,  are  of  no  account  whatever. 
Love  is  the  first  and  chief  of  the  ordinary 
gifts  of  the  Spirit,  and  is  greater  than  all 
the  extraordinary  gifts.  Of  these  latter, 
St.  Paul  shows  that  prophesying  is  the 
greatest:  “  Desire  spiritual  gifts,  but 

rather  that  ye  may  prophesy;”  declaring 
at  the  same  time,  how  it  is  greater  than  the 
gift  of  “  speaking  with  tongues.”  It  is  to 
be  noted  that  the  gift  of  tongues  is  “a  sign 
not  to  them  that  believe,  but  to  them  that 
believe  not;”  while  “  prophesying  serveth 
not  for  them  that  believe  not,  but  for  them 
which  believe;”  or,  in  other  words,  proph¬ 
esying  is  for  the  “  edification,  exhortation. 


Gih 


(  366  ) 


Gil 


and  comfort  ”  of  the  Church.  The  notion 
that  the  gift  of  tongues  was  for  the  pur¬ 
pose  of  converting  foreign  nations,  is  now 
held  by  few  expositors.  Rather,  we  may 
suppose,  it  was  an  overpowering  influence 
of  spiritual  zeal,  intelligible  to  those  who 
were  filled  with  divine  love,  and  to  them 
only.  (See  Farrar’s  St.  Paul,  chapter  v.) 
It  is  a  very  difficult  question  to  decide 
when  the  extraordinary  gifts  ceased  to  be 
bestowed  on  Christians. 

Instances  are  mentioned  in  Eusebius  v. 
7,  where  he  quotes  Irenaeus  to  prove  that 
miraculous  gifts,  including  even  raising 
from  the  dead,  existed  in  his  day  (a.  d. 
161-180).  Again,  in  Eusebius  vi.  9,  the 
historian  records  that  many  miracles  were 
performed  by  Narcissus,  A.  D.  211-217. 
But  the  mention  of  such  an  individual 
seems  to  show  that  the  majority  of  Chris¬ 
tians  did  not  then  possess  this  power.  In 
all  ages  people  have  laid  claim  to  a  pos¬ 
session  of  miraculous  power,  but  in  such 
instances  the  evidence  has  not  been  suffi¬ 
cient  to  place  the  matter  beyond  doubt. 
In  other  cases  gross  deception  has  been 
practiced.  One  test  by  which  to  try  such 
claims  to  miraculous  gifts  is  mentioned  by 
Irenaeus  in  the  above  passage,  and  by 
Apollonius,  a  writer  who  lived  a  few  years 
later,  viz.,  Is  gain  made  by  such  manifes¬ 
tations  of  miraculous  power?  Apollonius, 
in  Eusebius  v.  18,  accuses  the  Phrygian 
heretics  of  receiving  presents  on  such  oc¬ 
casions,  and  thereby  convicts  them  of  im¬ 
posture,  while  Irenaeus  attests  the  gen¬ 
uineness  of  the  miraculous  powers  exer¬ 
cised  by  the  faithful  from  the  fact  that  no 
gain  nor  profit  was  made:  “  As  they  had 
received  freely  from  Christ,  so,”  says  he, 
“  ought  they  to  give  freely.”  In  conclu¬ 
sion,  it  may  be  remembered  that  it  has 
only  been  in  great  crises  in  the  history  of 
God’s  people  that  miraculous  gifts  have 
been  bestowed  in  any  abundance,  e.  g. ,  in 
the  deliverance  from  Egypt,  in  the  troub¬ 
lous  times  of  Elijah  and  Elisha,  and  at 
the  rise  of  Christ’s  Kingdom  upon  the 
earth;  and  it  is  also  to  be  observed  that  in 
the  passage  above  cited,  they  are  distinct¬ 
ly  placed  beneath  gifts  and  graces  which 
yet  and  permanently  remain. — Benham: 
Did.  of  Religion.  For  the  alleged  restora¬ 
tion  of  the  Gift  of  Tongues,  see  Cath¬ 
olic  Apostolic  Church. 

Gi'hon  ( fountain  or  stream),  (1)  the 
name  of  the  second  of  the  four  rivers  of 
Eden.  (Gen.  ii.  13.)  It  is  identified  by 
some  scholars  with  the  Nile.  (2)  A  place 
not  far  from  Jerusalem  where  Solomon  was 
proclaimed  king.  (1  Kings  i.  33-45.)  Ma- 
nasseh  built  a  wall  on  the  north  side  of 
Gihon,  and  Hezekiah  stopped  its  upper 


water-courses.  (2  Chron.  xxxii.  30;  xxxiii. 
14.)  The  exact  site  of  these  streams  is 
still  a  matter  of  discussion. 

Gilbert  of  Sempringham,  b.  at  Sempring- 
ham,  Lincolnshire,  England,  about  1083; 
d.  there,  Feb.  4,  1189.  He  was  the  found¬ 
er  of  the  order  called  the  Gilbertines  or 
Sempringenses,  for  whom  he  prepared 
rules.  The  monasteries  which  he  founded 
numbered  700  male  and  1,500  female  in¬ 
mates.  The  order  possessed  twenty-five 
monasteries  when  suppressed  by  Henry 
VIII. 

Gilbo'a,  a  mountain-range  on  the  eastern 
side  of  the  plain  of  Esdraelon,  rising  over 
the  city  of  Jezreel  (comp.  1  Sam.  xxviii.  4 
with  xxix.  1).  It  is  only  mentioned  in 
Scripture  in  connection  with  one  event  in 
Israelitish  history,  the  defeat  and  death  of 
Saul  and  Jonathan  by  the  Philistines.  (1 
Sam.  xxxi.  1;  2  Sam.  i.  6;xxi.  12;  1  Chron. 
x.  1,  8.)  No  doubt  can  be  entertained  of 
the  identity  of  Gilboa  with  the  ridge  which 
stretches  eastward  from  the  ruins  of  Jez¬ 
reel.  The  mountain  is  now  called  Jebet 
FAkAa;  the  village,  fclbdn. 

Gildas,  surnamed  Sapiens,  or  “  The 
Wise,”  is  said  to  have  been  born  in  Wales 
early  in  the  sixth  century.  He  was  a 
monk.  The  place  of  his  education  is  un¬ 
certain.  He  spent  seven  years  in  France, 
and  then  went  to  Ireland,  where  he  did 
much  for  the  Church;  he  then  returned  to 
England,  and  became  an  earnest  preacher 
of  the  Gospel.  The  monks  of  the  old 
monastery  of  St.  Gildas  de  Ruys,  in  Brit¬ 
tany,  say  that  he  spent  his  last  days  there; 
but  English  writers  aver  that  he  died  near 
Glastonbury  in  570.  So  much  difference 
of  opinion  exists  about  his  history  that  one 
can  determine  nothing  with  certainty  about 
him  or  his  works.  He  wrote  a  history,  de 
Cala?nitate ,  Excidio,  et  Conquestu  Britannice, 
which  is  valuable  as  being  the  only  informa¬ 
tion  we  have  of  those  times.  It  is  divided 
into  two  periods,  the  one  extending  from 
the  first  Roman  invasion  to  the  close  of  the 
fourth  century  or  revolt  of  Maximus,  the 
other  from  that  revolt  to  his  own  days. — 
Benham:  Did.  of  Religion. 

Gil'ead.  See  Tribes  of  Israel. 

Giles,  St.,  b.  in  Greece,  640;  d.  before 
725  in  a  monastery  on  the  Rhone.  He  lived 
a  hermit’s  life  in  Provence  for  many  years, 
and  while  there  was  discovered  in  the  for¬ 
est  by  the  King,  Wamba  (Flavius),  while 
caring  for  the  hind — upon  whose  milk  the 
saint  subsisted — which  had  been  wounded 
by  the  king’s  dogs  and  had  sought  refuge 


Gil 


(  367  ) 


Gir 


in  his  cave.  The  king  desired  St.  Giles  to 
attend  upon  him  at  his  court.  He  did  so 
for  a  short  time  and  then  returned  to  the 
forestand  founded  a  monastery.  His  rep¬ 
utation  for  sanctity  spread  far  and  near, 
and  many  miracles  were  ascribed  to  him. 
He  once  declined  treatment  for  an  accident¬ 
al  lameness,  saying  that  he  needed  the 
discipline  of  suffering,  and  for  this  is  hon¬ 
ored  as  the  patron  saint  of  cripples.  In  art 
he  is  pictured  as  an  old  man,  at  whose  feet 
is  a  hind  wounded  by  an  arrow  through  its 
neck.  He  has  churches  in  all  parts  of 
Europe,  and  his  day  is  commemorated 
Sept.  1.  His  relics  are  in  St.  Sernin’s, 
Toulouse. 

Gilfillan,  George,  a  popular  Scottish  re¬ 
ligious  writer;  b.  at  Comrie,  Perthshire, 
Scotland,  Jan.  30,  1813;  d.  Aug.  13,  1878. 
He  studied  at  Glasgow  University,  and  in 
1836  was  ordained  pastor  of  a  Secession 
congregation  at  Dundee.  Among  his 
works  the  best  known  is  Bards  of  the  Bible. 
As  a  lecturer  and  preacher  he  was  both  ed¬ 
ifying  and  eloquent. 

Gil'gal  {rolling),  (1)  the  name  of  the 
first  station  of  the  Israelites  after  crossing 
the  Jordan.  It  was  here  the  twelve  stones 
were  set  up,  and  here  the  tabernacle  re¬ 
mained  until  removed  to  Shiloh.  (Josh  iv. 
19,  20;  xviii.  1.)  At  Gilgal  Samuel  judged, 
and  Saul  was  made  king.  (1  Sam.  vii.  16; 
x.  8;  xi.  15.)  (2)  The  Gilgal  mentioned  in 

Elijah’s  time  was  probably  in  the  range  of 
mountains  north  of  Bethel.  (2  Kings  ii.  2.) 
Which  of  the  places  mentioned  became  the 
seat  of  idolatry  is  still  uncertain. 

Gill,  John,  an  eminent  Baptist  minister 
and  learned  Rabbinical  scholar;  b.  at  Ket¬ 
tering,  Northamptonshire,  in  1697;  d.  at 
Camberwell,  Oct.  14,  1771.  He  was  self- 
educated,  and  in  1719  became  pastor  of  the 
Baptist  congregation  at  Horsleydown,  near 
London,  where  he  continued  for  fifty-three 
years.  An  extreme  Calvinist,  he  was  a 
profound  scholar  and  theologian.  Dr  Gill’s 
most  important  work  was  his  Exposition  of 
the  Old  and  New  Testament ,  an  edition  of 
which,  in  9  vols.,  was  published  with  Me- 
?noir  (  Phila. ,  1811-19). 

Gillespie,  George,  one  of  the  four  com¬ 
missioners  sent  from  the  Church  of  Scot¬ 
land  to  the  Westminster  Assembly,  in 
1643;  b.  at  Kirkcaldy,  Jan.  21,  1613;  d. 
there,  Dec.  17,  1648.  He  wrote:  The  Eng¬ 
lish  Popish  Ceremonies  obtruded  upon  the 
Church  of  Scotland  (1637);  Assertion  of  the 
G  overnment  of  the  Church  of  Scotland  (1641); 
Aaron's  Rod  Blossoming:  or,  the  Divine  Or¬ 
dinance  of  Church-Government  Vindicated 


(1646).  This  was  his  ablest  work.  Al¬ 
though  the  youngest  member  of  the  West¬ 
minster  Assembly,  he  was  recognized  as 
one  of  its  strongest  debaters.  An  edition 
of  his  works,  with  Memoir  by  Hethrington, 
was  published  in  Edinburgh  (1844-46),  2 
vols. 

Gillett,  Ezra  Hall,  D.  D.,  b.  at  Colches¬ 
ter,  Conn.,  July  15,  1823;  d.  in  New  York, 
Sept.  2,  1875.  He  was  graduated  at  Yale 
College  (1841),  and  Union  Theological 
Seminary  (1844),  and  became  pastor  in  1845 
of  a  Presbyterian  church  in  Harlem,  which 
he  served  until  1868,  when  he  accepted  the 
chair  of  political  economy  and  history  in 
the  University  of  New  York.  He  was  the 
author  of :  The  Life  and  Times  of  fohn  Muss 
2  vols.  (1861);  History  of  the  Presbyterian 
Church  in  the  United  States,  2  vols.  (1864); 
God  in  Human  Thought  and  Moral  System 
(1875). 

Gilpin,  Bernard,  “  Apostle  of  the 
North;”  b.  at  Kentmere  Hall,  Westmore¬ 
land,  in  1517;  d.  at  Houghton-le-Spring, 
Durham,  March  4,  1583.  A  graduate  and 
fellow  of  Oxford,  he  became  vicar  of  Nor¬ 
ton,  Durham,  1552.  This  positionhe  soon 
resigned,  and  having  come  into  sympathy 
with  the  views  of  the  reformers  he  was 
accused  of  heresy,  and  narrowly  escaped 
martyrdom  through  the  influence  of  his 
great-uncle,  Bishop  Tonstall.  Under  Eliza¬ 
beth  he  declined  the  bishopric  of  Carlisle. 
As  rector  of  Houghton,  he  was  active  in 
philanthropic  and  benevolent  labors,  and 
gained  a  great  influence  over  his  people. 
See  his  Life,  by  William  Gilpin,  with  intro¬ 
duction  by  Edward  Irving  (Glasgow,  1824). 

Girdle,  “  an  essential  article  of  dress  in 
the  East,  and  worn  both  by  menand  women. 
The  common  girdle  was  made  of  leather 
(2  Kings  i.  8;  Matt.  iii.  4),  like  that  worn 
by  the  Bedouins  of  the  present  day.  A 
finer  girdle  was  made  of  linen  (Jer.  xiii.  1; 
Ezek.  xvi.  10),  embroidered  with  silk,  and 
sometimes  with  gold  and  silver  thread 
(Dan.  x.  5;  Rev.  i.  13;  xv.  6),  and  fre¬ 
quently  studded  with  gold  and  precious 
stones  or  pearls.  The  manufacture  of 
these  girdles  formed  part  of  the  employ¬ 
ment  of  women.  (Prov.  xxxi.  24.)  The 
girdle  was  fastened  by  a  clasp  of  gold  or 
silver,  or  tied  in  a  knot  so  that  the  ends 
hung  down  in  front,  as  in  the  figures  on  the 
ruins  of  Persepolis.  It  was  worn  by  men 
about  the  loins.  (Isa.  v.  27;  xi.  5.)  The  gir¬ 
dle  of  women  was  generally  looser  than 
that  of  the  men,  and  was  worn  about  the 
hips,  except  when  they  were  actively  en¬ 
gaged.  (Prov.  xxxi.  17.)  The  military  gir¬ 
dle  was  worn  about  the  waist  :  the  sword 


1 368 ) 


Gir 


Glo 


or  dagger  was  suspended  from  it.  (Judg. 
iii.  16;  2  Sam.  xx.  8;  Psa.  xlv.  3.)  Hence 
girding  up  the  loins  denotes  preparation 
for  battle  or  for  active  exertion.  In  times 
of  mourning,  girdles  of  sackcloth  were 
worn  as  marks  of  humiliation  and  sorrow. 
(Isa.  iii.  24;  xxii.  12.)  In  consequence  of 
the  costly  materials  of  which  girdles  were 
made,  they  were  frequently  given  as  pres¬ 
ents.  (1  Sam.  xviii.  4;  2  Sam.  xviii.  11.) 
They  were  used  as  pockets,  as  among  the 
Arabs  still,  and  as  purses,  one  end  of  the 
girdle  being  folded  back  for  the  purpose. 
(Matt.  x.  9  ;  Mark  vi.  8.)  The  abnit ,  or 
girdle  worn  by  the  priests  about  the  close- 
fitting  tunic  (Ex.  xxviii.  39;  xxxix.  29),  is 
described  by  Josephus  as  made  of  linen  so 
fine  of  texture  as  to  look  like  the  slough  of 
a  snake,  and  embroidered  with  flowers  of 
scarlet,  purple,  blue,  and  fine  linen.  It 
was  about  four  fingers  broad,  and  was 
wrapped  several  times  round  the  priest’s 
body,  the  ends  hanging  down  to  the  feet. 
The  ‘  curious  girdle  ’  (Ex.  xxviii.  8)  was 
made  of  the  same  materials  and  colors  as 
the  ephod,  that  is  of  ‘  gold,  blue,  and  pur¬ 
ple,  and  scarlet,  and  fine  twined  linen.’ 
Josephus  describes  it  as  sewn  to  the  breast¬ 
plate.  After  passing  once  round,  it  was 
tied  in  front  upon  the  seam,  the  ends  hang¬ 
ing  down.” — Smith:  Diet,  of  the  Bible . 

Gir'gashites,  a  tribe  of  the  Canaanites 
who  inhabited  the  region  east  of  the  sea  of 
Galilee,  whence  the  name  of  the  city  of 
Gergesa.  (Gen.  xv.  21.) 

Git'tites.  See  Gath. 

Gladden,  Washington,  D.  D.  (Roanoke 
College,  Va. ,  1884),  LL.  D.  (University 
of  Wisconsin,  Madison,  Wis. ,  1881),  Con¬ 
gregationalism  b.  at  Pottsgrove,  Penn., 
Feb.  11,1836.  He  was  graduatedat  Williams 
College,  Mass.,  1859,  and  has  held  pastor¬ 
ates  at  Brooklyn,  N.  Y. ,  i860;  Morrisania, 
N.  Y. ,  1861;  North  Adams,  Mass.,  1866- 
71;  Springfield,  Mass.,  1875;  and  since 
1883,  Columbus,  O.  Among  his  published 
works  are:  Plain  Thoughts  on  the  Art  of 
Living  (1868);  Workingmen  and  their  Em¬ 
ployers  (1876);  Being  a  Christian  (18 76) ;  T he 
Lord  s  Pray  er  (1881);  The  Young  Men  and  the 
Churches  (1885);  Burning  Questions  (1890). 

Glass.  From  mural  paintings  represent¬ 
ing  the  process  of  glass-blowing,  we  know 
that  the  manufacture  of  glass  was  carried 
on  by  the  Egyptians  as  early  as  the  time 
of  the  patriarchs.  The  Hebrews  were 
probably  familiar  with  this  invention,  al¬ 
though  it  is  mentioned  but  once  in  the 
Old  Testament  (Job  xxviii.  17),  where  it  is 
translated  in  the  A.  V.  “  crystal,’  but  in 


the  R.  V.  “  glass.”  The  mirrors  referred 
to  in  1  Cor.  xiii.  12;  2  Cor.  iii.  18,  etc., 
were  not  made  of  glass,  but  metal. 

Glass,  John,  b.  in  Fifeshire,  Sept.  21, 
1695;  d.  at  Dundee,  1773.  While  minister 
of  the  parish  of  Tealing,  he  was  deposed 
by  the  General  Assembly  of  the  Church  of 
Scotland,  because  of  the  publication  of  a 
book  in  which  he  maintained  that  an  Es¬ 
tablished  Church  was  contrary  to  the  Script¬ 
ures.  He  gathered  a  congregation,  which 
adopted  a  voluntary  and  independent  form 
of  government.  Members  of  this  church, 
with  others  in  sympathy  with  his  views, 
are  known  in  Scotland  as  Glassites,  but  in 
this  country  they  are  called  Sandemanians 
( q .  v.).  His  works  were  published  in  Edin¬ 
burgh  (1761,  2d  ed.,  Perth,  1782),  5  vols. 

Glebe  (, church-land ),  in  ecclesiastical  law, 
is  the  land  devoted  to  the  maintenance  of 
the  incumbent  of  a  church.  Originally,  the 
assigning  of  such  land  was  an  absolute 
necessity,  for  no  church  could  be  regularly 
consecrated  without  it. 

Gloria  in  Excelsis.  See  Doxology. 

Gloria  Patri.  See  Doxology. 

Glosses,  Bible.  “With  the  decay  of 
learning  and  originality  during  the  Dark 
Ages  grew  the  necessity  for  making,  and  the 
custom  of  transcribing  on  manuscript  cop¬ 
ies  of  the  Vulgate,  various  notes,  explan¬ 
atory  or  otherwise,  of  the  text.  Ultimately, 
collections  of  these  glosses,  or  sets  of 
glosses,  came  to  be  made.  They  are  dis¬ 
tinguished  as  either  marginal  or  interlinear. 
The  most  famous  collection  of  glossae 
marginales  was  that  made  by  Walafridus 
Strabus  in  the  ninth  century:  it  consists  of 
notes  grammatical,  historical,  and  theolog¬ 
ical,  culled  from  the  writings  of  Augustine, 
Ambrose,  Jerome,  Gregory,  Isidore,  Bede, 
Alcuin,  Rabanus  Maurus,  with  additions 
by  himself.  The  interlinear  glosses  (which, 
as  a  rule,  were  not  so  full  as  the  marginal) 
were  sometimes  theological,  but  more  gen¬ 
erally  purely  philological.  A  somewhat 
important  collection  of  interlinear  glosses, 
belonging  to  the  former  class,  was  made 
by  Anselm  of  Laon  (1117).  The  philo¬ 
logical  glosses  have  considerable  value  to 
the  linguistic  student,  especially  those 
which  originated  in  Germany  during  the 
Carlovingian  period.  Some  interlinear  ver¬ 
nacular  translations  of  portions  of  the 
Bible  into  the  Anglo-Saxon  in  the  ninth 
and  following  centuries  have  also  been 
recently  reprinted.” — Ency.  Britannica. 

Gloucester,  a  cathedral  city  of  England, 


( 369 ) 


Gna 


(  370  ) 


Gno 


situated  on  the  Severn,  107  miles  northwest 
of  London.  The  cathedral  dates  from  the 
eleventh  century,  and  represents  several 
different  eras  of  ecclesiastical  architecture. 
It  is  427  feet  in  length,  and  154  in  width; 
the  height  of  the  central  tower  is  223  feet. 
Its  beautiful  cloisters  form  a  large  square. 
It  was  formerly  the  church  of  a  Benedict¬ 
ine  abbey,  and  was  converted  into  a  ca¬ 
thedral  in  1541.  The  present  income  of  the 
diocese  of  Gloucester  is  ^5,000. 

Gnat,  a  troublesome  insect,  akin  to  the 
mosquito,  and  very  common  in  hot  coun¬ 
tries.  It  is  mentioned  in  Matt,  xxiii.  24, 
where  the  Revised  Version  properly  reads 
“  strain  out.” 

Gnostics  derived  their  name  from  the 
extraordinary  religious  knowledge  ( gndsis ) 
which  they  claimed  to  possess.  The  term 
is  not  the  name  of  any  one  particular  sect, 
but  rather  of  a  number  of  sects  who  all  ac¬ 
cepted  certain  main  principles,  but  differed 
from  one  another  on  particular  points,  each 
sect  following  its  own  founder.  Said  to 
have  been  originally  propagated  by  Simon 
Magus,  Gnosticism  spread  through  the 
greater  part  of  Christendom,  rising  to  its 
greatest  height  about  the  middle  of  the 
second  century,  and  lasting  almost  to  the 
end  of  the  fourth  century.  It  was  more  a 
distinct  religious  system  than  a  heresy,  but 
its  acceptance  of  some  of  the  fundamental 
doctrines  of  Christianity  made  it  a  source 
of  great  trouble  to  the  Church.  It  had 
some  good  effects,  however,  in  causing  the 
Faith  to  be  more  carefully  examined  and 
more  clearly  defined. 

St.  Paul  is  supposed  to  refer  to  Gnos¬ 
ticism  when  he  speaks,  in  his  Epistle  to 
Timothy,  of  “the  opposition  of  science 
( gndsis )  falsely  so  called  ”  (1  Tim.  vi.  20), 
and  of  “fables  and  endless  genealogies” 
(1  Tim.  i.  4);  and  again,  in  the  Epistle  to 
the  Colossians,  of  “  philosophy  and  vain 
deceit.”  (Col.  ii.  8.) 

Our  knowledge  of  the  system  is  derived 
from  the  works  of  its  opponents,  as  no 
Gnostic  writings  have  come  down  to  us.  It 
may  be  described  as  a  combination  of  the 
notions  of  ancient  philosophy,  Magian 
theories,  Judaism,  and  Christianity.  In  it 
the  Oriental  hypotheses  concerning  the 
origin  of  evil,  and  the  speculations  of  Plato 
and  of  Philo  of  Alexandria,  were  blended 
with  the  Christian  doctrine  of  Redemption; 
and  the  resulting  systems  became  very 
popular  with  those  who  had  become  weary 
of  philosophy,  but  who  )ret  could  not  bring 
themselves  to  receive  the  Christian  faith. 

The  great  home  of  Gnosticism  was 
Egypt,  particularly  Alexandria.  The  found¬ 
ers  of  its  numerous  sects  were  almost  all 


either  Africans  or  Asiatics.  The  most  re¬ 
nowned  were: 

I.  Asiatics: 

1.  Saturninus,  who  flourished  at  the  begin¬ 

ning  of  the  second  century. 

2.  Bardesanes,  under  Marcus  Aurelius. 

3.  Marriott,  under  Antoninus  Pius. 

4.  Tatian  (founder  of  the  Encratites),  in  the 

middle  of  the  second  century. 

5.  Cerinthus,  at  the  end  of  the  second  cen¬ 

tury. 

II.  Africans: 

1.  Basilides,  under  Hadrian  and  Antoninus 

Pius. 

2.  Carpocrates,  under  Hadrian. 

3.  Valentinus,  under  Antoninus  Pius, 

The  Ebionites,  a  Judaizing  sect,  are  also 
usually  included  amongst  the  Gnostics. 
(Ebionites.)  The  main  points  of  the  Gnos¬ 
tic  system  were  substantially  as  follows: 

1.  Affecting  the  Doctrine  of  the  Trinity — 

That  there  was  one  Eternal  and  Supreme 

Deity,  from  whom  emanated  a  graduated 
series  of  existences  called  y£ons;  which 
JEons  were  to  be  regarded  as  manifesta¬ 
tions  of  particular  attributes  of  the  Deity, 
and  together  constituted  the  Pleroma,  or 
Fullness  of  the  Godhead.  Their  number 
was  variously  given,  Valentinus  fixing  it 
at  thirty,  Basilides  at  365. 

2.  Affecting  the  Doctrine  of  the  Resurrec¬ 
tion — 

That  matter  was  essentially  evil,  the 
world  and  all  material  things  having  been 
created  by  a  fallen  dEon  (or,  according  to 
some,  by  an  evil  power  who  had  existed 
from  all  eternity).  As  a  deduction  from 
this,  they  denied  the  resurrection  of  the 
body,  considering  the  body  as  a  prison 
formed  by  the  Demiurge,  or  fallen  creator, 
for  the  confinement  of  the  soul. 

3.  Affecting  the  Doctrine  of  the  Incarna¬ 
tion — 

The  above  also  led  to  erroneous  views 
concerning  our  Lord  Jesus  Christ.  They 
could  not  believe  that  a  divine  nature  could 
unite  with  a  material  (and  therefore  evil) 
body.  Accordingly  two  solutions  of  the 
difficulty  were  proposed: 

a.  That  Christ  was  human ,  but  not  divine , 
that  he  was  merely  a  man,  on  whom  the 
divinity  descended  at  his  baptism  in  the 
form  of  a  dove,  leaving  him  before  the 
Crucifixion.  This  view  was  held  by  the 
Ebionites,  Basilidians,  Carpocratians,  and 
Cerinthians. 

b.  That  Christ  was  divine,  but  not  human; 
that  his  Body  was  not  material,  but — 

(1)  An  unsubstantial  phantom,  which 
only  seemed  to  be  human. 

This  was  the  view  of  Saturninus,  the 
Encratites,  and  Marcionites,  and  they  were 
hence  called  Docetce ,  from  a  Greek  word 
meaning  “  to  seem.” 

(2)  Formed  of  heavenly  elements,  like 
those  of  the  angels  who  appeared  to  men. 


Goa 


(  371  ) 


God 


This  was  the  opinion  of  Bardesanes  and 
Valentinus. 

4.  Affecting  the  Doctrine  of  the  Redemp¬ 
tion — 

That  Christ’s  mission  was  not  to  die  for 
sin,  but  to  impart  \o  m.ax\.  a.  knowledge  oi  his 
heavenly  origin,  and  to  instruct  him  how 
to  regain  his  lost  condition.  Those  who 
attained  this  knowledge  were  saved.  Salva¬ 
tion  was  the  result,  not  of  a  sacrifice ,  but 
of  gnosis. 

The  rules  of  life  deduced  from  the  fore¬ 
going  principles  were  of  two  opposite  kinds: 

a.  The  followers  of  Bardesanes  and 
Saturninus,  and  the  Ebionites,  Encratites, 
and  Marcionites  considered  it  their  duty  to 
resist  the  influence  of  the  Demiurge  by 
mortifying  the  body.  They  condemned 
marriage,  and  practised  the  greatest  aus¬ 
terities. 

b.  The  Basilidians,  Valentinians,  Carpo- 
cratians,  and  Cerinthians,  on  the  other 
hand,  regarding  themselves  as  possessing 
saving  “  gnosis,”  held  that  all  actions  were 
indifferent.  They  therefore  indulged  in 
all  kinds  of  various  practices  and  disgust¬ 
ing  immoralities,  which  were  doubtless  the 
cause  of  many  of  the  charges  brought 
against  the  early  Christians. 

The  Cerinthians  also  taught  the  doctrine 
of  a  millennium  to  be  passed  in  sensual 
pleasures. 

The  Gnostics,  as  a  rule,  rejected  the  Old 
Testament,  as  given  under  the  influence  of 
the  Demiurge.  They  usually  accepted 
the  New  Testament,  excepting,  in  some 
cases,  the  Epistles  of  St.  Paul.  They  all 
made  use  of  apocryphal  books  and  spu¬ 
rious  gospels  which  supported  their  views. 
— Benham:  Did.  of  Religion.  On  the 
general  subject  see  Church  Histories  of 
Neander,  Schaff,  etc. 

Goad,  a  pole  about  eight  feet  long,  shod 
at  the  larger  end  with  a  piece  of  iron,  with 
which  the  ploughshare  was  freed  from 
clods  and  earth.  The  smaller  end  was 
fitted  with  a  sharp  spike,  with  which  the 
cattle  were  urged  in  their  labor.  The  goad 
is  still  used  in  Palestine. 

Goat.  There  are  several  species  of  goat 
in  Palestine;  but  the  most  common  kind 
have  very  long,  hanging  ears.  It  was  a  clean 
animal,  according  to  the  Jewish  law.  Its 
milk  was  used  for  food  (Prov.  xxvii.  27); 
the  hair  was  manufactured  into  various 
articles  (Exod.  xxv.  4),  and  the  skin  made 
into  bottles.  (Josh.  ix.  4.)  The  wild  goat 
was  the  ibex,  or  mountain  goat,  of  the 
Arabs. 

The  scapegoat  was  one  of  the  two  goats 
offered  on  the  day  of  atonement.  (Lev. 
xvi.) 


Gobat  ( go-ba ),  Samuel,  missionary  in 
Abyssinia,  and  bishop  of  Jerusalem;  b.  at 
Cremine,  Bern,  Switzerland,  Jan.  26,  1799; 
d.  at  Jerusalem,  May  11,  1879.  Having 
studied  in  the  mission-house  at  Basel,  in 
1823  he  visited  Paris  and  London,  and 
learned  Arabic,  ALthiopic,  and  Amharic. 
In  1826  he  was  sent  by  the  London  Mis¬ 
sionary  Society  to  labor  in  Abyssinia,  but 
was  not  able  to  enter  that  field  until  1830; 
and,  meanwhile,  engaged  in  work  in  Egypt 
and  Syria.  Returning  to  Europe  in  1834, 
he  superintended,  from  1839  to  1841,  the 
translation  of  the  Bible  into  Arabic.  In 
1846  he  became  bishop  of  Jerusalem,  and 
was  very  successful  in  founding  schools 
and  other  religious  institutions  in  Jerusa¬ 
lem,  Bethlehem,  Jaffa,  and  other  points  in 
Palestine.  He  wrote  A  Journal  of  Three 
Years  in  Abyssinia  (London,  1847).  See 
his  Life ,  first  published  at  Basel  (1884; 
Eng.  trans.  New  York,  1885). 

God.  It  is  a  self-evident  proposition 
that  a  belief  in  the  existence  of  a  Superior 
Being  or  Beings  must  be  the  basis  of  all 
religion,  properly  so  called.  Any  move¬ 
ment  of  the  soul  after  improvement,  after 
that  which  satisfies  its  longings,  must  have 
its  basis  in  such  a  belief  in  some  form. 
The  two  great  principles  of  religious  be¬ 
lief  which  have  prevailed  in  the  world  are 
Polytheism  and  Monotheism — i.  e.>  the  be¬ 
lief  in  “  gods  many  and  lords  many,” 
which  characterized  heathenism;  and  that 
in  One  Supreme  Self-existent  Being, 
which  is  at  the  very  foundation  of  every 
form  of  Christianity.  Outside  these  we 
have  the  negation  which,  it  cannot  be  de¬ 
nied,  has,  and  always  has  had,  its  profess¬ 
ors,  which  declares  “  There  is  no  God,” 
or  else  which  says,  “We  have  no  knowl¬ 
edge  of  such  a  one.”  (Agnostic.) 

When  we  come  to  examine  into  the 
grounds  of  belief  in  Deity,  we  first  of  all 
have  a  right  to  say  that  this  belief  is  in 
possession  of  the  field.  However  we  ac¬ 
count  for  it,  it  is  unquestionably  the  fact 
that  all  over  the  world,  as  far  as  history 
takes  us  back,  mankind  have  alwa)^s  be¬ 
lieved  in  God,  and  have  entered  into  spec¬ 
ulations  to  know  more  of  him.  Hindoos, 
and  Chinese  philosophers,  Egyptians, 
Greeks,  Latins,  gave  themselves  with 
eagerness  to  the  inquiry.  The  epoch  of 
the  coming  of  Christ  found  one  people — 
the  Jews — strenuously  asserting  that  there 
is  only  one  God,  and  that  worship  of  other 
gods  is  a  hateful  superstition.  The  relig¬ 
ion  which  Christ  preached  affirmed  this 
doctrine,  and  the  civilized  world  has  ac¬ 
cepted  it;  and  thus,  as  we  have  said,  the 
belief  in  God  is  in  possession.  Man  is  nat¬ 
urally  a  religious  being — a  God-worship- 


God 


(  372  ) 


God 


per — however  he  came  to  be  so;  and  the 
fact  is  of  tremendous  significance,  that  the 
existence  of  God  should  thus  belong,  as  it 
were,  to  the  consciousness  of  humanity  at 
large. 

Christianity,  however,  came  into  direct 
conflict  with  many  of  the  popular  religious 
beliefs  current  at  its  birth,  and  thus,  when 
its  doctrine  of  one  God  was  called  in  ques¬ 
tion,  it  became  necessary  to  offer  reasons 
for  such  belief.  In  this  controversy  the 
strongest  point  was,  there  can  be  little 
doubt,  the  Christian  doctrine  of  sin  and  of 
God’s  attitude  in  regard  to  it.  It  seems  so 
natural  to  us  now  to  believe  that,  if  there 
be  a  God,  he  must  be  a  just  and  moral 
Being,  that  we  are  in  danger  of  forgetting 
that  this  conception  is  almost,  if  not  en¬ 
tirely,  confined  to  the  line  of  Jewish  and 
Christian  revelation.  To  an  ancient  hea¬ 
then  the  matter  by  no  means  appeared 
in  this  light:  his  gods,  as  represented  to 
him,  were  swayed  far  more  by  vindictive, 
selfish,  and  other  personal  feelings,  than 
by  moral  motives.  No  man  could  be  cer¬ 
tain  that  he  wras  not  innocently  offending 
some  deity,  even  in  striving  to  propitiate 
some  other,  and  thereby  entailing  misery 
and  misfortune  on  himself  for  the  rest  of 
his  life;  and  the  awful  problem,  which  for 
a  while  held  Job  powerless  in  its  grasp,  of 
reconciling  the  justice  of  God  with  the 
misfortunes  of  a  righteous  man,  could 
never  have  confronted  a  pagan  at  all,  for 
the  simple  reason  that  any  necessity  that 
his  deities  should  act  righteously  would 
not  have  entered  his  conceptions.  Only  a 
few  of  the  rarest  spirits  of  antiquity  had 
made  any  approach  to  ideas  clearly  taught 
in  the  Hebrew  Bible.  But  when  the  truth 
was  once  clearly  stated,  as  it  was  by  the 
early  Christians,  it  appealed  at  once  to  the 
conscience  of  men.  The  Christians  gave 
their  arguments  against  the  old  gods; 
heathenism  strove,  under  the  form  of  Neo- 
Platonism,  to  reconstruct  a  new  basis  on 
which  to  rest  itself,  but  it  failed,  and  gave 
place  to  deep  skepticism.  Thenceforth  the 
warfare  of  Christianity  was  not  with  Poly¬ 
theism,  but  with  Negation  and  Unbelief. 

The  earliest  argument  adduced  by 
Christian  apologists  was  that  of  the  con¬ 
science — “  Belief  in  God  is  an  opinion  im¬ 
planted  in  the  nature  of  men.”  Cardinal 
Newman  says  that  the  belief  in  God  pre¬ 
sents  more  intellectual  difficulties  than  any 
other  belief,  and  yet  is  ascertain  to  him  as 
the  certainty  of  his  own  existence.  This 
is,  in  fact,  making  a  belief  in  God  a  part  of 
the  moral  consciousness;  and  probably  this 
may  be  regarded  as  a  view  accepted  by  the 
general  voice  of  mankind.  The  conviction 
is  in  man.  His  consciousness  of  himself 
involves  the  consciousness  of  a  power 


which  is  not  himself,  which  has  an  object¬ 
ive  existence.  The  very  consciousness  of 
imperfection  involves  belief  in  a  perfection 
which  must  exist,  above  and  beyond  all 
things.  We  can  conceive  the  existence  of 
a  perfect  Being;  and  such  conception  could, 
not  be  if  there  were  no  ground  for  it.  This 
is  known  as  the  Ontological  argument — the 
cognizance  of  an  existence  outside  of  our¬ 
selves.  The  arguments  of  the  great  School¬ 
men  come  to  the  same  thing:  “  My  reason 
had  a  beginning,  therefore  it  must  have  had 
an  external  Author;”  “  I  feel  myself  to  be 
an  accountable  beiifg,  therefore  there  must 
be  One  superior  to  me  who  can  reward 
and  punish,  otherwise  my  existence  would 
be  a  contradiction.” 

Akin  to  this  is  the  Costnological argument 
— that  which  starts  from  the  sequences  and 
effects  in  the  universe.  Whatever  is  must 
either  have  a  cause  or  be  self-existent.  The 
world  is  every  hour  showing  signs  that  it 
is  not  self-existent;  change  follows  change, 
producing  fresh  phenomena.  This  argument 
has  been  lately  much  strengthened  by  the 
modern  discovery  of  what  is  called  the 
“  dissipation  of  energy,”  which  involves 
as  a  necessary  consequence  the  fact  that 
the  present  constitution  of  things  cannot 
have  lasted  from  eternity,  but  must  have 
had  a  beginning  in  time.  Otherwise,  “  the 
great  clock  must  have  run  down  ”  an  eter¬ 
nity  ago.  Hence  we  are  led  back  step  by 
step  to  an  ultimate  cause  of  all  things, 
whose  self-existence  is  thus  demonstrated. 
Paley  carried  this  principle  another  step. 
The  order,  he  contended,  and  arrangement 
of  the  universe,  and  the  adaptation  of 
means  to  ends,  all  prove  that  a  wise  and 
benevolent  Intelligence  created  the  world. 
This  is  the  substance  of  his  Natural  The¬ 
ology — the  teleological  “  argument  from  de¬ 
sign.”  Of  late,  however,  with  increased 
knowledge  and  greater  development  of 
moral  sensibility,  this  has  been  objected  to, 
on  the  ground  of  the  multiplicity  of  cir¬ 
cumstances  which  mar  the  happiness  of  the 
creation.  Not  only  earthquakes,  famines, 
pestilences,  recur  again  and  again,  but  an¬ 
imals  prey  on  and  torture  each  other.  “  I 
think  the  watch  argument  unanswerable,” 
said  a  late  celebrated  divine,  alluding  to  the 
opening  passage  in  Paley,  where  he  sup¬ 
poses  a  man  seeing  a  watch  for  the  first 
time  and  tracing  out  the  design  of  the 
maker.  “  But  the  watch  keeps  bad  time,” 
was  the  retort  of  a  pupil  of  the  speaker; 
“  wouldn’t  it  be  easy  to  prove  that  the 
devil  made  the  world,  on  Paley’s  lines?” 
The  retort  is  not  a  sound  one,  and  yet 
there  is  a  measure  of  truth  in  it.  There  is 
little  doubt  that  the  sterner  and  apparently 
cruel  facts  of  Nature  do  press  with  awful 
force  upon  many  minds,  which  are  thereby 


God 


(  373  ) 


God 


deterred  from  believing  in  a  benevolent 
Creator:  and  even  Mr.  Mill,  who  held  that 
there  were  many  apparent  tokens  of  design, 
adaptation,  and  even  benevolence,  was  him¬ 
self  brought  to  the  conclusion  that  the 
power  of  a  Being  who  had  given  such 
proofs  of  good-will,  must  be  limited  by  con¬ 
ditions  over  which  he  had  insufficient  con¬ 
trol,  to  account  for  the  phenomena.  There 
can  be  no  doubt  that  Paley’s  view  of  Nature 
was  a  very  imperfect  and  partial  one;  and 
the  difficulty  is  not  removed  by  modern 
ideas  respecting  the  work  of  “general 
laws,”  as  is  sometimes  maintained.  It 
would  rather  appear  that,  as  regards  the 
Christian  Revelation  and  its  view  of  these 
problems,  the  difficulty  has  mainly  arisen 
from  an  altogether  partial  and  imperfect 
view  of  its  field  and  its  scope,  which  has 
been  too  much,  in  popular  teaching,  con¬ 
fined  to  man  himself.  It  is  said  that  the 
contradictions  and  difficulties  of  which  we 
have  spoken  find  their  explanation  in  this 
Revelation,  which  declares  that  through 
certain  causes  mankind  has  become  alien¬ 
ated  from  its  Creator,  and  thereby  has  be¬ 
come  subject  to  sorrow  and  pain.  (Sin.) 
But  the  Christian  believes  that  God  has  re¬ 
stored  mankind  to  a  knowledge  of  himself 
through  Christ,  who  came  into  the  world 
for  the  purpose  of  revealing  the  nature  and 
character  of  God.  He  revealed  God  as  the 
Father,  which  involves  the  great  truth  of 
the  theologian — “  God  is  Love.”  This  is 
true.  But  it  is  too  commonly  taught  as  if 
man  alone  required  such  a  remedial  and 
elevating  agency:  it  has  been  proclaimed 
in  thousands  of  pulpits  that  “  man  alone  is 
out  of  joint  ”  with  the  purposes  of  Crea¬ 
tion,  and  that  all  other  creatures  “  fulfil  the 
end  of  their  being.”  If  this  were  so,  there 
would  be  no  reply  to  the  argument  of  Mill 
and  others;  for  the  moral  difficulty  arises 
precisely  from  our  being  unable  to  see  any 
moral  cause  for,  or  end  in,  so  much  phys¬ 
ical  suffering  as  prevails  in  the  animal 
world  around  us.  But  such  is  not  the 
teaching  of  the  Revelation  itself.  This 
tells  us  plainly  that  the  whole  Creation  also 
does  groan  and  travail  in  pain  together — 
the  fact  is  not  blinked;  and  that  it  also  waits 
for  the  adoption  and  redemption  —  the 
promise  to  it  also  is  not  withheld.  How¬ 
ever  such  words  are  understood,  their 
weight  is  obvious;  and  in  a  far  wider  and 
fuller  recognition  of  them  than  has  been 
usual  must  be  found  the  Christian  answer 
to  such  difficulties  as  these. 

Thus  we  have  seen  that,  as  the  ages 
rolled  on,  it  became  a  necessity  of  the  case, 
and  must  still  remain  so,  for  current  con¬ 
ceptions  of  God  to  be  modified  and  per¬ 
fected  according  to  the  needs  of  the  time. 
The  fulness  of  perfection  cannot  be  seen  by 


any  finite  being;  each  one  will  see  that 
which  presents  itself  to  his  eye.  Imperfect 
conceptions  are  not  imperfect  because  they 
are  partial,  but  because  they  ignore  or 
deny  the  perfect.  Agnosticism  and  Mani- 
chaeism  were  distortions  of  Christian  truths. 
The  half-awakened  mind  of  mediaevalism, 
peopling  the  unknown  world  with  imagi¬ 
nary  dangers,  multiplied  mediators  and  in¬ 
tercession,  until  God  seemed  too  far  remov¬ 
ed  to  be  within  the  hearing  of  his  creatures. 
The  Reformation  was  in  very  truth  a  res¬ 
toration  of  the  one  God  to  his  place  as  the 
centre  of  all  true  theology.  But  the  pop¬ 
ular  views  of  earthly  government  then  in 
vogue  showed  themselves  in  a  notion  of 
God,  which,  in  declaring  his  sovereignty, 
ignored  his  Fatherhood  and  compassion. 
This  was  the  basis  of  Calvinism.  In  revolt 
from  it  came  the  Socinian  theory  that  our 
knowledge  of  God  is  imperfect,  but  suffi¬ 
cient  for  practical  purposes,  and  that  mo¬ 
rality  is  the  way  of  salvation.  The  inquiries 
and  speculations ,  set  on  foot  by  the  sixteenth 
century  revolt  against  traditional  opinion, 
will  probably  last  until  the  end  of  time. 
(Deism;  Pantheism.)  There  can  be  little 
doubt  that  the  crude  language  of  many 
theological  authorities,  of  more  than  one 
school,  seemed  to  present  God  as  if  sepa¬ 
rate  and  apart  from  his  own  creation,  as  if, 
having  once  made  it  and  “ordained  ”  laws 
for  it,  it  might  henceforth  go  on  in  a  fashion 
without  him,  really  Divine  power  and  au¬ 
thority  being  only  henceforth  to  be  seen  in 
miracle  or  other  special  intervention.  This 
subtle  practical  atheism  was  entirely  for¬ 
eign  to  the  Hebrew,  to  whose  mind  God 
spoke  in  the  thunder  and  whispered  in  the 
wind:  but  how  far  it  had  permeated  much 
of  very  “  orthodox”  theology  it  would  be 
easy  to  show.  The  reaction  to  the  Pan¬ 
theistic  view,  that  God  and  the  Universe 
were  one  and  the  same — God  the  All,  of 
which  every  man  or  thing  was  but  a  part — 
was  natural.  But,  on  the  whole,  Christian 
theology  has  probably  gained  from  it,  in 
learning  to  see  everywhere  and  in  every¬ 
thing  the  manifestation  of  Divine  energy, 
acting  in  the  present,  and  bringing  the  In¬ 
finite  presence  home  to  the  very  next 
neighborhood  of  men — as  close  to  their 
actual  bodies,  as  the  Divine  and  Holy 
Spirit  could  draw  nigh  to  their  inmost  souls. 

It  should  further  be  pointed  out  that 
even  the  Agnosticism  of  modern  days  has 
also  helped  to  correct  current  conceptions 
of  God,  and  to  give  to  them  in  some  re¬ 
spects  more  worthy  forms.  As  an  argu¬ 
ment  against  any  real  knowledge  of  God, 
the  Agnostic  argument  is  very  simply  an¬ 
swered.  The  great  leader  of  this  school 
(Mr.  Spencer)  has  himself  shown,  and  it 
has  been  shown  by  physicists  again  and 


God 


(  374  ) 


God 


again,  that  the  Unknowable  confronts  us 
finally,  at  every  point  of  investigation,  in 
the  physical  world  itself.  The  Energy 
that  surrounds  us,  the  simplest  piece  of 
Matter  we  take  in  our  hands,  alike  abso¬ 
lutely  baffle  our  comprehension  at  the  last; 
we  not  only  cannot  know  what  they  really 
are,  but  cannot  even  grasp  any  conception 
of  their  ultimate  reality.  Mr.  Spencer 
himself  ( First  Principles')  very  fairly  de¬ 
monstrates  this,  and  the  demonstration  can 
be  carried  much  farther.  But  we  never¬ 
theless  can  know  and  do  know  very  much 
about  the  physical  universe,  and  this 
knowledge  is  real  and  true  knowledge  so 
far  as  it  goes.  We  know  very  much,  and 
may  learn  yet  much  more,  of  the  modes 
and  manifestations  and  finite  relations  of 
the  Unknowable,  in  their  various  forms. 
Precisely  in  the  same  way,  therefore,  an 
Agnostic  is  bound  in  consistency  to  admit, 
that  though  in  essence  or  ultimate  Reality 
we  cannot  find  him  out,  yet  we  may  know 
much  about  the  Infinite  God,  provided  only 
there  be  such  an  one  to  know,  as  Mr.  Spen¬ 
cer  practically  admits,  and  that  he  chooses 
to  be  known  of  us.  Yet  there  is  much  in  the 
Agnostic  argument  that  is  of  service,  and  is 
indeed  little  more  than  grave  and  just  re¬ 
buke  to  a  coarse  familiarity  of  detail  and 
precision  of  statement  which  a  truer  rever¬ 
ence  for  God  could  never  have  tolerated. 
Divines  have  written  pages  about  what  God 
“  could  ”  or  “  could  not  ”  or  “  must  ”  do, 
and  what  he  “  must  be,”  as  freely  as  if  the 
Divine  Being  were  altogether  such  an  one 
as  ourselves.  Some  protest  against  this  was 
needful;  and  even  in  less  gross  matters 
than  these,  it  may  be  hoped  that  Agnostic 
criticism  has  already  produced  a  tone  of 
more  reverent  caution  and  humility.  To 
take  but  one  instance:  Mr.  Spencer  himself 
has  protested  in  strong  terms  against  cer¬ 
tain  affirmations  made  respecting  the  “  per¬ 
sonality”  of  God,  a  doctrine  essential  to 
the  very  heart  of  a  Christian,  or  to  the 
Christian  life.  But  in  a  recent  article  he 
has  explained  this  protest  in  a  somewhat 
unexpected  way;  stating  that  whereas  he 
had  been  understood  to  mean  that  the  In¬ 
scrutable  Power  (the  term  which  he  prefers 
to  use)  was  a  Being  in  some  sense  “  below  ” 
Personality,  his  meaning  rather  was  that 
what  attributes  such  a  Being  possessed 
must  be  infinitely  “above”  all  that  we 
know  as  such,  as  much  so  as  the  Infinite  is 
above  the  Finite  in  all  other  things.  In 
such  language  there  is  something  to  be 
learned,  which  in  the  end  may  bring  real 
gains  to  Christian  theology. 

Finally,  it  should  be  observed  in  regard 
to  those  means  by  which  God  may  be 
known,  that  those  who  most  profoundly 
study  in  the  comparative  manner  the  pro¬ 


gressive  advances  of  the  idea  of  God  in 
history,  will  also  be  most  profoundly  struck 
with  the  amazingly  distinct  and  advanced 
standpoint,  at  all  times,  of  the  Hebrew  and 
Christian  revelation.  Even  at  a  time  when 
the  other  deities  recognized  in  the  world 
were  themselves  conceived  of  as  sunk  in 
sensuality  and  selfishness,  the  Hebrew  was 
taught  of  one  God,  who  loved  righteous¬ 
ness  and  hated  iniquity,  and  who  would 
judge  the  deeds  of  sinful  men;  he  was  even 
so  penetrated  with  that  idea,  that  the  mis¬ 
fortunes  of  good  men,  instead  of  being  to 
him  a  fate  to  be  borne  in  sullenness  or 
stoicism,  as  by  a  heathen,  were  an  awful 
moral  problem,  to  be  faced  somehow,  and 
wrestled  out  in  anguish  of  spirit  as  a  fun¬ 
damental  one.  It  is  needless  to  trace  the 
same  amazing  superiority  in  further  detail; 
but  it  should  be  noted  that,  since  the  Script¬ 
ures  have  been  collectively  in  possession 
of  the  Church,  they  have  ever  stood  far 
above  such  historical  advances  as  have 
been  above  briefly  reviewed.  They  have 
never  affirmed  the  irreverently  familiar 
declarations  of  some  theologians  concern¬ 
ing  the  Divine  essence  and  attributes;  they 
have  borne  continuous  testimony  against 
the  banishment  of  God  from  his  own  “  com¬ 
mon  ”  world,  which  to  them  is  ever  full  of 
his  holy  presence;  they  have  witnessed  for 
ages  of  liis  long-suffering  love;  and  all  that 
is  true  in  Agnosticism  has  stood  “  written  ” 
in  them  for  centuries;  they  first  taught  to 
man  the  limitations  to  his  knowledge  im¬ 
posed  upon  him  by  the  conditions  of  his 
own  intellect.  It  can  hardly  be  doubted 
that  our  children  will  know  even  more  of 
God  than  we  do,  and  will  form  yet  more 
worthy  conceptions  of  him,  and  will  find 
more  in  the  Scriptures  themselves  than  we 
are  able  to  find.  But  when  it  is  so,  they 
will,  like  ourselves,  find  that  it  is  all  in 
these  Scriptures,  plainly  written  for  them; 
as  we  in  our  time  have  found,  according  to 
the  capacity  given  to  us.  Qualities  like 
these  are  absolutely  unique;  but  they  are 
simple  and  every-day  facts  concerning  the 
Christian  Scriptures.  Such  facts  will  be 
weighty  to  every  really  thoughtful  and  im¬ 
partial  man,  and  will  dispose  him  at  least 
to  examine  with  interest,  and  care,  and  re¬ 
spect,  on  its  own  merits,  what  those  Script¬ 
ures  affirm  concerning  “  what  may  be 
known  ”  of  him,  whom  they  nevertheless 
clearly  allege  will  ever  be  past  finding  out. 
(See,  further,  Trinity;  Holy  Ghost; 
Creeds.) — Benham:  Did.  of  Religion. 

For  recent  literature  see:  Systems  of 
Theology  by  Hodge,  Van  Oosterzee,  Dorner, 
Foster,  Buel,  Strong,  etc.;  Flint:  Theism 
(Edinburgh, 1877);  Diman:  The  Theistic  Ar¬ 
gument  (Boston,  1881);  Harris:  The  Phil¬ 
osophical  Basis  of  Theism  (New  York,  1883). 


God 


(  375  ) 


Goo 


Godet,  Frederic  (Louis),  D.  D.  (Basel, 
1868),  Reformed;  b.  at  Neuchatel,  Swit¬ 
zerland,  Oct.  25,  1812.  After  completing 
his  theological  studies  at  Bonn  and  Berlin, 
under  Neander,  he  was  first  assistant  pas¬ 
tor  at  Valangin,  1837;  tutor  of  the  Crown- 
Prince  of  Prussia  from  1838  to  1844;  in  the 
pastorate,  1845-66;  from  1850  to  1873,  pro¬ 
fessor  of  exegetical  and  critical  theology  in 
the  theological  school  at  Neuchatel,  and 
since  that  time  has  filled  the  same  chair  in 
the  independent  faculty  of  the  Church  in 
that  city.  He  is  the  author  of  a  Commen¬ 
tary  on  the  Gospel  of  St.  John  (1863-65), 
2  vols. ;  3d  ed.  (1881-85),  translated  by 
President  Timothy  Dwight  (New  York, 
1886),  2  vols.;  Luke  (1871),  Eng.  trans. 
revised  by  John  Hall  (New  York,  1881); 
Romans  (1879-80),  Eng.  trans.  revised  by 
T.  W.  Chambers  (New  York,  1883);  Lec¬ 
tures  in  Defense  of  the  Christian  Faith  (Ed¬ 
inburgh,  1881)  ;  Old  Testament  Studies 
(Oxford,  1875;  3d  ed.,  1885);  New  Testa¬ 
ment  Studies  (London,  1876;  6th  ed.,  1885). 

Godfathers  and  Godmothers.  See  Spon¬ 
sors. 

Godfrey  of  Bouillon,  the  leader  of  the 
first  Crusade;  b.  in  Belgium,  about  1060; 
d.  in  Jerusalem,  July,  1100.  In  1095,  at 
the  head  of  eighty  thousand  infantry  and 
ten  thousand  horsemen,  he  marched  for 
the  Holy  Land.  After  many  adventures, 
they  arrived  at  Jerusalem,  and  took  the 
city  in  July,  1099,  after  a  siege  of  five 
weeks.  He  was  elected  king,  but  lived  to 
reign  only  a  single  year.  Tasso  has  im¬ 
mortalized  him  in  his  Jerusale?n  Delivered. 
H  is  piety,  valor,  and  skill  have  given  his 
name  the  first  position  among  the  Cru¬ 
saders. 

Gog  and  Ma'gog  (Ezek.  xxxviii.  2).  Ma¬ 
gog  was  the  name  of  one  of  Japheth’s  sons. 
(Gen.  x.  2.)  It  was  the  general  name  of 
the  country  and  people  in  the  district  north 
of  the  Caucasus.  The  name  of  their  king 
was  Gog,  and  the  hostility  that  existed 
between  them  and  Israel  suggested  their 
association  with  Antichrist.  (Rev.  xx.  8.) 

Go'lan,  a  city  of  Bashan,  and  one  of  the 
three  cities  of  refuge  east  of  the  Jordan. 
(Deut.  iv.  43.)  Some  explorers  place  it 
ten  or  twelve  miles  northeast  of  the  sea 
of  Galilee,  but  the  exact  site  is  unknown. 

Gold.  This  precious  metal,  while  often 
mentioned  in  the  Scriptures,  was  not  coin¬ 
ed  until  after  the  time  of  David.  Its  use 
among  the  Hebrews  was  very  common. 
The  furniture  and  utensils  of  the  Temple 
were  overlaid  with  gold.  It  was  largely 


used  in  the  manufacture  of  personal  orna¬ 
ments  and  insignia  of  office.  Several 
places  are  mentioned  where  gold  was 
found — as  Ophir  (Job  xxviii.  16),  Arabia 
(2  Chron.  ix.  14),  Sheba  (Ezek.  xxvii.  22). 

Golden  Legend,  a  collection  of  legends 
of  the  saints  compiled  by  the  Dominican, 
Jacobus  de  Voraigne,  in  the  thirteenth  cen¬ 
tury.  It  is  without  historical  value,  but 
throws  much  light  on  the  superstitions  of 
the  Middle  Ages. 

Golden  Number,  in  chronology,  that 
number  which  indicates  the  year  of  the 
cycle  of  the  moon,  which  cycle  is  equal  to 
nineteen  Julian  years.  “  It  is  called  the 
Golden  Number  because  in  old  calendars  it 
was  written  in  letters  of  gold  on  account 
of  its  great  utility  in  ecclesiastical  computa¬ 
tions,  especially  in  fixing  the  time  of 
Easter.” 

% 

Golden  Rose,  an  ornament  made  of 
wrought  gold  and  set  with  gems.  After 
being  blest  by  the  pope  with  much  cere¬ 
mony,  on  the  fourth  Sunday  in  Lent,  it  is 
sent  as  mark  of  peculiar  favor  to  some 
church,  community,  or  person.  It  is  diffi¬ 
cult  to  trace  the  origin  of  this  custom,  but 
it  appears  to  be  as  old  as  the  time  of 
Gregory  the  Great.  If  in  any  particular 
year  no  one  is  thought  worthy  to  receive  the 
rose,  it  is  preserved  in  the  Vatican. 

Gomarus,  Francis,  b.  at  Bruges,  1563; 
d.  at  Groningen,  1641.  He  studied  at 
Cambridge,  Oxford,  and  Heidelberg,  and 
after  preaching  some  years  at  Frankfort  he 
was  appointed  professor  of  divinity  at  Ley¬ 
den  in  1594.  He  resigned  this  position 
(1611)  because  Vorstius  was  elected  as  suc¬ 
cessor  of  A-rminius,  and  in  1614  became 
professor  of  theology  at  Saumur,  and  in 
1618  professor  of  divinity  and  Hebrew  at 
Groningen.  He  was  present  at  the  Synod 
of  Dort  in  1618,  and  was  the  leader  of  the 
Calvinistic  party  which  secured  the  expul¬ 
sion  of  the  Arminians  from  the  Reformed 
Church.  “  He  was  a  man  of  great  learn¬ 
ing,  and  very  bigoted  in  his  views.”  His 
collected  works  were  published  in  Amster¬ 
dam,  1645.  See  Arminianism. 

Go'mer  ( perfect ),  (1)  the  eldest  son  of 
Japheth,  supposed  to  be  the  progenitor  of 
the  ancient  Cimmerians,  and  of  the  present 
Celtic  peoples  of  Europe.  (2)  The  woman 
married  by  Hosea  as  described  in  his  pro¬ 
phetic  vision  (i.  3). 

Gomor'rah.  See  Sodom. 

Good-Friday,  the  Friday  before  Easter, 


Goo 


(  37^  ) 


Gor 


observed  by  a  very  large  part  of  Christen¬ 
dom  as  the  anniversary  of  the  passion  and 
death  of  Christ.  In  the  early  Church  it  was 
kept  as  a  day  of  the  strictest  fasting  and 
humiliation.  At  the  present  time  the  Greek 
and  Roman  churches  celebrate  the  day  with 
strict  severity.  In  the  latter,  the  officiating 
clergy  wear  black  garments,  the  altar  is 
stripped,  the  candles  are  not  lighted,  and 
the  usual  Communion  is  omitted. 

Goodness  of  God  denotes  “  both  the  ab¬ 
solute  perfection  of  his  own  nature,  and  his 
kindness  manifested  to  his  creatures.  Good¬ 
ness  is  essential  to  God,  without  which  he 
would  not  be  God.  (Ex.  xxxiii.  19;  xxxiv. 
6,  7.)  Goodness  belongs  only  to  God;  he 
is  solely  good  (Matt.  xix.  17),  and  all  the 
goodness  found  in  creatures  is  only  an 
emanation  of  the  divine  goodness.  He  is 
the  chief  good,  the  sum  and  the  substance 
of  all  felicity.  (Psa.  cxliv.  2,  15;  xxv.  7; 
Ixxiii.  25;  iv.  6,  7.)  There  is  nothing  but 
goodness  in  God,  and  nothing  but  goodness 
comes  from  him.  (1  John  i.  5;  James  i,  13, 
14  .)"—GilL 

Goodell,  William,  D.  D.,  b.  at  Temple¬ 
ton,  Mass.,  Feb.  14,  1792;  d.  in  Phila¬ 
delphia,  Feb.  18,  1867.  He  was  graduated  at 
Dartmouth  College,  1817,  and  at  Andover 
Seminary,  1820.  Under  commission  from 
the  American  Board  he  sailed  for  Beyrout 
in  1822.  He  remained  here  until  1828, 
when  all  of  the  missionaries  were  compelled 
to  leave  Syria.  In  1831  he  founded  a  new 
mission  among  the  Armenians  of  Constan¬ 
tinople,  where  he  labored  with  great  fidelity 
and  success  until  1865.  He  was  a  man  of 
rare  gifts  of  mind  and  heart,  and  greatly 
beloved.  He  translated  the  Bible  into 
Armeno-Turkish.  See  Forty  Years  in  the 
Turkish  Empire:  or.  Memoirs  of  Rev.  Wil¬ 
liam  Goodell ,  D .  D .,  by  E.  D.  G.  Prime. 

Goodwin,  John,  a  learned  Arminian  di¬ 
vine  and  controversialist;  b.  in  Norfolk, 
1 593 »  d.  1665*  Educated  at  Cambridge,  he 
became  vicar  of  St.  Stephen’s,  London,  in 
1633,  but  was  ejected  for  writing  against 
the  Presbyterians  (1645),  and  then  restored 
by  Cromwell,  whose  favor  he  gained  by 
two  tracts:  Right  and  Might  Well  Met , 
which  justified  the  action  of  the  army 
against  Parliament,  and  The  Obstructors  of 
fustice ,  in  defence  of  the  High  Court  of 
Justice  that  condemned  Charles  I.  At  the 
Restoration  he  was  deprived  of  his  living, 
and  his  writings  were  publicly  burned.  He 
has  been  called  the  “  Wiclif  of  Methodism.” 
Wesley  republished  his  work  on  Justifica¬ 
tion.  Opponents  to  his  views,  like  Dr. 
Owen,  acknowledge  his  great  learning  and 
ability. 


Goodwin,  Thomas,  an  eminent  Puritan 
divine  of  the  seventeenth  century;  b.  at  Rol- 
lesby,  Norfolk,  Oct.  5,  1600;  d.  in  London, 
Feb.  23,  1679.  A  graduate  and  fellow  of  * 
Cambridge,  he  was  licensed  as  a  preacher 
of  the  University  in  1625,  and  three  years 
later  became  lecturer  and  vicar  of  Trinity 
Church.  Dissatisfied  with  the  Act  of  Con¬ 
formity,  he  resigned  his  preferments  and 
retired  to  London.  In  1639  he  became 
pastor  of  a  little  company  of  refugees  and 
English  merchants  at  Arnheim,  Holland. 
On  the  breaking  out  of  the  Rebellion  he 
returned  to  England  where,  after  minister¬ 
ing  some  years  to  an  Independent  congre¬ 
gation  in  London,  he  was  elected  president 
of  Magdalen  College,  Oxford,  where  he  re¬ 
mained  until  the  Restoration.  He  was  a 
member  of  the  Westminster  Assembly. 
His  published  works  consist  chiefly  of  his 
sermons. 

Gopher-wood,  the  material  of  which  the 
ark  was  constructed.  (Gen.  vi.  14.)  It 
was  probably  the  cypress,  an  exceedingly 
durable  wood,  which  abounded  in  Syria, 
and  was  very  commonly  used  in  shipbuild¬ 
ing. 

Gorham  Case.  In  1847  the  Rev.  G.  C. 
Gorham  was  presented  by  the  Lord  Chan¬ 
cellor  to  the  living  of  Brampford  Speke,  in 
Devon;  but  the  bishop  of  Exeter,  Dr.  Phil- 
potts,  then  almost  the  only  decided  High- 
Churchman  on  the  bench,  refused  to  insti¬ 
tute  him,  on  the  ground  that  he  was  un¬ 
sound  in  doctrine  in  denying  that  regener¬ 
ation  is  in  all  cases  wrought  by  baptism. 
Mr.  Gorham  appealed  to  the  law,  and  in 
1849  Sir  Herbert  J.  Fust,  Dean  of  the 
Court  of  Arches,  decided  against  him,  on 
the  ground  that  Baptismal  Regeneration  is 
undoubtedly  the  doctrine  of  the  Church  of 
England.  Mr.  Gorham  then  appealed  to 
the  Privy  Council,  and  the  case  having 
been  again  argued,  judgment  was  given  on 
March  8,  1850,  reversing  the  decision  of 
the  court  below,  on  the  ground  that  a  dif¬ 
ference  of  opinion  had  existed  among  the 
Reformers,  and  ever  since  among  English 
Churchmen.  This  judgment  (which  gave 
rise  to  much  subsequent  controversy) 
proceeded  on  the  assumption  that  the  court 
had  no  jurisdiction  or  authority  to  settle 
matters  of  faith,  or  to  determine  what 
ought  in  any  particular  to  be  the  doctrine 
of  the  Church  of  England;  “  the  duty  ex¬ 
tends  only  to  the  consideration  of  that 
which  is  by  law  established  to  be  the  doc¬ 
trine  of  the  Church  of  England,  upon  the 
true  and  legal  construction  of  her  articles 
and  formularies.”  The  two  archbishops 
acquiesced  in  this  judgment;  the  bishop  of 
London  did  not.  Mr.  Gorham  was,  in  con- 


Gor 


(  377  ) 


Got 


sequence,  admitted  to  the  vicarage.  The 
excitement  led  to  the  secession  of  a  few 
eminent  men  from  the  Church,  among 
them,  two  of  the  Wilberforces  and  Arch¬ 
deacon  Manning.  The  general  result  of 
the  controversy,  however,  was  a  pretty 
general  agreement  that  the  judgment  of  the 
Dean  of  Arches  correctly  embodied  the  doc¬ 
trine  of  the  Anglican  Church  concerning 
the  sacrament  of  baptism. — Benham:  Diet, 
of  Religion. 

Gorton,  Samuel,  b.  at  Groton,  Eng., 
about  1600;  d.  in  Warwick,  R.  I.,  1677. 
He  was  a  linen-draper  by  trade,  but  be¬ 
coming  deeply  interested  in  religious  dis¬ 
cussions,  and  seeking  full  liberty,  he  em¬ 
igrated  to  Boston  in  1636.  He  soon  made 
trouble  by  his  peculiar  views,  and  from 
Plymouth  was  banished  for  heresy.  With  a 
few  followers  he  went  to  Rhode  Island;  but 
his  opinions  were  still  obnoxious,  and  from 
Aquidneck  he  went  to  Providence  and  from 
there  to  Shawomet,  where  he  purchased 
land  from  the  Indians  (1642).  In  1643  with 
ten  of  his  sect  he  was  tried  in  Boston  for 
heresy,  and  sentenced  to  prison  at  hard  labor 
in  chains.  He  was  released  in  the  follow¬ 
ing  spring,  but  ordered  to  leave  the  colony 
within  fourteen  days.  He  sailed  for  Eng¬ 
land,  but  returned  in  1648  with  an  order 
from  the  Earl  of  Warwick  to  the  Massa¬ 
chusetts  magistrates  that  they  should  not 
again  disturb  the  colony  at  Shawomet. 
“  They  contemned  a  clergy  and  all  outward 
forms,  held  that  by  union  with  Christ  be¬ 
lievers  partook  of  the  perfection  of  God; 
that  Christ  is  both  human  and  divine,  and 
that  heaven  and  hell  have  no  existence  save 
in  the  mind.” 

This  sect  soon  died  out.  See  Life  of 
Samuel  Gorton  (Boston  1848). 

Go'shen.  See  Egypt. 

Gospel  (from  the  Anglo-Saxon  god-spell , 
good  tidings)  is  the  English  equivalent 
of  the  Greek  euaggelion ,  which  signifies 
“glad”  or  “good  tidings.”  The  term  is 
used  to  designate  the  four  biographies  of 
our  Lord  by  Matthew,  Mark,  Luke  and 
John.  Of  these  four  Canonical  Gospels, 
the  first  three  were  probably  written  be¬ 
tween  A.  D.  60  and  70,  and  the  last  toward 
the  close  of  the  first  century.  Each  Gos¬ 
pel  has  its  own  characteristics,  but  that  of 
John,  by  its  deep  and  sublime  unfolding 
of  the  “  heart  of  Christ,”  supplements  the 
others  in  a  peculiar  manner.  “  The  argu¬ 
ments  for  the  genuineness  of  the  Gospels, as 
varied  as  they  are  convincing,  are  such  as 
these:  (i)The  direct  testimonies  of  writers 
in  the  second  century  and  later;  (2)  the 
quotations  found  in  the  writings  of  the 


authors  known  as  the  Fathers;  (3)  ancient 
translations,  as  the  Itala  and  Peshito,  dat¬ 
ing  from  the  second  century;  (4)  the  atti¬ 
tude  of  heretic  and  heathen  opponents, who, 
like  Celsus  (180),  did  not  call  in  question 
the  genuineness  of  the  records,  although 
they  denied  the  credibility  of  a  part  of  their 
contents.  Basilides,  a  Gnostic  heretic, 
knew  the  Gospel  of  John  as  early  as  125, 
and  Marcion,  another  Gnostic,  about  150, 
made  use  of  a  mutilated  Gospel  of  Luke. 
The  language  in  which  the  Gospels  were 
written  was  the  Greek,  with  the  probable 
exception  of  Matthew,  written  in  Hebrew; 
and  there  can  be  little  doubt  that  we  now 
have,  with  the  exception  of  a  few  readings, 
the  documents  as  they  left  the  hands  of 
the  writers.” — Schaff:  Bible  Did.  A  large 
number  of  Apocryphal  Gospels ,  of  late  and 
obscure  origin,  are  rejected  as  spurious. 
See  Apocrypha  of  the  New  Testament, 
p.  42. 

Gospeller,  a  name  given  (1)  to  the  follow¬ 
ers  of  Wycliffe  as  distributers  of  the  Bible; 
(2)  Evangelists;  (3)  The  reader  of  the  gos¬ 
pel  at  the  altar  during  communion  service; 
(4)  Of  those  in  England  during  the  six¬ 
teenth  century  who  professed  to  be  great 
readers  of  the  Bible  and  went  about 
preaching. 

Gotama.  See  Buddhism. 


Gothic  Architecture.  This  name  was 
given  in  contempt,  to  the  style  so  desig¬ 
nated,  by  partisans  of  the  Classical  style  of 
architecture,  who  meant  it  to  signify  “  bar¬ 
barous;”  but  it  has  been  universally  adopt¬ 
ed  to  express  the  whole  range  of  mediaeval 
architecture.  There  was  an  attempt  made 
to  get  rid  of  the  implied  slur  by  using  the 
word  “  Pointed  ”  instead,  but  this  never 
gained  ground,  and  is  repudiated  by  the 
best  authorities.  Mr.  J.  H.  Parker,  in 
fact,  declares  it  a  misnomer,  inasmuch  as 
he  includes  round-headed  arches.  He 


gives  the  following  as  convenient  epochs 
of  the  successive  Gothic  styles: 


Early  Norman  1060 — 1090 

Norman . .  1090 — 1160 

Transition  ....  1160 — 1195 
Early  English.  1x89 — 1272 
Transition..  ..  1272 — 1300 


Decorated....  1300 — 1377 

Transition _ 1360—1399 

Perpendicular  1377 — 1547 
Late,  or  Debased,  to  end 
of  17th  century. 


Gottschalk,  a  monk,  and  the  originator 
of  the  predestination  controversy  in  the 
ninth  century;  b.  at  or  near  Mentz  about 
806;  d.  in  the  monastery  of  Hautvillers, 
867.  In  early  life  an  earnest  student  of 
Augustine  and  Fulgentius,  he  came  in  con¬ 
flict  with  the  authorities  of  the  Church  by 
the  promulgation  of  his  views  on  predes¬ 
tination.  After  varied  wanderings  he 
reached  Mayence  while  the  general  Diet 


Got 


(  378  ) 


Goz 


was  sitting,  and  laid  his  views  before  a 
synod  of  German  bishops  convened  by 
Rabanus,  who  had  already  accused  the 
monk  of  heresy.  Gottschalk  charged  Ra¬ 
banus  with  semi-Pelagianism,  but  his  doc¬ 
trines  were  condemned,  and  in  the  spring 
of  849  Hincmar,  archbishop  of  Rheims, 
called  a  synod  of  French  bishops,  who  or¬ 
dered  his  paperg  to  be  burnt.  He  was 
cruelly  scourged,  and  shut  up  in  the  mon¬ 
astery  at  Hautvillers.  On  his  deathbed 
he  was  offered  the  sacrament  on  condition 
that  he  should  recant,  butjie  refused. 

Goths,  Conversion  of.  After  the  occu¬ 
pation  of  the  Lower  Danube  by  the  Goths, 
in  the  third  century,  they  made  frequent 
raids  into  the  Roman  territory,  and  among 
the  prisoners  taken  by  them  were  Chris¬ 
tians.  Their  life  and  teachings  won  the 
regard  of  those  with  whom  they  were 
brought  in  contact,  and  the  number  con¬ 
verted  to  Christianity  became  so  great 
that  a  Gothic  bishop  appeared  at  the  Coun¬ 
cil  of  Nice  (325).  The  great  missionary 
among  the  Goths  was  Ulphilas  (y.  v.),  who 
was  sprung  from  one  of  their  captive  fam¬ 
ilies.  He  was  made  bishop  in  348.  The 
persecutions  of  Athanaric,  the  West  Goth, 
compelled  Ulphilas  to  seek  refuge  in  the 
Roman  territory  in  355;  and  having  settled 
at  Nicopolis,  in  Moesia,  he  carried  on  his 
work  through  missionaries,  whom  he  train¬ 
ed  for  upwards  of  thirty-three  years.  Af¬ 
ter  the  division  of  the  nation,  Fritigern, 
Athanaric’s  rival,  espoused  the  cause  of 
the  Christians.  From  370  the  whole  terri¬ 
tory  was  open  to  Christian  missionaries. 
After  the  capture  of  Rome  by  the  Goths, 
in  378,  they  were  substantially  Christian, 
and  Arian  in  faith.  Even  Athanaric  con¬ 
fessed  himself  a  Christian.  The  conver¬ 
sion  of  the  West  Goths  followed  the  occu¬ 
pation  of  Spain  (456),  and  of  the  East 
Goths  after  they  were  absorbed  with  other 
nations  in  Italy. 

Gouge,  William,  an  eminent  Puritan  di¬ 
vine;  b.  in  Stratford  Bow,  Eng.,  1575;  d.  in 
London,  1653.  He  was  a  graduate  of  Cam¬ 
bridge  and  a  fellow  of  King’s  College  .where 
for  some  time  he  was  lecturer  on  logic  and 
philosophy.  He  was  ordained  in  1608  and 
was  minister  of  St.  Ann’s,  Blackfriars, 
London,  for  forty-five  years.  In  1643  he 
was  appointed  a  member  of  the  Westmin¬ 
ster  Assembly, inwhich  he  took  a  prominent 
part,  and  assisted  in  the  preparation  of  the 
Westminster  Confession  of  Faith.  Among 
hispublished  works  the  most  important  are: 
The  Whole  Armor  of  God  (1616);  Domestic 
Duties  (1622).  His  last  work,  finished  just 
before  his  death,  was  a  Commentary  on  the 
Epistle  to  the  Hebrews.  See  Neal:  History 


of  the  Puritans;  Reid:  Mem.  of  Westmin¬ 
ster  Divines  ( 1 8 1 1 ) ;  Life,  by  his  son,  pre¬ 
fixed  to  his  Works  (1665). 

Gough,  John  Bartholomew,  the  fa¬ 
mous  temperance  orator;  b.  at  Sandgate, 
Kent,  Eng.,  Aug.  22,  1817;  d.  in  Philadel¬ 
phia,  Feb.  18,  1886.  In  early  life  he  came 
to  this  country,  and  under  the  stress  of 
poverty  and  temptation,  when  but  a  young 
man,  he  formed  intemperate  habits,  from 
which  he  was  rescued  by  the  kind  efforts 
of  Christian  friends.  From  1843  until  the 
time  of  his  death  he  labored  earnestly  in 
behalf  of  the  cause  of  temperance,  and  for 
many  years  was  the  most  popular  lecturer 
in  the  United  States.  See  his  Autobiography 
and  Personal  Recollections  { 1869);  Temper¬ 
ance  Lectures  (1879);  Sunlight  and  Shadow; 
or,  Gleanings  fro?n  my  Life-work  (1881); 
Platform  Echoes  (1886). 

Goulburn,  Very  Rev.  Edward  Meyrick, 
D.  D.  (Oxford,  1856),  D.  C.  L.  (Oxford, 
1850),  b.  in  England,  1818;  was  educated 
at  Eton  and  studied  at  Oxford;  ordained 
deacon  in  1842  and  priest  in  1843;  curate  of 
Holywell,  Oxford,  1841-50;  head-master 
of  Rugby,  1850-58;  one  of  her  majesty’s 
chaplains  and  incumbent  of  St.  John’s,  Pad¬ 
dington,  London,  1859—66;  dean  of  Nor¬ 
wich,  1866;  resigned  in  the  year  1889.  He 
wrote :  The  Resurrection  of  the  Body  ( Bamp- 
ton  Lectures  of  1850);  Introduction  to  the 
D evotional  Study  of  the  Holy  Scriptures 
(London,  1854,  10th  ed.,  1878);  Thoughts  on 
Personal  Religion  (1862,  17th  ed.,  1885); 
The  Pursuit  of  Holiness  (1869,  5th  ed., 
1873);  The  Holy  Catholic  Church  (1873,  2d 
ed.,  1875);  The  Administration  of  the  Lords 
Supper  (1875,  2d  ed.,  1875);  Everlasting 
Punishment  (1880,  2d  ed.,  1880);  Thoughts 
on  the  Liturgical  Gospels  for  the  Sundays 
(1883),  2  vols. ;  Three  Counsels  of  the  Divine 
Master  for  the  Spiritual  Life(  1888),  2  vols. 

Gourd,  “  the  plant  mentioned  in  Jonah 
iv.  5-10,  the  identification  of  which  has 
given  rise  to  so  much  discussion.  It  is 
now  believed  to  have  been  what  is  called 
the  Bottle  Gourd,  or  by  botanists  the 
Cucurbita ,  which  has  large  leaves,  is  of 
rapid  growth,  and  is  used  for  shading  ar¬ 
bors,  as  may  still  be  seen  in  gardens  about 
Sidon.  The  Wild  Gourd,  mentioned  in  2 
Kings  iv.  39,  is  understood  to  be  the  colo- 
cynth,  which  sends  out  very  long  tendrils 
and  bears  a  great  quantity  of  fruit.  It  is 
used  as  a  medicine,  and  is  bitter  and  dras¬ 
tic.” — Bagster:  Bible  Helps. 

Go'zan.  Originally  the  name  of  a  city,  it 
was  later  applied  to  a  district  of  Mesopo¬ 
tamia.  (2  Kings  xvii.  6;  xviii.  n;  1  Chron. 


Gra 


(  379  ) 


Gra 


v.  26;  Isa.  xxxvii.  12.)  It  was  probably 
identical  with  the  Gauzanitis  of  Ptolemy, 
and  was  watered  by  the  Habor,  the  modern 
Khabour,  a  branch  of  the  Euphrates. 

Graal,  or  Grail,  the  Holy,  the  name  giv¬ 
en  to  the  dish  or  shallow  bowl  from  which 
Christ  is  said  to  have  eaten  the  paschal  lamb 
at  the  Last  Supper.  Among  the  legends  of 
mediaeval  times  was  one  that  affirmed  that 
Joseph  of  Arimathaea,  after  the  Supper, took 
it  from  the  upper  room,  and  when  Christ’s 
body  was  taken  from  the  cross  drops  of 
blood  that  trickled  from  his  wounds  were 
received  in  it.  Joseph  carried  it  to  Britain, 
where  it  worked  many  miracles.  Lost  by 
an  unworthy  descendant,  it  was  sought  for 
by  King  Arthur’s  knights.  Sir  Galahad 
alone  possessed  the  qualities  of  personal 
purity  that  enabled  him  to  find  it.  This 
legend  is  curiously  intermingled  with  the 
mystery  of  the  eucharist  in  the  romances 
of  the  Middle  Ages.  It  probably  was  orig¬ 
inated  by  Walter  Map  in  the  twelfth  cen¬ 
tury.  Tennyson  has  made  it  the  subject  of 
one  of  his  idyls. 

Grace  (the  English  equivalent  of  the 
Greek  word,  charis).  There  are  various 
senses  in  which  this  word  is  used  in  Script¬ 
ure,  but  the  general  idea  of  it,  as  it  relates 
to  God,  is  his  free  favor  and  love.  As  it 
respects  men,  it  implies  the  happy  state  of 
reconciliation  and  favor  with  God  wherein 
they  stand,  and  the  holy  endowments, 
qualities,  or  habits  of  faith,  hope,  love, 
etc.,  which  they  possess.  Divines  have 
distinguished  grace  into  common  or  general, 
special  or  particular .  Common  grace,  if  it 
may  be  so  called,  is  what  all  men  have,  as 
the  light  of  nature  and  reason,  convictions 
of  conscience,  etc.  (Rom.  ii.  4;  1  Tim.  iv. 
18.)  Special  grace  is  that  which  is  peculiar 
to  Christians.  They  are,  by  God’s  favor, 
chosen  out  of  the  world,  redeemed,  par¬ 
doned,  justified.  (Rom.  viii.  28-30.)  This 
grace  so  bestowed  becomes  the  principle  of 
life,  and  brings  forth  good  works  in  those 
to  whom  it  is  given.  Consequently  the 
apostle  exhorts  to  “ growth  in  grace  ” — that 
is,  to  progress  in  the  divine  life.  Such 
growth  discovers  itself  by  an  increase  of 
spiritual  light  and  knowledge;  by  the  re¬ 
nunciation  of  self,  and  dependence  on 
Christ  ;  by  growing  more  spiritual  in 
duties;  by  being  more  humble,  submissive 
and  thankful  ;  by  rising  superior  to  the 
corruptions  of  our  nature,  and  finding  the 
power  of  sin  more  weakened  in  us;  by  be¬ 
ing  less  attached  to  the  world,  and  possess¬ 
ing  more  of  a  heavenly  disposition. — 
Benham:  Diet,  of  Religion.  “  The  design 
of  grace  is  the  perfection  of  man,  and  his 
glorification  in  heaven.  The  reward  he 


will  there  receive  will  be  in  consequence 
of  works  of  faith;  but  he  will  receive  it  on 
the  basis  of  grace,  and  from  the  hands  of 
grace.  ” — Lange. 

Gradual,  a  sentence  from  the  psalms 
sung  in  the  communion  office  after  the 
reading  of  the  Epistle, as  the  deacon  ascends 
the  steps  of  the  altar  to  read  the  Gospel. 
The  name  comes  from  the  Latin  gradus, 
a  step.  The  term  is  also  applied  to  other 
parts  of  the  service  that  are  chanted  from 
the  steps  of  the  chancel  or  the  ambo. 

Graham,  Isabella,  worthy  of  remem¬ 
brance  as  “  a  pioneer  in  woman’s  work  for 
woman  in  America;”  b.  in  Lanark,  Scot¬ 
land,  July  29,  1742;  d.  in  New  York,  July 
27,  1814.  She  married,  in  1765,  Dr.  Gra¬ 
ham,  a  surgeon  in  the  English  army,  with 
whom  she  went  first  to  Canada  and  then  to 
Antigua,  where  he  died.  Returning  to  her 
native  land,  she  taught  for  a  time  at  Paisley 
and  Edinburgh.  Through  the  advice  of 
Dr.  Witherspoon,  her  old  pastor  at  Paisley, 
who  had  become  the  president  of  Princeton 
College,  she  came  to  New  York  and  estab¬ 
lished  a  successful  school  for  young  ladies. 
She  organized  in  1796  the  New  York  Mis¬ 
sionary  Society  for  the  Indians,  and  in  1797 
aided  in  founding  the  society  for  the  relief 
of  widows  with  young  children.  In  other 
ways  she  actively  engaged  in  Christian  and 
philanthropic  labor.  See  Life  and  Letters , 
by  Dr.  Mason  (her  pastor,  London,  1838); 
Life  of  Isabella  Graham,  Tract  Society,  N. 
Y.,  by  Mrs.  Bethune,  her  daughter  and  the 
mother  of  Dr.  Bethune. 

Grant,  Asahel,  M.  D.,  b.  in  Marshall, 
N.  Y.,  Aug.  17,  1807;  d.  at  Mosul,  Persia, 
April  24,  1844.  He  was  practicing  medi¬ 
cine  in  Utica,  N.  Y.,  when  he  became  in¬ 
terested  in  the  work  of  foreign  missions, 
and  was  sent  out  by  the  American  Board 
in  1835  to  labor  among  the  Nestorians  of 
Persia.  He  gained  the  confidence  of  the 
Persian  officials  and  was  enabled  to  do  much 
for  the  people  among  whom  he  spent  the 
last  years  of  his  life.  He  published  The 
Nestorians ;  or.  The  Lost  Tribes.  See  Laurie: 
Grant  and  The  Mountain  Nestorians  (Bos¬ 
ton,  1856). 

Grapes,  the  fruit  of  the  vine.  The  soil 
and  the  climate  of  Palestine  are  peculiarly 
suited  to  the  growth  of  the  vine.  Single 
clusters  of  grapes  in  vineyards  a  little  west 
of  Jerusalem  grow  to  such  size  that  it  is 
impossible  for  one  person  to  carry  them 
safely.  They  were  dried  as  raisins,  and 
boiled  down  into  a  syrup  called  dibs  (He¬ 
brew  honey).  It  was  this  honey  of  grapes, 
and  not  bees’  honey,  that  Jacob  sent  down 


Gra 


(  33o  ) 


Gre 


to  Egypt  (Gen.  xliii.  11),  and  which  the 
merchants  of  Tyre  traded  in.  (Ezek.  xxviii. 
17.)  The  Hebrew  law  forbade  the  gathering 
of  grapes  until  the  vine  was  three  years 
old  (Lev.  xix.  23),  and  it  was  required  that 
some  should  be  left  on  the  vines  and  ground 
for  the  poor  to  gather  and  eat  in  the  vine¬ 
yard.  (Lev.  xix,  10.) 

Grasshopper,  a  species  of  locust  (render¬ 
ed  “  locust  ”  in  2  Chron.  vii.  13).  They 
were  sometimes  used  for  food.  (Lev.  xi. 
22.)  Singly  they  were  very  feeble,  but  in 
great  numbers  exceedingly  destructive. 
(Num.  xiii.  33;  Isa.  xl.  22;  Amos.  vii.  1.) 

Gratian,  Roman  emperor,  ascended  the 
throneinthe  West  in375;  in  the  East,  378;  d. 
383.  Under  the  influence  of  Ambrosius  he 
was  extremely  intolerant  in  making  Cathol¬ 
icism  dominant.  In  376  he  forbade  all  her¬ 
etics  toassemble  forany  religious  purposes, 
confiscated  their  church  property,  and  gave 
their  buildings  to  the  control  of  the  Cath¬ 
olics.  In  377  all  officers  of  the  Catholic 
Church  were  exempted  from  personal 
taxes  and  municipal  services.  Two  years 
before  his  death’he  chose  Theodosius  as 
his  co-regent,  and  pagans  were  treated 
with  the  same  severity  as  heretics.  Those 
who  apostatized  from  Christianity  to  pa¬ 
ganism  were  not  permitted  to  make  wills. 
Sacerdotal  privileges  and  all  State  support 
were  withdrawn  from  pagans,  and  the  prop¬ 
erty  of  pagan  temples  confiscated. 

Gratian,  a  monk  of  the  Camaldolensian 
order,  and  famous  as  the  author  of  that 
corpus  decretorum  or  decretum  which  bears 
his  name.  He  lived  in  the  middle  of  the 
twelfth  century.  See  Canon  Law. 

Gratry,  Father,  b.  at  Lille,  March  30, 
1805;  d.  at  Montreux,  near  Lausanne,  Feb. 
7,  1872.  After  studying  at  Paris  he  en¬ 
tered  the  convent  of  Buchenberg  in  the 
Vosges,  where  he  remained  until  the  revo¬ 
lution  of  1830,  when  the  convent  was  dis¬ 
solved.  He  was  professor  of  theology  and 
philosophy  in  the  seminary  at  Strasburg 
(1830-42),  and  in  the  Stanislas  College, 
Paris  (1842-47).  He  reestablished  the  or¬ 
der  of  the  Oratorians  in  1852,  and  from 
1878  lectured  in  the  Sorbonne.  He  wrote 
four  letters  against  the  doctrine  of  papal 
infallibility  while  the  Vatican  Council  was 
in  session,  but  accepted  the  dogma  after  it 
was  promulgated.  His  writings,  devo¬ 
tional  and  philosophical,  had  considerable 
Influence. 

Graven  Images.  See  Idolatry. 

Graves,  Richard,  D.  D.,  b.  1763;  d. 


1829;  Dean  of  Ardagh,  and  Regius  Profess¬ 
or  of  Divinity  in  Trinity  College,  Dublin. 
Among  other  theological  books,  that  on  the 
Pentateuch  (Donnellan  Lectures,  1797-1801) 
is  still  regarded  as  a  standard  work. 

Greece.  In  1879,  out  °f  a  population  of 
1, 679,775,  a  very  large  majority  belonged 
to  the  Orthodox  Greek  Church.  At  this 
time  there  were  only  16,084  persons  be¬ 
longing  to  other  churches,  and  most  of 
these  were  Roman  Catholics.  The  country 
is  divided  into  eleven  archbishoprics  and 
thirteen  bishoprics,  whose  salaries  are  paid 
by  the  State.  The  lower  clergy  receive  no 
pay,  but  live  upon  the  fees  which  they  re¬ 
ceive  for  prayers,  consecrations  and  other 
services.  The  Greek  Church  is  the  strong¬ 
est  power  in  the  nation,  and  it  has  been  al¬ 
most  impossible  for  Protestant  missions 
to  gain  a  foothold.  The  American  Church 
Missionary  Society  still  supports  the 
school  that  was  founded  by  Dr.  Hill.  The 
Southern  Presbyterian  Church  has  two 
missionaries  and  a  fine  church  building  at 
Athens,  and  there  is  a  Baptist  mission. 
The  name  of  the  Rev.  Dr.  Jonas  King, 
who  died  in  1869  (see  art.),  is  most  prom¬ 
inent  in  the  missionary  service  accom¬ 
plished  in  Greece. 

Greek  Church,  a  branch  of  the  Eastern 
Church  (y.  v.).  Its  separation  from  the 
Mother-Church  took  place  in  the  eleventh 
century,  after  a  long  struggle,  since  known 
as  the  Filioque  Controversy  ( q .  v. ).  To 
the  article  of  the  Council  of  Constantinople, 
which  declared  that  the  Holy  Ghost  “  pro- 
ceedeth  from  the  Father,”  the  Western 
Church  added  “and  the  Son,”  and  the 
words  gradually  came  to  be  used  in  service. 
In  the  ninth  century  Pope  Leo  III.  was  ap¬ 
pealed  to,  and  commanded  the  disuse  of 
the  words,  and  a  second  Council  of  Con¬ 
stantinople  confirmed  his  decree;  and  the 
matter  would  have  been  allowed  to  rest, 
but  for  the  jealousy  which  existed  between 
Rome  and  Constantinople,  on  account  of 
which  the  former  revived  the  use  of  the 
words.  The  Greek  Church  resisted,  and 
in  1053  Pope  Leo  IX.  excommunicated  the 
patriarch  of  Constantinople,  and  all  others 
who  refused  to  accept  the  Roman  doctrine. 
The  Patriarch  Michael  Cerularius,  hoping 
to  reverse  the  sentence,  invited  legates 
from  the  pope  to  come  to  Constantinople 
to  negotiate  for  peace.  They  came  accord¬ 
ingly,  but,  entering  the  Church  of  St. 
Sophia,  they  repeated  the  pope’s  sentence 
of  excommunication,  laid  the  sentence  on 
the  altar,  and  returned  to  Rome.  This  took 
place  on  June  16th,  1054,  from  which  time 
the  final  separation  of  East  and  West  may 
be  said  to  date.  The  patriarch  summoned 


Gre 


(33i) 


Gre 


a  council,  and  in  his  turn  pronounced  ex- 
communication  against  the  pope,  with  the 
support  of  about  a  thousand  bishops  and 
other  clergy.  Attempts  were  several  times 
made  to  effect  a  reconciliation,  but  without 
success.  The  Greek  Church  of  the  present 
day  remains  in  doctrine  and  ceremonial 
almost  entirely  as  it  was  at  the  time  of  its 
separation.  The  chief  points  of  difference 
from  the  Roman  Church  are  the  omission 
of  the  “  Filioque  ”  from  the  Nicene  Creed, 
and  the  denial  of  the  papal  supremacy. 
The  doctrine  of  the  Trinity  and  of  the  In¬ 
carnation  and  life  of  Christ  are  exactly  the 
same  as  those  of  the  Western  Church,  and 
the  Greeks  follow  the  Romans  with  regard 
to  the  belief  in  Purgatory  and  in  the  Seven 
Sacraments.  They  hold  the  Blessed  Virgin 
and  the  saints  in  much  reverence,  and  great 
importance  is  attached  to  the  sacred  pict¬ 
ures,  or  icons ,  which  abound  in  their 
churches,  houses,  and  streets.  Beyond  the 
Nicene  Creed  there  are  no  doctrinal  tests. 
The  ceremonial  of  the  Greek  Church  is 
more  elaborate  than  that  of  any  other,  and 
the  number  of  its  services  is  remarkable; 
sermons  are  almost  unknown.  Threefold 
immersion  is  practised  in  Baptism,  the 
Communion  is  administered  to  infants,  and 
in  both  kinds,  and  prayer  is  made  standing. 
In  other  points  there  is  little  difference 
from  the  ritual  of  the  Roman  Church.  The 
secular  priests  are  obliged  to  marry  once, 
but  not  more  than  once.  Monasteries  and 
convents  are  very  numerous,  and  the  monks 
are  under  severe  discipline.  Many  Chris¬ 
tians  spend  their  lives  in  wandering  from 
one  monastery  to  another  in  their  pilgrim¬ 
age,  and  are  always  hospitably  received. 
The  largest  .nd  most  famous  of  these  build¬ 
ings  is  Troitsa,  which  has  numbers  of 
churches  and  a  university  within  its  walls. 
— Benham:  Diet,  of  Religion.  See  Eastern 
Church. 

Greek  Language.  See  Hellenistic 
Greek. 

Greek  Versions.  See  Bible,  p.  105. 

Greeks,  in  Scripture,  are  distinguished  as 
either  Greeks  by  lineage  (Acts  xvi.  1; 
xviii.  4),  or  else  Gentiles,  as  opposed  to  the 
Jews.  (Rom.  ii.  9,  10;  Gal.  iii.  28.)  “  Gre¬ 
cians  ”  were  foreign-born  Jews.  (Acts  vi.  1; 
xi.  20.)  The  Greeks  and  Jews  first  came 
in  contact  when  the  Tyrians  sold  the  Jews 
to  the  Greeks.  (Joel  iii.  6.) 

Green,  Ashbel,  D.  D.,  LL.  D.,  an  influ¬ 
ential  minister  of  the  Presbyterian  Church; 
b.  at  Hanover,  N.  J. ,  July  6,  1762  ;  d.  at 
Philadelphia,  May  19,  1848.  After  graduat¬ 
ing  from  Princeton  in  1783  he  was  con¬ 


nected  with  the  college  for  a  time,  and 
then  became  pastor  of  the  Second  Presby¬ 
terian  Church  in  Philadelphia  (1787-1812). 
He  was  one  of  the  founders  of  the  Prince¬ 
ton  Seminary,  and  president  of  the  College 
(1812-22).  He  was  editor  of  the  Christian 
Advocate ,  published  in  Philadelphia  (1822- 
1834).  He  was  a  recognized  leader,  and 
the  part  which  he  took  in  the  trial  of 
Albert  Barnes,  and  in  other  ways,  did 
much  to  bring  about  the  division  of  the 
Presbyterian  denomination  in  1837.  His 
Life ,  begun  by  himself,  was  completed  by 
J.  H.  Jones  (New  York,  1849). 

Green,  William  Henry,  D.  D.  (Prince¬ 
ton  College,  1857),  LL.  D.  (Rutgers  Col¬ 
lege,  New  Brunswick,  N.  J.,1873),  Presby¬ 
terian;  b.  at  Groveville,  near  Bordentown, 
N.  J.,  Jan.  27,  1825  ;  was  graduated  at 
Lafayette  College,  Easton,  Penn.,  1840,  and 
at  Princeton  Theological  Seminary,  1846; 
from  1846  to  1849  he  acted  as  instructor  in 
Hebrew  in  the  seminary,  and  from  1849  to 
1851  was  pastor  of  the  Central  Presbyterian 
Church,  Philadelphia,  when  called  to  the 
chair  of  Oriental  and  Old  Testament  litera¬ 
ture  in  Princeton  Seminary,  which  he  has 
since  filled.  He  was  chairman  of  the  Amer¬ 
ican  Old  Testament  Revision  Company, 
and  has  published  :  A  Grammar  of  the 
Hebrew  Language  (1861,  4th  ed.,  1885); 
Moses  and  the  Prophets  (1883);  The  Hebrew 
Feasts  in  their  Relation  to  Recent  Critical 
Hypotheses  concerning  the  Pentateuch  (1885). 

Gregorian  Tones,  ancient  melodies  which 
are  named  from  Gregory  the  Great.  He 
wrought  so  entire  a  change  in  the  church 
music  that  a  large  part  of  the  ancient 
music  is  called  by  his  name. 

Gregory  Illuminator,  the  apostle  of  Ar¬ 
menia;  b.  about  257,  at  Valarshabad,  in 
the  province  of  Ararat,  Armenia;  d.  in  the 
wilderness  of  Manyea,  in  the  province  of 
Taran,  332.  He  received  a  Christian  edu¬ 
cation  at  Caesarea,  Cappadocia,  and  on  his 
return  he  was  the  means  of  converting 
King  Teridates  III.  and  many  other  of  his 
countrymen.  After  his  consecration  as 
bishop  of  Armenia,  that  country  was  the 
first  in  which  Christianity  was  adopted  as 
the  religion  of  the  State.  The  year  pre¬ 
vious  to  his  death  he  lived  as  a  hermit  in 
the  wilderness. 

Gregory,  St.,  surnamed  Thaumaturgus 
( the  miracle-worker)\  b.  at  Neo-Caesarea, 
near  the  close  of  the  second  century;  d. 
about  270.  Of  a  noble  and  wealthy  heathen 
family,  he  studied  civil  law,  but  was  con¬ 
verted  (about  231)  by  Origen,  and  became 
his  pupil.  When  he  returned  to  Cappa- 


Gre 


(  382  ) 


Gre 


docia,  some  five  years  later,  it  was  his  de¬ 
sire  and  purpose  to  live  a  solitary  life,  but 
the  urgent  requests  of  Origen  and  others 
prevailed,  and  he  was  consecrated  bishop 
of  his  native  town  (about  240).  This  office 
he  filled  with  great  ability  and  zeal  for 
some  thirty  years.  It  is  said  that  at  his 
death  there  were  only  seventeen  persons 
in  the  city  who  had  not  embraced  Chris¬ 
tianity.  He  took  an  active  part  in  the 
doctrinal  controversies  of  the  time,  and 
was  himself  accused  of  Sabellianism. 
See  his  Life ,  by  Victor  Ryssel  (Leipzig, 
1S80). 

Gregory,  St.,  of  Nazianzus,  one  of  the 
four  great  fathers  of  the  Eastern  Church; 
b.  about  329,  at  Nazianzus,  Cappadocia. 
His  father  was  bishop  of  the  diocese,  and 
his  mother,  whose  influence  over  him  was 
very  great,  was  a  woman  of  remarkable 
gifts  and  devotion.  He  studied  at  Caesarea, 
Alexandria,  and  Athens,  and  at  the  latter 
place  formed  a  friendship  with  Basil.  His 
natural  inclinations  favored  a  life  of  schol¬ 
arly  retirement  and  religious  devotion,  but 
the  progress  of  events  made  this  impos¬ 
sible.  The  Emperor  Constantius  sought 
to  impose  a  semi-Arian  formula  upon  the 
bishops.  The  aged  father  of  Gregory 
yielded  to  the  threats  of  the  emperor,  but 
the  monks  of  his  diocese  raised  such  a 
commotion  that  it  was  only  quelled  by  the 
most  active  efforts  of  his  son.  Not  long 
after,  he  was  ordained  to  the  priesthood, 
and  in  372  he  was  made  bishop  of  Sasima. 
He  appears  to  have  given  little  attention 
to  this  small  and  retired  diocese,  but  for 
some  time  still  aided  his  father  at  Nazian¬ 
zus,  after  whose  death  (374),  he  went  to 
Seleucia  in  Isauria.  His  fame  as  a  learned 
disciple  of  Origen  and  Athanasius  led  the 
orthodox  party  at  Constantinople,  now  in 
great  extremity,  to  seek  his  assistance. 
He  came  to  Constantinople,  much  against 
his  will,  about  379.  His  ability  and  elo¬ 
quence  soon  gathered  great  congregations, 
and  he  proved  a  noble  defender  of  the  faith. 
From  his  famous  five  discourses  on  the 
Trinity,  he  is  supposed  to  have  received  the 
surname  of  “  Divine.”  After  Theodosius 
came  to  Constantinople  and  expelled  the 
Arians,  Gregory  was  made  bishop.  This 
promotion  developed  in  some  quarters  a 
jealousy  which  he  made  an  occasion  for  re¬ 
tirement  from  his  office.  The  rest  of  his 
life  was  spent  at  Nazianzus  and  on  his 
estates  at  Arianzus,  where  he  devoted  him¬ 
self  to  literary  pursuits.  Most  of  his  poet¬ 
ical  pieces  were  composed  in  these  years. 
His  writings  consist  of  orations,  letters,  and 
poems.  The  best  edition  of  his  works  is 
that  of  the  Benedictines  (Paris,  1778-1840). 
His  Life  by  Ullmann  (1825),  was  translated 


into  English  by  G.  F.  Coxe(i857).  Selec¬ 
tions  from  his  works  in  vol.  vi.  of  The 
Ante-Nicene  Fathers  (New  York,  1890). 

Gregory  of  Nyssa,  St.,  a  Greek  Church 
father,  and  the  younger  brother  of  Basil 
the  Great;  b.  in  Cappadocia  about  332;  d. 
about  395.  Educated  under  the  guidance 
of  his  famous  brother,  he  entered  the 
Church  at  an  early  age  and  held  the  office  of 
reader.  After  wavering  in  purpose  for  a 
time,  he  was  finally  ordained  bishop  of 
Nyssa,  about  372,  by  his  brother  Basil. 
He  opposed  the  Arian  heresy  with  such 
vigor  that  through  the  influence  of  the 
party  then  dominant  under  the  Emperor 
Valens,  he  was  driven  into  exile  (375)  from 
which  he  returned  after  the  edict  of  Gratian 
in  378.  At  the  great  oecumenical  council 
held  at  Constantinople  in  381,  he  was  an 
acknowledged  leader  among  the  champions 
of  the  orthodox  faith.  In  many  ways  his 
ability  and  eloquence  found  recognition  in 
special  services.  A  strict  trinitarian,  his 
views  were  in  sympathy  with  Origen  re¬ 
garding  the  doctrine  of  final  restoration. 
He  was  the  author  of  a  work  on  the  Crea¬ 
tion,  several  theological  treatises,  letters, 
sermons,  etc. 

Gregory  of  Tours,  b.  at  Arverna,  540;  d. 
at  Tours,  594.  Of  noble  descent  he  was 
chosen  bishop  of  Tours  in  573,  and  showed 
great  ability  in  the  conduct  of  his  diocese. 
Besides  a  work  on  miracles,  he  wrote  a 
History  ( Annates  Francorum),  which  is  the 
most  important  source  of  the  history  of 
Gaul  in  the  sixth  century. 

Gregory  the  Great,  the  first  pope  of  that 
name,  was  b.  at  Rome,  about  540;  d.  there, 
March  12,  604.  Of  a  noble  family,  he 
studied  law,  and  in  his  thirtieth  year  was 
elected  praetor  urbanus  (571-574).  The 
death  of  his  father  deepened  his  religious 
convictions,  and  giving  up  his  fortune  to 
pious  purposes  he  joined  the  Benedictines. 
He  was  soon  appointed  abbot  of  his  mon¬ 
astery,  and  entrusted  with  important  nego¬ 
tiations  by  the  papal  court.  He  was  sent 
to  Constantinople  by  Pelagius  II. ,  where  he 
remained  for  three  years.  Upon  the  death 
of  Pelagius  (590),  Gregory  was  unanimous¬ 
ly  elected  pope.  He  sought  in  every  way 
to  escape  the  honor,  but  having  ascended 
the  papal  throne  he  discharged  his  duties 
with  extraordinary  vigor.  The  aggres¬ 
sions  of  the  Lombards  were  checked, 
ecclesiastical  discipline  enforced,  the  lit¬ 
urgy  of  the  Church  developed,  and  the 
Roman  dogmas  strengthened.  He  was  the 
originator  of  the  system  of  sacred  music 
known  as  “  Gregorian.”  There  are  many 
editions  of  his  works. 


Gre 


(  383  ) 


Gri 


Gregory  VII.,  or  Hildebrand,  b.  about 
1015,  at  Soano,  Tuscany;  d.  at  Salerno, 
May  25,  1085.  Of  humble  origin,  he  was 
educated  at  a  monastery  in  Rome.  In  1046 
he  became  chaplain  to  Gregory  VI.,  whom 
he  followed  into  his  exile  in  Germany. 
After  the  death  of  Gregory  he  retired  to 
Clugny,  where  he  gained  a  reputation  for 
learning,  and  was  frequently  sent  to  the 
imperial  court  on  ecclesiastical  business. 
A  friendship  formed  with  Bruno,  bishop 
of  Toul,  about  the  time  he  became  pope 
under  the  title  of  Leo  IX.  (1049),  gave  him 
the  position  of  cardinal  and  deacon,  and  he 
was  entrusted  with  important  missions. 
The  Roman  people  desired  to  elect  him 
pontiff  on  the  death  of  Leo  IX.,  but  he  de¬ 
clined  the  honor.  He  took  an  active  part 
in  the  election  of  popes  Victor  II.,  Stephen 
IX.,  Nicholas  II.,  and  Alexander  II.  Dur¬ 
ing  their  brief  reigns  the  influence  of  Hilde¬ 
brand  was  predominant.  Upon  the  death 
of  Alexander  II.  (1073),  he  acquiesced  in  the 
universal  demand  of  the  people,  and  was 
ordained  to  the  priesthood,  and  a  few  days 
afterwards  consecrated  pope  by  the  title  of 
Gregory  VII.  From  this  time  forward  he 
employed  all  the  resources  at  his  command 
to  establish  the  supremacy  of  the  Church 
over  the  state,  and  the  supremacy  of  the 
pontifical  power  within  the  Church.  In 
1075  he  called  a  council  at  Rome  which 
forbade  kings  and  princes  from  further 
giving  the  investure  of  sees  and  abbeys  by 
conferring  the  ring  and  crosier.  Henry 
IV.  disregarded  the  command,  and  ap¬ 
pointed  bishops  as  before.  The  summons 
of  Gregory,  calling  the  king  to  Rome  to  an¬ 
swer  for  his  conduct,  was  met  with  haughty 
defiance.  Henry  called  together  a  Diet  of 
the  Empire,  attended  by  many  bishops  and 
abbots,  who  declared  Gregory  deposed. 
Gregory  at  once  summoned  a  council  at  the 
Lateran,  and  excommunicated  Henry.  By 
the  law  of  the  empire,  if  this  sentence  were 
not  removed  within  a  year  his  throne  and 
all  its  rights  were  forfeited.  The  readiness 
of  his  Saxon  subjects  to  carry  out  the  plan 
compelled  the  emperor  to  yield.  In  mid¬ 
winter  he  journeyed  to  Canossa,  in  Lom¬ 
bardy,  to  seek  the  pope’s  pardon.  For 
three  days  Gregory  kept  him  waiting  in  the 
snow  of  the  courtyard  before  meeting  him 
and  absolving  him.  Henry  at  once  began 
to  plot  revenge.  The  papal  excommuni¬ 
cation  was  renewed  (107S),  but  in  the  wars 
that  followed  he  was  successful.  Again 
and  again  he  pushed  his  arms  to  the  gates 
of  Rome,  and  in  the  spring  of  1084,  through 
the  treachery  of  some  of  the  nobles  of  the 
city,  he  gained  an  entrance.  Gregory 
sought  refuge  in  the  castle  of  St.  Angelo, 
while  Guibert  was  made  pope  under  the 
title  of  Clement  III.  After  his  coronation 


Henry  returned  to  Germany.  Released  by 
Robert  Guiscard,  the  Norman  duke,  who 
had  hastened  to  his  relief,  Gregory  ex¬ 
communicated  both  Henry  and  Clement. 
Feeling  that  his  position  was  insecure  at 
Rome,  in  May,  1804  he  placed  himself  under 
Robert’s  protection  at  Salerno,  where  he 
died  the  following  year. 

Greswell,  Edward,  a  learned  writer  on 
Chronology  and  on  Gospel  Harmony;  b. 
1797;  d.  at  Oxford,  Eng.,  1869.  He  was 
vice-principal  of  Corpus  Christi  College, 
Oxford,  at  the  time  of  his  death.  His 
works  have  received  the  highest  commen¬ 
dation. 

Grey  Friars.  See  Franciscans. 

Griesbach,  Johann  Jakob,  an  eminent 
textual  critic  of  the  New  Testament;  b.  at 
Butzbach,  Hesse-Darmstadt,  Jan.  4,  1745; 
d.  at  Jena,  March  24,  1812.  He  was  edu¬ 
cated  at  Tubingen,  Halle,  and  Leipzig;  and 
after  traveling  ^extensively  on  the  conti¬ 
nent  and  in  England,  he  returned  to  Halle 
in  1772,  where  he  was  made  professor  two 
years  afterward.  In  1775  he  accepted  a 
call  to  Jena,  where  he  spent  the  remainder 
of  his  life.  His  labors  mark  the  beginning 
of  a  new  era  in  the  textual  study  of  the 
Greek  New  Testament.  Of  the  many  edi¬ 
tions  of  Griesbach’s  text,  the  first  appeared 
at  Halle  in  1774-75:  principal  ed.,  Halle 
and  London,  1796,  1806,  2  vols.;  Leipzig, 
1803-1807,  4  vols.  He  published  several 
critical  works.  “  In  theology,  Griesbach 
took  a  position  midway  between  the  con¬ 
servative  and  radical  schools.” 

Griffen,  Edward  Dorr,  an  eloquent  pul¬ 
pit  orator,  and  president  of  Williams  Col¬ 
lege;  b.  Jan.  6,  1770,  at  East  Haddam, 
Conn.;  d.  at  Newark,  N.  J.,  Nov.  8,  1837. 
He  was  graduated  at  Yale  College  in 
1790,  and  studied  theology  with  Dr.  Ed¬ 
wards,  afterward  president  of  Union  Col¬ 
lege.  He  was  called  to  the  pastorate  (in 
1794)  of  the  Congregational  Church  at 
Farmington;  but  the  council,  twice  called, 
would  not  ordain  him  on  account  of  his 
views  on  baptism  and  the  doctrines  of 
grace.  He  accepted  a  call  to  New  Hart¬ 
ford,  Conn.,  in  1795,  where  his  labors  were 
greatly  blessed.  In  1801  he  became  col¬ 
league  of  Dr.  McWhorter,  in  the  First 
Presbyterian  Church  in  Newark,  and  pas¬ 
tor  in  1807.  At  the  founding  of  Andover 
Seminary  he  was  called  to  the  chair  of  pul¬ 
pit  eloquence  in  1809;  accepted  the  pastor¬ 
ate  of  Park  Street  Church,  Boston,  in  1811; 
returned  to  Newark,  1815,  as  pastor  of 
the  Second  Church,  and  in  1821  was  elect¬ 
ed  president  of  Williams  College,  where 


Gri 


(  384  ) 


Gro 


he  remained  till  1836.  As  a  pulpit  orator 
he  had  a  great  reputation.  He  published: 
Lectures  Delivered  in  Park  Street  Church 
(Boston,  1813)  ;  The  Extent  of  the  Atone¬ 
ment  (N.  Y. ,  1819);  his  Sermons ,  with  Me¬ 
moir  of  his  Ldfe ,  by  Dr.  Sprague.  See 
Cooke:  Recollections  of  E.  D.  Griff en  (Bos¬ 
ton,  1866). 

Griffis,  William  Elliot,  D.  D.  (Union 
College,  Schenectady,  N.  Y. ,  1884),  Con¬ 
gregationalism  b.  in  Philadelphia,  Pa., 
Sept.  17,  1843;  was  graduated  at  Rutgers 
College,  New  Brunswick,  N.  J.,  1869,  and 
at  Union  Theological  Seminary,  New  York 
City,  1877;  pastor  of  the  First  Reformed 
Church,  Schenectady,  N.  Y.,  1877,  and 
since  1886  of  the  Shawmut  Congregational 
Church,  Boston,  Mass.  He  was  in  the 
educational  service  of  the  Japanese  Gov¬ 
ernment,  1871-74,  and  is  the  author  of  sev¬ 
eral  volumes  on  Japan  and  Corea.  The 
best  known  are:  The  Mikado's  Em  fire  (New 
York,  1876;  4th  ed.,  1885);  Corea ,  the  Her¬ 
mit  Nation  (1882;  2d  ed.,  1885).  He  has 
also  written  a  Life  of  Co??imodore  Matthew 
Calbraith  Perry  (1886)  ;  The  Lily  Among 
Thorns  [a  study  of  the  Song  of  Solomon] 
.(1889). 

Grindal,  Edmund,  archbishop  of  Canter¬ 
bury,  wasb.  at  St.  Bees  in  1519.  He  studied 
at  Oxford  under  Bishop  Ridley,  to  whom 
he  became  chaplain  in  1552.  The  reign  of 
Queen  Mary  he  spent  in  exile  at  Strasburg 
and  Frankfort.  On  his  return  to  England 
he  became  Master  of  Pembroke  College, 
and  soon  after  bishop  of  London.  He 
showed  himself  a  warm  partisan  of  the 
Reformation,  but  was  anxious  to  bring 
peace  to  the  Church.  Nicholas  Gallais,  a 
French  writer,  in  a  letter  to  Grindal, 
speaks  of  him  as  working  against  the  Ana¬ 
baptists,  and  states  that  he  “  kept  the  rash 
and  innovating  within  bounds,  repressed 
the  insolent  and  refractory,  humbled  the 
proud,  protected  the  innocent,  appeased 
quarrels  and  disputes,  and  made  himself  a 
veritable  Irenaeus  and  peacemaker."  Grin¬ 
dal  was  preferred  to  the  archbishopric  of 
York,  and  in  1575  succeeded  Parker  at 
Canterbury.  He  found  the  diocese  in  a 
very  unsatisfactory  state.  A  good  account 
of  it  may  be  found  in  the  notes  of  a  visita¬ 
tion  held  a  year  and  a  half  before  Grindal’s 
translation  to  the  primacy.  Parker  says 
that  about  sixty  parishes  had,  little  or  no 
religious  teaching.  Grindal  accordingly 
exerted  himself  to  encourage  the  revival 
of  preaching,  and  to  restore  to  the  Church 
a  learned  and  faithful  ministry.  Queen 
Elizabeth  ordered  him  to  stop  the  meet¬ 
ings  for  “  prophesyings.”  He  refused,  and 
was  suspended.  She  even  contemplated 


his  deposition.  He  died  in  1583.  His 
writings,  which  are  unimportant,  are  pub¬ 
lished  by  the  Parker  Society. — Benham: 
Did.  of  Religion. 

Grosseteste,  Robert,  the  greatest  scholar 
of  his  age,  and  sometimes  called  “  The 
Harbinger  of  the  Reformation;”  b.  about 
1175;  d.  at  Buckden,  Oct.  9,  1253.  He  was 
made  bishop  of  Lincoln  in  1235,  and  at 
once  began  a  work  of  reform.  He  insisted 
that  the  religious  houses  should  provide 
suitable  clergy  for  the  parishes  from  which 
they  drew  their  support.  At  first  he  was 
an  earnest  supporter  of  the  papal  author¬ 
ity,  but  the  action  of  Innocent  IV.  in  giv¬ 
ing  some  of  the  richest  benefices  in  Eng¬ 
land  to  Italians,  who  drew  their  revenues 
but  never  entered  the  country,  aroused  his 
indignation.  Visiting  Rome  for  the  pur¬ 
pose  of  securing  a  greater  control  over  the 
monasteries  which  were  free  from  the 
jurisdiction  of  the  bishops,  he  was  so 
deeply  impressed  with  the  abuses  prevail¬ 
ing  at  the  papal  court  that,  at  a  council 
held  at  Lyons  in  1250,  he  declared  in  a  ser- 
*  mon,  with  fearless  courage,  that  the  Ro¬ 
man  pontiff  and  his  court  “  was  the  foun¬ 
tain  and  origin  of  all  the  evils  of  the 
Church.”  The  work  of  the  priest  he  said, 
did  not  consist  merely  in  “  celebrating  the 
mass,  but  in  teaching  the  living  truth.” 
He  refused  to  obey  the  pope,  who  had 
asked  that  his  nephew,  Fredric  di  Lav- 
agna,  should  be  appointed  a  canon  of  Lin¬ 
coln.  Some  writers  state  that  Grosseteste 
was  excommunicated  by  the  pope,  but  the 
great  honor  which  was  shown  at  his  burial 
seems  to  disprove  this.  Matthew  Paris,  in 
hisjjchronicles,  says:  “  He  was  the  open  re- 
buker  of  both  the  pope  and  the  king,  cen¬ 
sor  of  prelates,  corrector  of  monks,  in¬ 
structor  of  clerks,  an  unwearied  examiner 
of  the  books  of  Scripture,  a  crusher  and 
despiser  of  the  Romans.”  Although  Ed¬ 
ward  I.  made  the  request,  he  was  never 
canonized.  See  Life  of  Grosseteste  by 
Pegge  (London,  1793),  Lechler  (Leipzig, 
1867),  and  Perry  (London,  1871). 

Grotius,  Hugo,  an  eminent  Dutch  states¬ 
man  and  theologian;  b.  at  Delft,  April  10, 
1583;  d.  at  Rostock,  Aug.  29,  1645.  In 
youth  he  was  a  prodigy  of  learning,  and  at 
twenty-three  was  advocate-general  of  Hol¬ 
land.  He  espoused  the  cause  of  the  Ar- 
minians,  and  took  an  active  part  in  the 
theological  controversies  of  his  time. 
When  the  Gomarists  (Calvinists)  gained 
control  of  affairs  he  was  condemned  (1619) 
to  life-imprisonment.  He  finally  escaped 
to  France,  where  he  received  a  pension 
from  Louis  XIII.,  and  remained  until  the 
enmity  of  Richelieu  compelled  him  to  seek 


Gro 


(  3S5  ) 


Gui 


refuge  in  Sweden.  After  spending  ten 
years  under  the  kind  protection  of  Queen 
Christina,  permission  was  granted  him  to 
return  to  his  native  land,  but  death  over¬ 
took  him  on  his  journey  thither.  His 
works  are  numerous,  and  treat  of  theol¬ 
ogy,  jurisprudence,  history,  and  literature. 
“  Grotius  was  an  Arminian,  but  disclaimed 
Pelagianism,  and,  in  his  Defense  of  the 
Catholic  Faith  Concerning  the  Satisfaction  of 
Christ  against  Socinus  (1617),  denied  any 
leanings  toward  Socinianism.  Departing 
from  the  strict  Anselmic  theory,  he  sub¬ 
stituted,  in  place  of  a  real  satisfaction  on 
the  part  of  Christ,  a  divine  acquittal  for 
Christ’s  sake.  In  Christ’s  death,  which 
satisfied  God’s  majesty,  and  exhibited 
his  detestation  of  sin,  he  saw  a  terri¬ 
ble  example  of  punishment,  designed  to 
deter  man  from  sin.” — Hagenbach .  See 
Motley:  John  of  Barneveld,  vol.  ii.  chap, 
xxii. 

Grove.  “A  word  used  in  the  A.  V. , 
with  two  exceptions,  to  translate  the  mys¬ 
terious  Hebrew  term,  Asherah,  which  is  not 
a  grove,  but  probably  an  idol  or  image  of 
some  kind.  (See  Asherah.  )  It  is  also  prob¬ 
able  that  there  was  a  connection  between 
this  symbol  or  image,  whatever  it  was,  and 
the  sacred  symbolic  tree,  the  representation 
of  which  occurs  so  frequently  on  Assyrian 
sculptures.  (2)  The  two  exceptions  noticed 
above  are  Gen.  xxi.  33,  and  1  Sam.  xxii.  6 
(margin).  In  the  religions  of  the  ancient  hea¬ 
then  world,  groves  play  a  prominent  part. 
In  the  old  times,  altars  only  were  erected  to 
the  gods.  It  was  thought  wrong  to  shut  up 
the  gods  within  walls,  and  hence,  as  Pliny 
expressly  tells  us,  trees  were  the  first  tem¬ 
ples;  and  from  the  earliest  times  groves  are 
mentioned  in  connection  with  religious  wor¬ 
ship.  (Gen.  xii.  6,  7;  xiii.  iS;  Deut.  xi.  30; 
A.  V.  ‘plain.’)  The  groves  were  generally 
found  connected  with  temples,  and  often 
had  the  right  of  affording  an  asylum.  Some 
have  supposed  that  even  the  Jewish  Tem¬ 
ple  had  an  enclosure  planted  with  palm  and 
cedar  (Psa.  xcii.  12,  13)  and  olive  (Psa.  lii. 
8),  as  the  mosque  which  stands  on  its  site 
now  has.  This  is  more  than  doubtful;  but 
we  know  that  a  celebrated  oak  stood  by  the 
sanctuary  at  'Shechem.  (Josh.  xxiv.  26; 
Judg.  ix.  6.)  There  are  in  Scripture  many 
memorable  trees:  e.g. ,  Allon-bachuth  (Gen. 
xxxv.  8),  the  tamarisk  in  Gibeah  (1  Sam. 
xxii.  6),  the  terebinth  in  Shechem  (Josh, 
xxiv.  26)  under  which  the  law  was  set  up; 
the  palm-tree  of  Deborah  (Judg.  iv.  5),  the 
terebinth  of  enchantments  (Judg.  ix.  37), 
the  terebinth  of  wanderers  (Judg.  iv.  11), 
and  others.  (1  Sam.  xiv.  2;  x.  3,  sometimes 
‘plain’  in  A.  V.)  This  observation  of 
particular  trees  was,  among  the  heathen, 


extended  to  a  regular  worship  of  them.” — 
Smith:  Did.  of  the  Bible. 

Grundtvig,  Nicolai  Frederik  Severin, 
b.  at  Udby,  on  the  Island  of  Sealand,  Sept. 
8,  1783;  d.  in  Copenhagen,  Sept.  2,  1872. 
While  a  teacher  at  Copenhagen,  from  1809 
to  1822,  he  gained  reputation  as  a  poet  and 
historian.  A  few  published  sermons  and  his 
View  of  the  Worlds  Chronicle  revealed  his 
power  as  a  religious  writer.  In  1821  he  be¬ 
came  pastor  at  Praestoe,  and  the  following 
year  chaplain  of  the  Church  of  our  Saviour 
at  Copenhagen.  From  this  time  he  became 
a  recognized  leader  of  religious  thought. 
He  sternly  opposed  the  rationalistic  opin¬ 
ions  then  prevalent,  and  was  an  earnest  ex¬ 
ponent  of  Churchly  views.  His  position  and 
teaching  brought  him  into  conflict  with 
both  the  civil  and  ecclesiastical  authorities, 
and  he  was  suspended.  An  influential 
party  sympathized  with  him  and  was. 
known  as  “  Grundtvigians.”  In  1839 
became  pastor  of  the  Varton  in  Copenha¬ 
gen  where  he  remained  until  his  death. 
His  principal  theological  work  was  True 
Christianity.  A  collection  of  sermons,  the 
Sunday  Book ,  had  a  wide  circulation,  as  did 
a  Hymn-book  which  he  prepared.  His  in¬ 
fluence  was  very  great  upon  the  religious 
life  of  his  countrymen. 

Guelf  and  Ghibelline  were  the  German 
names  first  used,  it  is  said,  as  a  battle-cry 
at  Weinsberg  (1 140).  They  represented,  on 
the  one  side  the  princes  with  their  efforts 
for  independence,  and  on  the  other  the 
emperor  with  his  assertion  of  authority. 
Transferred  to  Italy,  the  names  were  given 
to  the  adherents  of  the  emperor  (the  Ghib- 
ellines)  and  the  supporters  of  the  claims 
of  the  pope  (the  Guelfs).  This  distinction 
was  carried  into  all  the  rivalries  and  con¬ 
flicts  where  these  forces  were  brought  in 
contact. 

Guido  of  Arezzo,  a  Benedictine  monk,  cel¬ 
ebrated  for  the  improved  methods  which 
he  introduced  of  teaching  church  music. 
He  wrote  two  books  on  this  subject  about 
the  year  1028,  and  is  said  to  have  named 
the  six  notes  of  the  gamut  from  the  hymn: 

UT  queant  taxis, 

RE -son  are  fibris, 

MI -ra  gestorum, 

FA-muti  tuorum, 

SOh-ve  polluti, 

FA-bii  reatum. 

Guilds  (A.  S.  gildan ,  to  pay)  were  orig¬ 
inally  associations  in  towns  intended  to  pro¬ 
mote  the  common  weal,  and  resembling 
modern  “Friendly  Societies.”  They  were 
the  real  germs  of  municipal  corporations. 
Then  arose  religious  guilds,  of  which  there 


Gui 


(  336  ) 


Gut 


were  several  in  the  Middle  Ages,  for  the 
performance-of  works  of  mercy , and  carrying 
on  religious  services.  The  revenues  of 
these  guilds  were  seized  by  Henry  VIII. 
at  the  time  of  the  dissolution  of  the  mon¬ 
asteries.  The  revival  of  religious  guilds 
in  our  own  time  is  one  of  the  results  of 
the  High  Church  in  England.  The  first 
was  established  in  1851,  the  Guild  of  St. 
Alban  of  Birmingham,  which  consisted 
entirely  of  communicants  of  the  Church  of 
England,  and  may  be  regarded  as  a  type 
of  such  institutions.  The  official  report 
says  of  it: 

The  Objects  of  the  Guild  are — (1)  To  assist 
the  clergy  in  maintaining  the  Catholic  faith, 
and  to  spread  a  knowledge  of  the  true  doc¬ 
trines  of  the  Church,  especially  those  hav¬ 
ing  reference  to  the  Holy  Trinity,  the 
Incarnation  and  Atonement  of  our  Lord 
Jesus  Christ,  and  the  graces  conferred  in 
and  by  the  Sacraments.  (2)  To  oppose 
latitudinarianism,  rationalism,  and  infidel¬ 
ity-  (3)  To  support  the  independence  in 
spiritual  matters  of  the  Church  of  England, 
and  all  Churches  in  communion  with  her. 
(4)  To  revive  and  maintain  a  religious  ob¬ 
servance  of  all  the  Offices  of  the  Church, 
by  promoting  the  public  administration  of 
Holy  Baptism,  Confirmation,  frequent 
Communion,  regular  attendance  at  daily 
prayer,  and  a  proper  observance  of  fasts, 
festivals,  and  commemorations.  (5)  To 
assist  the  clergy  in  parochial  and  mission 
work  without  encroaching  upon  their  spe¬ 
cial  duties,  and  to  uphold  their  proper 
spiritual  authority.  (6)  To  support  the 
clergy  in  the  promotion  of  decency,  or¬ 
der,  and  reverence  in  public  worship.  (7) 
To  aid  in  the  building,  endowment,  and 
decoration  of  churches,  the  foundation 
and  maintenance  of  religious  schools,  and 
in  other  beneficent  designs.  (8)  To  en¬ 
courage  the  practice  of  piety,  virtue,  and 
charity;  to  teach  the  ignorant,  assist  the 
weak,  succor  the  distressed,  console  the 
afflicted,  relieve  the  poor,  visit  the  sick, 
and  help  to  bury  the  dead.  (9)  To  pro¬ 
mote  unity  in  the  Church. 

The  honorary  works  carried  on  by  the 
different  branches  and  members  are  chiefly 
the  following:  A  home  for  destitute  or 
orphan  boys  ;  schools  of  various  kinds — 
especially  night  and  Sunday  classes;  clubs, 
guilds,  and  institutes  for  the  young;  visit¬ 
ing  the  sick  and  distressed;  choirs,  choir¬ 
training,  and  the  formation  of  church  music 
societies;  special  services  in  churches;  lay 
missions;  the  Christian  burial  of  the  dead, 
burial  societies,  etc.,  the  development  of 
the  guild  life. — Benham:  Diet,  of  Religion. 
Many  guilds  have  been  organized  in  con¬ 
nection  with  Episcopal  Churches  in  the 
United  States. 


Guizot'  (ge-zo '),  Francois  Pierre  Guil¬ 
laume,  b.  at  Nimes,  Oct.  4,  1787;  d.  at 
Val-Richer,  Sept.  12,  1874.  Of  Huguenot 
parentage,  he  was  educated  at  Paris  and 
Geneva.  From  1840  until  the  abdication 
of  Louis  Philippe  in  1848,  he  was  Minister 
of  Foreign  Affairs,  having  previously 
(1832-36)  been  Minister  of  Public  Instruc¬ 
tion.  His  great  historical  works,  the  His¬ 
tory  of  Civilization  in  Europe  (1828).  and 
History  of  Civilization  in  France  (1830),  are 
helpful  in  the  study  of  church  history. 
After  his  retirement  from  public  life  he 
wrote  largely  on  themes  connected  with 
religion,  and  was  the  leader  of  the  Reform¬ 
ed  Church  in  France.  See  his  Life ,  by 
his  daughter,  Madame  De  Witt  (London 
and  Boston,  1880). 

Gurnall,  William,  an  English  clergy¬ 
man;  b.  at  Lynn,  1616;  d.  at  Lavenham, 
1679.  His  fame  rests  upon  a  popular  book 
on  practical  divinity :  The  Christian  in  Com¬ 
plete  Armor;  or,  A  Treatise  on  the  Saint’s 
War  with  the  Devil ,  etc.,  founded  on  Eph. 
vi.  6-20.  Published  in  1655,  it  has  appear¬ 
ed  in  many  editions.  A  new  edition  ap¬ 
peared  in  1865,  with  Introduction  by 
Bishop  Ryle. 

Gurney,  Joseph  John,  an  eminent  phi¬ 
lanthropist;  b.  at  Earlham  Hall,  near  Nor¬ 
wich,  Eng.,  Aug.  2,  1788;  d.  Jan.  4,  1847. 
He  became  a  minister  among  the  Friends 
in  1818.  A  man  of  large  wealth,  he  aided 
many  benevolent  enterprises  and  was  es¬ 
pecially  interested  with  his  sister,  Mrs. 
Fry,  in  the  work  of  prison  reform.  With 
Clarkson,  Wilberforce,  and  his  brother-in- 
law,  T.  Fowell  Buxton,  he  labored  to 
abolish  the  slave-trade.  He  was  also  an 
earnest  advocate  of  the  cause  of  temper¬ 
ance.  Among  the  tracts  and  books  which 
he  published  are:  Essays  on  the  Evidences , 
Doctrines ,  and  Practical  Operations  of  Chris- 
tianity  (1827);  History,  Authority ,  and  Use 
of  the  Sabbath  (1831).  See  Memoirs  of  J.  J. 
Gurney,  by  Braithwaite  (1854). 

Gustavus  Adolphus  Association,  which 
has  many  branches  in  Germany,  was  orig¬ 
inated  by  Dr.  Grossmann,  of  Leipzig,  in 
1832.  It  has  for  its  object  the  strengthen¬ 
ing  of  Protestant  interests,  especially  in 
those  sections  of  Germany  where  the  Ro¬ 
man  Catholic  population  and  influence  are 
predominant.  It  has  done  much  in  aiding 
needy  individuals  and  weak  congregations. 
Its  organ  is  Bote  des  evangelise  hen  Vereins 
der  Gustav- A dolf-Stiftung,  Darmstadt. 

Guthlac,  St.,  presbyter,  and  hermit  of 
Crowland;  b.  674;  d.  714.  Of  noble  birth, 
he  won  fame  in  early  youth  by  his  prowess 


Gut 


(  387  ) 


Gyr 


in  leading  a  band  of  his  soldiers  against  the 
Britons.  Converted  in  his  twenty-fourth 
year,  he  entered  the  monastery  at  Repton. 
From  here  he  went  to  Crowland,  a  wild 
and  desolate  island  which  lay  to  the  south 
of  Lincolnshire.  Tradition  relates  many 
conflicts  which  he  had  in  this  solitary 
place  with  demons.  His  fame  spread 
and  many  flocked  to  him.  The  island 
was  finally  reclaimed  and  brought  under 
cultivation.  On  the  site  of  his  cell  and 
oratory,  King  Ethelbald  erected  a  monas¬ 
tery. 

Guthrie,  Thomas,  an  eminent  Scottish 
preacher,  editor  and  philanthropist;  b.  at 
Brechin,  July  12,  1803;  d.  at  St.  Leonard’s- 
on-Sea,  Feb.  24,  1873.  Educated  at  the 
University  of  Edinburgh,  he  was  licensed 
as  a  minister  of  the  Church  of  Scotland  in 
1S25.  In  1830  he  entered  upon  the  duties 
of  his  first  charge  at  Arbirlot,  and  after 
seven  years’  service  became  colleague  pas¬ 
tor  of  Old  Grayfriars,  Edinburgh,  where 
he  remained  until  1840,  when  he  was  chosen 
minister  of  St.  John’s  Church  in  the  same 
city.  In  these  years  his  fame  as  a  pulpit 
orator  attracted  crowded  congregations. 
He  was  an  earnest  supporter  of  the  move¬ 
ment  that  resulted  in  the  Disruption(i842) 
and  organization  of  the  Free  Church. 
Deeply  interested  in  the  welfare  of  the 
poor,  his  efforts  in  opening  ragged  schools 
met  with  great  success.  Besides  these 
labors,  after  ill-health  compelled  him  to 
retire  from  the  active  work  of  the  minis¬ 
try,  he  edited  for  some  time  the  Sunday 
Magazine.  His  published  volumes  of  ser¬ 
mons  have  had  a  large  sale  in  the  United 
States.  See  his  Autobiography  and  Life  in 
2  vols.  (N.  Y. ,  1876). 

Giitzlaff,  Karl  Friedrich  August,  Ger¬ 
man  missionary  in  China;  b.  at  Pvritz, 
near  Stettin,  Pomerania,  Prussia,  July  8, 
1803;  d.  at  Hong  Kong,  China,  Aug.  9, 
1851.  He  was  educated  at  the  missionary 
institutes  of  Berlin  (1821)  and  Rotterdam 
(1823),  and  was  sent  to  Batavia  in  1826. 
In  1828  he  went  to  Singapore,  and  then  to 
Bangkok;  in  1834  he  became  secretary  to 
the  British  minister.  In  1841  he  establish¬ 
ed  at  Hong  Kong,  in  connection  with  the 
American  missionary,  Roberts,  a  society 
for  propagating  the  gospel  in  China 
through  trained  native  preachers.  His 
great  labors  and  influence  won  him  the 
title  of  “  the  Apostle  of  China."  Besides 
works  in  Chinese,  he  wrote:  Journal  of 
Three  Voyages  Along  the  Coast  of  China 
(London,  1834);  China  Opened  (1838),  2 
vols. ;  Life  of  Taou-Kwang ,  late  Emperor  of 
China  (1852).  See  his  Life  (anonymous) 
(Berlin,  1851). 


Guyon  {gi-on ),  Jeanne  Marie  Bouvier 
de  LA  Mothe,  famous  for  her  advocacy  of 
the  Quietistic  mysticism  of  the  seventeenth 
century;  b.  at  Montargis,  France,  April  16, 
1648;  d.  at  Blois,  June  9,  1717.  The  child 
of  noble  and  wealthy  parents,  she  was  ed¬ 
ucated  in  the  Ursuline  convent  at  Montar¬ 
gis,  and  early  entered  upon  a  life  of  relig¬ 
ious  devotion.  The  year  following  the 
removal  of  her  family  to  Paris  (1663),  she 
was  married  to  a  gentleman  of  the  court, 
M.  Guyon.  Seeking  spiritual  counsel  of 
a  Franciscan  priest,  he  said  to  her,  “Ac¬ 
custom  yourself  to  seek  God  in  your  heart, 
and  you  will  not  fail  to  find  him.”  From 
this  day  (July  22,  1668)  she  dated  her  con¬ 
version.  The  death  of  one  of  her  children 
deepened  her  devotion,  and  she  inspired 
others  with  her  fervor.  For  a  period  of 
six  years  she  was  often  in  great  darkness 
of  mind,  but  through  the  discipline  of  sor¬ 
row  and  works  of  love  and  charity,  she 
came  into  an  experience  of  ecstatic  fervor 
and  feeling  that  was  accompanied  by  fre¬ 
quent  visions  and  revelations.  After  the 
death  of  her  husband  (1676),  her  mystical 
teachings  brought  her  under  the  condem¬ 
nation  of  the  Church  authorities.  She  re¬ 
fused  to  enter  a  convent,  and  was  com¬ 
pelled  to  change  her  residence  frequently. 
In  1686  she  was  confined  in  a  convent  at 
Paris  for  eight  months.  Her  correspond¬ 
ence  and  friendship  with  Fenelon  led  to  the 
examination  of  her  writings,  in  which  Bos- 
suet  acted  an  important  part.  After  the 
trial  she  made  a  formal  recantation,  but 
still  continued  to  teach  her  mystical  views, 
until  confined  at  Vincennes,  and  at  the  Bas- 
tile  in  1698,  where  she  remained  until  1702. 
Banished  to  Blois,  her  last  days  were  spent 
in  the  home  of  her  son.  She  belonged  to  the 
school  of  Quietists,  who  laid  great  stress 
upon  the  inner  life  and  the  union  of  the 
soul  with  God.  Holding  that  entire  sanc¬ 
tification  is  possible  in  this  world,  she  dis¬ 
paraged,  to  some  extent,  the  external  ob¬ 
servances  of  religion  and  the  authority  of 
the  Church,  and  for  this  reason  suffered 
much  persecution.  Madame  Guyon  was  a 
charming  writer,  and  many  of  her  poems 
are  known  to  English  readers  through 
Cowper’s  translations.  See  Upham:  Life , 
Religious  Experiences  and  Opinions  of  Mad- 
ai?ie  Guyon  (New  York,  1847). 

Gyrovagi,  or  “  circuit  wanderers,”  is 
the  name  given  to  certain  monks  in  the 
early  days  of  monasticism,  who  led  a  va¬ 
grant  life,  and  proved  themselves  only 
worthless  mendicants.  Augustine  and 
Cassianus  wrote  against  them,  and  they 
were  condemned  by  several  synods.  They 
did  not  entirely  disappear  until  the  Bene¬ 
dictine  rule  was  generally  adopted. 


Hab 


(  388  > 


Hag 


H. 

Hab'akkuk  {embracing),  one  of  the  twelve 
minor  prophets.  He  lived  in  the  time  of 
Jehoiakim,  or  Josiah,  but  the  date  and  place 
of  his  birth  are  unknown,  as  are  also  the 
particulars  of  his  life. 

Prophecy  of,  “  contains  (1)  the  proph¬ 
et’s  complaint  against  the  corrupt  state  of 
society  (i.  2-4);  (2)  the  divine  answer, 
announcing  an  irruption  of  the  Chaldaeans 
(i.  5—1 1 ) ;  (3)  the  prophet’s  complaint  of 
the  unscrupulous  greed  and  fierceness  of 
the  Chaldaeans  (i.  5-17);  (4)  the  divine  an¬ 
swer,  promising  their  destruction  (ii.  4-20); 
and  (5)  the  prophet’s  response  to  these  two 
divine  announcements  in  a  magnificent  ode 
commemorating  the  majesty  of  God  ( iii. ).  ” 
—  Volck.  This  chapter  has  been  pronounc¬ 
ed  “  unequaled  in  majesty  and  splendor 
of  language  and  imagery.” 

Hackett,  Horatio  Balch,  D.  D.,  LL.  D., 
b.  at  Salisbury,  Mass.,  Dec.  27,  1808;  d.  at 
Rochester,  N.  Y. ,  Nov.  2,  1875.  He  was 
a  graduate  of  Amherst  College  (1830)  and 
Andover  Theological  Seminary  (1833). 
After  studying  in  Germany,  he  served  for 
four  years  as  professor  of  Latin  in  Brown 
University,  and  then  (1S39)  accepted  the 
professorship  of  biblical  literature  in  the 
Newton  Theological  Institution.  In  1870 
he  became  professor  of  New  Testament 
Greek  in  Rochester  Theological  Semi¬ 
nary.  His  career  as  a  teacher  was  one 
of  marked  usefulness.  Beloved  and  faith¬ 
ful  in  all  the  relations  of  life,  he  was  rec¬ 
ognized  as  one  of  the  best  scholars  and 
exegetes  our  country  has  produced.  He 
f  was  a  member  of  the  New  Testament  com¬ 
pany  of  the  American  Bible  Revision  Com¬ 
mittee.  Most  of  his  published  works  con¬ 
sist  of  translations  and  additions.  .  With 
Prof.  Ezra  Abbot  he  edited  the  American 
edition  of  Smith’s  Bible  Dictionary  (N.  Y. , 
1868-70),  4  vols.  See  G.  H.  Whittemore: 
Memorials  of  //.  B.  Hackett  (Rochester, 
1876). 

Ha'dad,  the  name  of  a  Syrian  divinity, 
and  also  of  two  Edomite  kings  (Gen.  xxxvi. 
35;  xxxvi.  39),  a  son  of  Ishmael  (1  Chron. 
i.  30),  and  a  contemporary  of  Solomon. 
(1  Kings  xi.  14-22).  The  last-mentioned, 
who  was  of  royal  blood,  fled  as  a  child  to 
Egypt  at  Joab’s  defeat  of  the  Edomites. 
He  married  the  daughter  of  Pharaoh,  and 
at  David’s  death  made  an  attempt  to  re¬ 
conquer  his  native  land. 

Ha'dad-Rimmon,  or  Ha'dar-Rimmon, 
the  name  given  to  a  locality  which  wit¬ 
nessed  the  death  of  Josiah  (2  Kings  xxiii. 
29),  whose  memory  was  honored  by  songs 


of  lamentation.  The  location  was  probably 
at  the  site  of  the  modern  Rummane,  in  the 
plain  of  Jezreel.  The  name  of  the  town, 
Hadad-Rimmon,  was,  no  doubt,  originally 
the  name  of  a  deity,  Hadad  and  Rimmon 
being  both  the  names  of  gods. 

Ha'des  signifies  “  the  lower  world,”  and 
is  probably  derived  from  a,  not,  and 
idein ,  to  see,  but  it  is  somewhat  doubtful 
(Liddell  and  Scott :  Lexicon ).  It  is  the 
equivalent  of  the  Hebrew  Sheol ,  translated 
in  the  Authorized  Version  variously  “hell,” 
“  the  pit,”  “  the  grave,”  but  in  the  Revised 
Version  left  in  the  original  form.  The 
central  thought  of  the  word  is  not  Punish¬ 
ment,  though  it  often  includes  that,  but  it 
is  Death.  Gehenna,  on  the  other  hand,  al¬ 
ways  stands  for  the  punishment  of  the 
wicked,  and  Tartarus  may  be  taken  as  an 
equivalent  for  the  same  word.  Hades, 
therefore,  means  that  unknown  world  into 
which  the  dead  depart — that  which  hides 
them  from  our  eyes,  and  leaves  us  with 
the  blank  feeling  of  sorrow.  Into  Hades 
Christ  descended  at  his  death.  No  one 
may  dogmatize  beyond  what  is  written. 
He  went  into  the  unknown,  and  wherever 
he  went  he  carried  light. — Benham:  Did . 
of  Religion .  See  Hell;  Purgatory l 
Eschatology. 

Ha'drach  is  mentioned  only  in  Zech.  ix. 
1.  The  connection  seems  to  indicate  that  it 
was  the  country  in  which  Damascus  was 
situated,  or  a  neighboring  locality. 

Haeretico,  Comburendo  de,  an  act  pass¬ 
ed  in  the  reign  of  Henry  IV.  against  the 
Lollards,  by  which  bishops  were  allowed 
to  arrest  and  imprison  all  preachers  of 
heresy,  or  owners  of  heretical  books;  and 
a  refusal  to  abjure,  or  a  relapse  after  ab¬ 
juration,  enabled  them  to  hand  over  the 
heretic  to  the  secular  power  to  be  com¬ 
mitted  to  the  flames,  without  waiting  for 
the  consent  of  the  crown. — Benham:  Did. 
of  Religion.  This  act  was  repealed  under 
Charles  II. 

Haetzer,  or  Hetzer,  Ludwig,  Anabap¬ 
tist;  b.  at  Bischofszell,  near  St.  Gall, 
Switzerland,  about  1500.  He  was  educated 
at  Freiburg,  in  Breisgau;  embraced  the 
Reformation,  and  joined  the  Zwinglian 
party,  but  afterward  became aleader  among 
the  Anabaptists.  He  was  expelled  from  the 
cities  of  the  Reformed  faith,  and  finally  be¬ 
headed  for  bigamy  at  Constance,  Feb.  3, 
1529. 

Ha'gar  (flight),  an  Egyptian  bondwoman 
who,  at  the  suggestion  of  Sarah,  who  was 
barren,  became  a  secondary  wife  to  Abra- 


Hag 


(  339  ) 


Hai 


ham.  After  the  birth  of  her  child  she  was, 
however,  treated  very  harshly  by  Sarah. 
Twice  she  fled,  and  the  second  time  did  not 
return.  (Gen.  xvi. ;  xxi.)  Paul,  in  an  alle¬ 
gory  (Gal.  iv.  25),  makes  Hagar  the  type 
of  the  law  and  its  bondage. 

Hagarites,  or  Hagarenes,  descendants 
probably  of  Hagar,  although  they  are  dis¬ 
tinguished  from  the  Ishmaelites.  They 
dwelt  in  northern  Arabia.  The  trans-Jor- 
danic  tribes  made  war  against  them  in  the 
reign  of  Saul.  (1  Chron.  v.  10.) 

Hagenau,  Conference  of,  was  called  by 
Charles  V.  to  bring  about  a  plan  of  union 
between  the  Roman  Catholics  and  Protes¬ 
tants.  The  conference  lasted  from  June  12 
to  July  16,  1540,  but  effected  nothing  be¬ 
yond  an  arrangement  to  meet  in  Worms  in 
the  autumn  of  the  same  year.  The  Roman 
Catholics  were  represented  by  the  papal 
nuncio,  Morone,  and  the  theologians,  Eck, 
Faber,  and  Cochlaus;  and  the  Protestants 
by  Brenz,  Capito,  Osiander,  Cruciger,  and 
Myconius.  The  friends  of  Luther  did  not 
think  it  safe  for  him  to  attend,  and  Melanch- 
thon  was  sick. 

Hagenbach,  Karl  Rudolf,  an  eminent 
church  historian,  and  representative  of  the 
mediation  theology  of  Germany;  b.  in 
Basel,  March  4,  1801;  d.  there,  June  7, 
1874.  He  studied  for  a  year  at  the  Uni¬ 
versity  of  Basel,  and  then  at  Bonn  and  Ber¬ 
lin,  where  he  came  under  the  influence  of 
Neander  and  Schleiermacher.  In  1823  he 
returned  to  Basel,  where  he  was  soon  ap¬ 
pointed  professor  of  theology,  and  gained 
a  wide  influence  as  a  preacher.  His  posi¬ 
tion  was  intermediate  between  the  old  su¬ 
pernaturalists  and  the  rationalists,  but  in 
later  years  he  “  laid  an  increasing  stress 
upon  the  independent  objective  reality  of 
Christian  facts,  and  emphasized  the  con¬ 
fessions  of  the  Church.”  His  Lehrbuch  der 
Dogmengeschichte  (1840),  Eng.  translation 
revised  and  enlarged  by  Dr.  H.  B.  Smith, 
was  published  in  N.  Y.,  1861,  2  vols.  His¬ 
tory  of  the  Church  in  the  Eighteenth  and 
Nineteenth  Centuries ,  trans.  by  Dr.  Hurst, 
I2  vols.  (N.  Y.,  1869). 

Hag'gadah,  the  name  given  by  the  rab¬ 
bis  and  in  the  Talmud  to  the  traditions  and 
legends,  etc.,  used  in  the  interpretation  of 
the  law.  Many  of  these  stories  are  amus¬ 
ing  and  interesting,  but  they  are  not  held 
as  authoritative  by  the  best  rabbins.  This 
method  of  interpretation  stood  in  contrast 
to  the  Halakha ,  which  was  strictly  legal 
and  full  of  casuistic  distinctions. 

Hag'gai,  the  first  of  the  minor  proph¬ 


ets  who  prophesied  after  the  Captivity. 
Nothing  is  known  of  his  parentage  or  life. 
He  prophesied  in  the  second  year  of  the 
reign  of  Darius,  or  520  E.  C. 

The  Prophecy  of,  “is  an  exhortation 
to  complete  the  temple,  work  upon  which 
had  been  begun  in  534  b.  c. ,  but  discon¬ 
tinued  by  a  decree  of  Cyrus,  and  a  proph¬ 
ecy  of  the  blessing  of  the  Lord  which 
would  follow  its  completion.  It  consists 
of  four  parts:  the  first  (i.  1-15)  attributes 
the  curse  resting  upon  the  people  to  their 
listlessness  in  leaving  the  temple  unfin¬ 
ished,  while  they  dwelt  in  ‘  paneled  houses,’ 
and  exhorts  them  to  begin  work;  the  sec¬ 
ond  (ii.  1-9)  predicts  for  the  new  temple  a 
glory  greater  than  that  of  Solomon;  the 
third  prophecy  (ii.  10-19)  urges  them  to 
greater  activity,  in  view  of  the  curse  to  be 
escaped,  and  the  blessing  to  ensue;  and 
the  fourth  (ii.  20-23)  promises  victory 
over  the  heathen,  and  an  abiding  glory  to 
Zerubbabel.  Haggai,  like  Zechariah  and 
Malachi,  the  two  other  prophets  after  the 
Captivity, does  not  equal  the  earlier  proph¬ 
ets  in  language  and  poetry.” — Delitzsch . 

Hagiog'rapha  (from  two  Greek  words 
signifying  “  holy  ”  and  “  writings  ”),  a  term 
used  bv  the  Jews  to  denote  that  division 
of  the  Old  Testament  which  contained  the 
Psalms,  Proverbs,  Job,  Ezra,  the  Song  of 
Solomon,  Ruth,  Esther,  Ecclesiastes,  the 
Books  of  Chronicles,  Lamentations,  and 
Nehemiah.  See  Canon. 

Hahn,  Johann  Michael,  b.  at  Altdorf, 
Wiirtemburg,  Feb.  2,  1758;  d.  at  Sindling- 
en,  Wiirtemburg,  1819.  The  son  of  a 
peasant,  in  early  life  he  was  brought  under 
the  influence  of  the  writings  of  Boehme 
and  Oetinger.  His  public  ministrations 
drew  large  congregations.  He  laid  stress 
on  the  doctrine  of  sanctification,  in  opposi¬ 
tion  to  the  overestimate,  as  he  deemed,  of 
the  doctrine  of  justification  as  held  by 
Lutherans  generally.  He  was  frequently 
rebuked  by  the  ecclesiastical  authorities, 
and  left  his  native  town  many  years  before 
his  death.  His  views  were  widely  dis¬ 
seminated  through  his  books  and  address¬ 
es,  and  are  held  by  many  in  Wiirtemburg, 
who  are  called  Michelians.  They  have 
never  formed  a  sect  or  separated  from  the 
State  church,  but  they  meet  frequently, 
and  twice  a  year  in  convention. 

Hair,  “  among  the  Hebrews,  was  regard¬ 
ed  as  an  ornament  of  the  man,  if  not  worn 
too  long.  From  time  to  time  it  was  clip¬ 
ped;  but  in  consequence  of  a  vow  it  was 
suffered  to  grow.  (Num.  vi.  5.)  To  pluck 
off  the  hair  (Ezek.  ix.  3),  and  let  it  go  di¬ 
sheveled  (Lev.  x.  6;  A.  V.  ‘  uncover  your 


Hal 


(  390  ) 


Hal 


heads  ’),  or  cut  it  off,  was  a  sign  of  sor¬ 
row  (Jer.  vii.  29),  and  of  captivity.  (Isa.  vii. 
20.)  A  bald  head  was  an  object  of  mock¬ 
ery.  (2  Kings  ii.  23.)  The  young  people 
curled  their  hair  (Song  of  Solomon  v.  2, 
marg.),  or  made  it  into  locks.  (Judg.  xvi. 
13,  19.)  Both  sexes  anointed  the  hair 
profusely  with  ointments.  (Psa.  xxiii.  5; 
Matt.  vi.  17.)  For  a  woman  to  have  her 
head  shorn  or  shaven  was  regarded  as  a 
shame.  (1  Cor.  xi.  6;  cf.  ver.  15.)  Gray 
hair  was  an  ornament  of  the  aged.  (Prov. 
xx.  29.)” — Riietschi. 

Ha'lah,  a  city  or  district  of  Media,  upon 
the  river  Gozan,  to  which,  among  other 
places,  the  captive  Israelites  were  carried 
by  the  Assyrian  kings.  (2  Kings  xvii.  6; 
xviii.  11 ;  1  Chron.  v.  26.)  It  is  now  gen¬ 
erally  identified  with  a  province  in  the 
northwest  of  Gaulonitis,  called  Chalcitis 
by  Ptolemy,  near  the  Khabour . 

Halakha.  See  Haggadah. 

Haldane,  Robert,  was  b.  in  London, 
Feb.  28,  1764;  d.  in  Edinburgh,  Dec.  12, 
1842.  After  a  brief  service  in  the  navy  he 
came  into  the  inheritance  of  a  large  prop¬ 
erty,  and  in  1786  he  settled  upon  his  estate 
at  Airthrey.  In  1793  he  became  deeply  in¬ 
terested  in  the  subject  of  religion,  and  from 
this  time  forward  devoted  his  property  and 
services  to  the  advancement  of  Christianity. 
Within  fifteen  years  he  distributed  three 
hundred  and  fifty  thousand  dollars  for  char¬ 
itable  purposes,  and  during  his  life  he  edu¬ 
cated  three  hundred  young  men  for  the 
ministry.  In  1816  and  1817  he  was  at 
Geneva  and  Montauban.  At  Geneva  he 
lectured  to  the  theological  students  in  the 
university  upon  the  Epistle  to  the  Romans. 
These  expositions  were  published  and  were 
quite  popular.  He  was  the  author  of 
\Tolumes  on  Evidence  and  Authority  of 
Revelation ,  and  On  the  Inspiration  of 
Scripttire.  Active  in  all  the  church  move¬ 
ments  of  Scotland,  his  life  was  a  noble  ex¬ 
ample  of  consecrated  gifts  and  earthly 
position. 

Hale,  Edward  Everett,  S.  T.  D.  (Har¬ 
vard  University,  1879),  Unitarian;  b.  in 
Boston,  Mass.,  April  3,  1822.  After  gradu¬ 
ating  at  Harvard  in  1839,  he  studied  theol¬ 
ogy;  pastor  at  Worcester  from  1846  to  1856, 
and  since  that  time,  of  the  South  Congrega¬ 
tional  (Unitarian)  Church,  Boston.  He 
edited  The  Christian  Examiner  (1857— 1S63); 
Old  and  New ,  a  magazine  (1870-1875);  and 
since  1886,  Lend  a  Hand.  Among  the 
many  volumes  he  has  published  are:  The 
Man  Without  a  Country  (1863);  Ten  Times 
One  is  Ten  (1870);  In  His  Name  (1874); 


Life  of  Washington  (1887);  History  of  the 
United  States  (New  York,  1888). 

Half-Communion,  a  term  used  when 
only  the  bread  is  given  at  the  Communion, 
as  in  the  Roman  Catholic  Church. 

Half-Way  Covenant,  a  plan  adopted  by 
the  Congregational  churches  in  New  Eng¬ 
land,  between  i657and  1662,  by  which  bap¬ 
tized  persons  were  permitted  to  enter  into 
membership  with  the  Church  in  such  a  way 
that  their  children  could  receive  baptism, 
and  they  enjoy  all  other  privileges  but 
that  of  partaking  of  the  Lord’s  Supper. 
See  Congregationalism. 

Hall,  Gordon,  the  first  American  mis¬ 
sionary  to  Bombay;  b.  at  Tolland,  Mass., 
April  8,  1784;  d.  of  cholera,  Bombay, 
March  20,  1826.  After  graduating  from 
Williams  College  in  1808  he  studied  theol¬ 
ogy,  and  was  ordained  as  a  missionary  in 
1813.  For  thirteen  years  he  labored  with 
great  diligence  and  success  in  Bombay. 
Just  before  his  death  he  completed  the  re¬ 
vision  of  the  Mahratta  version  of  the  New 
Testament.  He  was  among  the  first  mis¬ 
sionaries  sent  out  by  the  American  Board 
C.  F.  M.  His  Memoir  was  written  by  H. 
Bardwell  (Andover,  1834). 

Hall,  Newman,  LL.  B.  (London  Univer¬ 
sity,  1855),  Congregationalist;  b.  at  Maid¬ 
stone,  Kent,  May  22,  1816.  After  grad¬ 
uating  at  the  University  of  London  (1841), 
he  was  pastor  of  the  Albion  Congrega¬ 
tional  Church,  Hull,  1842-54,  and  from 
that  time  has  held  his  present  charge  in 
London.  He  has  written  many  tracts  and 
volumes  of  religious  meditation  and  sug¬ 
gestion.  The  tract,  Come  to  Jesus  (London, 
1846),  has  had  a  circulation  of  upwards  of 
3,000,000 copies  in  some  twenty  languages; 
the  little  volume,  My  Friends ,  Follow  Jesus  y 
has  been  distributed  to  the  extent  of  250,- 
000  copies. 

Hall,  John,  D.  D.  (Washington  and  Jef¬ 
ferson  College,  Washington,  Penn.,  1S66), 
LL.  D.  (Princeton  College,  18S5,  and  same 
year  by  Washington  and  Lee  University, 
Lexington,  Va.),  Presbyterian;  b.  in  Coun¬ 
ty  Armagh,  Ireland,  July  31, 1S29.  He  was 
graduated  at  the  Royral  College  and  the 
General  Assembly’s  Theological  College 
at  Belfast,  and  began  to  preach  in  1S49. 
For  three  years  he  labored  as  the  “  stu¬ 
dent’s  missionary  ”  in  the  west  of  Ireland. 
In  1852  he  became  pastor  of  the  First  Pres¬ 
byterian  Church  at  Armagh,  and  in  1S5S 
collegiate  pastor  of  Mary  Abbey,  Dublin. 
From  Dublin  he  was  called,  in  1S67,  to  the 
pastorate  of  the  Fifth  Avenue  Presbyterian 


Hal 


(  391  ) 


Hal 


Church,  New  York  City,  where  he  has 
since  remained.  He  is  the  author  of 

Papers  for  Home  Reading  (1871);  Gods 
Word  Through  Preaching  (1875,  Lyman 
Beecher  Foundation,  Yale  Divinity  School); 
A  Christian  Home:  How  to  Make  and  How  to 
Maintain  It  (1883),  etc. 

Hall,  John  Vine,  b.  at  Diss,  Norfolk, 
Eng.,  March  14,  1774;  d.  at  Maidstone, 
Sept.  22,  i860.  He  was  an  earnest  and  el¬ 
oquent  advocate  of  total  abstinence.  He 
is  best  remembered  as  the  author  of  a  tract 
entitled  The  Sinner's  Friend (1821).  Dur¬ 
ing  his  lifetime  this  tract  was  printed  in  23 
languages  and  1,268,000  copies  were  dis¬ 
tributed.  His  autobiography,  edited  by 
his  son,  Rev.  Newman  Hall,  of  London, 
has  had  a  large  circulation. 

Hall,  Joseph,  a  learned  and  eloquent  di¬ 
vine  of  the  Church  of  England;  b.  July  1, 
1574;  d.  at  Hingham,  near  Norwich,  Sept. 
8,  1656.  He  was  a  graduate  of  Emmanuel 
College,  Cambridge,  and  after  serving  as 
rector,  first  at  Halstead,  Suffolk,  and  then 
at  Waltham  Holy  Cross,  he  was  made  dean 
of  Worcester  (1617),  and  in  1627  bishop  of 
Exeter.  He  was  accused  by  Laud  of  pu¬ 
ritanical  views,  but  proved  his  loyalty  to 
the  Church  of  England  in  the  publication 
of  his  Episcopacy  by  Divine  Right  Asserted 
(1640).  With  eleven  other  bishops  he  was 
condemned  by  the  Long  Parliament,  and 
suffered  imprisonment  in  the  Tower  for  six 
months.  After  his  release  he  was  depriv¬ 
ed  of  the  revenues  of  his  see,  but  a  small 
allowance  was  granted  him  by  Parliament. 
The  last  years  of  his  life  were  spent  in  re¬ 
tirement  at  Hingham.  Bishop  Hall  was  a 
man  of  devout  character,  His  prolific  pen 
produced  many  works  of  a  controversial 
as  well  as  devotional  character.  The  Con¬ 
templations  upon  the ]V.  Testament  (1612—15); 
Meditations  and  Vows  (1624),  and  Explica¬ 
tion  of  all  the  Hard  Texts  of  the  whole  Divine 
Scripture  (1634),  are  his  principal  practical 
writings.  See  his  Life ,  by  John  Jones 
(London,  1826). 

Hall,  Robert,  one  of  the  greatest  among 
pulpit  orators;  b.  at  Arnsby,  near  Leicester, 
May  2,  1764;  d.  at  Bristol,  Feb.  21,  1821. 
His  father  was  pastor  of  the  Baptist  church 
at  Arnsby.  In  extreme  youth  he  developed 
precocious  intellectual  power,  and  when 
but  nine  years  of  age  he  had  read  and  re¬ 
read  Edwards’s  On  the  Will ,  and  Butler’s 
Analogy.  He  attended  for  a  time  a  school 
at  Northampton,  conducted  by  Dr.  Ryland, 
and  after  studying  theology  with  his  father 
he  entered  (1778)  the  academy  at  Bristol 
for  the  preparation  of  students  for  the  Bap¬ 
tist  ministry.  From  here  he  went  to  Aber¬ 


deen,  where  he  was  graduated  with  high 
honors  at  King’s  College  in  1785.  During 
the  last  two  years  of  his  college  course  he 
had  assisted  Dr.  Evans  at  the  Broadmead 
Chapel,  Bristol,  in  his  vacations,  and  when 
he  returned  to  that  city,  and  taught  in  the 
academy,  his  pulpit  ministrations  attracted 
crowded  audiences.  His  theological  views 
were  the  source  of  differences  that  led  him 
to  leave  Bristol,  and  accept  in  1790  the  pas¬ 
torate  of  a  Baptist  church  in  Cambridge. 
The  intellectual  stimulus  of  the  university 
town  aroused  to  their  best  endeavor  his  re¬ 
markable  gifts.  For  fifteen  years  he 
preached  with  marvelous  power  to  the  cul¬ 
tivated  congregations  that  gathered  to  hear 
him.  Many  of  his  sermons  were  published 
during  these  years,  among  them,  Christi¬ 
anity  Consistent  with  the  Love  of  Freedom , 
and  An  A pology  for  the  Freedom  of  the  Press . 
Two  attacks  of  insanity  caused  him  to  re¬ 
sign  his  pastorate  at  Cambridge  in  the 
spring  of  1806.  Within  a  short  time  he 
accepted  a  call  to  a  small  congregation  at 
Leicester,  where  he  labored  for  twenty 
years.  On  the  death  of  Dr.  Ryland  he  was 
invited  to  return  to  Bristol  (1826),  where, 
under  the  burden  of  increasing  physical 
disability,  he  labored  until  the  close  of  his 
life.  See  Gregory:  Works  of  Robert  Hall, 
with  Memoir  (London,  6  vols.,  New  York, 
4  vols.);  John  Greene:  Reminiscences  of 
Robert  Hall  (London,  1832);  E.  Paxton 
Hood:  Life  (New  York,  1881). 

Hallel  {praise).  Psalms  cxiii.-cxviii.  were 
so  called  because  each  of  them  begins  with 
Hallelujah.  They  were  sung  in  the  temple 
on  the  first  of  the  month,  and  at  the  feasts 
of  Dedication,  Tabernacles,  Weeks,  and  the 
Passover.  The  “hymn”  sung  by  our  Lord 
and  his  disciples  at  the  close  of  the  Last 
Supper  was  the  second  part  of  the  Hallel 
(Psa.  cxv.-cxviii.). 

Hallelu'jah  braise  ye  Jehovah ).  This 
word  is  found  at  the  beginning,  or  close, 
or  both,  of  many  Psalms.  It  was  chanted 
on  solemn  days  of  rejoicing,  and  as  an  ex¬ 
pression  of  joy  and  praise  it  has  been 
adopted  by  the  Christian  Church. 

Halley,  Robert,  an  eminent  Congrega¬ 
tional  preacher  and  scholar;  b.  at  Black- 
heath,  near  London,  Aug.  13,  1796;  d.  at 
Arundel,  Surrey,  Aug.  18,  1876.  He  re¬ 
ceived  an  excellent  classical  education,  and 
after  a  brief  pastorate  at  St.  Neats,  Hun¬ 
tingdonshire,  he  became  in  1826  classical 
tutor  at  Highbury  College,  London.  In 
1839  he  accepted  the  pastorate  of  a  church 
in  Manchester,  where  he  labored  with 
growing  distinction  until  1857,  when  he  ac- 
i  cepted  the  chair  of  theology  and  the  prin- 


Hal 


(  392  ) 


Ham 


cipalship  of  New  College,  London,  where 
he  remained  for  fifteen  years.  He  pub¬ 
lished  lectures  On  the  Sacraments  and  Bap¬ 
tism,  and  a  History  of  Puritanism  and  Non  - 
confor?nity  in  Lancashire .  As  a  platform 
speaker  he  was  remarkable  for  his  elo¬ 
quence  and  power. 

Hallock,  William  Allen,  prominent 
from  his  connection  with  the  American 
Tract  Society,  of  which  he  was  the  first 
secretary,  a  position  which  he  filled  with 
marked  fidelity  for  forty-five  years.  He 
was  editor  of  the  American  Messenger  for 
many  years,  and  prepared  a  large  number 
of  tracts  for  the  press.  He  was  b.  in 
Plainfield,  Mass.,  June  2,  1794;  d.  in  New 
York  City,  Oct.  2,  1SS0.  He  was  educated 
at  Williams  College  (1819),  and  Andover 
Theological  Seminary  (1822).  His  con¬ 
nection  with  the  American  Tract  Society 
began  in  1825. 

Ha'math  {fortress ),  a  city  and  province  of 
Upper  Syria.  It  was  originally  a  Canaanite 
colony  (Gen.  x.  18),  but  was  afterward 
taken  by  the  Syrians.  In  the  time  of 
Hezekiah  it  was  captured  by  the  Assyrians 
(2  Kings  xiv.  25-28),  and  “  men  from 
Hamath  ”  were  settled  there  in  place  of  the 
Israelites.  During  the  Middle  Ages  it  was 
the  capital  of  an  independent  State.  The 
population  is  now  about  thirty  thousand. 
This  place  is  not  to  be  confounded  with 
that  belonging  to  the  tribe  of  Naphtali. 
(Josh.  xix.  35.)  Four  stones  inscribed 
with  hieroglyphics,  probably  of  Hittite 
origin,  have  been  found  here. 

Hamel.  See  Bajus. 

Hamilton,  James,  D.  D.,  an  eloquent 
preacher  and  eminent  Presbyterian  divine; 
b.  at  Paisley,  Scotland,  Nov.  27,  1S14;  d. 
in  London,  Nov.  24,  1867.  He  became 
pastor  of  the  National  Scotch  Church,  Re¬ 
gent’s  Square,  London,  in  1841,  where  he 
remained  until  his  death.  His  fame  as  a 
pulpit  orator  attracted  large  audiences,  and 
he  was  the  author  of  several  volumes  that 
had  a  wide  circulation.  Sixty-four  thou¬ 
sand  of  his  Life  in  Earnest  were  sold  be¬ 
fore  1 8  5  2.  Hew  rote :  Royal  Preacher  ( 1 S  5 1 J; 
The  Light  Upon  the  Path ;  The  Prodigal 
Son  (1866).  See  his  Life,  by  William  Ar- 
not  (N.  Y. ,  1S71). 

Hamilton,  Patrick,  Scotch  Reformer 
and  martyr;  b.  1504;  d.  152S.  He  was  the 
son  of  Sir  Patrick  Hamilton,  and  of  Cath¬ 
arine  Stewart,  daughter  of  Alexander, 
Duke  of  Albany,  second  son  of  James  II. 
He  took  the  degree  of  M.  A.  at  Paris,  in 
T520,  where  he  studied,  and  adopted  the 


views  first  of  Erasmus,  but  afterward  of 
Luther.  On  returning  to  Scotland  he 
came  under  suspicion  for  recommending 
his  pupils  to  read  Tyndall’s  translation  of 
the  New  Testament.  Hamilton  fled  to 
Germany,  but  came  back  in  a  short  time, 
and  openly  preached  the  doctrines  of  the 
Reformation.  He  was  summoned  before 
Archbishop  Beatoun,  in  1528,  on  charge  of 
heresy.  The  chief  charge  against  him  was 
that  he  affirmed, “  that  man  is  not  justified 
by  works,  but  by  faith;  that  it  is  not  law¬ 
ful  to  worship  images,  nor  to  pray  to  the 
saints,  and  that  it  is  lawful  to  all  men  that 
have  souls  to  read  the  Word  of  God.”  He 
was  condemned  and  burned  on  the  day  of 
his  trial,  Feb.  29,  1528,  before  the  gate  of 
St.  Salvador’s  College.  His  death  gave 
an  impetus  to  the  Reformation  that  made 
Scotland  a  country  of  Protestants. 

Hamilton,  Sir  William,  b.  in  Glasgow, 
March  8,  1788;  d.  in  Edinburgh,  May  6, 
1856.  He  was  the  son  of  a  professor  in 
the  University  of  Glasgow,  and  was  there 
educated,  until  he  went  as  a  Snell  exhi¬ 
bitioner  to  Balliol  College,  Oxford.  Here 
he  amply  fulfilled  all  the  high  hopes  which 
his  friends  had  formed  of  him,  and  went 
out  in  first-class  honors  in  1812.  Next 
year  he  became  a  member  of  the  Scottish 
bar,  but  seems  to  have  had  little  practice. 
In  1821  he  was  appointed  to  the  professor¬ 
ship  of  Modern  History  in  the  University 
of  Edinburgh,  and  having  but  little  work 
arising  out  of  that  post,  he  gave  himself 
diligently  to  his  studies  and  speculations. 
It  was  not,  however,  till  1829  that  he  was 
induced  to  publish  any  results  of  these. 
On  the  pressing  invitation  of  the  editor  of 
the  Edinburgh  Review,  he  wrote  a  critique 
on  Cousin’s  Cours  de  Philosophic ,  publish¬ 
ed  the  previous  year,  in  which  that  writer 
ha.d  developed  his  theory  of  the  Infinite. 
The  review  made  Hamilton  well  known, 
not  only  in  England,  but  on  the  Continent, 
and  from  that  time  he  became  a  regular 
contributor  to  the  Edinburgh.  In  1836  he 
found  his  right  place,  being  elected  to  the 
professorship  of  Logic  and  Metaphysics  in 
his  university.  His  lectures  from  this 
chair  were  taken  down  in  shorthand,  at 
least  the  later  ones,  by  admiring  students, 
and  were  published  after  his  death,  under 
the  editorship  of  Professors  Mansel  and 
Veitch,  in4  vols.  His  reputation  was  now 
at  its  height,  and  his  influence  upon  those 
who  sat  at  his  feet  was  unbounded.  In 
1843  his  health  began  to  fail,  and  this  hin¬ 
dered  him  in  the  work  in  which  he  was  en¬ 
gaged,  of  preparing  his  writings  for  the 
press.  Consequently  death  found  this 
task  uncompleted.  His  position  in  the 
history  of  philosophy  is  still  a  matter  of 


Ham 


(  393  ) 


Har 


keen  controversy.  The  late  Dean  Mansel, 
one  of  his  editors,  in  his  famous  Bamptun 
Lectures  of  1858,  brought  into  great  prom¬ 
inence  Hamilton’s  doctrine  concerning  the 
limitation  of  positive  thought.  This 
thought,  he  contended,  lay  between  the 
contradictory  poles  of  the  infinite  and  the 
absolute,  and  was  therefore  in  a  conditioned 
sphere,  beyond  which  the  mind  is  not  ca¬ 
pable  of  moving.  He  repudiated  all  the 
German  pursuers  of  the  absolute,  treated 
with  contempt  Coleridge’s  doctrine  of  the 
reason,  and  recommended  Nescience  as  the 
starting  point  of  philosophy.  The  philos¬ 
opher  has  a  legitimate  sphere,  he  said,  in 
examining  what  are  the  limits  of  the  hu¬ 
man  intellect,  but  the  infinite  prohibits  all 
further  advances.  Unhappily,  most  of  the 
vast  questions  arising  out  of  this  problem 
are  only  hinted  at  by  him,  and  only  a  frag¬ 
ment  was  produced  of  the  great  treatise 
which  he  had  planned.  But  it  has  been 
said  that  he  leaves  no  room  for  any  ethical 
conception  of  the  Infinite  Being.  The  nes¬ 
cience  for  which  Sir  William  Hamilton 
contended  was  the  nescience  which  the 
opponents  of  Socrates  contended  for  when 
they  accused  him  of  bringing  in  new  gods, 
because  he  said  that  there  is  a  Divine 
teacher  who  speaks  to  the  souls  of  men. 
When  he  declared  that  if  the  gods  did 
wrong  and  encouraged  wrong  they  were  no 
true  gods,  he  was  contending  for  fellow¬ 
ship  with  the  Absolute,  and  striving  to  get 
beyond  the  “Conditions”  of  the  under¬ 
standing,  into  the  domains  of  a  Reason 
which  is  higher  than  it.  The  Aristotelians 
of  the  Middle  Ages  further  declared  that 
nothing  can  be  known  of  God  but  what  is 
revealed  by  an  infallible  authority.  Hume 
and  Voltaire,  accepting  that  doctrine,  had 
rejected  the  authority;  and  had  logically, 
therefore,  pronounced  themselves  atheists. 
And  there  are  many  who,  professing  to  ac¬ 
cept  Hamilton’s  theory  of  the  uncondi¬ 
tioned,  declare  that  any  knowledge  of 
God  is  hopeless,  and  on  that  ground  rest 
their  doctrine  of  Agnosticism.  (Agnos¬ 
tic;  God.)  We  have  here  the  greatest 
question  of  our  times,  and  the  contro¬ 
versy  is  even  now  being  earnestly  pur¬ 
sued. — Benham:  Diet,  of  Religion.  See 
Hamilton:  Works;  Mansel:  Limits  of 
Religious  Thought  and  Philosophy  of  the 
Conditioned ;  McCosh:  Scottish  Philosophy , 
Lect.  57. 

Ham' math  ( hot  springs ),  a  fortified  city 
in  Naphtali.  (Josh.  xix.  35.)  It  is  probably 
identical  with  Hamtndm  or  “warm  springs,” 
about  one  mile  south  of  Tiberias.  Its 
waters  are  hot  and  sulphurous,  and  too 
nauseous  to  drink,  but  are  considered  very 
efficacious  for  medicinal  purposes.  The 


walls  of  an  old  town  have  been  found  in  the 
vicinity  of  the  baths. 

Handel,  George  Frederick,  “  one  of  the 
greatest  names  in  the  history  of  music 
generally,  is  absolutely  paramount  in  that 
of  English  music ”  (Ency.  Britannica)]  b.  in 
Halle,  Prussia,  Feb.  24,  1684;  d.  in  Lon¬ 
don,  April  13,  1759.  From  early  years  he 
showed  remarkable  gifts  as  a  musician,  and 
after  studying  in  Berlin,  Hamburg,  and 
Italy,  he  was  chapel-master  to  the  elector 
at  Hanover  from  1709  to  1712,  when  he 
settled  in  England.  It  was  here  that  he 
composed  the  wonderful  oratorios  upon 
which  his  fame  rests. 

Handicrafts  Among  The  Hebrews.  In 

later  times  it  was  made  the  duty  of  parents 
to  see  that  every  boy  learned  a  trade. 
The  most  celebrated  rabbis  earned  their 
living  by  some  handicraft.  Some  trades 
Avere  considered  more  honorable  than 
others.  The  weaver,  barber,  tanner,  ful¬ 
ler,  etc.,  could  not  become  high-priest  or 
king.  Tradesmen  of  like  craft,  then  as 
now,  congregated  in  the  same  locality. 

Hands,  Laying  on  of.  See  Imposition 
of  Hands. 

Han'nah,  wife  of  Elkanah  of  Ramathaim- 
Zophim.  (1  Sam.  i.  1,  2.)  In  answer  to 
prayer  she  was  given  a  son,  Samuel.  Her 
wonderful  song  of  praise  at  his  birth  is 
given  in  1  Sam.  ii.  1-10.  The  name  Han¬ 
nah  is  a  favorite  among  the  Hebrews  and 
Phoenicians. 

Haph'tarah,  plural  Haphtaroth,  were 
the  selections  from  the  prophets  read  in 
the  synagogue  on  the  Sabbath  and  festival 
days,  in  connection  with  passages  from  the 
law. 

Haran,  (1)  the  name  of  Terah’s  youngest 
son.  (Gen.  xi.  26.)  (2)  The  place  on  the 

road  from  Ur  of  the  Chaldees  where  Terah 
stopped  with  his  sons,  Abram  and  Nahor, 
and  grandson,  Lot.  Terah  died  there  (Gen. 
xi.  31,  32),  and  Nahor  made  it  his  home,  - 
while  Abram  and  Lot  moved  to  Canaan. 
(Gen.  xii.  4,  10.)  It  is  generally  identified 
with  the  modern  Haran ,  and  is  situated  on 
the  river  Belik  about  fifty  miles  north  of 
where  it  flows  into  the  Euphrates.  It  was 
at  one  time  a  place  of  some  commercial 
importance.  (Ezek.  xxvii.  25.)  It  is  now  a 
small  Arab  village.  The  reputed  tomb  of 
Terah  is  shown  within  the  ruined  walls. 

Harbaugh,  Henry,  D.  D.,  a  divine  of  the 
German  Reformed  Church,  widely  known 
by  his  writings  on  the  heavenly  life  and 


Har 


(  394  ) 


Har 


the  state  of  the  sainted  dead.  Of  Swiss 
descent,  he  was  b.  near  Waynesborough, 
Penn.,  Oct.  28,  1817;  d.  at  Mercersburg, 
Penn.,  Dec.  28,  1867.  After  graduating  at 
Franklin  and  Marshall  College  he  was 
pastor  of  the  Reformed  Church,  Lewisburg, 
Penn.  (1843),  Lancaster  (1850),  and  Leb¬ 
anon  (i860).  In  1863  he  was  elected  pro¬ 
fessor  of  theology  at  Mercersburg.  For 
seventeen  years  he  was  editor  of  the  Guard¬ 
ian ,  and  the  last  year  of  his  life  of  the  Mer¬ 
cersburg  Review.  Besides  his  works  on  the 
Future  Life  he  wrote  the  Life  of  Michael 
Schlatter  (1857), and  Fathers  of  the  Reformed 
Church  in  Europe  and  America  (Lancaster, 
1857),  2  vols. 

Hardwick,  Charles,  Church  of  England; 
b.  at  Slingsby,  Yorkshire,  Sept.  22,  1821; 
killed  by  a  fall  while  ascending  the 
Pyrenees,  near  Bagneres  de  Luchon,  Aug. 
18,  1859.  He  was  a  fellow  of  Cambridge; 
professor  of  theology  in  Queen’s  College, 
Birmingham  (1853);  divinity  lecturer  at 
Cambridge  (1855),  and  archdeacon  of  Ely 
(1859).  He  wrote:  A  History  of  the  Articles 
of  Religion  (Cambridge,  1851,  new  ed., 
1859);  dl  History  of  the  Christian  Church  (I. 
MiddleAges;  II.  Reformation;  Cambridge, 
1853-56),  2  vols.,  3d  ed.  revised  by  W. 
Stubbs  (London,  1872).  His  most  elabo¬ 
rate  treatise,  and  best  known,  although  left 
unfinished,  was,  Christ  and  other  Masters: 
An  Historical  Inquiry  into  some  of  the  Chief 
Parallelisfns  and  Contrasts  between  Chris¬ 
tianity  and  the  Religiotis  Systems  of  the  An¬ 
cient  World  (London,  1855-57),  4  parts;  3d 
ed.,  with  memoir,  by  F.  Proctor  (1873), 
1  vol. 

Hardy,  Robert  Spence,  an  eminent  Wes¬ 
leyan  missionary  and  Buddhist  scholar;  b. 
at  Preston,  Lancashire,  July  1,  1803;  d.  at 
Headingly,  Yorkshire,  April  16,  1868.  For 
twenty-three  years  he  was  a  missionary  in 
Ceylon,  and  afterward  labored  in  the 
ministry  in  England.  He  wrote:  The  Brit¬ 
ish  Government  and  the  Idolatry  of  Ceylon 
(1841);  Eastern  Monachism:  An  Account  of 
the  Origin,  Laws,  Discipline,  Sacred  Writ¬ 
ings,  etc. ,  of  the  Order  of  Mendicants ,  founded 
by  Goiama  Buddha  (1850);  A  Manual  of 
Buddhism  in  its  Modern  Development,  trans¬ 
lated  from  Singhalese  MSS.  (1853,  2(1  ed. , 
1S80);  The  Legends  and  Theories  of  the 
Buddhists  Compared  with  History  and  Science 
(1867,  2d  ed.,  1881).  These  works  are 
standard. 

Hare,  Augustus  William,  best  known  to 
American  readers  by  the  Memorials  of  a 
Quiet  Life.  He  was  b.  in  Rome,  Nov.  17, 
1792;  d.  there,  Feb.  19,  1834.  After  grad¬ 
uating  with  distinguished  honors  at  New 


College,  Oxford,  where  for  a  time  he  was 
a  fellow,  he  became  rector  of  the  secluded 
country  parish  of  Alton- Barnes.  With 
singular  devotion  he  gave  himself  to  the 
work  of  ministering  among  his  people,  and 
in  every  way  proved  himself  a  model 
country  minister.  In  connection  with  his 
brother  Julius  he  edited  Guesses  at  Truth, 
and  published  Sermons  to  a  Country  Con¬ 
gregation  (6th  ed.  London,  1845),  2  vols. 
See  Memorials  of  a  Quiet  Life,  by  A.  J.  C. 
Hare. 

Hare,  Julius  Charles,  a  prominent  and 
influential  English  theologian;  b.  Sept.  13, 
1795,  at  Herstmonceux,  Sussex;  d.  there, 
Jan.  23,  1855.  He  was  educated  at  the  Char¬ 
ter  House  school  and  at  Trinity  College, 
Cambridge, where,  having  won  distinguish¬ 
ed  honors,  he  became  a  fellow  in  1S18.  In 
1834  he  was  appointed  rector  of  Herst¬ 
monceux,  and  later  archdeacon  of  Lewis 
and  chaplain  to  the  Queen.  He  was  the 
intimate  friend  of  Thomas  Arnold,  Bunsen, 
and  other  distinguished  scholars,  and  col¬ 
lected  a  private  library  of  some  twelve 
thousand  volumes.  He  was  the  sturdy 
champion  of  Protestantism  during  the  time 
of  the  Tractarian  ( q .  v.)  movement.  His 
ablest  theological  work  is  The  Mission  of  the 
Comforter ,  with  Notes  (1876,  republished  in 
Boston).  The  Contest  with  Rome  (1842) 
gave  his  views  in  the  controversy  with  Ro¬ 
manism  and  Puseyism.  The  Victory  of 
Faith  is  a  series  of  eloquent  and  instructive 
sermons.  See  Memorials  of  a  Quiet  Life , 
by  A.  J.  C.  Hare  (London,  1872). 

Harmonists.  See  Rappists. 

Harmony  of  the  Gospels.  The  four  Gos¬ 
pels  differ  in  style,  in  order  of  arrange¬ 
ment,  and  in  some  degree,  also,  in  the  cir¬ 
cumstances  narrated.  But  there  is  run¬ 
ning  through  them  the  great  unity  of 
spirit,  which  represents  the  Saviour  as  the 
tender,  loving  Guide  of  his  disciples,  sym¬ 
pathizing  with  their  sorrows  and  with  the 
sorrows  of  mankind.  The  Gospels  are 
portraits  of  the  One  Person  from  different 
points  of  view,  but  have  so  much  in  com¬ 
mon  that  we  recognize  the  unity.  This  is 
the  Harmony  of  the  Gospels  to  which  it  is 
evident  that  all  real  importance  attaches. 
But  it  is  also  natural  that  Christian  writers 
from  early  times  should  have  endeavored 
to  construct  a  life  of  Christ  in  chronolog¬ 
ical  sequence.  They  have  only  in  part 
succeeded.  Two  only  of  the  four  Evan¬ 
gelists  give  the  history  of  our  Lord's  child¬ 
hood,  and  they  select  different  incidents  of 
it.  The  one  gives  the  visit  of  the  wise 
men  and  the  flight  into  Egypt,  the  other 
the  announcement  to  the  shepherds  and 


Har 


(  305  ) 


Har 


the  presentation  in  the  Temple.  The 
closer  the  details  are  studied,  the  more  it 
seems  probable  that  the  materials  needed 
for  an  absolute  chronological  order  have 
been  purposely  withheld.  But  an  approx¬ 
imation  has  been  arrived  at,  and  the  course 
of  the  Saviour’s  life  year  by  year  can  be 
traced  with  considerable  accuracy.  The 
first  attempt  which  we  know  of  to  construct 
a  Harmony  was  made  in  the  third  century 
by  Ammonius,  who  divided  the  Gospel 
into  sections  for  the  purpose.  The  num¬ 
bers  which  mark  these  Ammonian  sections 
are  found  in  the  margin  of  many  of  the 
ancient  MSS.  of  the  New  Testament.  In 
the  next  century  Eusebius,  the  historian, 
drew  up  his  “  Canons,”  in  which  the  Am¬ 
monian  sections  are  so  distributed  as  to 
show  in  a  tabular  form  what  portions  of 
the  other  Evangelists  correspond  to  that 
Gospel  which  stands  first  in  order  in  each 
section.  (See  Bishop  Wordsworth’s  Greek 
Testament,  vol.  i.,  pp.  27-35.)  Among 
modern  writers  the  best  harmonists  are 
Griesbach,  De  Wette,  Rodiger,  Clausen, 
Greswell,  Isaac  Williams,  Tischendorf. 
See  Archbishop  Thomson’s  masterly  essay 
on  the  Gospels  in  Smith’s  Bible  Dictionary. 
— Benham:  Diet,  of  Religion.  Among  the 
Harmonies  published  in  this  country  are 
those  by  Robinson,  Strong,  and  Gardiner. 

Harms,  Claus,  German  Evangelical;  b. 
at  Fahrstedt,  Schleswig-Holstein,  May  25, 
1778;  d.  in  Kiel,  Feb.  1,  1855.  He  was 
educated  at  the  University  of  Kiel,  and 
after  serving  as  assistant  pastor  at  Luden 
from  1806,  was  transferred  to  Kiel  in  1816, 
Avhere  he  spent  the  rest  of  his  honored  life. 
He  was  a  noble  champion  of  evangelical 
faith,  and  an  earnest  opponent  of  the  prev¬ 
alent  rationalism  of  his  time.  Besides  his 
writings  on’this  subject,  he  composed  many 
hymns,  some  of  which  have  found  a  place 
in  German  hymn-books. 

Harms,  Georg  L.  D.  Theodor,  a  Ger¬ 
man  Lutheran  pastor,  whose  success  as  a 
pastor,  evangelist,  and  organizer  of  parish 
work  was  remarkable.  He  was  b.  May  5, 
1808,  in  Walsrode,  Llineburg,  and  d.  at 
Hermannsburg,  Nov.  14,  1865.  After  com¬ 
pleting  his  studies  at  the  University  of  Got¬ 
tingen,  he  spent  several  years  as  a  tutor, 
when  he  accepted  the  position  of  assistant 
pastor  to  his  father  over  the  church  at 
Hermannsburg.  With  intense  ardor  of  soul 
he  gave  himself  to  his  work.  He  won  the 
love  of  all  classes  by  his  earnest  sympathy 
and  self-denying  labors.  A  revival  followed 
his  preaching,  such  as  North  Germany  had 
never  witnessed  before.  In  the  pulpit  he 
was  eloquent  and  interesting,  and  heart 
and  conscience  moving.  As  the  result  of 


his  efforts  the  life  of  the  community  was 
wonderfully  changed.  In  1849  he  founded 
a  seminary  for  the  training  of  missionaries. 
The  school  was  very  successful.  He  estab¬ 
lished  a  missionary  magazine  in  1854, 
which,  with  many  volumes  of  his  sermons, 
had  a  wide  circulation  in  Germany. 

Harnack,  (Karl  Gustav),  Adolf,  Ph.  D. 
(Leipzig,  1873),  Lie.  Theol.  (Leipzig,  1874), 
D.  D.  (hon.,  Marburg,  1879),  German  Prot¬ 
estant;  b.  at  Borpat,  Livonia,  Russia,  May 
7,  1851;  studied  theology  there  and  in 
Germany,  and  was  appointed  professor  of 
church  history  at  Leipzig,  1876;  Giessen, 
1879;  Marburg,  1886;  Berlin,  1889.  He 
published:  Zur  Quellenkritik  der  Geschichte 
des  Gnostizis??nis  (Leipzig,  1873);  Die  Zeit 
des  Ignatius  und  die  Chronologie  der  A  ntio- 
chenischen  Bischofe  (1878);  Das  Monchtttm , 
seine  Ideale  und  Geschichte  (Giessen,  1881, 
3d  ed.,  1886);  Lehrbuch  der  Dogmengeschi- 
chte  (Freiburg  im  Br.,  1886-87,  2  vols.,  2d 
ed.,  1888);  Grundriss  der  Dog?nengeschichte 
(1889);  Das  Neue  Testament  um  das  Jahr 
200  (1889),  etc. 

Harper,  William  Rainey,  Ph.  D.  (Yale 
College,  New  Haven,  Conn.,  1875),  Bap¬ 
tist  layman;  b.  at  New  Concord,  O.,  July 
26, 1856;  was  graduated  at  Muskingum  Col¬ 
lege,  New  Concord,  O.,  1870;  principal  of 
the  preparatory  department  of  Denison  Uni¬ 
versity,  Granville,  O.,  1876-1879;  profess¬ 
or  of  Hebrew  and  the  cognate  languages 
in  the  Chicago  Baptist  Union  Theological 
Seminary,  1879—1886;  since  1886  professor 
of  Semitic  languages  in  Yale  University. 
He  is  widely  known  as  the  author  of  sev¬ 
eral  text-books  on  the  Hebrew  language, 
and  the  editor  of  Hebraica  and  Old-Testa- 
ment  Student. 

Harp.  See  Music  Among  the  Hebrews. 

Harris,  Samuel,  D.  D.  (Williams  College, 
Williamstown,  Mass.,  1855),  LL.  D.  (Bow- 
doin  College,  Brunswick,  Me.,  1871),  Con¬ 
gregationalism  b.  at  East  Machias,  Me., 
June  14,  1814;  was  graduated  at  Bowdoin 
College,  1833,  and  at  Andover  Theological 
Seminary,  1838;  in  pastorates  at  East 
Machias,  Me.,  1834-41;  Conway,  Mass., 
1841-51,  and  at  Pittsfield,  Mass,  1851-55, 
when  he  became  professor  of  systematic 
theology  in  the  Bangor  Theological  Sem¬ 
inary,  1855-67;  president  of  Bowdoin  Col¬ 
lege,  1867-71;  since  1871  Dwight  professor 
of  systematic  theology  in  Yale  Theological 
Seminary,  New  Haven,  Conn.  He  is  the 
author  of:  Zacchetts:  The  Scriptural  Plan  of 
Beneficence  ( 1 844) ;  Christ's  Prayer  for  the 
Death  of  his  Redeemed  (1863);  The  Kingdom 
of  Christ  on  Earth  (1874);  The  Philosophical 


Har 


(  30  ) 


Hav 


Basis  of  Theism  (New  York,  1883);  Self- 
Revelation  of  God  (1887). 

Hartranft,  Chester  David,  D.  D.  (Rut¬ 
gers  College,  New  Brunswick,  N.  J.,  1876), 
Congregationalist;  b.  at  Frederick,  Penn., 
Oct.  15, 1S39;  was  graduated  at  the  Univer¬ 
sity  of  Pennsylvania,  1861,  and  at  the  New 
Brunswick  (N.  J.),  Theological  Seminary, 
1S64;  was  pastor  at  South  Bushwick, 
Brooklyn,  N.  Y.,  1864-66,  and  New  Bruns¬ 
wick,  N.  J.,  1866-78;  from  1878  professor 
of  biblical  and  ecclesiastical  history,  in  the 
Hartford  (Congregational)  Theological 
Seminary,  and  since  1888  president  of  the 
same. 

Harvest,  among  the  Hebrews,  began  in 
Palestine  about  the  middle  of  April.  On 
the  sixteenth  day  of  this  month  a  handful 
of  ripe  ears  was  offered  before  the  Lord  as 
the  first-fruits,  and  it  was  then  lawful  to 
put  the  sickle  to  the  corn.  (Lev.  xxiii.  9- 
14.)  The  barley  was  first  gathered  at  the 
time  of  the  festival  of  the  Passover,  and 
the  harvest  closed  with  the  ingathering 
of  w'heat  at  the  festival  of  Pentecost. 
(Exod.  xxiii.  16.)  Hired  reapers  were 
usually  employed,  and  maidens  bound  the 
sheaves,  while  the  owner  of  the  field  with 
his  children  assisted  in  storing  them  away. 
The  harvest  was  a  season  of  great  rejoicing, 
and  the  corners  of  the  field,  as  well  as  any 
forgotten  sheaf,  were  left  for  the  poor  to 
gather.  The  end  of  the  world  is  described 
under  the  figure  of  a  harvest.  (Matt.  xiii. 
30.  39-) 

Hase,  Carl  August  von,  Lutheran;  b. 
at  Steinbach,  Saxony,  Aug.  25,  1800;  d.  at 
Jena,  Jan.  3,  1S90.  He  studied  theology 
at  Leipzig  and  Erlangen.  In  1830  he  was 
appointed  professor  of  theology  at  Jena 
and  filled  the  chair  until  1883,  when  he  was 
retired  as  professor  ejneritus.  Among  his 
works  are:  Life  of  Jesus  (1829,  5th  ed., 
1S65;  Eng.  trans.  by  J.  F.  Clarke,  Bos¬ 
ton,  1881);  History  of  the  Christian  Church 
(1S34,  nth  ed.,  1886;  Eng.  trans.  from 
the  7th  ed. ,  by  Wing  and  Blumenthal,  New 
York,  1856);  Miracle  Plays  and  Sacred 
Dramas  (1858,  Eng.  trans.  London,  1880). 

Hastings,  Thomas,  Mus.  Doc.  (Uni¬ 
versity  of  New  York,  1858);  b.  in  Wash¬ 
ington,  Conn.,  Oct.  15,  1784;  d.  in  New 
York,  May  15,  1S72.  His  life  was  devoted 
to  the  improvement  of  church  music,  and 
he  compiled  many  volumes  of  tunes,  and 
wrote  a  large  number  of  hymns,  some  of 
which  have  been  widely  used.  He  began 
liis  work  as  a  teacher  in  Oneida  County, 
N.  Y. ,  1806;  removed  to  Troy,  1S17;  Utica, 
1S23;  and  New  York  City,  1S32.  His 


hymns  are  found  chiefly  in  his  Spiritual 
Songs  (New  York,  1831-1833);  Mother's 
Hymn-Book  (1834);  Christian  Psalmist 
(1836);  D  evotional  Hymns  and  Poems  (18  50); 
and  Church  Melodies  (1858),  in  which  publi¬ 
cation  he  was  assisted  by  his  son,  the  Rev. 
Dr.  T.  S.  Hastings,  now  president  of  Union 
Theological  Seminary. 

Hatch,  Edwin,  D.  D.  (University  of 
Edinburgh,  1883),  Church  of  England;  b. 
at  Derby,  Eng.,  Sept.  4,  1835;  d.  at  Oxford, 
Nov.  10,  1889.  He  was  educated  at  Pem¬ 
broke  College, Oxford ;  was  graduated  B.  A. , 
1857;  M.  A.,  1867;  was  ordained  deacon, 
1858,  and  priest,  1859;  professor  of  classics 
in  Trinity  College,  Toronto,  Can.,  1859- 
1866;  vice-principal  of  St.  Mary’s  Hall, 
Oxford,  Eng.,  1867,  and,  in  addition,  rector 
of  Purleigh,  1883;  secretary  to  the  boards 
of  faculties,  1S84,  and  reader  in  ecclesias¬ 
tical  history, Oxford.  As  Bampton  lecturer, 
1SS0,  he  produced  a  work  on  The  Organiza¬ 
tion  of  the  Early  Christian  Churches  (Lon¬ 
don,  1881),  which  received  the  highest 
praise  of  scholars.  He  also  wrote:  Essays 
in  Biblical  Greek  (1889);  Grinfield  Lectures 
(18S2-1884);  and  The  Growth  of  Church  Ln- 
stitutions  (1887).  See  Memorials ,  edited  by 
his  brother  (1890). 

Hattemists,  a  Dutch  sect,  founded  by 
Pontianus  van  Hattem,  who  was  deposed 
from  his  pastorate  in  Zealand  in  1683,  and 
died  in  1706.  Hattem  was  a  disciple  of 
Spinoza,  and  his  doctrines  were  a  develop¬ 
ment  of  mystical  pantheism.  The  sect  was 
suppressed  by  the  Dutch  Government  in 
*733- 

Hauge,  Hans  Nielsen,  a  famous  Nor¬ 
wegian  revivalist;  b.  on  the  Hauge  farm, 
Smaalenene  County,  Norway,  April  3, 
1771;  d.  on  the  Bredtvedt  farm,  Aker 
County,  March  29,  1S24.  The  son  of  a 
peasant,  and  limited  in  his  education,  he 
gained  a  knowledge  of  the  Bible  that 
enabled  him,  with  his  peculiar  gifts,  to  enjer 
upon  an  evangelistic  work  which  was  at¬ 
tended  with  a  great  religious  awakening. 
His  followers  were  called  “  Haugians,”  or 
“  Readers.”  His  teachings  were  distaste¬ 
ful  to  the  rationalistic  church  authorities, 
and  he  was  imprisoned  in  1S04,  and  held 
for  trial  until  1S14.  When  he  was  released 
his  health  was  broken,  but  the  influence 
of  his  words  and  life  had  permeated  the 
nation.  See  his  Life ,  by  A.  Chr.  Bang 
(Christiania,  1874);  and  Belsheim  (Christi¬ 
ania,  1S81). 

Hauran.  See  Bashan. 

Havelock,  Henry,  Sir,  the  Christian 


Hav 


(  397  ) 


Hay 


soldier;  b.  at  Bishop-Wearmouth,  Sunder¬ 
land,  April  5,  1795;  d.  at  Lucknow,  India, 
Nov.  25,  1857.  Entering  the  British  army 
as  second  lieutenant  (1815),  he  went  to 
India  in  1823.  He  served  with  honor  in 
the  Afghan  war  (1840-1842),  and  was  made 
adjutant-general  in  1S54.  It  was  in  the 
Sepoy  rebellion  (1857)  that  his  military 
genius  was  most  successfully  displayed. 
Under  his  leadership  Lucknow  was  taken 
by  assault,  but  within  three  days  after  the 
capture  of  the  city  he  died  of  disease 
brought  on  by  over  -  exertion.  General 
Havelock  was  an  earnest,  devout  Christian. 
His  wife  was  a  daughter  of  the  eminent 
missionary  Dr.  Marshman,  and  not  long 
after  his  marriage  he  united  with  the  Bap¬ 
tist  denomination.  “  For  more  than  forty 
years,”  he  said  to  Sir  James  Outram  in  his 
last  moments,  “  I  have  so  ruled  my  life, 
that  when  death  came,  I  might  face  it  with¬ 
out  fear.”  See  Marshman:  Alemoirs  of  Sir 
Henry  Havelock. 

Haven,  Erastus  Otis,  D.  D.,  a  bishop 
of  the  Methodist  Episcopal  Church;  b.  in 
Boston,  Mass.,  Nov.  1,  1820;  d.  at  Salem, 
Oregon,  Aug.  2,  1881.  After  graduating 
from  the  Wesleyan  University  in  1842,  he 
followed  the  profession  of  teaching  until 
1848,  when  he  entered  the  ministry.  He 
was  professor  in  the  University  of  Michi¬ 
gan,  1853-56:  editor  of  Zion's  Herald ,  Bos¬ 
ton,  1856-63;  president  of  the  University 
of  Michigan,  1863-69;  of  the  Northwestern 
University,  Evanston,  Ill.,  1869-72;  cor¬ 
responding  secretary  of  the  board  of  edu¬ 
cation  of  the  M.  E.  Church,  1872-74; 
chancellor  of  the  Syracuse  University, 
1874.  He  was  elected  bishop  in  1880. 
He  filled  the  important  positions  to  which 
he  was  called  with  marked  ability.  Among 
his  published  works  are:  Young  Alan 
Advised ( 1855);  Rhetoric  for  Schools,  Colleges, 
and  Private  Study  (1869). 

Haven,  Gilbert,  D.  D.,  a  bishop  of  the 
Methodist  Episcopal  Church;  b.  near  Bos¬ 
ton,  Sept.  19,  1821;  d.  at  Malden,  Mass., 
Jan.  8,  1880.  He  was  a  graduate  of  the 
Wesleyan  University  (1846),  and  taught 
several  years.  In  1851  he  joined  the  New 
England  Conference,  and  filled  prominent 
appointments  from  the  first.  In  1861  he 
was  made  chaplain  of  the  Eighth  Mass. 
Regiment,  the  first  commissioned  chap¬ 
lain  after  the  breaking  out  of  the  war. 
From  1867  to  1872  he  was  the  efficient  edi¬ 
tor  of  Zion' s  Herald ,  Boston,  when  he  was 
elected  bishop.  He  was  a  man  of  rare  in¬ 
tellectual  gifts,  the  earnest  friend  of  the 
colored  race,  and  the  champion  of  freedom 
everywhere.  He  wrote  two  volumes  of 
travels:  Pilgritn' s  Wallet ;  Our  Next  Door 


Neighbor:  Recent  Sketches  of  Alexico  (1S74); 
National  Sermons  (1869). 

Havergal,  Frances  Ridley,  one  of  the 
best  known  and  beloved  of  religious 
writers;  b.  at  Astley,  Eng.,  Dec.  14,  1836; 
d.  at  Caswell  Bay,  Swansea,  South  Wales, 
June  3,  1879.  The  daughter  of  a  clergy¬ 
man  of  the  Church  of  England ,  she  received 
the  advantages  of  a  classical  education,  and 
studied  Greek  and  Hebrew  that  she  might 
read  the  Bible  in  the  original.  While  her 
pen  was  busy  in  writing  the  little  volumes 
and  poems  that  have  had  so  wide  a  circula¬ 
tion,  she  was  actively  engaged  in  Christian 
service  in  many  ways.  The  best-known 
of  her  poetical  works  are:  Ministry  of 
Song ;  Under  the  Surface ;  Under  the  Shadozo. 
Among  her  prose  writings  are:  My  King 
(1877);  Kept  for  the  Master's  Use  ( 1879). 
See  Memorials  by  her  sister  (New  York, 
1880). 

Hav'ilah.  See  Eden. 

Hawaiian  Islands.  See  Sandwich  Isl¬ 
ands. 

Hawes,  Joel,  D.  D.,  b.  Medway,  Mass., 
Dec.  22,  1789;  d.  at  Gilead,  Conn.,  June  5, 
1867.  He  was  graduated  at  Brown  Uni¬ 
versity  (1813),  and  studied  at  Andover. 
He  was  called  to  the  pastorate  of  the  First 
Congregational  Church  at  Hartford,  Conn., 
in  1818,  where  he  remained  until  his  death. 
He  was  a  man  of  strong  intellect,  great 
devotion,  and  indefatigable  in  labor.  The 
most  widely  circulated  of  his  published 
writings  is:  Lectures  to  Young  Men  on  the 
Fortnation  of  Character  (1828).  See  his  Life , 
by  E.  A.  Lawrence  (Hartford,  1873). 

Hawks,  Francis  Lister,  D.  D.,  LL.  D., 
Episcopalian;  b.  at  New  Berne,  N.  C., 
June  10,  1792;  d.  in  New  York  City,  Sept. 
26,  1866.  He  was  graduated  at  the  Univer¬ 
sity  of  North  Carolina,  1815,  and  gained 
eminence  at  the  bar.  Entering  the  ministry 
in  1827,  he  served  churches  in  New  Haven, 
New  York,  Philadelphia,  New  Orleans, 
and  Baltimore.  As  historiographer  of  his 
Church  he  published:  Contributions  to  the 
Ecclesiastical  History  of  the  United  States 
(New  York,  1836-1840);  and  Documentary 
History  of  the  Protestant  Episcopal  Church 
in  Connecticut  (1863-1864),  2  vols.  He  was 
an  eloquent  preacher,  and  versatile  as  a 
writer.  See  memorial  by  E.  A.  Duyckinck 
(1871). 

Haygood,  Atticus  Greene,  D.  D.  (Em¬ 
ory  College,  Oxford,  Ga. ,  1870),  LL.  D. 
(Southwestern  University,  Georgetown, 
Tex.,  1884),  Methodist  Episcopal  Church 


Haz 


(  398  ) 


Heb 


South;  b.  at  Watkinsville,  Ga. ,  Nov.  ig, 
1S39;  was  graduated  at  Emory  College,  Ox¬ 
ford,  Ga. ,  1859;  entered  the  ministry,  and 
from  1870  to  1875  was  Sunday-school  secre¬ 
tary  of  the  M.  E.  Church  South;  president 
of  Emory  College,  1876-1884;  agent  of  the 
“  John  F.  Slater  Fund,”  1885-1S90;  in  1890 
elected  bishop.  He  is  the  author  of:  Ottr 
Children  (1876);  Our  Brother  in  Black 
(1S81);  Sermons  and  Speeches  (1883). 

Haz'ael  {God  sees),  an  officer  of  the  king 
of  Syria,  whose  accession  to  the  throne  was 
revealed  to  Elijah.  (1  Kings  xix.  5.)  This 
fact  was  told  him  long  afterward  when  he 
came  to  consult  Elisha  regarding  the  re¬ 
covery  of  his  master  from  sickness.  (2 
Kings  viii.  7-15.)  Although,  at  the  time, 
he  professed  the  utmost  abhorrence  of  the 
course  of  action  that  Elisha  foretold  he 
would  be  guilty  of,  the  following  day  he 
murdered  Benhadad,  and  ascended  the 
throne.  (2  Kings  viii.  7-16.)  He  waged  a 
cruel  and  successful  war  against  Judah  and 
Israel,  but  all  of  his  conquests  were  lost 
during  the  reign  of  his  son  and  successor. 
(2  Kings  xiii.  25.) 

Ha'zor  {enclosure),  the  name  of  several 
cities,  the  chief  of  which  was  the  city  of 
King  Jabin,  destroyed  by  Joshua  (Josh.  xi. 
1,  10,  11)  given  to  Naphtali  (xix.  36),  and 
retaken  by  the  Canaanites.  (Judg.  iv.  2.) 
It  was  fortified  by  Solomon  (1  Kings  ix.  15), 
and  its  people  were  carried  away  into  cap¬ 
tivity  by  Tiglath-pileser.  The  site  of  the 
city  has  long  been  in  dispute,  but  the  Pales¬ 
tine  Memoirs  give  good  reasons  for  locat¬ 
ing  it  at  Khurbet  Harrah ,  two  and  a  half 
miles  southeast  of  Kadesh,  where  the  re¬ 
mains  of  ancient  walls,  towers,  and  a  for¬ 
tress  have  been  found. 

Heart  of  Jesus,  Society  of.  See  Jesus’ 
Heart,  Society  of. 

Heathen.  “  This  term  (from  heath,  one 
who  lives  on  the  heaths,  or  in  the  woods, 
like  pagans,  i.  e.,  villagers)  is  applied  in 
the  English  Bible  to  all  idolaters,  or  to  all 
nations  except  the  Jews.  (Psa.  ii.  1.)  It 
now  denotes  all  nations  except  Christians, 
Jews,  and  Mohammedans.” — Schaff:  Bible 
Dictionary. 

Heave-Offerings.  See  Offerings. 

Heaven.  The  primary  meaning  of  the 
word  in  Scriptural  language  is  the  sky  over¬ 
head,  and  this  is  the  meaning  both  of  the 
Hebrew  shamaim,  from  shami ,  “  the  high,” 
and  of  the  English  word — that  which  is 
heaved ,  lifted  up.  Hence  the  word  came  to 
mean,  not  only  the  vast  space  overhead, 


but  the  unseen,  mysterious  world  whence 
the  glory  of  the  Creator  proceeds,  the 
glory  of  life  and  light.  So  the  prophet 
calls  heaven  God’s  throne,  and  our  Lord 
repeats  the  phrase.  (Matt.  v.  34.)  Hence 
the  bow  in  the  cloud,  and  the  pillar  of 
cloud  and  fire  were  known  as  symbols  of 
the  watchfulness  and  care  of  God.  And 
Christ  at  his  Incarnation  “  came  down  from 
heaven.”  The  Christian  Revelation  gave 
a  fuller  and  more  complete  idea.  Heaven 
means,  in  St.  Paul’s  writings,  “where 
Christ  is,”  let  that  place  be  where  it  may. 
Even  when  his  presence  is  realized  amongst 
us,  we  are  in  heaven,  we  are  its  citizens. 
(Phil.  iii.  20.)  “  Heaven  lies  about  us  in 

our  infancy,”  says  the  poet  (Wordsworth: 
Ode  071  l7)imortality),  and  so  far  as  we  carry 
about  with  us  the  hearts  of  little  children, 
pure  and  simple  and  trustful,  we  are  en¬ 
compassed  with  heaven.  But  such  faith 
and  purity  rest  upon  the  knowledge  that 
Christ  lives  incarnate,  therefore  heaven  is 
a  place  no  less  than  a  state.  The  fullest 
heaven  is  the  place  where  he  is  seen  and 
adored  by  saints  and  angels,  where  he  is 
ever  making  intercession.  (See  Eph.  i.  23; 
Heb.  iv.  14;  ix.  24.)  While  St.  Paul  be¬ 
lieved  himself  to  be  already  a  citizen  of 
heaven,  he  none  the  less  looked  forward  to 
that  perfect  consummation  and  bliss  when 
he  should  be  with  Christ,  and  look  upon 
him.  Hence  we  cannot  resolve  the  Script¬ 
ural  heaven  into  a  mere  idea,  which,  under 
the  name  of  “  spiritual,”  becomes  an  un¬ 
reality.  Such  works  as  Beyond  the  Gates, 
however  fanciful,  and  therefore  needing 
the  greatest  caution  in  reading,  do  not  go 
beyond  the  truth  in  holding  a  close  relation 
between  the  natural  and  spiritual  body.  In 
that  eternal  and  everlasting  glory  the  soul 
will  find  its  true  home  and  rest,  and  not 
lose  its  identity,  even  when  former  things 
are  passed  away. — Benham:  Diet,  of  Re¬ 
ligion.  See  Baxter:  Saint's  Everlasting 
Rest ;  John  Howe:  7 'he  Blessedtiess  of  the 
Righteous  0pe7ied ;  Harbaugh:  Heave7i;  or, 
the  Sainted  Dead,  3  vols.  (Philadelphia, 
1848).  These  works  have  passed  through 
many  editions. 

Heber,  Reginald,  a  distinguished  mis¬ 
sionary  bishop  and  hymn  writer;  b.  at 
Malpas,  Eng.,  April  21,  1783;  d.  at  Trich- 
inopoly,  India,  April  3,  1826.  When  quite 
young  he  wrote  poems  of  merit,  and  the 
year  after  entering  Oxford  (1803)  he  gained 
the  prize  for  a  poem  entitled  Palestine.  In 
1804  he  was  fellow  of  All  Souls,  and  in 
1807  he  became  rector  of  Hodnet.  His 
labors  here  were  very  successful.  In  1815 
he  delivered  the  Bampton  lectures  on  the 
Perso7iality  and  Office  of  the  Christia7i  Com¬ 
forter,  and  soon  after  (1S17)  was  made  can- 


Heb 


(  399  ) 


Heb 


on  of  St.  Asaph,  and,  in  1822,  preacher  at 
Lincoln’s  Inn.  In  the  same  year  he  was 
elected  bishop  of  the  see  of  Calcutta.  With 
intense  zeal  and  great  ability  he  labored 
thereuntil  the  time  of  his  sudden  death. 
Among  his  best-known  hyms  are  “  From 
Greenland’s  Icy  Mountains;”  “  Holy,  holy, 
holy,  Lord  God  Almighty.”  Heber  was  a 
High-Churchman  in  his  views,  but  kind  and 
liberal  in  spirit.  See  his  Life,  by  his  widow 
(London  and  New  York,  1830),  2  vols. 
Chambers:  Bishop  Heber  and  Indian  Mis¬ 
sions  (London,  1846). 

Hebrew  Poetry.  “  Hebrew  life  and  his¬ 
tory  supply  no  motive  for  epic  poetry,  and 
the  Hebrew  character  has  no  faculty  for 
dramatic  poetry;  so  that  the  literature,  as  a 
consequence,  contains  no  epic  poem,  and 
no  properly  dramatic  composition.  The 
poetry  is,  therefore,  either  lyric  or  gnomic, 
i.e. ,  subjectively  emotional  or  sententiously 
didactic;  the  former  belonging  to  the  active 
or  stirring,  and  the  latter  to  the  reflective 
or  quiet  periods  of  Hebrew  history.  The 
reason  of  this  is  to  be  found  in  the  intense 
individuality  of  the  Hebrew  temper,  and 
its  incapacity  to  transcend  the  range  of 
what  impresses  itself  in  this  or  that  light, 
on  the  individual  sense  or  conscience.  It 
does  not  rise  above  itself,  so  as  to  oversee 
itself  and  conceive  an  epic;  it  does  not  go 
outside  of  itself,  so  as  to  seize  and  construe 
another  mood  and  compose  a  drama;  it  can, 
alike  in  its  passionate  and  reflective  mo¬ 
ments,  only  express  the  feelings,  views, 
and  purposes  that  arise  in  connection  with 
events  and  experiences  of  real  practical 
interest.  It  limits  itself,  moreover,  to  the 
concrete,  and  neither  abstracts  nor  system¬ 
atizes;  it  at  most  only  gives  instances.  It 
is  quick  to  see  and  strong  to  feel,  but  it  is 
always  in  the  presence  of  personal  inter¬ 
ests,  which,  however,  are  apprehended  as 
eternal  ones,  and  are  such  as  for  the  time 
fill  the  mind  and  shut  out  all  else  in  the 
universe.  Whether  expressed  in  lyric  or 
gnome,  Hebrew  poetry  rises  in  the  con¬ 
science  and  terminates  in  action.  For  He¬ 
brew  thought  needs  to  go  no  higher,  since 
therein  it  finds  and  affirms  God;  it  seeks 
to  go  no  further,  for  therein  it  compasses 
all  being,  requiring,  therefore,  no  epic  and 
no  drama  to  work  out  its  destiny.  How¬ 
ever  individualistic  in  feature,  as  working 
through  the  conscience,  it  yet  relates  itself 
to  the  whole  moral  world;  and,  however  it 
may  express  itself,  it  beats  in  accord  with 
the  pulse  of  eternity.  The  lyric  expres¬ 
sion  of  this  temper  we  find  in  the  Psalms, 
the  Song  of  Solomon,  and  the  Lamenta¬ 
tions  of  Jeremiah,  and  the  gnomic  in 
the  books  of  Proverbs  and  Ecclesiastes, 
while  the  book  of  Job,  which  is  only  dra¬ 


matic  in  form,  is  partly  lyric  and  partly 
gnomic. 

“Hebrew  rhythm  is  peculiar, and  consists 
not,  as  with  us,  in  the  rise  and  fall  of  ac¬ 
cent,  or  rhythm  of  the  sound,  but  in  a  cer¬ 
tain  so-called  parallelism  of  clauses,  or 
rhythm  of  the  sense.  By  the  word  ‘  paral¬ 
lelism  ’  is  understood  an  arrangement  of 
two  or  more  sentences  side  by  side.  This 
is  done  in  three  ways.  There  may  be  a 
synonymous ,  an  antithetic ,  or  a  synthetic 
parallelism,  according  as  there  is  a  same¬ 
ness,  a  contrast,  or  a  further  expression  of 
the  thought. 

“(1)  The  simplest  and  by  far  the  most 
common  form  of  parallelism  is  the  synony¬ 
mous.  Here  the  same  thought  is  repeated 
with  a  change  of  language,  e.  g.,  Psalm 
xvi.  6: 

*  The  lines  are  fallen  unto  me  in  pleasant  places; 
Yea,  I  have  a  goodly  heritage.’ 

“  (2)  In  the  antithetic  form  of  parallelism, 
a  truth  is  given  first  positively  and  then 
negatively,  or  two  opposite  states  are  put 
in  contrast,  e.  g. ,  Psalm  i.  6: 

*  For  the  Lord  knoweth  the  way  of  the  righteous; 
But  the  way  of  the  ungodly  shall  perish.  ’ 

“(3)  Synthetic  parallelism  carries  the 
thought  of  the  first  clause  further,  and  ex¬ 
pands  it,  adding  new  meanings,  explaining 
the  contents,  or  deducing  consequences, 
e.  g. ,  Isa.  i.  5,  6: 

‘  The  Lord  hath  opened  mine  ear, 

And  I  was  not  rebellious,  nor  turned  away  back. 

I  gave  my  back  to  thesmiters. 

And  my  cheeks  to  them  that  plucked  off  the  hair  : 
I  hid  not  my  face  from  shame  and  spitting.’ 

“  The  verse  requires  at  least  two  mem¬ 
bers,  which  must,  by  such  parallelism,  be 
knit  into  unity;  and  the  distich  or  couplet 
is,  in  general,  to  be  regarded  as  its  ground- 
form,  although  there  are  some  verses 
which  have  three  (Psa.  vii.  C),  four  (Psa. 
v.  10),  five  (Psa.  xi.  4),  and  even  six  (Song 
of  Solomon  iv.  8),  members.  Three  epochs 
have  been  noted  in  the  history  of  Hebrew 
poetry,  coincident  respectively  with  the 
days  (a)  of  Moses,  (b)  of  David  and  Sol¬ 
omon,  and  (F)  of  the  Exile. 

“  ( a )  The  Mosaic  Period. — To  this  period 
belong  the  song  of  the  Red  Sea(Exod.  xv.), 
Psa.xc.,  and  Deut.  xxxii.  and  xxxiii. ;  and 
these  supply  the  primordial  forms  respect¬ 
ively  of  the  hymn,  the  elegy,  and  the 
prophecy  of  the  after  poetry. 

*  ‘  {!))  The  Period  of  David  and  Solomon.  — 
This  is  the  golden  age  of  Hebrew  poetry, 
at  once  in  the  lyric  and  gnomic  forms  of  it; 
and  the  transition  from  the  age  preced¬ 
ing  is  represented  by  the  song  of  Debo¬ 
rah  (Judg.  v.),  and  that  of  Hannah.  (1  Sam. 
ii.).  In  the  Psalms  of  David  the  religious 
passion  of  the  Hebrew  finds  its  richest  and 


Heb 


(  400  ) 


Heb 


fullest  expression,  just  as  his  wisdom 
does  in  the  Proverbs  of  Solomon.  These 
are  the  compositions  of  men  who,  while 
truly  inspired  by  God,  were  heart  and  soul 
in  fullest  accord  vvith  the  Hebrew  spirit; 
but  one  set  of  them,  as  in  the  Psalms, 
gave  utterance  to  it  as  it  glowed  in  the 
heart,  and  the  other,  in  the  Proverbs,  for 
instance,  as  it  reflected  itself  in  life  and 
experience,  with  more  breadth  of  view, 
but  less  intensity  of  passion. 

4  4  (c)  The  Period  of  the  Exile. — Under  Da¬ 
vid’s  successors  the  religious  life  begins 
to  decay,  and  therewith  the  spirit  that 
inspired  the  poetry:  only  under  Jehosha- 
phat.in  2  Chron.  xx. ,  and  under  Helekiah, 
in  2  Chron.  xxix. ,  do  we  see  some  faint 
gleams  of  its  original  aspirations.  When 
admonished,  however,  in  the  school  of 
affliction,  the  Hebrews  begin  to  turn  to  the 
Lord,  and  hope  for  his  coming;  once  more 
the  harp  is  taken  down  again,  and  attuned 
to  the  new  situation.  Soon  again  the  situ¬ 
ation  changes,  and  what  poetry  survives  is, 
alike  in  matter  and  form,  but  a  shadowy 
echo  of  earlier  inspirations.” — Bagster: 
Bible  Helps.  See  Isaac  Taylor:  The  Spirit 
of  Hebrew  Poetry  (London,  1861);  Introduc¬ 
tion  to  Perowne’s  translation  and  notes  on 
the  Psalms  (Andover,  1876). 

Hebrews,  Epistle  to  the.  “  Of  the 
Hebrews,  to  whom  this  epistle  was  ad¬ 
dressed,  we  know  nothing,  except  what 
we  gather  from  the  epistle  itself.  Evi¬ 
dently  they  were  Christians  of  Jewish 
descent,  and  of  some  standing.  But  in 
consequence  of  persecution  at  the  hands 
of  their  Jewish  brethren — amounting,  it 
would  appear,  to  threatened  excommuni¬ 
cation  from  the  Jewish  Church — they  were 
in  danger  of  making  shipwreck  of  their 
faith  in  Christ,  and  had  need  of  the  exhor¬ 
tation  to  hold  fast  their  confidence,  stead¬ 
fast  to  the  end.  There  is  some  reason  to 
presume,  from  the  characterizations  it  con¬ 
tains,  that  the  epistle  was  not  a  general 
one;  blit  that  it  was  addressed  to  a  special 
community,  though  where,  it  seems  impos¬ 
sible  with  any  certainty  to  determine. 
Except  Italy  (chap.  xiii.  24),  there  is  no 
mention  of  any  locality  from  the  beginning 
to  the  end  of  the  epistle;  and  the  reference 
to  it  leaves  us  uncertain  whether  it  was 
written  to  or  from  Italy.  Jerusalem,  Rome, 
Antioch,  Alexandria,  have  been  severally 
fixed  upon  as  the  likely  seat  of  the  com¬ 
munity  in  question;  but  all  that  can  be 
concluded  with  any  show  of  probability  in 
the  matter,  is  that  it  consisted  of  Hellen¬ 
istic  Jews,  i.  e.,  Jews  of  the  Dispersion 
who  spoke  Greek,  and  that  it  was  located 
in  the  East,  somewhere  out  of  Palestine, 
certainly  beyond  the  immediate  environs  of 


Jerusalem.  It  is  just  possible,  however, 
that  the  epistle  may,  after  all,  be  a  general 
one,  seeing  the  situation  characterized  is 
of  a  nature  not  inapplicable  to  several  Tew- 
ish  communities  gathered  together  from 
different  centres  of  the  Jewish  Dispersion, 
all  of  whom  were  more  or  less  in  danger 
of  falling  away  from  the  faith  under  perse¬ 
cution  from  their  Jewish  brethren. 

44  The  occasion,  object ,  and  argument  of  the 
epistle. — The  occasion  of  writing  it  was  the 
pressure  of  persecution,  of  a  nature  tanta¬ 
mount  to  a  challenge  to  renounce  the  cross 
of  Christ,  and  which  it  was  feared  these 
Hebrews  would  too  readily  do,  to  the  ex¬ 
tent  even  of  denying  it  altogether,  and  so, 
to  their  own  ruin,  crucifying  the  Son  of 
God  afresh — the  alternative  being  either 
crucifixion  7vith  Christ,  or  the  crucifixion 

Christ.  Therefore  the  object  of  writing 
it  was  to  exhort  and  encourage  them  to 
endure  whatever  persecution  and  reproach 
they  might  have  to  face,  as  being  pre-ap- 
pointed  to  test  and  prove  their  divine  son- 
ship,  and  as  the  invariable,  inevitable 
allotment  of  all  believing  men,  of  all  the 
children  of  the  Father  in  heaven.  Its  ob¬ 
ject  was  hortatory  (chap.  xiii.  22);  and  its 
Jewish-Christian  readers  were  exhorted 
not  to  give  up  their  faith  in  Christ,  and 
their  hope  in  his  promise,  as  if,  in  enter¬ 
taining  this  faith  and  hope,  they  might 
forfeit  their  interest  in  the  benefits  of  the 
covenant  of  God  with  their  fathers.  For 
the  new  covenant  in  Christ  gave  them  all 
that  the  old  covenant  offered,  so  that  with 
it  they  had  in  actual  possession  what  the 
old  covenant  only  guaranteed,  and  that  in 
mere  type  and  promise.  The  old  covenant 
was  abolished,  or  rather  merged,  in  the 
new;  and  if  the  glory  of  the  new  was  as 
yet  unrevealed,  the  greatness  of  the 
Founder  and  his  work  was  pledge  suffi¬ 
cient  that  his  Church,  like  himself,  would 
enter  into  its  glory  when  its  sufferings 
were  complete  like  his.  Let  them  hold 
fast,  therefore,  by  their  faith,  and  not  hope 
the  less,  but  the  more,  that  they  had  to 
suffer  for  it.  Their  suffering  for  it  was  the 
test  and  triumph  of  their  faith  in  it.  And 
they  were  called  to  suffer  4  without  the 
gate,’  like  their  Lord  before  them.  To  be 
rejected  of  their  brethren  for  Christ’s  sake 
was  the  very  4  reproach  of  Christ  ’  which 
they  were  called  to  face  when  they  em¬ 
braced  his  gospel.  The  argument  on  which 
the  author  bases  his  contention  that  the 
Christian  dispensation  surpasses  and 
supersedes  the  Jewish  is  threefold,  and  is 
founded  on  the  threefold  superiority  of  the 
Head  of  the  former  over  the  heads  of  the 
latter,  that  Jesus  is  superior — first,  to 
angels  (chaps,  i.-ii.);  secondly,  to  Moses 
(chaps,  jii.-iv,  13);  and  thirdly,  to  the  high- 


A 


Heb 


(  4oi  ) 


Heb 


priest  of  the  Jewish  dispensation  (chaps, 
iv.  14-xii.  29). 

“  Its  authorship. — The  question  of  the 
authorship  of  this  epistle  has  been  long  a 
puzzle  with  critics,  and  it  is  to  this  day  un¬ 
certain  who  the  real  author  was.  On  one 
point  only  are  the  critics  as  good  as  agreed 
— namely  that  it  was  not  written  by  Paul. 
The  reasons  for  this  conclusion  appear  to 
be  three — first,  that  by  many  early  Chris¬ 
tian  writers  it  is  not  classed  among  Paul’s 
epistles,  but  is  ascribed  by  some  to  Barna¬ 
bas;  secondly,  that  it*is  not  written  in  Paul’s 
style;  and  thirdly,  that  though  the  truths 
taught  are  the  same,  they  are  presented  in 
this  epistle  in  lights  and  relations  different 
from  those  in  which  they  are  presented  in 
the  Pauline  writings,  the  dominating,  per¬ 
vading  idea  in  it  being  quite  peculiarly  the 
Priesthood  of  the  Son.  The  authorship  of 
Barnabas  is  held  to  be  as  questionable  as 
that  of  Paul,  and  some  modern  critics  are 
inclined  to  accept  the  opinion  of  Luther, 
founded  on  Acts  xviii.  24,  that  the  epistle 
Was  the  work  of  Apollos.  Nevertheless, 
the  epistle  may  still  be  reckoned  Pauline 
in  a  secondary  sense.  Though  not  written 
by  Paul,  and  though  composed  in  a  style 
of  language,  and  reasoned  out  on  lines  dif¬ 
ferent  from  the  style  and  method  of  Paul, 
it  advocates  an  essentially  Pauline  Chris¬ 
tian  truth.  It  is  a  true  support  of  Paul’s 
great  doctrine  of  faith;  and  it  seems  to 
have  been  written  by  a  disciple  of  that 
apostle,  or  at  least  by  a  Christian  teacher 
of  Paul’s  school  of  thought,  rather  than  by 
one  of  the  stamp  of  James,  Peter,  or  John. 

“  Contents. — God  has  revealed  himself 
through  his  Son,  who  is  placed  above  the 
angels  (chap.  i.  1-4).  He  is  proved  to  be 
in  name  and  dignity  above  the  angels  (5— 
14);  earnest  heed,  therefore,  to  be  given 
to  his  words  (chap.  ii.  1-4).  The  world  to 
come  is  subject  to  the  Son,  who  was  made 
perfect  by  suffering  (5-18).  Jesus  has 
greater  glory  than  Moses,  seeing  he  is  the 
son  over  the  house  of  God,  while  Moses 
was  but  a  servant  within  it  (chap.  iii.  1-6). 
They  who  hold  fast  their  faith  in  him  enter 
into  God’s  rest,  which  Israel  failed  to  do 
under  Moses  (chaps,  iii.  7-iv.  13).  Jesus 
is  a  sympathizing  high-priest— a  priest,  as 
called  of  God,  and  sympathizing,  as  taken 
from  among  men  (chaps,  iv.  14-v.  10). 
The  Hebrews  are  rebuked  for  their  short¬ 
coming,  and  warned  against  falling  away 
(chaps,  v.  11-vi.  20).  Jesus  an  high-priest 
after  the  order  of  Melchisedec,  and  what 
that  involves  (chap.  vii).  Jesus  is  a  min¬ 
istering  priest  of  the  true  tabernacle, 
which  the  Lord  pitched,  and  not  man,  i.  e., 
the  heavens  (chap.  viii.  1-6).  The  old 
covenant  and  the  new  contrasted  (7-13). 
The  Levitical  and  the  Melchisedec  minis¬ 


tries  contrasted  (chap.  ix.  1-14).  The  Mel¬ 
chisedec  ministry  and  the  new  covenant 
together  (chaps,  ix.  15-x.  18).  The  He¬ 
brews  are  exhorted  to  avail  themselves  of 
the  privileges  of  the  new  covenant  (19-25). 
If  they  apostatize,  there  will  be  no  hope  for 
them  (26-31).  If  they  maintain  their  faith, 
it  will  carry  them  through  (32-39).  In¬ 
stances  are  given  of  the  triumph  of  faith, 
and  its  acceptability  with  God  (chap.  xi). 
The  Hebrews  are  encouraged  to  endure  by 
Christ’s  example  (chap.  xii.  1-13).  They 
are  exhorted  to  peace  and  holiness  (14-17). 
The  two  economies  are  contrasted,  so  as  to 
strengthen  their  faith  (18-29).  General 
exhortations  follow,  and  salutations  (chap, 
xiii). ”  —  Bagster  :  Bible  Helps.  See  De- 
litzsch  :  Co?n?nentary  (Eng.  trans.,  Edin¬ 
burgh,  1870);  Commentaries  of  A.  B. 
Davidson  (1882):  Keil  (1885). 

Hebrews,  Name  and  History.  See  Is¬ 
rael;  Jews. 

He'bron,  “  a  city  of  Judah  (Josh.  xv. 
54),  situated  among  the  mountains  (Josh, 
xx.  7),  twenty  Roman  miles  south  of  Jeru¬ 
salem,  and  the  same  distance  north  of 
Beer-sheba.  Hebron  is  one  of  the  most 
ancient  cities  in  the  world  still  existing; 
and  in  this  respect  it  is  the  rival  of  Damas¬ 
cus.  It  Avas  built,  says  a  sacred  writer, 
‘  seven  years  before  Zoan  in  Egypt ’(Num. 
xiii.  22),  and  was  a  well-known  town  when 
Abraham  entered  Canaan  3,780  years  ago. 
(Gen.  xiii.  18.)  Its  original  name  was  Kir- 
jath-Arba (Judg.  i.  10),  ‘the  city  of  Arba;’ 
so  called  from  Arba,  the  father  of  Anak, 
and  progenitor  of  the  gigantic  Anakim. 
(Josh.  xxi.  11 ;  xv.  13,  14.)  The  chief  in¬ 
terest  of  this  city  arises  from  its  having 
been  the  scene  of  some  of  the  most  striking 
events  in  the  lives  of  the  patriarchs.  Sarah 
died  at  Hebron;  and  Abraham  then  bought 
from  Ephron  the  Hittite  the  field  and  cave 
of  Machpelah,  to  serve  as  a  family  tomb. 
(Gen.  xxiii.  2-20.)  The  cave  is  still  there; 
and  the  massive  walls  of  the  Haram  or 
mosque,  within  which  it  lies,  form  the  most 
remarkable  object  in  the  whole  city.  Abra¬ 
ham  is  called  by  Mohammedans,  El-Khulil , 
‘  the  Friend,’  i.  e.,  of  God;  and  this  is  the 
modern  name  of  Hebron.  Hebron  now 
contains  about  5,000  inhabitants,  of  whom 
some  fifty  families  are  Jews.  It  is  pict¬ 
uresquely  situated  in  a  narrow  valley, 
surrounded  by  rocky  hills.  The  valley 
runs  from  north  to  south;  and  the  main 
quarter  of  the  town,  surmounted  by  the 
lofty  walls  of  the  venerable  Haram ,  lies 
partly  on  the  eastern  slope.  (Gen.  xxxvii. 
14;  comp,  xxiii.  19.)  About  a  mile  from 
the  town,  up  the  valley,  is  one  of  the  largest 
oak-trees  in  Palestine.  This,  say  some,  is 


H  eg 


(  4«2  ) 


Hel 


the  very  tree  beneath  which  Abraham 
pitched  his  tent,  and  it  still  bears  the  name 
ofthe  patriarch.” — Smith:  Did.  of  the  Bible. 

Hegel  {ha' -get),  Georg  Wilhelm  Fried¬ 
rich,  a  famous  German  metaphysician;  b. 
at  Stuttgart,  Aug.  27,  1770;  d.  in  Berlin, 
Nov.  14,  1831.  He  studied  theology  at 
Tubingen,  1788-93;  and  became  a  private 
tutor,  first  at  Bern,  1793-96,  and  then  at 
Frankfort,  1797-1801.  In  1801  he  was  ap¬ 
pointed  lecturer  on  philosophy  at  Jena,  and 
acted  as  co-editor  with  Schelling  of  the 
Kritische  Journal  der  Philosophie.  From 
1808  to  1816  he  was  director  of  the  Agidien 
Gymnasium  at  Nuremberg;  became  pro¬ 
fessor  of  philosophy  at  Heidelberg,  1816, 
and  from  1818  at  Berlin.  “  In  accordance 
with  his  method  of  moving  from  a  position 
through  its  negation  to  the  mediation  of  this 
contradiction,  Hegel  treats  the  idea  first  as 
logic,  then  as  nature,  and  finally  as  spirit. 
Then,  again,  he  treats  the  idea  as  spirit 
first  under  the  form  of  religion,  then  under 
the  form  of  art,  and  finally  under  the  form 
of  philosophy ,  religion  being  the  lowest  and 
most  imperfect  form  of  spiritual  life.  To 
this  verdict  no  objection  has  been  raised  in 
Germany:  on  the  contrary,  it  has  been  al¬ 
lowed  to  establish  itself  quietly  there  in 
the  mind  of  modern  education  as  a  self-evi¬ 
dent  truth.  Quite  otherwise,  when,  in  his 
Philosophy  of  Religion,  Hegel  came  to 
analyze  the  relation  between  the  religious 
idea  and  the  actually  existing  religions. 
Here,  the  right  wing  of  his  pupils,  Daub, 
Markeinecke,  Hotho,  Rothscher,  Rosen- 
kranz,  etc.,  declared  that  he  had  demon¬ 
strated  the  existence  of  the  most  perfect 
harmony  between  philosophy  and  Chris¬ 
tianity,  between  the  Prussian  State  and  the 
Protestant  Church;  while  the  left  wing, 
D.  F.  Strauss,  L.  Feuerbach,  Bruno  Bauer, 
Arnold  Ruge,  etc.,  protested  that  he  had 
dissolved  thehistorical  foundation  of  Chris¬ 
tianity  into  mythology,  and  its  moral  con¬ 
tents  into  delusions.  Of  course,  only  one 
of  these  parties  can  be  right,  but  they  could 
be  both  wrong.” — Jackson:  Did.  of  Relig¬ 
ious  Knowledge ,  s.v.  The  following  works  of 
Hegel  have  beentrans.  into  English:  Sub¬ 
jective  Logic,  by  Sloman  and  Wallon  (Lon¬ 
don,  1855);  Philosophy  of  History ,  by  Sibree, 
(1857);  Philosophy  of  Fine  Art,  by  B. 
Bosanquet  (1886);  Philosophy  of  State  and 
History,  by  G.  S.  Morris  (Chicago,  1887), 
and  selections  in  Journal  of  Speculative 
Philosophy ,  by  W.  T.  Harris,  i.-v.  (St. 
Louis,  1867-71).  See  Edward  Caird:  Hegel 
(London,  1883);  A.  Seth:  Hegelianism  and 
Personality  (1887);  J.  M.  Sterrett:  Studies  in 
Hegel s  Philosophy  of  Religion  (New  York, 
1889,  German  ed.  18  vols.  Berlin,  1832- 
1840). 


Hegesippus,  frequently  called  the 
“  Father  of  Church  History,”  was  b.  early 
in  the  second  century.  Fragments  of  his 
works  have  been  preserved  by  Eusebius  in 
his  Ecclesiastical  History.  Very  little  is 
known  of  his  life. 

Hegira  (Arab,  flight),  the  year  662.  So 
called  by  the  Mahometans  because  in  this 
year  Mahomet  fled  from  Mecca  to  Medina. 
They  reckon  time  from  this  date.  See 
Mohammed. 

Heidelberg  Catechism.  This  was  a  form 
of  instruction  drawn  up  in  1562  by  order  of 
Frederick  III.,  Elector  of  the  Palatine,  for 
the  use  of  the  Reformed  Church  in  his 
dominions.  The  authors  of  it  were  Caspar 
Olivianus,  Court  Preacher  at  Heidelberg, 
and  Zacharias  Ursinus,  Professor  of  Sys¬ 
tematic  Theology  in  the  University.  They 
took  as  the  basis  of  their  work  the  cate¬ 
chisms  of  Calvin,  Mosheim,  Lasky,  and 
Bullinger;  tJie  draft  was  laid  before  the 
Heidelberg  Convention,  and  unanimously 
accepted  and  adopted  throughout  the  Palat¬ 
inate,  though  beyond  that  it  had  many  ad¬ 
versaries.  It  contains  129  questions,  and 
is  divided  into  three  parts,  the  first  of 
which  concerns  the  misery  of  man  conse¬ 
quent  on  sin;  the  second,  redemption  from 
that  state;  the  third,  gratitude  for  that  re¬ 
demption.  The  Count  Palatine,  the  Duke 
of  Wiirtemburg  and  Baden,  severely  criti¬ 
cised  it,  and,  after  several  refusals,  Fred¬ 
erick  III.  met  them  at  a  theological  confer¬ 
ence  at  Maulbronn,  in  1564.  The  catechism 
was  again  fiercely  attacked  at  Augsburg,  in 
1566,  and  the  Elector  even  threatened  with 
deposition;  but  he  nobly  defended  it, and  the 
matter  was  dropped.  In  1588  it  was  also 
adopted  in  the  Netherlands,  and  is  still  the 
recognized  standard  of  the  Dutch  Reformed 
Church,  both  in  Holland  and  America, 
where  a  tercentenary  festival  was  held  in 
its  memory  in  1863.  This  catechism  was 
the  model  on  which  the  Westminster 
Divines  framed  the  Shorter  Presbyterian 
Catechism.  It  has  been  translated  into  al¬ 
most  all  European  and  some  Eastern  lan¬ 
guages. — Benham:  Did.  of  Religion. 

Helena,  St.,  mother  of  Constantine  the 
Great.  Some  contend  that  she  was  of  a 
noble  family,  but  older  authorities  say  that 
she  was  the  daughter  of  a  shepherd  or  inn¬ 
keeper.  Gloucester  in  England,  Naissus 
in  Upper  Moesiaand  Drepanum  on  the  Gulf 
of  Nicomedia  claim  to  be  her  birthplace. 
Rome,  Venice,  and  the  monastery  of  Haut- 
villiers,  near  Rheims,  claim  to  possess  her 
remains.  Very  little,  it  will  be  seen,  is 
known  of  her  life,  but  she  will  be  remem¬ 
bered  as  a  Christian  whose  influence  was 


Hel 


(  403  ) 


Hen 


great  over  the  son  whose  name  holds  so 
high  a  place  in  history. 

Hell.  “  (1)  In  the  Old  Testament ,  the  He¬ 
brew  word  for  ‘  hell  ’  is  skeol,  to  which 
‘  hades,’  in  the  New  Testament  corre¬ 
sponds.  Our  modern  word  ‘  hell  ’  is  not 
the  equivalent  for  sheol;  for,  while  we  as¬ 
sociate  with  1  hell  ’  endless  suffering,  the 
Hebrew  associated  with  sheol  merely  ideas 
of  terror  and  repulsiveness,  arising  mainly 
from  the  mystery  and  uncertainty  which 
attended  the  life  after  death,  (cf.  Job  xi.  8; 
Prov.  i.  12;  Isa.  xxxviii.  10.)  (2)  In  the 

New  Testa?nent ,  ‘  hell  ’  is  the  translation, 
in  the  authorized  version,  of  three  words 
in  Greek — Hades ,  Gehenna ,  and  'Tartarus. 
Hades  has  already  been  considered.  Ge¬ 
henna  was  properly  the  ‘  hell  ’  of  Hebrew 
conception,  and  is  uniformly  so  rendered 
in  the  revised  version.  The  rebellious 
angels,  and  the  finally  impenitent  of  men 
are  cast  into  it.  (Matt.  v.  22;  Luke  xii.  5.) 
Once  the  word  “  Tartarus  ”  is  employed  (2 
Pet.  ii.  4),  and  also  rendered  ‘  hell.’  It 
is  noticeable  that  neither  Paul  nor  John 
uses  either  Hades,  Gehenna,  or  Tartarus; 
and,  also,  that,  of  the  twelve  recurrences 
of  Gehenna,  eleven  are  in  our  Lord’s 
speeches.  Scripture  mercifully  hides  the 
condition  of  the  lost,  and,  by  example, 
forbids  prurient  curiosity.  The  way  of 
life  is  luminous  from  earth  to  heaven;  the 
way  of  death  is  lost  in  darkness.” — Schaff- 
Herzog:  Ency . ,  vol.  ii.,  pp.  961-962.  See 
Gehenna;  Hades;  Sheol;  Punishment, 
Future. 

Hellenists,  The,  included  those  Greeks, 
and  others  of  foreign  birth,  who  had  ac¬ 
cepted  the  Jewish  religion,  and  those  Jews 
.  who,  through  education,  travel  and  res¬ 
idence,  had  adopted  the  language  and  cus¬ 
toms  of  the  Greek  people.  “  Thus  the 
body  of  Hellenists  stood  as  the  connecting 
link  between  the  exclusive  and  self-centred 
Hebrews  in  Palestine  and  the  outer  world 
of  civilized  heathendom:  and  in  so  far  were 
the  means  of  educating  the  former  in  higher 
literary  and  artistic  tastes,  in  broader  and 
more  generous  sympathies,  and  generally 
in  that  idea  of  a  Universal  Church  which 
was  eventually  to  spring  from  their  midst.” 
Many  of  the  first  converts  at  Jerusalem 
were  Hellenists  (Acts  vi.),  as  was  also 
Saul  of  Tarsus. 

Helvetic  Confessions.  (1)  First  Helvetic 
Confession. — This  was  framed  by  a  conven¬ 
tion  of  delegates  which  began  its  sessions 
at  Basel,  Jan.  30,  1536.  The  Confession 
was  first  drawn  up  in  Latin  and  translated 
into  German,  and  adopted  as  a  standard  of 
doctrine  in  March,  1536, 


(2)  The  Second  Helvetic  Confession  was 

written  by  Bullinger.  The  first  Confession 
did  not  give  general  satisfaction,  because 
it  was  thought  to  lean  too  much  to  Luther¬ 
an  views.  By  the  year  1578  the  revised 
Confession  had  received  the  sanction  of 
the  Swiss  Cantons,  and  had  been  approved 
by  the  Reformed  Churches  of  Poland, 
Hungary,  Scotland,  and  France. 

Helvetic  Consensus.  The  severe  form 
in  which  the  doctrine  of  absolute  election 
was  stated  by  the  Synod  of  Dort  (1618-19) 
produced  a  reaction  in  France,  where  the 
Protestants  were  surrounded  by  Roman 
Catholics.  The  liberal  views  of  Amyraut 
and  other  French  divines  found  much  fa¬ 
vor  both  in  France  and  Switzerland.  In 
the  latter  country  there  was  aroused  an 
active  opposition,  however,  that  resulted 
in  the  establishment  of  a  formula  obliga¬ 
tory  upon  all  teachers  and  ministers.  It 
consists  of  a  preface  and  twenty-six  can¬ 
ons,  and  gives  a  clear  statement  of  the  dif¬ 
ference  between  strict  Calvinism  and  the 
French  school  at  Saumur.  The  formula 
never  gained  authority  outside  of  Switzer¬ 
land,  and  it  has  finally  fallen  into  entire 
disuse. 

Henderson,  Alexander,  a  celebrated 
minister  of  the  Church  of  Scotland;  b.  in 
Fifeshire,  in  1583;  d.  in  Edinburgh,  Aug. 
19,  1646.  After  graduating  from  St.  An¬ 
drews  (1599),  he  taught  philosophy  in  that 
university  until  1612,  when  he  was  settled 
over  the  church  at  Leuchars.  His  settle¬ 
ment  met  with  great  opposition.  Within 
a  short  time,  through  the  influence  of  a 
sermon  of  Robert  Bruce,  he  gave  up  Epis¬ 
copacy  for  Presbytery.  He  was  summoned 
before  the  High  Commission,  but  dis¬ 
missed  with  severe  admonitions.  His 
people  very  soon  esteemed  him  highly 
and  the  eighteen  years  spent  at  Leuchars 
were  of  great  profit  to  them.  He  took  a 
very  prominent  part  in  the  opposition  that 
was  aroused  against  the  efforts  of  Charles 
I.  and  Laud  to  impose  books  of  ecclesias¬ 
tical  order,  ordination,  and  Common  Pray¬ 
er  upon  the  Scottish  Church.  The  Remon¬ 
strance  of  the  Nobility ,  etc.,  was  from  his 
pen.  In  1640  he  was  appointed  rector  of 
Edinburgh  University,  and  from  this  time 
on  was  leader  of  the  Covenanters.  He 
was  prominent  in  the  Westminster  Assem¬ 
bly,  and  sought  to  reconcile  the  King  and 
Parliament.  His  last  service  was  a  dis¬ 
cussion  with  Charles  regarding  the  abol¬ 
ishment  of  prelacy  in  England.  Worn  out 
with  his  labors,  he  returned  to  Edinburgh 
from  his  visit  to  the  king  at  Newcastle, 
and  died  eight  days  afterward.  See  his 
Life ,  by  McCrie:  Miscellaneous  Writings , 


Hen 


(  404  ) 


Hen 


and  Life  and  Times ,  by  Aiton  (Edinburgh, 
1836). 

Henderson,  Ebenezer,  an  eminent  mis¬ 
sionary  and  biblical  scholar;  b.  at  Dunferm¬ 
line,  Scotland,  Nov.  17,  1784;  d.  at  Mort- 
lake,  Surrey,  May  16,  1858.  Before 

completing  his  theological  studies  he  de¬ 
termined  to  enter  upon  missionary  service, 
and  proposed  to  go  to  India.  Difficulties 
arose  that  led  him  with  his  companion, 
Mr.  Patterson,  to  go  to  Denmark,  and  from 
this  time,  for  twenty  years,  he  labored  in 
the  north  of  Europe.  He  was  sent  to  Ice¬ 
land  in  1814  by  the  British  and  Foreign 
Bible  Society,  and  to  Russia  in  1819.  In 
1826  he  was  appointed  President  of  the 
Missionary  College  at  Hoxton,  and  in  1830 
professor  of  theology  and  biblical  litera¬ 
ture  at  Highbury  College.  He  was  famil¬ 
iar  with  a  large  number  of  languages,  and 
hi«  reputation  as  a  biblical  critic  was  equal 
to  any  man  of  his  time  in  Great  Britain. 
See  his  Life ,  by  T.  S.  Henderson  (London, 

1859). 

Hendrix,  Eugene  Russell,  D.  D.  (Emory 
College,  Oxford,  Ga. ,  1878),  LL.  D.  (Uni¬ 
versity  of  Missouri  and  University  of 
North  Carolina,  both  in  1888),  Methodist 
Episcopal  Church  South;  b.  at  Fayette,  Mo., 
May  17,  1847;  was  graduated  at  Wesleyan 
University,  Middletown,  Conn.,  1867,  and 
at  Union  Theological  Seminary,  New  York 
City,  1869;  in  the  pastorate  from  1869  to 
1878;  president  of  Central  College,  Fayette, 
Mo.,  1878-86;  bishop,  1886.  He  is  the  au¬ 
thor  of  Around  The  World  (Nashville, 
Tenn.,  1878,  5th  ed.,  1882). 

Hengstenberg,  Ernst  Wilhelm,  an  emi¬ 
nent  Lutheran  leader  and  theologian;  b.  at 
Frondenberg,  Oct.  20,  1802;  d.  in  Berlin, 
May  28,  1869.  His  early  education  was 
under  the  care  of  his  father,  a  minister  of 
the  Reformed  Church,  and  principal  of  a 
Young  Ladies’  Institute.  Entering  the 
university  at  Bonn  in  1819,  he  won  distinc¬ 
tion  as  a  scholar.  While  a  tutor  at  Basel, 
the  discipline  of  sorrow  and  ill-health  di¬ 
rected  his  attention  to  the  spiritual  revela¬ 
tion  of  the  Bible.  He  became  an  earnest 
advocate  of  orthodox  faith,  as  found  in  the 
Augsburg  Confession.  He  joined  the 
faculty  of  Berlin  in  1824,  and  became  pro¬ 
fessor  extraordinarius  in  theology  in  1826, 
and  two  years  later  full  professor.  He 
founded  the  Evangelical  Church  Journal , 
which  he  edited  for  forty-two  years.  He 
opposed  the  rationalists  with  intense  zeal 
and  earnestness,  and  exerted  a  deep  in¬ 
fluence  over  his  pupils.  Among  his  works 
are:  Commentaries  on  many  books  of  the 
Bible ,  and  treatises — Concerning  the  Relation 


of  the  Inner  Word  to  the  Outer ,  and  Concern¬ 
ing  Pietism ,  Mysticism ,  and  Separatism. 
See  English  translations  in  Clark's  Theo¬ 
logical  Library. 

Henot'ikon,  a  compromise  or  “  instru¬ 
ment  of  union,”  drawn  up  by  Acacius,  pa¬ 
triarch  of  Constantinople,  and  issued  by 
the  -Emperor  Zeno  in  482.  Its  purpose 
was  to  bring  about  a  reconciliation  between 
the  Monophysites  (<7.  v.  )and  the  Orthodox. 
Neither  party  was  satisfied  with  its  terms. 
In  the  East  it  was  made  obligatory  on  all 
bishops  and  teachers.  In  the  West  it  was 
anathematized  by  Felix  II.,  and  under  Jus¬ 
tin  it  fell  into  disuse  without  being  formally 
repealed. 

Henry  IV.  (1553-1610),  king  of  France,, 
was  born  in  the  castle  of  Pau  in  1553.  His 
mother,  a  noble  Christian  woman,  brought 
him  up  as  a  Calvirtist.  He  was  in  Paris  at 
the  massacre  of  St.  Bartholomew,  but  his 
life  was  spared  on  his  making  a  profession 
of  Catholicism.  He  escaped  from  the 
court  in  1575,  and  from  this  time  became 
the  acknowledged  leader  of  the  Hugue¬ 
nots.  After  the  death  of  Henry  III.  he 
was  recognized  as  king  of  France  by  a 
portion  of  the  army.  In  order  to  gain  the 
support  of  the  Roman  Catholics  he  again 
abjured  the  Protestant  faith  and  entered 
the  Roman  Church.  From  this  time  on„ 
while  favoring  Roman  Catholics  at  home, 
his  foreign  policy  was  so  evidently  favor¬ 
able  to  the  Protestants  that  the  opposing 
party  saw  that  their  only  hope  was  in  his 
death.  He  was  assassinated  at  Paris  by 
Francis  Ravaillac,  a  former  Jesuit. 

Henry  VIII.,  of  England.  See  Eng¬ 
land,  Church  of. 

Henry,  Matthew,  an  eminent  Noncon¬ 
formist  divine  and  commentator ;  b.  Oct.  28, 
1662,  at  Broad  Oak,  Flintshire;  d.  June  22, 
1714,  at  Nantwich.  He  first  began  the 
study  of  law,  but  following  the  desire  of 
his  heart,  he  entered  the  ministry  in  16S7 
and  became  pastor  of  a  dissenting  church 
in  Chester,  where  he  remained  until  1712, 
when  he  accepted  a  call  to  Hackney,  and 
died  the  week  following  his  settlement 
there.  His  fame  rests  upon  his  well-known 
Exposition  of  the  Old  and  New  Testaments. 
As  a  devotional  commentary  it  has  long 
held  a  foremost  place,  and  has  had  a  wide 
circulation.  Among  his  other  works  are: 
Scripture  Catechism ;  Inquiry  into  the  Nat¬ 
ure  of  Schism,  and  Sermons.  His  Miscella¬ 
neous  Works,  in  2  vols. ,  were  published  in 
New  York,  1855.  This  contains  a  memoir^ 

Henry,  Philip,  father  of  Matthew  Hen- 


Her 


(  405  ) 


Her 


ry,  was  b.  in  1631;  d.  in  1696.  He  was 
graduated  at  Oxford,  and  in  1659  was  pre¬ 
sented  with  the  living  of  Worthenbury. 
He  refused  to  assent  to  the  Act  of  Uni¬ 
formity,  and  gave  up  his  parish,  making 
his  home  for  the  most  part  at  Broad  Oak, 
where  he  died.  “  He  was  a  man  of  re¬ 
markable  purity  of  life  and  consistent  con¬ 
duct,  of  piety  and  humility.”  Bishop 
Words  worth  says  he  “  could  nowhere  find 
Nonconformity  united  with  more  Christian 
graces  than  in  him.”  His  Memoir ,  written 
by  his  son,  was  published  in  the  latter’s 
Miscellaneous  Works  (N.  Y. ,  1855,  2  vols.), 
and  separately  by  the  Tract  Society, 
N.  Y. 

Herac'leon.  See  Gnostics. 

Herbert,  George,  a  quaint  and  reverent 
poet,  whose  life  was  so  exemplary  that  he 
was  known  as  the  “  holy  George  Her¬ 
bert  ;”  b.  at  Montgomery,  Wales,  April  3, 
1 593 i  d*  at  Bemerton,  Eng.,  in  1633.  He 
was  educated  at  Cambridge,  and  in  1626 
was  made  prebendary  of  Layton,  and  in 
1630  rector  of  Bemerton.  His  fame  rests 
upon  his  poems:  The  Temple:  Sacred  Foetus 
and  Private  Ejaculations  (Cambridge,  1631). 
Coleridge  edited  his  complete  works  (Lon¬ 
don,  1846). 

Herd,  Herdsman.  A  chief  part  of  the 
wealth  of  the  Hebrews  was  in  herds  and 
flocks.  The  position  of  herdsman  was 
honorable,  and  they  often  held  high  office 
in  the  State.  (1  Sam.  xxi.  7;  1  Chron.  xxvii. 
29.)  The  prophet  Amos  was  a  herdsman 
of  Tekoah.  (Amos  i.  1.) 

Herder,  Johann  Gottfried,  a  German 
theologian  and  preacher;  b.  1744;  d.  at 
Weimar,  1803.  He  was  educated  at  Konigs- 
berg.  In  1767  he  began  to  preach  in  Riga, 
where,  since  1764,  he  had  taught  in  the 
cathedral  school.  He  attracted  large  audi¬ 
ences,  and  also  won  reputation  as  a  writer. 
In  1 771  he  was  appointed  court-preacher  and 
superintendent  at  Biickeburg.  While  here 
he  published  the  theological  works,  “which 
made  a  deep  impression,  and  established  it 
as  an  axiom  in  biblical  exegesis,  that  the 
Bible  is  not  simply  a  doctrinal  code,  a  dog¬ 
matical  system,  but  a  whole  literature, 
which  must  be  viewed  in  the  light  of  its 
time,  its  place,  and  its  historical  surround¬ 
ings,  in  order  to  be  fully  understood.” — 
(  Werner  in  Schaff-Herzog:  Ency.  ,vol.  ii. ,  p. 
974.)  In  1776  Herder  became  court- 
preacher  at  Weimar,  where  he  continued  to 
write  important  philosophical  and  theolog¬ 
ical  works.  His  Spirit  of  Hebrew  Poetry , 
and  his  Ideas  towards  a  Philosophy  of  the  His¬ 
tory  of  Mankind,  are  those  best  known.  An 


edition  of  his  works  was  published  .in  Ber¬ 
lin  (1877),  32  vols. 

Hereford  Cathedral,  situated  in  the  town 
of  Hereford,  on  the  left  bank  of  the  Wye, 
was  founded  825,  rebuilt,  1030,  burned  by 
the  Welsh,  1055,  again  rebuilt,  1079-1115. 
The  great  western  tower  fell,  1786.  The 
cathedral  is  three  hundred  and  forty-two 
feet  long.  There  have  been  two  modern 
restorations — 1842  and  1863.  The  income 
of  the  see  of  Hereford  is  ^4,200. 

Heresy  (Gr.  haircsis,  choice)  signifies 
a  personal  choice  of  opinions  contrary  to 
the  general  teaching  of  the  Church  and  the 
Holy  Scriptures.  It  is  universally  agreed 
that  the  fact  of  holding  an  erroneous  opin¬ 
ion  does  not  make  a  man  a  heretic:  he  may 
have  been  brought  up  in  it,  and  not  dis¬ 
cerned  his  error,  or  may  hold  it  in  invinci¬ 
ble  ignorance.  That  heresies  of  a  funda¬ 
mental  character,  because  subversive  of 
Christian  truth,  and  therefore  necessarily 
of  Christian  morals,  have  existed  in  the. 
Church  from  the  beginning,  we  have  Script¬ 
ural  evidence  to  show.  In  the  days  of  the 
apostles  there  were  the  Judaizers,  who 
denied  the  sufficiency  of  the  Gospel;  the 
Nicolaitans ( Re v.  ii.),  Hymenceus  and  Phile- 
tusiy  Tim.  ii.  17),  Simon  Magus,  Cerinthus. 
The  tenets  of  the  principal  heresiarchs  who 
have  denied  the  orthodox  faith  will  be 
found  under  their  respective  names.  But 
the  following  table  will  be  found  useful  as 
a  general  classification  of  the  principal 
points  concerning  which  men  have  departed 
from  cardinal  doctrines  of  the  Catholic 
faith: 

I.  — Regarding  the  Creation,  and  the  Origin  of 

Evil. 

The  Gnostics  and  the  Manichaeans  denied  that  God 
was  maker  of  Heaven  and  Earth,  and  of  all  things  vis¬ 
ible  and  invisible;  affirming  that  matter  is  eternal  and 
evil  in  its  own  nature. 

II.  — Regarding  the  Trinity.  (See  Ath.  Creed, 

v.  3-28.) 

The  Montanists  denied  the  Trinity  in  Unity,  and  Di¬ 
vided  the  Substance,  affirming  th &  separate  personality 
of  the  Son,  and  regarding  Montanus  himself  as  a  Para¬ 
clete.  They  were  charged  with  Tritheism ,  i.  e.,  hold¬ 
ing  the  Trinity,  but  denying  the  Unity. 

The  Psilanthropist  Monarchians  (Theodotus,  Arte- 
mon,  Paul  of  Samosata),  with  the  Ebionites,  Carpo- 
cratians,  and  the  Arians,  denied  by  implication  the 
Unity  in  Trinity,  affirming  that  God  the  Father  is  the 
only  God  without  the  distinction  of  persons;  thus  hold¬ 
ing  the  Unity,  but  denying  the  Trinity. 

The  Macedonians  excluded  the  Holy  Ghost  from  the 
Godhead,  and  so  denied  the  Trinity,  though  they  ac¬ 
knowledged  the  Father  and  the  Son. 

The  Patripassian  Monarchians  (Praxeas,  Sabellius, 
Noetus),  with  the  Photinians,  agreed  with  the  Psilan¬ 
thropist  Monarchians  in  rejecting  the  distinction  of  Per¬ 
sons  in  the  Godhead.  They  denied  that  there  is  One 
Person  of  the  Father,  another  of  the  Son,  and  another 
of  the  Holy  Ghost,  and  confounded  the  Persons ; 
affirming  that  the  Father,  Son,  and  Holy  Ghost  are  only 
manifestations  of  one  and  the  same  Person,  performing 
different  functions  as  Creator,  Redeemer,  and  Inspirer. 


Her 


(  406  ) 


Her 


III. — Regarding  the  Person  of  Christ.  (See  Ath. 

Creed,  v.  29-48.) 

(a)  The  Divine  Nature. 

Arius  denied  that  Christ  was  begotten  of  His  Father 
before  all  Worlds;  that  He  is  Very  God  of  Very  God, 
of  one  substance  with  the  Father;  that  the  Godhead  of 
the  Son  and  of  the  Holy  Ghost  are  one,  their  glory 
equal,  their  majesty  co-eternal  with  the  Godhead,  the 
Glory  and  the  Majesty  of  the  Father;  and  that  the  Son 
and  Holy  Ghost  are  uncreate,  eternal,  and  almighty. 
He  affirmed  that  Christ  was  made  out  of  nothing  by  the 
Father,  and  was  only  the  highest  of  created  beings. 
(Council  of  Nicaea,  a.  d.  325.) 

The  Semi-Arians  also  denied  the  co-equal  and  co¬ 
eternal  Godhead  of  Christ;  but  they  allowed  that  he 
is,  in  a  sense,  of  one  nature  with  the  Father,  affirming 
that  “  the  Son  is  like  the  Father  in  all  things,  accord¬ 
ing  to  the  Scriptures (Synod  of  Rimini,  a.  d.  359.) 


The  Acacians  went  beyond  Arius,  and  affirmed  that 
“the  nature  of  Christ  is  different  from  that  of  the 
Father .” 

The  Aetians  went  beyond  the  Acacians,  and  affirmed 
that  “  Christ  is  unlike  the  Father  both  in  Nature 
and  Will."  (Synod  of  Antioch,  a.  d.  361.) 

The  Psilanthropist  Monarchians,  with  the  Ebionites 
and  Carpocratians,  denied  that  Christ  was  anything 
more  than  man. 

(b)  The  Human  Nature. 

Valentinus  denied  that  Christ  partook  of  the  Nature 
of  the  Virgin,  i.  e.,  that  he  was  Incarnate  of  the  Virgin 
Mary  and  Man  of  the  substance  of  his  mother. 

Tatian  denied  that  Christ  was  Perfect  Man,  affirming 
that  his  body  was  of  peculiar,  heavenly  texture,  and 
not  a  real  human  body. 

Mani,  and  all  others  who  were  Docetae,  in  like  man¬ 
ner  denied  that  Christ  is  Perfect  Man. 


Her 


(  407  ) 


Her 


Apollinaris  denied  that  Christ  is  Perfect  Man,  of  a 
reasonable  soul  and  human  flesh  subsisting,  affirming 
that  the  human  nature  in  Christ  has  not  the  reasonable 
human  soul.  As  Arius  denied  that  he  is  of  the  same 
nature  with  God,  Apollinaris  denied  that  he  is  of  the 
same  nature  with  man. 

The  Monophvsites,  who  said  that  Christ  had  but  one 
nature,  and  the  Monothelites,  who  said  that  he  has  but 
one  will,  though  they  admitted  the  original  perfection 
of  Christ’s  human  nature,  denied  its  present  perfection. 

(c)  The  Union  of  the  Two  Natures. 

Cerinthus  and  Basilides  denied  the  perfect  and  eternal 
union,  affirming  that  Christ  the  Son  ofthe  Father  dwelt 
in  the  Man  Jesus  only  from  the  Baptism  till  the  Cruci¬ 
fixion. 

Nestorius  (or  his  followers  in  his  name)  denied  the 
Unity  of  Person  in  Christ,  and  made  him  out  to  be  two, 
not  one  Christ.  He  not  only  distinguished  the  natures, 
but  divided  them.  (Council  of  Ephesus,  a.  d.  430.) 

Eutyches  and  his  followers,  the  Monophysites  and 
Jacobites,  denied  that  Christ  now  exists  in  two  whole 
and  perfect  natures,  though  they  admitted  that  he  was 
originally  of  them,  in  which  they  differed  from  Apol¬ 
linaris.  They  regarded  Christ  as  one  altogether,  by 
confusion  of  substance,  and  did  not  distinguish  the  nat¬ 
ures.  (Council  of  Chalcedon,  a.  d.  451.)  Nestorius 
divided  the  Natures,  Eutyches  confounded  them ; 
whereas  the  Catholic  doctrine  is  that  we  ought  to  dis¬ 
tinguish  but  not  to  divide  them. 

IV. — Regarding  the  Holy  Ghost. 

Arius  had,  by  implication,  denied  that  the  Holy 
Ghost  is  Lord,  when  he  denied  that  the  Son  is  Lord. 

The  Macedonians  denied  the  Godhead  of  the  Holy 
Ghost,  i.  e.,  that  he  is  the  Lord,  and  the  Giver  of  Life; 
but  some  of  them  also  denied  his  Personality,  affirming 
that  the  name  Holy  Ghost  denotes  no  more  than  an  in¬ 
fluence  proceeding  from  the  Father.  (Council  of  Con¬ 
stantinople,  A.  D.  381.) 

Benham:  Did.  of  Religion.  See  Church 
Histories;  Lardner:  History  of  the  Heretics 
of  the  First  Two  Centuries  (London,  1780). 

Hermas,  the  name  of  a  book  known 
under  the  general  name  of  The  Shepherd ; 
held  in  high  esteem  by  the  early  Church 
and  quoted  by  Irenseus,  Clement  of  Alex¬ 
andria,  Origen,  etc.  There  is  little  doubt 
but  that  it  was  the  work  of  a  writer  named 
Hermas,  the  brother  of  Bishop  Pius  (139- 
154).  Uhlhorn  (Schaff- Herzog:  Fncy.,\ ol. 
ii. ,  p.  977)  says  of  its  contents:  ‘  The  book 
contains  a  number  of  visions,  according  to 
Hermas.  Their  intent  is  to  arouse  Her¬ 
mas,  and  the  Church  through  him,  to  repent¬ 
ance.  The  time  of  repentance  is  limited, 
and  will  soon  be  at  an  end.  The  uniform¬ 
ity  of  style  stamps  the  whole  as  one  com¬ 
position.  The  author  divides  the  book 
into  two  parts:  an  aged  woman  explaining 
the  visions  of  the  first  part,  an  angel  those 
of  the  second.  The  visions  contain  revela¬ 
tions,  commandments  (to  believe  in  the 
one  God,  practice  alms,  avoid  falsehood 
and  fornication,  etc.),  and  similitudes. 
Hermas  was  neither  a  Judaizing  Christian, 
nor  an  intense  Paulinian,  but  a  member  of 
the  orthodox  Church  of  his  day.”  Dean 
Stanley  calls  the  book  “  the  Pilgrim’s  Prog¬ 
ress  of  the  Church  of  the  second  century.” 
See  trans.  of  Hermas  in  Am.  ed.  of  The 
Ante-Nicene  Fathers  (New  York,  1890). 


Hermeneutics  was  formerly  used  in  dis¬ 
tinction  from  Exegesis,  as  the  science  of  a 
subject  is  distinguished  from  its  practical 
application,  but  the  two  terms  are  now  em¬ 
ployed  interchangeably.  See  Exegesis. 

Hermog'enes,  a  heretic  who  lived  near 
the  close  of  the  second  century.  He  was 
a  painter  by  profession.  He  held  that 
matter,  in  itself  evil,  was  eternal.  Tertul- 
lian  wrote  a  treatise  against  his  views. 
In  all  other  respects  Hermogenes  was 
sound  in  the  faith,  and  he  put  forward  his 
theory  of  the  eternity  of  matter  to  recon¬ 
cile  the  goodness  of  God  with  the  existence 
of  evil. 

Her'mon,  the  southern  and  highest  point 
of  the  Anti-Lebanon  range.  It  is  forty 
miles  northeast  of  the  sea  of  Galilee,  and 
about  11,000  feet  above  the  valley  of  the 
Jordan.  The  snow  on  the  summit  of  the 
mountain  condenses  the  vapors  that  float 
above  it  in  the  summer,  and  from  these 
clouds  abundant  dews  descend,  while 
the  surrounding  country  is  parched,  and 
the  skies  cloudless.  There  are  many  rea¬ 
sons  for  the  supposition  that  it  was  the 
scene  of  the  Transfiguration. 

Her'od,  “the  name  of  a  family  which 
rose  to  power  in  Judea  during  the  period 
which  immediately  preceded  the  complete 
destruction  of  the  Jewish  nationality.  The 
family  was  of  Idumean  descent;  but, 
though  alien  in  blood,  was  Jewish  in  relig¬ 
ion,  the  Idumeans  having  been  conquered 
and  converted  to  Judaism  by  John  Hyr- 
canus,  130  B.  c.  The  most  remarkable 
rulers  of  the  name  are  four  in  number — 
Herod  the  Great, Herod  Antipas,  and  Herod 
Agrippa  I.  and  II.  (fpr  the  last  two,  see 
Agrippa).  (i)  Herod  the  Great.  He  was 
the  second  son  of  Antipater,  who  was  ap¬ 
pointed  procurator  of  Judea  by  Julius 
Caesar,  47  b.  c.  At  the  time  of  his  father’s 
elevation,  Herod,  though  only  fifteen  years 
of  age,  was  made  governor  of  Galilee,  and 
afterward  of  Coele-Syria;  and  finally  he 
and  his  elder  brother  were  made  joint- 
tetrarchs  of  Judea;  but  he  was  soon  dis¬ 
placed  by  Antigonus,  the  representative  of 
the  Asmonean  dynasty,  and  forced  to  flee 
to  Rome,  where  he  obtained,  through  the 
patronage  of  Antony,  a  full  recognition  of 
his  claims,  together  with  the  title  of  King 
of  Judea,  40  b.  C.  Several  years  elapsed, 
however,  before  he  succeeded  in  establish¬ 
ing  himself  in  Jerusalem.  On  the  fall  of 
Antony,  he  managed  to  secure  a  continu¬ 
ance  of  favor  from  Augustus,  from  whom 
he  not  only  obtained  a  confirmation  of  his 
title  to  the  kingdom,  but  also  a  considerable 
accession  of  territory,  31  b.  c.  From  this 


Her 


(  408  ) 


Her 


time  till  his  death  his  reign  was  undis¬ 
turbed  by  foreign  war;  but  it  was  stained 
with  cruelties  and  atrocities  of  a  character 
almost  without  parallel  in  history.  Every 
member  of  the  Asmonean  family,  and  even 
those  of  his  own  blood,  fell  in  succession, 
a  sacrifice  to  his  jealous  fears;  and  in  the 
latter  years  of  his  life,  the  lightest  shade 
of  suspicion  sufficed  as  the  ground  for  his 
wholesale  butcheries,  which  are  related  in 
detail  by  Josephus.  Of  these,  the  one  with 
which  we  are  best  acquainted  is  the 
slaughter  of  the  infants  at  Bethlehem.  The 
one  eminent  quality  by  which  Herod  was 
distinguished  was  his  love  of  magnificence 
in  architecture,  and  the  grandeur  of  the 
public  works  executed  under  his  direction. 


Even  by  these,  however,  he  alienated  the 
Jews,  who  ascribed  them  all  to  his  Gentile 
leanings,  and  to  a  covert  design  of  sub¬ 
verting  the  national  religion.  Herod  mar¬ 
ried  no  fewer  than  ten  wives,  by  whom  he 
had  fourteen  children.  He  died  of  a  loath¬ 
some  disease  at  the  age  of  seventy,  after  a 
reign  of  thirty-seven  years.  (2)  Herod 
Antipas ,  son  of  Herod  the  Great  by  his 
wife  Malthace,  a  Samaritan,  was  originally 
designed  by  his  father  as  his  successor; 
but,  by  the  final  arrangements  of  the  will 
of  Herod  the  Great,  Antipas  was  named 
tetrarch  of  Galilee  and  Perea.  He  divorced 
his  first  wife,  the  daughter  of  Aretas,  king 
of  Arabia  Petrea,  in  order  to  marry  Hero- 
dias,  the  wife  of  his  half-brother  Philip — 


FAMILY  OF  THE  HERODS. 

(From  Lewin’s  Life  and  Epistles  of  Saint  Paul. ) 

Antipater,  of  Idumcea. 
m.  Cypros. 
d.  b.  c.  48. 

I 


tire 


Phasael.  HEROD  the  GREAT.  Joseph. 
(“  Herod  the  king,”  Matt.  ii.  1.) 
d.  b.  c.  4. 

jnarried. 


Pheroras.  Salome. 

d.  A.  D.  10. 


Doris.  MARIAMNE, 
dau.  of  Alexander 
the  Asmoncean. 
Antipater. 
d.  B.  c.  4* 


Pal 


as.  Phaedra. 


Mariamne,  Malthace. 
dau.  of  Simon,  d.  B.  C.  4. 


Cleopatra.  Elpis. 


Phasael.  Roxana. 


Philip. 

(Matt.  xiv.  3.) 
m.  Herodias. 


Salome. 
(Matt.  xiv.  6.) 

7K.  I.  Herod-Philip. 
2.  Aristobulus. 


I  I  I  II 

Aristobulus.  Alexander.  Herod.  Salampso.  Cypros. 
m.  Bernice,  m.  Glaphyra. 
d.  b.  c.  6.  d.  B.  c.  6. 


HEROD-PHILIP, 
Tetrarch  of  Trachonitis. 
(”  Philip,”  Luke  iii.  1.) 
?n.  Salome. 
d,  A.  D.  33. 


Tigranes.  Alexander. 

I 

1  lgranes, 

K.  of  Armenia. 

Alexander, 

K.  of  Cilicia. 


ARCHELAUS, 
Ethnarch  of  Judaea. 
(Matt.  ii.  22.) 
Deposed  A.  D.  6. 


ANTIPAS, 
Tetrarch  of  Galilee. 
(“  Herod  the  Tetrarch,’ 
Matt.  xiv.  3.) 
m.  1.  dau.  of  Aretas. 

2.  Herodias. 
Deposed  a.  d.  40. 


Olympia. 


AGRIPPA  I., 

K.  of  Judaea. 
(“Herod  the  King,” 
Acts  xii.)  m. 
m.  Cypros, 
dau.  of  Salampso. 


Herod,  Aristobulus. 

K.  of  Chalcis.  nt.  Jotape. 

d.  a.  D.  48. 

1.  Mariamne.  2.  Bernice. 


d.  A.  D, 


Herodias. 
(Matt.  xiv.  3.) 
m.  1.  Philip. 
2.  Antipas. 


Mariamne. 
m.  Antipater, 


44. 


I. 


Aristobulus.  Bernice.  Hyrcanus. 


Drusus.  AGRIPPA  II., 

K.  of  Trachonitis. 
("  King  Agrippa,” 
Acts  xxv.) 
d.  A.  D.  99. 
Last  of  the  Herods 


I. 

Bernice. 

(Acts  xxv.  13.) 
m.  1.  Marcus. 

2.  Herod  of  Chalcis. 

3. Polemo. 


m 


Mariamne. 

,  1.  Archelaus. 
2.  Demetrius. 


Drusilla. 
(Acts  xxiv.  24.) 
m.  1.  Azizus. 

2.  Felix. 

I 

Agrippa. 


Her 


(  409  ) 


Hew 


an  incestuous  connection,  against  which 
John  the  Baptist  remonstrated,  and  was,  in 
consequence,  put  to  death.  It  was  during 
a  visit  of  Herod  Antipas  to  Jerusalem  for 
the  purpose  of  celebrating  the  passover  that 
our  Lord,  as  having  been  a  resident  of  his 
tetrarchate,  was  sent  before  him  by  Pilate 
for  examination.  At  a  later  time  he  made 
a  journey  to  Rome,  in  the  hope  of  obtain¬ 
ing  the  title  of  king;  but  he  not  only  failed 
in  this  design,  but,  through  the  intrigues 
of  Herod  Agrippa,  was  banished  to  Lug- 
dunum  (Lyons),  where  he  died  in  exile.” — 
Chambers:  Cyclopedia.  The  main  source  of 
historical  information  regarding  the  Hero- 
dian  family  is  Josephus. 

Hero'dians,  a  political  party  among  the 
Tews,  who  favored  the  Roman  government. 
They  united  with  the  Pharisees  in  seeking 
to  destroy  Christ.  (Matt.  xxii.  16;  Mark 
iii.  6;  xii.  13.) 

Hero'dias,  the  granddaughter  of  Herod 
the  Great.  She  married  her  uncle  Herod 
Philip,  and  afterward  lived,  during  her 
first  husband’s  lifetime,  with  his  brother, 
Herod  Antipas.  It  was  this  criminal  con¬ 
nection  that  John  the  Baptist  denounced  at 
the  cost  of  his  life.  (Matt.  xiv.  3-10.) 
After  the  banishment  of  Antipas  to  Lyons 
Herodias  followed  him  into  exile. 

Herrnhut,  a  town  in  Saxony,  some  fifty 
miles  from  Dresden,  founded  by  Zinzen- 
dorf,  in  1722,  for  the  Moravian  Brethren, 
who  are  sometimes  called  Herrnhutters. 
See  Moravians. 

Hervey,  James,  in  his  time  a  very  popu¬ 
lar  religious  writer;  b.  near  Northampton, 
Feb.  26,  1714;  d.  at  Weston-Favell,  Dec. 
25,  1758,  where  he  had  been  rector  since 
1750.  He  was  a  college  friend  of  Wesley 
at  Oxford,  and  for  a  while  sympathized 
with  him,  but  finally  adopted  Calvinistic 
views.  Of  his  volumes  he  is  remembered 
now  mostly  from  the  singular  title  of  one 
of  them,  Meditations  among  the  Tombs. 
An  edition  of  his  works,  with  memoir,  was 
published  in  London  (1797),  7  vols. 

Herzog,  Johann  Jacob,  D.  D.,  b.  at  Ba¬ 
sel,  Sept.  12,  1805;  d.  at  Erlangen,  Sept. 
30,  1882.  Educated  at  Basel  and  Berlin,  in 
1830  he  became  a  licentiate  in  theology,  and 
in  1838  was  appointed  professor  of  histor¬ 
ical  theology  at  Lausanne,  where  he  re¬ 
mained  until  1845.  In  1847  he  became 
professor  of  church  history  at  Halle,  and 
from  there,  in  1854,  went  to  Erlangen, 
where  he  lectured  as  professor  of  theology 
until  1877,  when  he  was  retired  upon  a 
pension.  Dr.  Herzog  published  several 


important  volumes, but  his  fame  rests  upon 
his  editorship  of  the  Real-Encyklopadie  fur 
Protestantische  Theologie  u.  Kirche.  This 
storehouse  of  religious  knowledge  has  be¬ 
come  well  known  in  this  country  through 
the  Religious  Encyclopedia ,  edited  by  Dr. 
Philip  Schaff  (New  York,  1884,  2d  ed., 
1887),  3  vols.,  which  is  based  upon  the 
great  work  of  Dr.  Herzog. 

Hesychasts  (Gr.  hesychia ,  stillness),  a 
sect  of  Greek  Quietists,  or  mystics,  that 
flourished  in  the  monastery  of  Mount 
Athos  in  the  fourteenth  century.  “  They 
believed  that  all  perfection  lay  in  contem¬ 
plation,  and  in  the  elevation  and  abstrac¬ 
tion  which  were  the  result.  They  also  held 
that  there  is  Divine  light  hidden  in  the 
soul,  the  same  as  that  which  encircled  the 
Saviour  on  Mount  Tabor,  and  capable  of 
being  communicated;  and,  therefore,  retir¬ 
ing  into  a  dark  cell,  fixed  their  eyes  on 
their  navels  until,  as  they  imagined,  the 
light  beamed  forth.” — Benham:  Diet,  of 
Religion.  Their  chief  opponent  was  Bar- 
laam  (y.  v. );  but  after  a  fierce  conflict, 
which  was  carried  on  through  several  syn¬ 
ods,  the  Hesychasts  were  triumphant,  but 
died  out  in  a  short  time. 

Heusser,  Mrs.  Meta,  a  popular  German 
hymn  and  song  writer;  b.  1797;  d.  1876. 
She  was  the  daughter  of  a  Swiss  pastor, 
and  spent  her  life  at  Hirzel,  a  beautiful 
village  in  sight  of  Mount  Righi  and  the 
Lake  of  Lucerne.  Her  husband  was  an 
eminent  physician,  and  the  care  of  a  large 
household  was  laid  upon  her;  but  she 
found  time  to  indulge  her  love  for  song 
and  poetry  in  words  that  she  gave  to  the 
world  only  after  earnest  solicitations. 
Koch,  in  his  History  of  Ger?nan  Hym- 
nology ,  ©alls  her  “  the  most  eminent  and 
noble  among  all  the  female  poets  of  the 
whole  Evangelical  Church.  Her  poems  flow 
freely  from  the  fresh  fountain  of  a  heart 
in  constant,  holy  communion  with  God.” 

Hewit,  Nathaniel,  prominent  in  the 
temperance  agitations  in  the  early  part  of 
this  century;  b.  at  New  London,  Conn., 
Aug.  28,  1788;  d.  at  Bridgeport,  Conn., 
Feb.  7,  1867.  He  was  graduated  at 
Yale  College  in  1808,  and,  after  serving  as  ' 
pastor  at  Plattsburg,  N.  Y. ,  and  Fairfield, 
Conn.,  he  acted  as  agent  of  the  American 
Temperance  Society.  In  1830  he  was  call¬ 
ed  to  the  pastorate  of  the  Second  Congre¬ 
gational  Church,  Bridgeport.  Owing  to 
theological  differences  of  opinion,  that 
brought  him  into  opposition  to  prominent 
ministers  in  the  Congregational  order,  he 
became  pastor  of  a  Presbyterian  church, 
formed  by  members  of  his  old  parish. 


\ 


Hey 


(  4io  ) 


Hie 


Heylyn,  Peter,  church  historian;  b.  at 
Burford,  near  Oxford,  1600;  d.  in  London, 
1662.  He  studied  at  Oxford,  where  he 
gave  lectures  on  history  and  geography. 
An  upholder  of  Laud,  he  was  appointed 
chaplain  to  Charles  I.  in  1629,  who  made 
him  prebend,  and  afterward  subdean  of 
Westminster,  and  gave  him  several  liv¬ 
ings.  These  he  lost  at  the  Restoration, 
and  he  again  became  subdean  of  West¬ 
minster.  He  was  a  voluminous  writer, 
and  in  his  controversial  works  he  attacked 
the  Presbyterians  with  great  bitterness. 
The  most  important  of  these  is  the  Aerius 
Redivivus ;  or,  History  of  the  Presbyterians , 
containing  the  Beginnings  and  Successes  of 
that  Active  Sect ,  their  Opposition  to  Monarch¬ 
ical  and  Episcopal  Government,  etc.  (from 
1536  to  1647).  One  of  his  best  works  is, 
Eccles.  Restaurata:  The  History  of  the  Ref¬ 
ormation  of  the  Church  of  England  (from 
Edward  VI.  to  1566). 

Hezeki'ah  ( strength  of  Jehovali),  a  pious 
king  of  Judah,  the  son  and  successor  of 
the  apostate  Ahaz.  He  ascended  the 
throne  about  426  B.  C.,  and  died  698  B.  C. 
He  abolished  idol  worship,  and  broke  in 
pieces  the  brazen  serpent  of  Moses,  which 
the  people  superstitiously  worshiped.  (2 
Kings  xviii.)  The  temple  was  repaired 
during  his  reign,  and  the  Passover  cel¬ 
ebrated  with  great  solemnity.  (2  Chron. 
xxix;  xxx.)  In  his  wars  with  the  Philis¬ 
tines  he  regained  what  his  father  had  lost, 
and  he  rebelled  against  Assyria.  (2  Kings 
xviii.  7,  8.)  When  Sennacherib  invaded 
his  kingdom,  Isaiah  assured  him  of  the 
divine  assistance,  and  the  Assyrian  host 
was  defeated  and  put  to  flight.  (2  Kings 

xix.  6-35;  Isa.  xxxvii.)  In  answer  to 
prayer,  his  life  was  prolonged.  (2  Kings 

xx.  1-10.)  The  ostentatious  display  of 
his  wealth  to  the  ambassadors  of  the  Baby¬ 
lonian  king  brought  upon  him  the  divine 
displeasure.  (2  Kings  xx.  17.)  He  collected 
some  of  the  Proverbs  of  Solomon.  (Prov. 
xxv.  1.) 

Hicks,  Elias,  a  prominent  leader  of  the 
society  of  Friends:  b.  at  Hempstead,  L.  I., 
March  19,  1748;  d.  in  Jericho,  L.  I.,  Feb. 
27,  1830.  Without  the  advantages  of  edu¬ 
cation,  at  the  age  of  twenty-seven  he  began 
his  career  as  a  minister  among  the  Friends. 
It  was,  to  a  large  extent,  through  his  in¬ 
fluence  that  the  more  liberal  element  of  the 
society  of  Friends,  in  the  Yearly  Meeting 
at  Philadelphia  in  1827,  seceded  from  the 
more  conservative  party,  and  were  known 
as  Hicksites.  He  published:  Observations 
on  Slavery  (N.  Y. ,  1811);  Journal  of  Relig¬ 
ious  Life  and  Labors  (N.  Y.,  1832).  See  art. 
Friends. 


Hicksites.  See  Hicks  and  Friends. 

Hid'dekel.  See  Tigris. 

Hierap'olis,  a  city  of  Phrygia.  It  is  men¬ 
tioned  but  once  in  the  Bible.  (Col.  iv.  13.)  It 
was  the  seat  of  a  council,  held  in  173  under 
the  presidency  of  Apollinarius,  which  con¬ 
demned  the  Cataphryges,  a  Montanist  sect. 

Hierarchy,  a  term  **  most  commonly  used 
in  ecclesiastical  language  to  denote  the  ag¬ 
gregate  of  those  persons  who  exercise 
authority  within  some  branches  of  the 
Christian  Church — the  patriarchate, episco¬ 
pate,  or  entire  threefold  order  of  the  clergy. 
Thus  in  form  of  government  the  Roman 
Church  may  be  said  to  be  a  hierarchical 
monarchy,  the  Greek  in  some  sense  a  patri¬ 
archal  oligarchy,  and  the  Anglican  an 
episcopal  aristocracy.” 


Hieroglyphics,  “one  of  the  earliest  modes 
of  representing  visibly  the  words  or  ideas 
already  orally  expressed.  For  many  cen¬ 
turies  the  key  to  these  representations  was 
altogether  unknown;  but  a  piece  of  granite 
found  near  Rosetta  by  the  French  army  in 
1798,  and  now  in  the  British  Museum,  con¬ 
tains  a  decree  in  honor  of  Ptolemy  Epiph- 
anes  (204  B.  C.),  written  in  hieroglyphics, 
with  a  Greek  translation  alongside.  Also 
the  shaft  of  an  obelisk  brought  to  England 
from  Philse  in  the  S.  of  Egypt  contains  a 
hieroglyphic  inscription  of  its  dedication  to 
the  gods  by  Ptolemy  Physcon  and  Cleo¬ 
patra  (146  B.  C.),  and  at  the  base  a  Greek 
inscription.  Champollion,  by  comparing 
the  Greek  names,  Ptolemy  and  Cleopatra, 
with  the  hieroglyphics  corresponding, 
made  out  letter  by  letter.  Young  and  others  * 
have  perfected  the  transcription  of  Hebrew 
and  the  Egyptian  hieroglyphic.  Thus  the 
derivation  from  Egyptian  of  many  of  the 
Hebraized  words  in  Exodus  is  proved,  con¬ 
firming  its  having  been  written  by  one  in 
such  circumstances  as  Moses  was.  The 
hieroglyphics  originally  were  picture  writ¬ 
ing,  but  in  the  form  handed  down  to  us  on 
oldest  monuments  they  are  phonetic,  with 
occasionally  an  accompanying  picture  of 
the  object,  in  order  to  make  the  group  of 
hieroglyphic  letters  which  form  the  word 
more  intelligible.  Thus  to  the  names  of 
individuals  the  figure  of  a  man  is  attached; 
such  characters  are  called  deter?ninatives. 
The  initial  of  the  Egyptian  (^4hom)  for 
eagle  is  A,  so  an  eagle  became  the  repre¬ 
sentative  of  A;  a  lion  (Egyptian  Zabo)  is 
L;  an  owl  (iJ/owlad),  M,  etc.” — Fausset  : 
Bible  Cyclopedia.  See  art.  by  R.  S.  Poole: 
Ency.  Brit.,  vol.  xi.,  794-809,  and  the  great 
dictionary  of  Heinrich  Brugsch  (Leipzig, 
1867-82),  7  vols. 


Hie 


(  4ii  ) 


Hig 


Hieronymus.  See  Jerome,  St. 

High-Church,  a  name  applied  to  the 
party,  in  the  Church  of  England  and  the 
Protestant  Episcopal  Church  of  America, 
which  lays  much  stress  upon  ritual  observ¬ 
ances  and  the  traditions  of  the  fathers. 
They  hold  extreme  views  regarding  the 
apostolic  origin  of  ministerial  orders  and 
the  nature  of  the  sacraments. 

High  Places.  “  From  the  earliest  times 
it  was  the  custom  among  all  nations  to  erect 
altars  and  places  of  worship  on  lofty  and 
conspicuous  spots.  To  this  general  custom 
we  find  constant  allusion  in  the  Bible  (Isa. 
lxv.  7;  Jer.  iii.  6;  Ez.  vi.  13;  xviii.  6;  Hos. 
iv.  13),  and  it  is  especially  attributed  to  the 
Moabites.  (Isa.  xv.  2;  xvi.  12;  Jer.  xlviii. 
35.)  Even  Abraham  built  an  altar  to  the 
Lord  on  a  mountain  near  Bethel  (Gen.  xii. 
7,  8;  cf.  xxii.  2-4;  xxxi.  54),  which  shows 
that  the  practice  was  then  as  innocent  as  it 
was  natural;  and  although  it  afterwards 
became  mingled  with  idolatrous  observ¬ 
ances  (Num.  xxiii.  3),  it  was  in  itself  far 
less  likely  to  be  abused  than  the  consecra¬ 
tion  of  groves.  (Hos.  iv.  13.)  It  is,  how¬ 
ever,  quite  obvious  that  if  every  grove 
and  eminence  had  been  suffered  to  become 
a  place  for  legitimate  worship,  especially 
in  a  country  where  they  had  already  been 
defiled  with  the  sins  of  polytheism,  the  ut¬ 
most  danger  would  have  resulted  to  the 
pure  worship  of  the  one  true  God.  It  was 
therefore  implicitly  forbidden  by  the  law 
of  Moses  (Deut.  xii.  11-14),  which  also 
gave  the  strictest  injunction  to  destroy 
these  monuments  of  Canaanitish  idolatry 
(Lev.  xxvi.  30;  Num.  xxxiii.  52;  Deut. 
xxxiii.  29),  without  stating  any  general 
reason  for  this  command,  beyond  the  fact 
that  they  had  been  connected  with  :.uch  as¬ 
sociations.  The  command  was  a  prospect¬ 
ive  one,  and  was  not  to  come  into  force 
until  such  time  as  the  tribes  were  settled 
in  the  promised  land.  Thus  we  find  that 
both  Gideon  and  Manoah  built  altars  on 
high  places  by  Divine  command  (Judg.  vi. 
25,  26;  xiii.  16-23),  and  it  is  quite  clear 
from  the  tone  of  the  book  of  Judges  that 
the  law  on  the  subject  was  either  totally 
forgotten  or  practically  obsolete.  It  is 
more  surprising  to  find  this  law  absolutely 
ignored  at  a  much  later  period,  when  there 
was  no  intelligible  reason  for  its  violation 
— as  by  Samuel  at  Mizpeh  (1  Sam.  vii.  10), 
and  at  Bethlehem  (xvi.  5);  by  Saul  at  Gil- 
gal  (xiii.  9)  and  at  Ajalon  (?  xiv.  35);  by 
David  (1  Chron.  xxi.  26);  by  Elijah  on 
Mount  Carmel  (1  Kings  xviii.  30);  and  by 
other  prophets.  (1  Sam.  x.  5.)  The  expla¬ 
nations  which  are  given  are  sufficiently  un¬ 
satisfactory ;  but  it  is  at  any  rate  certain 


that  the  worship  in  high  places  was  organ¬ 
ized  and  all  but  universal  throughout 
Judaea,  not  only  during  (1  Kings  iii.  2-4), 
but  even  after,  the  time  of  Solomon.  The 
convenience  of  them  was  obvious,  because, 
as  local  centres  of  religious  worship,  they 
obviated  the  unpleasant  and  dangerous  ne¬ 
cessity  of  visiting  Jerusalem  for  the  cele¬ 
bration  of  the  yearly  feasts.  (2  Kings 
xxiii.  9.)  Many  of  the  pious  kings  of  Judah 
were  either  too  weak  or  too  ill-informed  to 
repress  the  worship  of  Jehovah  at  these 
local  sanctuaries;  while  they  of  course  en¬ 
deavored  to  prevent  it  from  being  contam¬ 
inated  with  polytheism.  At  last  Hezekiah 
set  himself  in  good  earnest  to  the  suppres¬ 
sion  of  this  prevalent  corruption  (2  Kings 
xviii.  4,  22),  both  in  Judah  and  Israel  (2 
Chron.  xxxi.  1);  although,  so  rapid  was 
the  growth  of  the  evil,  that  even  his  sweep¬ 
ing  reformation  required  to  be  finally  con¬ 
summated  by  Josiah  (2  Kings  xxiii.),  and 
that,  too,  in  Jerusalem  and  its  immediate 
neighborhood.  (2  Chron.  xxxiv.  3.)  After 
the  time  of  Josiah  we  find  no  further  men¬ 
tion  of  these  Jehovistic  high  places.”— 
Smith;  Diet .  of  the  Bible. 


High-Priest.  “  The  high-priest  was  tne 
spiritual  head  and  representative  of  the 
theocratic  people  before  Jehovah.  In  him 
was  concentrated  the  mediatorship  between 
God  and  the  people,  and  in  him  the  people 
could  draw  nigh  to  God.  As  in  his  person 
the  people  was  represented,  his  sin-offer¬ 
ing  and  that  of  the  congregation,  which 


Hil 


(  412  ) 


Hil 


* 


was  to  be  brought  for  certain  sins,  as  pre¬ 
scribed  in  Lev.  iv.,  were  the  same.  His 
sin  was  the  people’s  sin  (Lev.  iv.  3),  and 
God’s  good-will  towards  the  high-priest 
also  belonged  to  the  people.  The  high- 
priest  was  in  the  midst  of  a  holy  people, 

‘  the  saint  of  the  Lord.’  (Psa.  cvi.  16.)  In 
him  the  highest  degree  of  purity  had  to  be 
found,  and  only  in  exceptional  cases  (Lev. 
xxi.  1-6)  could  he  defile  himself ;  otherwise 
he  had  to  avoid  everything  whereby  he 
could  be  defiled.  He  had  even  to  keep 
away  from  his  dead  father  or  mother  (xxi. 
10-12).  His  wife  was  to  be  a  virgin  of  his 
own  people  (xxi.  14).  Aaron’s  consecra¬ 
tion  to  the  priesthood  was  in  connection 
with  that  of  his  sons  and  the  priests  gen¬ 
erally.  (Exod.  xxix. ;  Lev.  viii.)  The  rit¬ 
ual  commenced  by  washing  Aaron  and  his 
sons  before  the  tabernacle  of  the  congre¬ 
gation.  Aaron  was  then  invested  with  the 
sacred  garments,  and  anointed  with  the 
holy  oil,  which  was  prepared  according  to 
Exod.  xxx.  22-25.  Aaron’s  successor  was 
not  anointed,  but  received  only  the  high- 
priest’s  garments.  Without  these  gar¬ 
ments,  the  high-priest  was  only  a  private 
person,  who  could  not  represent  the  peo¬ 
ple,  and  incurred  the  penalty  of  death  by 
appearing  before  Jehovah  without  them. 
(Exod.  xxviii.  35.)  His  dress  was  peculiar, 
and  passed  to  his  successor  at  his  death. 
The  articles  of  his  dress  consisted  of  the 
following  parts:  (1)  The  breeches ,  or  draw¬ 
ers,  of  linen,  covering  the  loins  and 
thighs.  (2)  The  coat ,  a  tunic,  or  long  shirt. 
(3)  The  girdle ,  also  of  linen;  these  three 
articles  he  had  in  common  with  the  other 
priests.  Over  these  parts  he  wore  (4)  the 
robe  or  cphod ,  being  all  of  blue.  The  skirt 
of  his  robe  had  a  remarkable  trimming  of 
pomegranates  in  blue,  red,  and  crimson, 
with  a  bell  of  gold  between  each  pome¬ 
granate  alternately.  The  bells  were  to  give 
a  sound  when  the  high-priest  went  in  and 
came  out  of  the  holy  place.  (Exod.  xxviii. 
35.)  Over  the  robe  came  (5)  the  ephod ,  one 
part  of  which  covered  the  back,  and  the 
other  the  front;  upon  it  was  placed  (6)  the 
breastplate.  The  covering  of  the  head  was 
(7)  the  mitre ,  or  upper  turban,  which  was 
different  from  (8)  the  bonnet.  The  mitre  had  a 
gold  plate,  engraved  with  “  Holiness  to  the 
Lord,”  fastened  to  it  by  a  ribbon  of  blue. 
For  the  functions  to  be  performed  annu¬ 
ally  on  the  day  of  atonement,  dresses  of 
white  linen  were  prescribed.  (Lev.  xvi.  4.) 
The  office  of  the  Old  Testament  priesthood 
was  twofold — that  of  mediatorship,  and 
that  of  a  teacher  or  messenger  of  the  Lord. 
(Mai.  ii.  7.)  The  functions  of  the  high- 
priest  were  the  same  as  those  of  the  com¬ 
mon  priests.  He  had  oversight  over  the 
service  of  the  temple  and  the  temple  treas¬ 


ury.  (2  Kings  xxii.  4 sq.)  The  succession 
in  the  high-priesthood  was  probably  regu¬ 
lated  in  the  manner  of  the  right  of  succes¬ 
sion — that  the  first  son,  provided  there 
were  no  legal  difficulties,  succeeded  his 
father,  and  in  case  he  had  died  already,  his 
oldest  son  followed.  The  number  of  high- 
priests,  from  Aaron  to  Phannias,  was, 
according  to  Josephus  ( Antt . ,  xx.  10), 
eighty-three,  viz.,  from  Aaron  to  Solo¬ 
mon,  thirteen;  during  the  temple  of  Solo¬ 
mon,  eighteen;  and  fifty-two  in  the  time 
of  the  second  temple.  Aaron  was  suc¬ 
ceeded  by  Eleazar  (Num.  xx.  28),  who  was 
followed  by  Phinehas.  (Judg.  xx.  28.)  Who 
the  successors  of  Phinehas  were  till  the 
time  of  Eli,  we  do  not  know.  To  enter  into 
the  different  theories  of  who  they  were,  or 
were  not,  is  not  our  object.  From  Shal- 
lum,  the  father  of  Hilkiah,  the  high-priest 
in  Josiah’s  reign,  we  can  again  follow  up 
the  succession  of  high-priests.  According 
to  Josephus,  Hilkiah  was  followed  by 
Seraiah,  who  was  killed  by  Nebuchadnezzar 
at  Riblah.  (2  Kings  xxv.  18  sq.).  His  son 
was  Jehozadak,  who  went  into  the  captivity 
(1  Chron.  v.  41;  A.  V.,  vi.  15),  and  who 
was  the  father  of  Jeshua,  who  opens  the 
series  of  high-priests  in  Neh.  xii.,  which 
ends  with  Jaddua,  who  was  high-priest  in 
the  time  of  Alexander  the  Great.  Jaddua 
was  followed  by  Onias  I.,  his  son,  and  he 
again  by  Simon  I.,  the  Just;  then  followed 
Onias  II.,,  Simon  II.,  Onias  III.  The  last 
high-priest  was  Phannias,  who  was  ap¬ 
pointed  by  lot  by  the  Zealots.  (Josephus: 
War,  iv.  3,  8.)  With  him  the  Old  Tes¬ 
tament  high  -  priesthood  ignominiously 
ended.” — Delitzsch  in  Herzog:  Real  Ency. , 
trans.  in  Schaff-Herzog:  Ency. 

Hilary,  St.  ,  born  at  Poitiers,  was  convert¬ 
ed,  with  his  wife  and  daughter,  to  Christi¬ 
anity.  He  was  consecrated  bishop  of  his 
native  place  about  354.  He  was  a  great 
champion  for  the  Catholic  doctrine  against 
the  Arians;  and  Saturninus,  the  Arian 
bishop  of  Arles,  procured  his  banishment 
into  Phrygia.  In  359  he  was  called  to  the 
Council  of  Salonica,  where  he  bravely  up¬ 
held  his  belief,  and  he  also  pressed  for  a 
public  conference  with  the  Arians  in  pres¬ 
ence  of  the  emperor,  but  they  persuaded 
him  to  send  their  enemy  back  to  Gaul. 
Upon  his  arrival  at  Poitiers,  in  360,  he  con¬ 
vened  several  councils  for  restoring  the 
ancient  belief,  and  in  his  zeal  for  the  Catho¬ 
lic  faith  went  to  Italy  in  364  and  denounced 
Auxentius,  bishop  of  Milan,  as  an  Arian, 
to  the  Emperor  Valentinian,  who  ordered 
a  conference  between  Hilary  and  Auxen¬ 
tius,  in  presence  of  ten  other  bishops;  to 
this,  Auxentius,  after  much  demurring,  was 
obliged  to  agree,  and,  thus  pressed,  hede- 


Hil 


(  413  ) 


Hip 


dared  his  belief  in  the  Divinity  of  our  Lord. 
Hilary  suggested  to  the  emperor  that  his 
profession  was  without  sincerity;  but  he, 
tired  of  the  dispute,  would  listen  no  longer, 
and  ordered  Hilary  to  leave  Milan.  He 
returned  home,  and  died  in  367.  His  fes¬ 
tival  is  kept  on  Jan.  14.  His  works  are: 
Twelve  Books  on  the  Trinity ,  begun  in  346, 
and  finished  in  his  exile;  a  Treatise  on 
Synods ,  written  during  his  banishment  in 
359  ;  Three  Discourses  to  Constantins  on 
Arianism\  and  commentaries  on  St.  Mat¬ 
thew  and  part  of  the  Psalms;  but  these  are 
mostly  copied  from  Origen  and  Augustine. 
The  best  edition  of  his  works  is  that  pub¬ 
lished  by  the  Benedictines  in  1693. — Ben- 
ham:  Did .  of  Religion.  See  the  Church 
Histories  of  Neander,  Milman,  Schaff,  etc., 
and  Dorner’s  History  of  the  Doctrine  of  the 
Person  of  Christ. 

Hilda,  St.,  a  Saxon  lady  of  the  royal 
family  of  Northumbria.  Converted  to 
Christianity  in  the  reign  of  King  Edwin,  she 
became  abbess  of  the  monastery  of  Heortea 
(Hartlepool)  in  650.  She  founded  the 
abbey  of  Whitby  where  she  died  in  6S0. 

Hildebrande.  See  Gregory  VII. 

Hildegarde,  St.,  b.  1098;  d.  1178.  She 
founded  the  monastery  of  Rupertsberg. 
She  received  prophetical  visions,  which 
were  approved  by  the  pope,  and  her  influ¬ 
ence,  especially  in  the  German  Church,  was 
very  great.  She  wrote  several  treatises, 
and  a  collection  of  her  letters  was  pub¬ 
lished  at  Cologne  in  1566. 

Hill,  Rowland,  a  very  popular  but  eccen¬ 
tric  minister  of  the  Church  of  England;  b. 
at  Hawkestone,  Aug.  23,  1744;  d.  in  Lon¬ 
don,  April  11,  1833.  While  a  student  at 
Cambridge  he  was  brought  into  sympathy 
with  Wliitefield  and  the  Calvinistic  Method¬ 
ists.  He  preached  before  receiving  a 
license,  and  it  was  with  great  difficulty  that 
he  secured  ordination  in  the  Episcopal 
Church.  Having  come  into  a  considerable 
inheritance,  he  built  Surrey  Chapel,  Lon¬ 
don,  in  1728,  and  continued  to  preach  there 
to  large  audiences  up  to  the  time  of  his 
death.  He  was  a  man  of  great  wit,  and  he 
did  not  spare  the  use  of  this  gift  in  the  pul¬ 
pit.  In  the  Arminian  controversy  he  held 
to  the  Calvinistic  side,  and  wrote  several 
bitter  pamphlets  against  John  Wesley, 
which  he  lived  to  regret,  and  suppressed 
as  far  as  he  could.  See  his  Life ,  by  Sid¬ 
ney  (London,  1833,4th  ed.,  1844);  Memoirs, 
by  W.  Jones  (London,  2d  ed.,  1844);  and 
Memorials,  by  Sherman  (London,  1851). 

Hillel,  a  famous  Jewish  rabbi.  Accord¬ 


ing  to  the  Talmudists  he  was  b.  of  a  poor 
Davidic  family  about  the  year  75  B.  c. .and 
probably  d.  about  4  b.  c.  He  came  to 
Palestine  to  study  the  Law,  and  was  a 
pupil  of  Shemaiah  and  Abtalion.  Accord¬ 
ing  to  tradition  he  became  a  very  paragon 
of  learning.  He  was  the  head  of  a  school 
rival  to  that  of  his  contemporary  Shammai, 
and  their  opposition  was  the  cause  of  many 
fierce  quarrels.  In  later  years  he  was 
president  of  the  sanhedrin.  See  Histories 
of  the  fews,  by  Ewald,  vol.  v.,  pp.  14-28; 
Stanley,  vol.  iii. ,  499-512;  Farrar:  Life  of 
Christ ,  vol.  ii. ,  excursus  iii. 

Hincmar,  bishop  of  Laon  in  the  ninth 
century.  He  received  his  office  through 
the  influence  of  his  uncle,  Hincmar  of 
Rheims.  Opposing  the  king,  and  taking 
the  part  of  the  pope  in  his  contention  with 
the  French  Church,  he  was  deposed  by  the 
Synod  of  Douzi  (871),  presided  over  by  his 
uncle.  He  was  taken  prisoner  and  blinded 
by  order  of  the  king.  Pope  John  VIII.  re¬ 
stored  him,  and  gave  him  half  of  the  bishop¬ 
ric’s  revenue.  He  died  in  882.  A  few  of 
his  letters  are  found  in  Simmond’s  edition 
of  Hincmar  of  Rheims. 

Hincmar  of  Rheims,  famous  for  his  learn¬ 
ing,  Avas  b.  about  806;  d.  at  Epernay,  882. 
Educated  in  the  monastery  of  St.  Denis,  he 
was  an  intimate  friend  of  Charles  the  Bald, 
and  became  archbishop  of  Rheims  in  845. 
A  strenuous  advocate  of  the  rights  of  the 
French  Church,  he  administered  his  diocese 
with  great  firmness,  and  took  an  active 
part  in  the  theological  contnwersies  of  his 
time.  He  was  driven  from  Rheims  not  long 
before  his  death  by  the  Normans.  One  of 
his  best  books  is  Annals  of  Rheims. 

Hinnom,  Valley  of.  See  Gehenna. 

Hinton,  John  Howard,  a  famous  Baptist 
preacher;  b.  at  Oxford,  Eng.,  1791;  d.  at 
Bristol,  1873.  Educated  at  the  University 
of  Edinburgh,  he  Avas  long  recognized  as 
one  of  the  most  able  and  scholarly  preach¬ 
ers  in  London.  He  wrote  a  work  on  the 
History  and  Topography  of  the  United  States 
(N.  Y.,  enlarged  edition,  1853),  and  also 
The  Harmony  of  Religious  Truth  and 
Human  Reason  (1832);  Treatise  on  Man's 
Responsibility. — James  Hinton,  his  son  (d. 
1875),  Avas  the  foremost  aural  surgeon  in 
London,  and  Avrote  a  series  of  remarkable 
Avorks :  Man  and  His  D  welling-place  ( 1 8 5 S) ; 
Life  in  Nature  (1871);  The  Mystery  of  Pain, 
Philosophy  and  Religion  ( 1832).  See  his  Ldfe 
and  Letters  (London,  1S78,  4th  ed.,  1881). 

Hippo  Regius,  the  present  Bona  in  Al¬ 
geria,  Avas  the  seat  of  tAvo  councils  (393  and 


Hip 


(  4i4  ) 


Hit 


426),  the  former  of  which  has  historical  in¬ 
terest  because  it  gave  the  first  express  def¬ 
inition  of  the  New  Testament  Canon  as  it 
now  stands.  Augustine  was  bishop  of 
Hippo  from  396  to  430. 

Hippol'ytus,  adistinguished  ecclesiastical 
writer  of  the  third  century,  of  whose  life 
little  is  known;  b.  in  the  second  part  of  the 
second  century;  d.  about  the  year  240. 
He  was  a  pupil  of  Irenaeus  and  familiar 
with  every  department  of  Greek  learning. 
As  bishop  of  Portus  and  a  member  of  the 
Roman  presbytery,  he  was  very  influential 
in  guiding  theological  opinions  at  a  critical 
period  in  the  history  of  the  Roman  Church. 
Since  the  discovery  of  his  great  work,  The 
Refutation  of  all  Heresies ,  at  Mount  Athos 
in  the  year  1842,  his  name  has  become  more 
prominent  among  the  fathers  of  the  third 
century.  Besides  this  work  we  have  frag¬ 
ments  of  commentaries  on  several  books  of 
the  Old  Testament,  and  on  Matthew  and 
Luke:  an  important  historical  work,  the 
Chronicle ,  and  other  fragments  of  a  con¬ 
troversial  and  doctrinal  character.  His 
works  are  translated  in  Am.  ed.  of  The 
Ante-Nicene  Fathers  (New  York,  1890). 

Hitchcock,  Edward,  D.  D.,  LL.  D.,  an 
eminent  American  scientist;  b.  at  Deerfield, 
Mass.,  May  24,  1793;  d.  at  Amherst,  Feb. 
27,  1864.  In  early  life  he  suffered  from  ill- 
health,  but  he  secured  a  good  education. 
From  1821  to  1825  he  was  pastor  of  the 
Congregational  church  at  Conway,  when 
he  accepted  the  professorship  of  natural 
theology  at  Amherst  College.  In  1845  he 
was  elected  president  of  the  college  and 
filled  the  position  for  ten  years.  He  be¬ 
came  widely  known  through  his  geological 
researches.  In  addition  to  several  text¬ 
books  he  wrote,  The  Religion  of  Geology 
and  its  Connected  Sciences  (1851),  and  Re¬ 
ligious  Truths  Illustrated  from  Science 
(1857). 

Hitchcock,  Roswell  Dwight,  LL.  D., 
Presbyterian;  b.  at  East  Machias,  Me., 
Aug.  15,  1817;  d.  at  Fall  River,  Mass., 
June  16,  1887.  He  was  graduated  at  Am¬ 
herst  College  in  1836,  and  studied  theology 
in  Andover  Theological  Seminary,  1838-39, 
and  in  Germany.  From  1839—42  he  was 
tutor  in  Amherst  College;  pastor  of  the 
First  Cong.Church,  Exeter,  N.  H.  ,1845-52; 
professor  of  natural  and  revealed  religion 
in  Bowdoin  College,  Me.,  1852-55.  He 
then  (1855)  accepted  the  professorship  of 
church  history  in  Union  Theological  Sem¬ 
inary,  New  York  City,  which  connection  he 
retained  until  his  death.  From  1880  he 
was  president  of  the  seminary.  He  pub¬ 
lished;  Life  of  Edward  Robinson  (N,  Y., 


1 8C3) ;  Complete  A  nalysis  of  the  Bible  ( 1 869) ; 
Hymns  and  Songs  of  Praise  (with  Drs. 
Schaff  and  Eddy)  (1878);  Socialism  (1879); 
Carmina  Sanctoru?n  (1885).  Dr.  Hitchcock 
was  a  ripe  scholar,  a  teacher  of  peculiar  in¬ 
terest  in  the  class  room,  and  a  preacher  of 
original  and  incisive  power  of  thought. 

Hittites,  The,  “  were  formerly  confused 
with  the  small  tribes  of  Canaan;  but  re¬ 
cently  it  has  been  shown  that  they  formed 
a  powerful  empire  in  the  days  of  the  pa¬ 
triarchs.  Long  before  the  rise  of  the  Assyr¬ 
ian,  Babylonian,  and  Persian  monarchies 
they  held  sway  over  much  of  the  territory 
subsequently  conquered  by  those  powers. 
Their  dominion  extended  as  far  as  the  bor¬ 
ders  of  Egypt  in  the  southwest,  eastward 
to  Mesopotamia,  and  northward  above  the 
limits  of  Syria,  and  beyond  the  Taurus 
Mountains.  Traces  of  the  great  Hittite 
empire  have  been  discovered  in  inscrip¬ 
tions  scattered  over  Asia  Minor.  There 
appear  to  have  been  at  least  two  capitals — 
a  northern  one  at  Hamath,  cn  the  Orontes, 
and  a  southern  one  at  Zoan,  on  the  confines 
of  Egypt.  From  the  name  of  one  of  their 
cities  in  the  south  of  Canaan,  Kirjath- 
Sepher — -which  means  ‘Book -Town’ — 
taken  in  connection  with  the  Hittite  in¬ 
scriptions,  it  has  been  inferred  that  the 
Hittites  were  a  literary  people;  or,  at  all 
events,  that  they  were  acquainted  with  the 
art  of  writing,  and,  perhaps,  generally  ad¬ 
vanced  in  civilization  far  beyond  the  con¬ 
dition  of  the  nomadic  patriarchs  who  led 
their  flocks  up  and  down  in  their  territory, 
just  as  the  Bedouins  of  to-day  keep  up 
their  simple,  primitive  life  outside  the 
culture  of  the  towns.  The  Hittites  were 
sufficiently  powerful  to  engage  in  serious 
military  expeditions  with  the  Egyptians, 
who  describe  them  on  their  stone  monu¬ 
ments  under  the  name  of  Khetai.  The 
Assyrians  have  also  preserved  records  of 
the  same  power.  They  were  probably  not 
allied  to  the  Canaanite  races,  but  were  a 
Turanean  race,  from  the  highlands  of  Cen¬ 
tral  Asia;  therefore  their  empire  appears 
as  the  outcome  of  the  first  of  those  west¬ 
ward  migrations  of  Asiatic  peoples,  which 
were  afterwards  seen  in  such  a  movement 
as  that  of  the  invasion  of  the  Roman  em¬ 
pire  by  the  Huns.” — Bagster:  Bible  Helps. 

“  Of  the  religion  of  the  Hittites  we  know 
little.  Ashima  is  mentioned  (2  Kings  xvii. 
30)  as  a  god  of  Hamath.  At  Ibreez  we  have 
a  figure  of  the  great  Hittite  god,  Sandan — 
a  god  of  agriculture.  At  Boghaz  Keui 
are  found  nearly  twenty  figures  of  male 
and  female  deities.  The  Syrian  god,  Adad, 
or  Hadad,  may  have  been  originally  Hit¬ 
tite.  With  the  softened  aspirate,  we  seem 
to  have  the  name  in  Hadoram,  son  of  King 


Hit 


(  415  ) 


Hod 


Toi  of  Hamath,  another  form  of  whose 
name  is  given  (2  Sam.  viii.  10)  as  Joram; 
the  writer  in  1  Chron.  xviii.  10,  choosing 
a  form  meaning,  ‘  Adad  is  exalted,’  rather 
than  one  meaning,  ‘  Jehovah  is  exalted.’  It 
is  remarkable,  however,  that,  on  the  Assyr¬ 
ian  monuments,  the  element  Jehovah  en¬ 
ters  into  the  name  of  the  King  Jaubihid, 
who  also  is  called  Ilu-bihid.  This,  how¬ 
ever,  belongs  to  a  late  period,  when  the 
Syrians  were  replacing  the  Hittites.” — 
William  Hayes  Ward:  art.  “  Hittites,”  in 
Schaff-Herzog:  Ency.,  vol.  ii. ,  p.  937.  See 
Wright:  Empire  of  the  Hittites;  Perrot  and 
Chipez:  History  of  Art  in  Sardinia,  Judea, 
Syria,  and  Asia  Minor,  vol.  ii. 

Hitzig  ( hits'-ig ),  Ferdinand,  Protestant; 
b.  at  Hauingen,  Baden,  June  23,  1807;  d. 
at  Heidelberg,  Jan.  22,  1875,  where  he  had 
been  professor  since  1861.  A  learned  and 
bold  critic,  he  belonged  to  the  rationalistic 
school  of  Strauss  and  Schenkel.  His  most 
valuable  work  is  a  commentary  on  Isaiah 
(Heidelberg,  1833). 

Hi'vite.  See  Canaan. 

Hoadly,  Benjamin,  bishop  of  Winches¬ 
ter;  b.  at  Westerham,  Kent,  Nov.  14,  1676; 
d.  at  Winchester,  April  17,  1761.  He  en¬ 
tered  Catharine  Hall,  Cambridge,  in  1691, 
where  he  became  tutor.  He  was  ordained, 
and  in  1701  was  appointed  lecturer  of  St. 
Mildred,  in  the  Poultry,  and  in  the  next 
year  rector  of  St.  Peter-le-Poer.  Queen 
Anne,  in  1714,  presented  him  to  the  living 
of  Streatham.  On  the  accession  of  George 
I.  he  became  bishop  of  Bangor.  In  1717 
he  preached  a  sermon  from  the  text,  “  My 
kingdom  is  not  of  this  world,”  in  which  he 
argued  that  the  best  way  to  refute  Roman 
Catholics  and  Dissenters  was  to  show  that 
Christ  had  not  delegated  his  powers  to  any 
ecclesiastical  authorities.  This  sermon  led 
to  the  famous  Bangorian  Controversy. 
Hoadly  afterward  became,  in  succession, 
bishop  of  Hereford  (1721),  Salisbury  (1723), 
and  Winchester  (1734). 

Hoadly  was  the  most  prominent  of  those 
clergymen,  of  whom  there  were  so  many 
during  the  eighteenth  century,  who  adopted 
views  more  or  less  inclined  to  Unitarianism 
and  Rationalism.  This  can  be  seen  by  his 
works:  A  Plain  Account  of  the  Sacrament; 
Discourses  on  the  Terms  of  Acceptance.  He 
also  wrote  on  the  Measure  of  Obedience  to 
the  Civil  Magistrate,  and  Reasonableness  of 
Conformity  to  the  Church  of  England. — 
Benham:  Did.  of  Religion.  The  sermon 
of  Bishop  Hoadly  which  led  to  the  Bangor¬ 
ian  Controversy  was  an  earnest  plea  for 
toleration,  without  regard  to  church  con¬ 
nections.  The  discussion  became  so  fierce 


that  the  convocation  of  1717  was  prorogued 
by  the  crown,  and  did  not  sit  again  till  1852. 
An  edition  of  Hoadly’s  works,  with  a  Life, 
was  published  in  London,  1773,  3  vols. 

Hobart,  John  Henry,  D.  D.,  Protestant 
Episcopal  bishop  of  New  York;  b.  in  Phila¬ 
delphia,  Sept.  14,  1775;  d.  at  Auburn,  Sept. 
10,  1830.  He  was  graduated  at  Princeton 
in  1793,  and  entered  upon  his  active  minis¬ 
terial  life  in  1798.  After  serving  several 
parishes  he  became  assistant  minister  of 
Trinity,  New  York,  and  in  1799  was  chosen 
secretary  of  the  House  of  Bishops.  He 
was  elected  assistant  bishop  of  New  York 
in  1811,  and  bishop  in  1816.  The  General 
Theological  Seminary  of  New  York  was 
largely  founded  through  his  efforts,  and  in 
1821  he  was  made  professor  of  pastoral 
theology  and  pulpit  eloquence.  He  was 
one  of  the  first  Protestants  that  ever 
preached  in  Rome,  and  while  in  Italy  he 
made  effective  appeals  in  behalf  of  the  Wal- 
denses.  He  wrote  several  volumes.  See 
Memoir,  by  Schroeder  (New  York,  1833). 

Hobbes,  Thomas,  b.  at  Malmesbury, 
Wiltshire,  April  5,  1588;  d.  at  Hardwick 
Hall,  Devonshire,  Dec.  4,  1679.  He  was  a 
graduate  of  Magdalen  College,  Oxford, 
and  after  acting  as  tutor  in  several  noble 
families,  in  1637  he  entered  upon  a  life  of 
literary  activity,  first  in  Paris  (1641-54), 
then  in  London,  and  at  Hardwick  Hall. 
His  chief  works  in  English  are:  Humane 
Nature  (London,  1650);  Leviathan;  or,  the 
Matter,  For?ne  and  Power  of  a  Co?n?non~ 
wealth.  Ecclesiastical  and  Civill  (1651); 
Liberty  and  Necessity  (1654);  Behemoth;  or, 
an  Epitome  of  the  Civil  Wars  of  England 
from  1640  to  1669  (1679,  new  ed.,  1889). 
He  wrote  much  in  Latin.  A  complete  ed. 
of  his  works  appeared  in  London  (1839-45), 
11  vols.  An  enemy  alike  of  liberty  and  re¬ 
ligion,  his  utilitarian  and  deistical  views 
were  presented  with  great  vigor,  and  are 
still  reproduced  to  some  extent  in  the  ma¬ 
terialistic  thought  of  the  present  day. 

Hodge,  Archibald  Alexander,  D.  D. 
(College  of  New  Jersey,  Princeton,  1862), 
LL.  D.  (Wooster  University,  Wooster, 
O.,  1876),  eldest  son  of  Dr.  Charles  Hodge; 
b.  at  Princeton,  N.  J. ,  July,  1823.  He  was 
graduated  at  Princeton  College,  1841, 
and  at  the  Theological  Seminary,  1847; 
missionary  of  the  Presbyterian  Board  at 
Allahabad,  India,  1847-50;  in  the  pastorate 
at  Lower  West  Nottingham,  Md.,  1851-55; 
at  Fredericksburg,  Va. ,  1855-61;  Wilkes- 
barre,  Pa. ,  1861-64.  In  1864  he  became  pro¬ 
fessor  of  didactic  and  polemic  theology  in 
the  Western  (Presbyterian)  Theological 
Seminary,  Allegheny,  Penn. ,  and  since  1878 


Hod 


(  416  ) 


Hoi 


has  been  professor  of  didactic  and  polemic 
theology  in  Princeton  Seminary.  He  is 
the  author  of:  Outlines  of  Theology  (i860,  en¬ 
larged  ed.,  1878);  The  Atonement  (1868); 
Com?nentary  on  Confession  of  Faith  (1869); 
Presbyterian  Forms  (1876,  2(1  ed.  rewritten, 
1S82);  Life  of  Charles  Hodge  (1880). 

Hodge,  Charles,  D.  D.,LL.  D.,  one  of  the 
most  eminent  theologians  of  modern  times; 
b.  Dec. 18,1797, in  Philadelphia;  d.  inPrince- 
ton,  N.  J.,  June  19,  1878.  He  was  graduated 
at  Princeton,  and  studied  at  the  Seminary 
with  which  the  labors  of  his  life  were  iden¬ 
tified.  He  was  appointed  professor  of  bib¬ 
lical  and  Oriental  literature  in  1822  and 
lived  to  complete  fifty  years  of  service  in 
connection  with  the  Seminary.  In  1825  he 
founded  the  Biblical  Respository  and  Prince¬ 
ton  Review ,  and  was  its  editor  for  forty 
years.  From  1840  he  filled  the  chair  of 
didactic  theology  and  New  Testament  exe¬ 
gesis.  He  was  a  voluminous  author,  and 
wrote  several  commentaries,  but  his  great 
work  is  the  Systematic  Theology  in  3  vols. 
(New  York,  1871-73).  He  was  an  earnest 
polemic  and  the  sturdy  advocate  of  histori¬ 
cal  Calvinism,  but  “  a  man  of  warm  affec¬ 
tion,  of  generous  impulses,  and  of  John-like 
piety.”  See  his  Life,  by  his  son,  Dr.  A.  A. 
Hodge  (New  York,  1880). 

Hohenlohe  -  Waldenburg,  Alexander, 
Prince  of,  b.  1794;  d.  1849.  He  was  or¬ 
dained  as  a  Roman  Catholic  priest  in  1816, 
and  labored  with  much  assiduity  in  differ¬ 
ent  parts  of  Bavaria.  He  met  a  peasant, 
Martin  Michl,  who  professed  to  heal  the 
sick  by  faith  and  prayer,  and  following  his 
directions  the  prince-priest  began  to  work 
miraculous  cures.  Great  excitement  fol¬ 
lowed,  but  the  authorities  interfered  and 
the  pope  declined  to  recognize  the  miracles. 
In  1825  he  retired  to  Hungary,  and  in  1844 
was  made  bishop  in  partibtis ,  but  was  ex¬ 
pelled  by  the  revolutionists  in  1848. 

Holland.  “  The  inhabitants  of  Holland 
enjoy  full  religious  as  well  as  political 
liberty.  Not  only  is  the  free  profession  of 
his  religious  opinions  guaranteed  to  every 
one  by  the  constitution,  the  same  protec¬ 
tion  is  accorded  to  all  the  various  ecclesias¬ 
tical  bodies;  all  the  adherents  of  the  differ¬ 
ent  creeds  have  equal  civil  and  political 
rights,  and  equal  claims  to  public  offices, 
dignities  and  appointments,  and  all  denom¬ 
inations  possess  perfect  freedom  of  admin¬ 
istration  in  everything  relating  to  their 
religion  and  its  exercise.  In  the  northeast 
the  Protestant  creed  greatly  preponderates, 
and  the  majority  of  the  Roman  Catholics 
are  found  in  the  south,  while  both  are 
fairly  represented  in  the  central  provinces. 


In  the  last  fifty  years  there  has  been,  tak¬ 
ing  the  entire  population,  a  steady  increase 
in  the  number  of  Protestants  and  Jews, 
and  a  corresponding  decrease  of  Roman 
Catholics.  The  various  denominations  are 
subsidized  by  the  state.  The  total  thus 
expended  in  1887  was  ,£65,654.” — Ency. 
Britannica.  The  number  of  Protestants 
in  Holland  is  not  far  from  2,500,000,  and 
of  Roman  Catholics  1,500,000. 

Holy,  Holiness  (Ex.  xv.  ii;  Lev.  xxvii. 
14).  “  Holiness,  or  perfect  freedom  from 

sin,  and  immaculate  purity  are  distinguish¬ 
ing  attributes  of  the  divine  nature.  (Isa.  vi. 
3.)  These  words  in  their  primitive  mean¬ 
ing  imply  a  separation  or  setting  apart  from 
secular  and  profane  uses  to  sacred  and  di¬ 
vine  uses.  They  sometimes  denote  the 
purity  of  the  angelic  nature  (Matt.  xxv.  31); 
the  comparative  freedom  from  sin  which 
results  from  the  sanctification  of  the  human 
heart,  as  in  the  case  of  Christians  (Heb. 
iii.  1;  Col.  iii.  12);  and  the  consecrated 
character  of  things  (Ex.  xxx.  25;  Lev.  xvi. 
4)  and  places.  (Ex.  iii.  5.)  The  conception 
of  God  as  holy  was  characteristic  of  the 
religion  of  the  Old  Testament.  While  the 
nations  of  antiquity  were  attributing  to  the 
divine  Being  human  passions  and  human 
sins,  the  Hebrews  alone  held  firmly  to  the 
idea  of  God  as  absolutely  holy.” — Schaff: 
Bible  Diet. 

Holy  Fire,  a  ceremony  symbolizing  the 
resurrection  of  Christ,  observed  in  the 
Greek  and  Roman  churches  on  the  Satur¬ 
day  following  Good  Friday.  On  Good 
Friday  the  lights  in  the  church  are  extin¬ 
guished,  and  on  the  following  day  they  are 
re-lit  by  a  fire  kindled  by  sparks  from  a  flint. 

Holy  League,  a  name  often  applied  to 
political  alliances  formed  in  the  sixteenth 
century,  which  had  little  or  nothing  to  do 
with  religious  affairs.  The  Holy  League, 
formed  in  1576  between  the  pope,  Philip  of 
Spain,  etc.,  had  for  its  purpose  the  sup¬ 
pression  of  the  Reformation  in  France. 

Holy  Office  (. sanctum  officium ),  a  term 
applied  to  the  Inquisition,  the  spiritual 
court  of  the  Roman  Catholic  Church.  See 
Inquisition. 

Holy  of  Holies,  or  the  Most  Holy 
Place.  See  Temple. 

Holy  Oil.  See  Chrism. 

Holy  Place.  See  Temple. 

Holy  Roman  Empire,  “the  name  given 
to  the  German  Empire  under  the  Emperor 


Hoi 


(  417  ) 


Hod 


Otho  I.,  who  was  crowned  at  Rome  by- 
Pope  John  XII.  (962),  and  who  then  be¬ 
came  king  of  Italy  and  emperor  of  Rome. 
The  glory  of  the  empire  ended  with  Fred¬ 
erick  II.  (1212-1250),  till  it  was  partially 
revived  by  the  Austrian  House  of  Haps- 
burg.” — Cassell’s  Cvc.  See  Bryce:  Holy 
Roman  Empire. 

Holy  Spirit,  “  the  third  person  of  the 
Trinity,  whose  office-work  it  is  to  sanctify, 
or  make  holy,  the  people  of  God.  The 
personality  of  the  Holy  Spirit  is  implied  in 
the  baptismal  formula  and  in  the  apostolic 
benediction.  As  the  Father  and  the  Son 
are  real  persons,  so  must  the  Holy  Spirit 
be  also,  thus  joined  with  them  in  the  sol¬ 
emn  initiatory  rite  of  the  Church.  The 
believer  is  baptized  into  the  name  of  the 
Father,  and  of  the  Son,  and  of  the  Holy 
Ghost,  three  equally  distinct  persons.  In 
the  apostolical  benediction,  ‘  The  grace  of 
our  Lord  Jesus  Christ,  and  the  love  of 
God,  and  the  communion  of  the  Holy 
Ghost,  be  with  you  all  ’  (2  Cor.  xiii.  13), 
the  same  distinct  personality  appears.  In 
numerous  instances  personal  acts  and  at¬ 
tributes  are  ascribed  to  the  Holy  Spirit. 
He  speaks  (Acts  xxviii.  25);  he  speaks  ex¬ 
pressly  (1  Tim.  iv.  1);  he  teaches  (Luke 
xii.  12);  he  shall  reprove  or  convince  the 
world  of  sin  (John  xvi.  8);  he  helps  our  in¬ 
firmities,  making  intercession  for  the  saints 
(Rom.  viii.  26,  27);  he  may  be  grieved. 
(Eph.  iv.  30.)  What  can  be  more  striking 
than  the  statement  (Acts  xiii.  2),  ‘  The 
Holy  Ghost  said,  Separate  me  Barnabas 
and  Saul  for  the  work  whereunto  I  have 
called  them  ’  ?  So  in  the  letter  of  the  coun¬ 
cil  at  Jerusalem  (Acts  xv.  28),  ‘  For  it 
seemed  good  to  the  Holy  Ghost,  and  to  us, 
to  lay  upon  you  no  greater  burden  than 
these  necessary  things.’ 

“The  Holy  Spirit  is  sent  from  the  Father, 
in  the  name  of  the  Son.  He  is  also  said  to 
be  sent  by  the  Son  from  the  Father.  ‘  He,’ 
said  Jesus  (John  xv.  26),  *  shall  testify  of 
me.’  Again  (xvi.  13):  *  He  shall  not  speak 
of  himself,  but  whatsoever  he  shall  hear, 
that  shall  he  speak;  and  he  will  show  you 
things  to  come,  fie  shall  glorify  me,  for 
he  shall  receive  of  mine,  and  shall  show  it 
unto  you.’  No  language  can  be  framed  to 
indicate  personality  more  explicitly  and 
literally  than  this.” — Smith  :  Diet,  of  the 
Bible.  See  Hagenbach:  Hist,  of  Doctrine, 
sections  44,  93;  Theologies  of  Hodge,  H.  B. 
Smith,  Foster,  Strong,  etc. 

Holy  Water  denotes  water  blessed  by  a 
priest  or  bishop  for  religious  purposes. 
The  use  of  water  as  a  symbol  of  purity  was 
prescribed  in  many  ways  by  the  Jewish 
law,  and  adopted  by  the  early  Christian 


Church.  In  the  Roman  Church,  holy  water 
is  made  of  pure  spring  water  with  a  slight 
admixture  of  salt.  The  Greek  Church  con¬ 
siders  the  use  of  salt  an  unauthorized  cor¬ 
ruption.  Protestants  consider  the  use  of 
holy  water  as  unscriptural  and  supersti¬ 
tious. 

Holy  Week  is  the  last  week  in  Lent,  in 
which  the  Church  commemorates  Christ’s 
Death  and  Burial.  Its  observance  is  men¬ 
tioned  by  Irenaeus  in  the  second  century.. 
In  Episcopal  churches,  special  lessons,, 
epistles  and  gospels  having  reference  to 
our  Lord’s  Passion,  are  appointed  for  every 
day.  In  the  Roman  Church  the  week  is 
observed  with  great  strictness.  Holy  Week 
is  commemorated  by  many  Lutheran 
churches. 

Holzhauser.  See  Bartholomites. 

Homilarium,  the  name  given  to  collec¬ 
tions  of  sermons,  taken  from  the  works  of 
the  fathers.  These  were  often  read  in  the 
churches  when  the  preacher  for  any  reason 
was  unable  to  deliver  a  sermon  of  his  own. 
The  most  famous  work  of  the  kind  was  the 
one  prepared  under  the  direction  of  Charle¬ 
magne. 

Homiletics  is  the  science  which  treats  of 
the  preparation,  classification,  and  best 
methods  of  delivering  sermons.  It  is. 
sometimes  called  “  sacred  rhetoric.” 

Homily,  “  in  the  early  Church,  designat¬ 
ed  the  addresses  at  private  gatherings  for 
Christian  worship,  and  especially  the  exhor¬ 
tation  with  which  the  leader  followed  the 
Scripture-reading.  Later  it  was  applied  to 
public  discourses  addressed  to  believers, 
in  distinction  from  the  public  proclamation 
of  the  gospel  to  the  unconverted.  In  the 
Western  Church  the  terms  ‘  sermon  ’  and 
‘  homily  ’  were  at  first  used  interchange¬ 
ably;  but  in  time  each  came  to  designate  a 
special  kind  of  discourse.  The  sermon  was 
a  discourse  developing  a  definite  theme; 
the  homily  pursued  the  analytical  method, 
and  expounded  a  paragraph,  or  verse  of 
Scripture.” — Christ  lieb. 

Honorius  is  the  name  of  four  popes  and 
an  antipope.  See  Popes.  Honorius  I. 
(625-683)  sided,  in  the  Monothelitic  contro¬ 
versy,  with  the  Monothelites  and  was  anath¬ 
ematized  by  the  sixth  oecumenical  coun¬ 
cil  (680).  The  fact  that  a  pope  had  been  a 
heretic  was  the  cause  of  great  discussion  in 
connection  with  the  adoption  of  the  doc¬ 
trine  of  papal  infallibility. 

Hood,  Edward  Paxton,  English  Con- 


Hoo 


(  4i8  ) 


Hoo 


gregationalist  ;  b.  in  Westminster,  Lon¬ 
don,  Dec.  iS,  1820;  d.  in  Paris,  June  13, 
1885.  For  many  years  he  was  a  preacher 
in  London,  and  at  the  time  of  his  death  was 
pastor  of  Falcon  Square  Independent  Chap¬ 
el.  He  prepared  a  large  number  of  vol¬ 
umes  for  the  press,  largely  devoted  to  mis¬ 
cellaneous  information  and  homiletic  in¬ 
struction.  His  La?nps, Pitchers,  and  Trump¬ 
ets  (1867)  has  had  a  large  circulation  in  the 
United  States. 

Hook,  Walter  Farquhar,  b.  in  Wor¬ 
cester,  March  13,  1798;  d.  at  Chichester, 
Oct.  20,  1875.  He  was  educated  at  Oxford ; 
ordained  in  1821;  vicar  of  Leeds  from  1837 
to  1859,  when  he  was  appointed  dean  of 
Chichester.  In  the  course  of  twenty-two 
years  he  built  twenty-one  churches,  and  in 
various  ways  showed  great  vigor  in  exec¬ 
utive  affairs.  He  wrote  several  volumes, 
among  them,  A  Church  Dictionary  (i2thed. , 
1872);  An  Ecclesiastical  Biography  (1845- 
52),  8  vols. ;  Lives  oJ~ the  Archbishops  of  Can¬ 
terbury  (1860-76),  12  vols. 

Hooker,  Richard,  one  of  the  most  power¬ 
ful  and  valued  writers  of  the  Church  of 
England,  was  born  at  Heavitree,  near 
Exeter,  according  to  Walton  in  1553,  but 
according  to  Wood  about  Easter-tide,  1554. 
His  parents  were  not  rich,  and  he  was  des¬ 
tined  for  a  trade;  but  his  schoolmaster  dis¬ 
cerned  more  than  ordinary  talent  in  the 
boy,  and  his  uncle,  John  Hooker,  then 
Chamberlain  of  Exeter,  brought  him  under 
the  notice  of  Jewell,  Bishop  of  Salisbury, 
who  got  him  admitted  in  1567  to  Corpus 
Christi  College,  Oxford,  where  he  settled 
on  him  a  pension,  which,  with  a  subsidy 
from  his  uncle,  enabled  him  to  live  com¬ 
fortably.  In  1571  he  lost  both  his  patron 
— Bishop  Jewell — and  his  pension;  but  two 
other  friends  were  raised  up  for  him  in  Dr. 
Cole,  the  president  of  his  college,  and  Dr. 
Sandys,  bishop  of  London,  who  sent  his 
son  Edwin  to  him  as  a  pupil  at  Oxford.  In 
1577  he  was  elected  a  fellow  of  his  college, 
and  two  years  later  deputy-professor  of 
Hebrew.  In  1581  he  was  ordained,  and 
was  appointed  to  preach  at  Paul’s  Cross. 
The  next  year  he  made  an  imprudent  mar¬ 
riage  with  Joan,  the  daughter  of  Mr.  John 
Churchman,  with  whom  he  lodged  on  first 
coming  to  London;  Wood  says  “  she  was 
a  clownish,  silly  woman,  and  withal  a  mere 
Xantippe.”  His  marriage  forced  him  to 
give  up  his  fellowship,  and  he  maintained 
himself  as  well  as  he  could  till  the  end  of 
1 584,  when  he  was  presented  to  the  rectory 
of  Drayton-Beauchamp,  in  Buckingham¬ 
shire.  The  way  in  which  he  submitted 
himself  to  the  ordering  of  his  wife  was 
both  amusing  and  pathetic.  He  seems,  in¬ 


deed,  to  have  had  no  will  of  his  own,  either 
in  the  choice  of  a  spouse  or  in  the  manage¬ 
ment  of  his  household.  He  tended  the 
sheep  in  his  paddock  whilst  his  servant 
dined  or  helped  his  wife  in  household 
duties,  or  he  diligently  rocked  his  little 
one’s  cradle  at  her  bidding, when  his  friends 
desired  his  company  to  enter  into  philo¬ 
sophical  disputations. 

Still,  it  may  be  questioned  whether  the 
good  man’s  meekness  and  patience  were 
natural  to  him.  They  seem  rather  to  have 
been  acquired  by  a  hard  struggle  with  a 
really  impetuous  disposition.  He  was, 
certainly,  not  as  childishly  ignorant  of 
human  nature  and  of  the  ordinary  business 
of  life  as  his  biographers  appear  to  have 
imagined  him.  Judging  from  his  works, 
he  must  have  been  quick  to  observe  and 
shrewd  to  judge,  although  it  is  quite  pos¬ 
sible  for  a  man  to  have  one  character  as 
an  author  and  another  as  a  man  of  the 
world. 

At  Drayton-Beauchamp  he  was  visited 
by  his  old  pupil,  Edwin  Sandys,  who 
represented  Hooker’s  poverty  to  his  father, 
now  become  archbishop  of  York,  and 
through  his  influence  he  was  made  Master 
of  the  Temple  in  1585.  At  this  time  Walter 
Travers  was  Afternoon  Lecturer  at  the 
Temple,  and  he,  having  been  ordained  by 
the  Presbytery  at  Antwerp,  was  warmly 
attached  to  the  Geneva  divinity;  this  he 
wanted  to  introduce  into  the  Temple,  and 
it  brought  him  into  frequent  collision  with 
Hooker,  whom  he  often  opposed  in  his 
sermons,  and  who  naturally  retaliated,  so 
that  it  was  said,  “The  forenoon  sermon 
spake  Canterbury,  and  the  afternoon,  Gen¬ 
eva.”  Archbishop  Whitgiftat  length  caused 
Travers  to  be  silenced  by  the  High  Com¬ 
mission.  He  appealed  to  the  Privy  Coun¬ 
cil  without  effect,  and  then  brought  the 
matter  before  the  public.  Hooker  pub¬ 
lished  an  answer,  which  was  inscribed  to 
the  archbishop,  and  procured  him  as  much 
reverence  and  respect  from  some  as  it  did 
neglect  and  hatred  from  others.  In  order, 
therefore,  to  undeceive  and  win  these  lat¬ 
ter,  he  entered  upon  his  famous  work, 
The  Laws  of  Ecclesiastical  Polity ,  and  laid 
the  foundation  and  plan  of  it  while  he  was 
at  the  Temple.  But  he  found  this  no  fit 
place  to  carryout  his  design,  and  he  there¬ 
fore  entreated  the  archbishop  to  remove 
him  to  some  quieter  post.  In  1591  he  was 
presented  to  the  living  of  Boscombe,  in 
Wiltshire,  and  in  the  same  year  made  preb¬ 
endary  of  Netherhaven,  in  Salisbury 
Cathedral,  and  also  subdean.  While  at 
Boscombe  he  finished  four  books,  which 
were  printed  in  1594.  In  1595  Queen 
Elizabeth  presented  him  to  the  rectory  of 
Bishopsbourne,  near  Canterbury,  where 


Hoo 


(  419  ) 


Hop 


he  spent  the  remainder  of  his  life.  Here 
the  innocency  and  sanctity  of  his  life  were 
so  remarkable  that  many  turned  out  of 
their  road  to  see  him;  he  lived  a  life  of 
study,  attending  diligently  to  his  duties  as 
parish  priest.  He  died  in  1600,  in  the 
forty-sixth  year  of  his  age.  He  published 
the  fifth  volume  of  his  great  work  in  1597. 
The  remaining  three  did  not  appear  till 
after  his  death.  These  are  thought  to  be 
imperfect,  but  there  can  be  no  doubt  of 
their  authenticity.  —  Benham  :  Diet,  of 
Religion.  The  most  complete  edition  of 
Hooker’s  Works  was  by  Gauden  (London, 
1662);  the  best  by  Keble  (Oxford,  1836),  4 
vols.  This  edition  has  his  Life ,  by  Walton, 
an  English  classic. 

Hooker,  Thomas,  b.  at  Marfield,  Eng., 
July  7.  1586;  d.  at  Hartford,  Conn.,  July 
7,  1647.  He  was  educated  at  Cambridge 
University,  where  for  some  time  he  was  a 
fellow.  In  1626  he  became  assistant  min¬ 
ister  of  Chelmsford.  Faithful  to  the  dic¬ 
tates  of  his  conscience,  he  was  silenced  in 
1630  for  nonconformity.  He  soon  after 
went  to  Holland.  The  emigration  of  the 
Puritans  from  England  to  New  England 
was  increasing,  and  he  decided  to  go  with 
a  company  of  old  friends  as  their  pastor. 
He  arrived  in  Boston  in  the  summer  of 
1633,  and  remained  with  the  Massachusetts 
colony  until  1635,  when  with  most  of  the 
members  of  his  church  he  emigrated  to 
Hartford.  He  was  an  eloquent  preacher 
and  faithful  pastor,  but  his  name  will  be 
known  to  posterity  especially  as  the  author 
of  the  Constitution  of  the  Connecticut 
Colony  —  the  first  written  Constitution 
adopted  by  the  suffrages  of  a  people. 

Hooper,  John,  an  English  bishop  and 
one  of  the  martyrs  in  Queen  Mary’s  reign; 
b.  in  Somersetshire  about  1495;  d.  at  the 
stake,  Feb.  9,  1555,  in  Gloucester.  A  grad¬ 
uate  of  Oxford,  he  was  converted  to  the 
views  of  Luther  and  compelled  to  flee  for 
safety  to  Switzerland,  where  he  came  into 
friendly  relations  with  Bullinger.  On  the 
accession  of  Edward  VI.  he  returned  to 
England  and  in  1550  was  elected  bishop  of 
Gloucester.  Cranmer,  the  archbishop  of 
Canterbury,  and  Ridley,  bishop  of  London, 
for  some  time  refused  to  consecrate  him  be¬ 
cause  he  would  not  conform  in  all  points  to 
the  ritual.  In  1552  he  was  appointed  bish¬ 
op  in  cotmnendam  of  Worcester.  Upon  the 
accession  of  Mary,  he  was  arrested  and 
committed  to  prison.  At  his  trial  he  re-* 
fused  to  recant  his  opinions  in  favor  of 
clerical  marriage  and  of  divorce,  and 
against  the  Mass.  Sentenced  to  die  at  the 
stake,  he  met  his  death  with  firm  courage. 
His  works  have  been  published  both  by 


the  Parker  Society  (Cambridge,  1843-52), 
2  vols. ;  and  by  the  Religious  Tract  Society, 
1  vol. 

Hopkins,  John  Henry,  D.  D.,  D.  C.  L. 
(Oxford),  Protestant- Episcopal  bishop  of 
Vermont;  b.  in  Dublin,  Ireland,  Jan.  30, 
1792;  d.  at  Rock  Point,  Vt.,  Jan.  9,  1868. 
He  was  ordained  in  1823,  and  after  holding 
pastorates  in  Pittsburg  and  Boston,  he  was 
elected  bishop  of  Vermont  in  1832.  He 
was  a  zealous  High-Churchman.  He  wrote 
a  Vindication  of  Slavery  and  Refutation  of 
Milner's  End  of  Controversy  2  vols.  (1854). 

Hopkins,  Samuel,  “  the  theologian  from 
whom  the  Hopkinsians  or  Hopkinsian  Cal¬ 
vinists  take  their  name,  was  b.  at  Water- 
bury,  Conn.,  on  Sept.  17,  1721.  About  his 
fifteenth  year  he  entered  Yale  College, where 
he  was  graduated  in  1741;  he  afterward 
studied  divinity  at  Northampton  with  Jona¬ 
than  Edwards,  and  in  1743  he  was  ordained 
pastor  of  the  church  at  Housatonic  (now 
Great  Barrington),  Mass.  There,  in  the 
midst  of  a  small  settlement  of  only  thirty 
families,  he  labored  for  six  and  twenty 
years,  preaching,  studying,  and  writing, 
until  in  1769  he  was  dismissed  from  his 
office  on  the  alleged  ground  of  want  of 
funds  for  his  support.  He  next  began  to 
preach  in  Newport  R.  I.,  where,  in  1770, 
he  was  settled  as  pastor  of  a  small  congre¬ 
gation,  and  where,  with  an  interval  from 
1776  to  1780,  caused  by  the  occupation  of 
the  British,  he  continued  to  labor  until 
about  the  close  of  the  century.  In  1799  he 
had  an  attack  of  paralysis  from  which  he 
never  wholly  recovered;  but  he  continued 
to  preach  occasionally,  and  with  unimpaired 
mental  vigor,  almost  until  his  death,  which 
occurred  on  Dec.  20,  1803.  To  him  belongs 
the  honor  of  having  been  one  of  the  first  to 
stir  up  and  organize  political  action  against 
slavery;  and  to  his  persistent  though  bit¬ 
terly  opposed  efforts,  are  chiefly  to  be  at¬ 
tributed  the  law  of  1774,  which  forbade  the 
importation  of  negroes  into  New  England, 
as  also  that  of  1784,  which  declared  that  all 
children  of  slaves  born  after  the  following 
March  should  be  free.  He  was  the  author 
of  numerous  pamphlets,  addresses,  and  ser¬ 
mons;  and  he  also  published,  among  other 
memoirs ,  those  of  Jonathan  Edwards, Susan¬ 
nah  Anthony,  and  Mrs.  Osborne.  But  his 
distinctive  theological  tenets  are  chiefly  to 
be  sought  in  his  important  work,  the  System 
of  Theology ,  which,  published  in  1791,  has 
had  an  influence  hardly  inferior  to  that  ex¬ 
ercised  by  the  writings  of  Edwards  himself. 
They  may  be  summed  up  as  follows: — (1) 
God  is  the  efficient  c'ause  of  all  the  volitions 
of  the  human  heart,  whether  these  be  good 
or  evil;  (2)  the  guilt  of  Adam’s  first  sin 


Kop 


(  420  ) 


Hor 


lies  upon  Adam  alone;  moral  corruption 
consists  exclusively  in  the  opposition  offer¬ 
ed  by  the  human  heart  to  the  doing  of  that 
which  it  is  really  and  fully  capable  of  do¬ 
ing;  (3)  all  virtue  or  true  holiness  consists 
in  disinterested  benevolence;  (4)  all  sin 
consists  in  selfishness;  (5)  reconciliation 
and  redemption  are  fundamentally  distinct; 
the  former  opens  the  gate  of  mercy,  the 
latter  applies  to  individuals  Christ’s  saving 
benefits;  (6)  effectual  calling  consists  in  a 
willingness  to  allow  himself  to  be  saved, 
produced  in  the  heart  of  the  sinner  by  God ; 
(7)  although  the  righteousness  of  Christ  is 
the  sole  ground  of  the  sinner’s  justification, 
yet  is  that  righteousness  not  imputed;  (8) 
repentance  is  prior  in  point  of  time  to  the 
exercise  of  faith  in  Christ.” — Ency.  Britan- 
nica.  The  latest  and  best  edition  of  his 
works  was  published  in  Boston,  1852,  3 
vols;  with  biographical  sketch  by  Profess¬ 
or  Park,  of  Andover. 

Hopkinsianism.  See  Hopkins,  Samuel. 

Hor,  Mount,  (i)  called  by  the  Arabs 
Jebel  Neby  Harun ,  “  the  mountain  of  the 
prophet  Aaron,”  is  midway  between  the 
Dead  Sea  and  the  Gulf  of  Akabah.  Here 
the  Israelites  tarried  between  Kadesh 
(Num.  xx.  22;  xxxiii.  37)  and  Zalmonah 
(Num.  xxxiii.  41),  when  they  were  jour¬ 
neying  “  by  the  way  of  the  Red  Sea  to 
compass  the  land  of  Edom.”  (Num.  xxi.  4.) 
Here  Aaron  died.  (Num.  xx.  24-29;  Deut. 
xxxii.  50.)  The  mountain,  which  is  as- 
cended^by  a  steep  path,  has  two  peaks,  on 
the  eastern  one  of  which  is  shown  the 
tomb  of  Aaron,  a  small  building  surmount¬ 
ed  by  a  white  dome.  It  has  two  cham¬ 
bers.  The  lower  one  is  entirely  dark,  and 
contains  what  purports  to  be  the  tomb. 
The  summit  of  the  mountain  is  some  4,800 
feet  above  the  sea.  (2)  A  mountain  be¬ 
tween  the  Mediterranean  and  “  the  en¬ 
trance  of  Hamath  ”  (Num.  xxx.  7,  8),  still 
unidentified. 

Ho'reb.  See  Sinai. 

Horne,  George,  an  eminent  English 
bishop  and  commentator;  b.  at  Otham, 
Kent,  1730;  d.  at  Bath,  1792.  Educated 
at  Oxford,  he  became  president  of  Magda¬ 
len  College  in  1768;  vice-chancellor  of  the 
University,  1776;  dean  of  Canterbury,  1781, 
and  Bishop  of  Norwich,  1790.  “  In  1760 

he  entered  into  a  controversy  with  Dr. 
Kennicott  on  the  text  of  the  Hebrew  Bible, 
which  the  latter  wished  to  collate  with  a 
view  to  a  new  English  version.  Horne  op¬ 
posed  this  on  the  ground  that  skeptics  and 
heretics,  who  are  ever  busy  in  finding  im¬ 
aginary  corruptions  in  the  text  of  Scrip¬ 


ture,  would  be  yet  more  emboldened  to 
cavil  and  criticise.”  In  1776 he  published  a 
Commentary  on  the  Psalms  that  had  engaged 
his  attention  for  twenty  years.  He  wrote 
Letters  on  Infidelity  in  answer  to  Hume. 

Horne,  Thomas  Hartwell,  D.  D.,  b.  in 
London,  Oct.  20,  1780;  d.  there,  Jan.  27, 
1862.  He  was  educated  at  Christ’s  Hos¬ 
pital,  and  then  for  a  time  was  a  barrister’s 
clerk.  In  1819  he  was  admitted  to  holy 
orders,  and  for  some  years  was  assistant 
librarian  at  the  British  Museum.  He  be¬ 
came  a  Prebendary  of  St.  Paul’s  in  1831, 
and  two  years  later  rector  of  St.  Edmund 
the  King  and  St.  Nicholas  Aeons,  Lon¬ 
don.  He  was  the  author  of  An  Introduc¬ 
tion  to  the  Critical  Study  and  Knowledge  of 
the  Holy  Scriptures ,  one  of  the  best  known 
and  most  famous  books  of  its  class.  The 
Bibliographical  Appendix  is  pronounced  by 
scholars  the  best  of  its  kind  in  our  lan¬ 
guage. 

Horologium,  the  name  of  an  office-book 
of  the  Greek  Church,  corresponding  to  the 
Latin  breviary. 

Horseley,  Samuel,  a  learned  English  prel¬ 
ate;  b.  in  London,  1733;  d.  at  Brighton, 
Oct.  4,  1806.  Educated  at  Cambridge,  he 
became  curate  in  1758  to  his  father  at 
Newington  Butts,  whom  he  soon  succeed¬ 
ed  as  rector.  He  was  fellow  of  the  Royal 
Society,  and  besides  writing  many  scientif¬ 
ic  books  he  edited  the  complete  works  of 
Isaac  Newton  in  1775.  A  criticism  tvhich 
he  wrote  of  Dr.  Priestley’s  History  of  the 
Conniptions  of  Christianity  led  to  a  contro¬ 
versy  which  brought  out  his  Seventeen  Let¬ 
ters  to  Dr.  Priestley ,  which  did  much  to  stay 
the  increasing  influence  of  Socinianism. 
In  1781  he  was  appointed  archdeacon  of 
St.  Albans,  and  in  1788  bishop  of  St. 
David’s;  of  Rochester  in  1793;  of  St.  Asaph 
in  1803.  He  was  considered  one  of  the 
greatest  pulpit  orators  of  his  time.  He 
wrote,  among  other  works, a  Commentary  on 
Hosea;  Psalms  Translated  from  the  Hebrew; 
Biblical  Criticism  of  Fourteen  Historical 
Books  of  the  Old  Testament ;  his  Sermons 
complete  in  1  vol.  (London,  1839). 

Hort,  Fenton  John  Anthony,  D.  D. 
(Cambridge,  1875),  Church  of  England;  b. 
in  Dublin,  April  23.  1S2S;  was  graduated 
at  Trinity  College,  Cambridge,  1850;  or¬ 
dained  deacon,  1854;  priest,  1856;  fellow  of 
Trinity  College,  1852-57,  and  of  Emmanuel 
College  since  1872;  divinity  lecturer  of 
Emmanuel  College,  1872-7S,  and  Hulsean 
professor  of  divinity  in  1878.  He  was  one 
of  the  original  members  of  the  New  Testa¬ 
ment  Company  of  the  Anglo-American  Bible 


Hos 


(  42i  ) 


Hos 


Revision  Committee.  The  great  work  by 
which  he  is  well  known  was  his  joint  edi¬ 
torship  with  Bishop  Westcott  of  The  New 
Testament  in  the  Original  Greek:  A  Revised 
Text ,  with  Introduction  and  Appendix 
(London  1881),  2  vols.  (smaller  ed.  of  text, 
1885,  repub.  New  York). 

Hose'a,  “  son  of  Beeri,  and  first  of  the 
minor  prophets,  as  they  appear  in  the  A.  V. 
Time. — This  question  must  be  settled,  as 
far  as  it  can  be  settled,  partly  by  reference 
to  the  title ,  partly  by  an  inquiry  into  the 
•contents  of  the  book.  For  the  beginning  of 
Hosea’s  ministry  the  title  gives  us  the 
reign  of  Uzziah,  king  of  Judah,  but  limits 
this  vague  definition  by  reference  to  Jero¬ 
boam  II.,  king  of  Israel;  it  therefore  yields 
a  date  not  later  than  b.  c.  783.  The  pict¬ 
ures  of  social  and  political  life  which 
Hosea  draws  so  forcibly  are  rather  appli¬ 
cable  to  the  interregnum  which  followed 
the  death  of  Jeroboam  (782-772),  and  to 
the  reign  of  the  succeeding  kings.  It  seems 
almost  certain  that  very  few  of  his  proph¬ 
ecies  were  written  until  after  the  death  of 
Jeroboam  (783);  and  probably  the  life,  or 
rather  the  prophetic  career,  of  Hosea  ex¬ 
tended  from  784  to  725,  a  period  of  fifty- 
nine  years.  Place. — There  seems  to  be  a 
general  consent  among  commentators  that 
the  prophecies  of  Hosea  were  delivered  in 
the  kingdom  of  Israel.  Tribe  and  Parent¬ 
age. — Tribe  quite  unknown.  The  Pseudo- 
Epiphanius,  it  is  uncertain  upon  what 
ground,  assigns  Hosea  to  the  tribe  of  Issa- 
char.  Of  his  father,  Beeri,  we  know  ab¬ 
solutely  nothing.  Order  in  the  Prophetic 
Series. — Most  ancient  and  mediaeval  inter¬ 
preters  make  Hosea  the  first  of  the  proph¬ 
ets.  But  by  moderns  he  is  generally  as¬ 
signed  the  third  place.  It  is,  perhaps, 
more  important  to  know  that  Hosea  must 
have  been  more  or  less  contemporary  with 
Isaiah,  Amos,  Jonah,  Joel,  and  Nahum. 
Division  of  the  Book. — It  is  easy  to  recog¬ 
nize  two  great  divisions,  which,  accord¬ 
ingly,  have  been  generally  adopted :  (1) 
chap.  i.  to  iii. ;  (2)  iv.  to  end.  The  sub¬ 
division  of  these  several  parts  is  a  work  of 
greater  difficulty:  that  of  Eichhorn  will  be 
found  to  be  based  upon  a  highly  subtle, 
though  by  no  means  precarious,- criticism. 
(1)  According  to  him  the  first  division 
should  be  subdivided  into  three  separate 
poems,  each  originating  in  a  distinct  aim, 
and  each  after  its  own  fashion  attempting 
to  express  the  idolatry  of  Israel  by  images 
borrowed  from  the  matrimonial  relation. 
The  first,  and  therefore  the  least  elaborate 
of  these  is  contained  in  chap,  iii.,  the  sec¬ 
ond  in  i.  2— 11,  the  third  in  i.  2-9,  and  ii.  1- 
23.  These  three  are  progressively  elabo¬ 
rate  developments  of  the  same  reiterated 


idea.  Chap.  i.  2-9  is  common  to  the  sec¬ 
ond  and  third  poems,  but  not  repeated  with 
each  severally.” — Smith:  Diet,  of  the  Bible. 

Hoshe'a  {God is  Help ),  the  last  anci  best 
of  the  kings  of  Israel.  (2  Kings  xv.  30.) 
He  attempted  to  form  an  alliance  with 
Egypt,  which  angered  the  king  of  Assyria, 
who  marched  against  Samaria,  and  after  a 
siege  of  three  years  took  it  and  carried  the 
people  away  into  Assyria.  (2  Kings  xvii. 
1-6;  Hos.  xiii.  16;  Mic.  i.  6.) 

Hospitality,  “  kindness  exercised  in  the 
entertainment  of  strangers.  This  virtue, 
we  find,  is  explicitly  commanded  by,  and 
makes  a  part  of  the  morality  of,  the  New 
Testament.  Thus  we  are  expressly  ex¬ 
horted  by  an  apostle,  ‘  Be  not  forgetful 
to  entertain  strangers;  for  thereby  some 
have  entertained  angels  unawares,’  refer¬ 
ring,  no  doubt,  to  Abraham  and  Lot,  who, 
in  the  exercise  of  this  virtue,  were  sur¬ 
prised  by  the  visits  of  angels.  The  obli¬ 
gations  to  this  duty  arise  from  the  fitness 
and  reasonableness  of  it.  It  brings  its  own 
reward.  (Acts  xx.  35.)  It  is  expressly 
commanded  by  God.  (Lev.  xxv.  35,  38; 
Luke  xvi.  9;  xiv.  13,  14;  Rom.  xii. ;  Heb. 
xiii.  1,  2;  1  Pet.  iv.  9.)  We  have  many 
striking  examples  of  hospitality  on  divine 
record:  Abraham  (Gen.  xviii.  1-8),  Lot 
(Gen.  xix.  1-3),  Job  (xxxi.  17-22),  the 
Shunammite  (2  Kings  iv.  8-10),  the  hos¬ 
pitable  man  mentioned  in  Judges  (xix.  16- 
21),  David  (2  Sam.  vi.  19),  Obadiah  (1 
Kings  xviii.  4),  Nehemiah  (Neh.  v.  17, 
18),  Martha  (Luke  x.  38),  Mary  (Matt, 
xxvi.  6,  13),  the  primitive  Christians  (Acts 
ii.  45,  46),  Priscilla  and  Aquila(Acts  xviii. 
26),  Lydia  (Acts  xvi.  15),  etc.  Lastly, 
what  should  have  a  powerful  effect  on  our 
minds  is  the  consideration  of  divine  hos¬ 
pitality.  God  is  good  to  all,  and  his  tender 
mercies  are  over  all  his  works.  His  sun 
shines  and  his  rain  falls  on  the  evil  as  well 
as  the  good.  His  very  enemies  share  of 
his  bounty.  He  gives  liberally  to  all  men, 
and  upbraids  not;  but  especially  we  should 
remember  the  exceeding  riches  of  his 
grace  in  his  kindness  toward  us  through 
Jesus  Christ.  Let  us  lay  all  these  consid¬ 
erations  together  and  then  ask  ourselves 
whether  we  can  find  it  in  our  hearts  to  be 
selfish,  parsimonious,  and  inhospitable.” — 
Brown:  Ency. 

Hospitallers.  See  Military  Orders. 

Hospitals,  humane  institutions  for  the 
poor,  sick  and  crippled,  are  the  special 
outgrowth  of  the  Christian  religion.  From 
the  beginnings  of  Christianity  the  duty  of 
such  service  was  inculcated,  and  hospitals 


Hos 


(  422  ) 


Hou 


were  erected  as  soon  as  the  early  Church 
was  recognized  by  the  State.  Jerome  (340 
-420),  built  a  hospital  at  Bethlehem;  and 
Fabiola,  a  convert  of  his,  founded  the  first 
institution  of  the  kind  in  Rome.  Basil  the 
Great  (330-339)  built  a  very  complete 
hospital  at  Caesarea  with  accommodations 
for  lepers.  We  learn  of  hospitals  in  Gaul 
from  the  fifth  century,  and  in  Germany 
from  the  eighth.  They  were  generally 
dedicated  to  the  Holy  Spirit,  and  the  sym¬ 
bol  of  a  dove  was  represented  on  the 
fa5ade,  or  some  other  con¬ 
spicuous  part  of  the  build¬ 
ing.  The  principal  hospi¬ 
tal  in  Rome  is  thus  desig¬ 
nated,  and  in  Denmark  sev¬ 
eral  rich  institutions,  in 
which  worthy  poor  people 
are  cared  for,  are  called 
“  Dove  Brethren  Hospi¬ 
tals.” 

Host.  See  Mass. 

Hottentots.  The  first 
missionary  among  this  de¬ 
graded  race  was  George 
Schmidt,  a  Moravian,  who 
began  his  labors  with  the 
aid  of  an  interpreter  in 
1737.  He  was  successful, 
but  was  compelled  to  give 
up  his  work  by  the  inter¬ 
ference  of  the  Dutch  East 
India  Company.  In  1792 
the  mission  was  resumed 
in  the  face  of  great  oppo¬ 
sition.  In  1806  the  colony 
came  under  the  British 
government,  and  since  that 
time  the  mission  work  has 
gone  steadily  forward. 

Several  societies  are  now 
represented  in  this  field, 
and  great  good  has  been 
accomplished. 

Hours,  Canonical.  See 
Canonical  Hours. 


the  ground  floor,  and  sometimes  contain 
only  one  apartment.  Sometimes  a  smalt 
court  for  the  cattle  is  attached;  and  in 
some  cases  the  cattle  are  housed  in  the 
same  building,  or  the  people  live  on  a 
raised  platform,  and  the  cattle  round  them 
on  the  ground.  (1  Sam.  xxviii.  24.)  The 
windows  are  small  apertures  high  up  in 
the  walls,  sometimes  grated  with  wood. 
The  roofs  are  commonly  but  not  always 
flat,  and  are  usually  formed  of  a  plaster  of 
mud  and  straw  laid  upon  boughs  or  rafters; 


House.  “  Among  the 
people  of  the  East  a  tent 
is  regarded  as  a  house,  but  the  distinc¬ 
tion  between  a  permanent  dwelling  and 
a  temporary  shelter  had  an  early  origin. 
The  houses  of  the  rural  poor  in  Egypt,  as 
well  as  in  most  parts  of  Syria,  Arabia,  and 
Persia,  are  for  the  most  part  mere  huts  of 
mud,  or  sunburnt  bricks.  In  some  parts 
of  Palestine  and  Arabia,  stone  is  used;  and 
in  certain  districts,  caves  in  the  rock  are 
used  as  dwellings.  (Amos  v.  II.)  The 
houses  are  usually  of  one  story  only,  viz., 


HOUSETOP. 

and,  upon  the  flat  roofs,  tents  or  “  booths  ” 
of  boughs  or  rushes  are  often  raised  to  be 
used  as  sleeping-places  in  summer.  The 
difference  between  the  poorest  houses  and 
those  of  the  class  next  above  them  is  great¬ 
er  than  between  these  and  the  houses  of 
the  first  rank.  The  prevailing  plan  of 
Eastern  houses  of  this  class  presents,  as 
was  the  case  in  ancient  Egypt,  a  front  of 
wall,  whose  blank  and  mean  appearance  is 
usually  relieved  only  by  the  door,  and  a.. 


Hou 


(  423  ) 


Hov 


few  latticed  and  projecting  windows. 
Within  this  is  a  court  with  apartments 
opening  into  it.  Over  the  door  is  a  pro¬ 
jecting  window  with  a  lattice  more  or  less 
elaborately  wrought,  which,  except  in 
times  of  public  celebrations,  is  usually 
closed.  (2  Kings  ix.  30.)  An  awning  is 
sometimes  drawn  over  the  court,  and  the 
floor  strewed  with  carpets  on  festive  oc¬ 
casions.  The  stairs  to  the  upper  apart¬ 
ments  are  in  Syria  usually  in  acorner  of  the 
court.  Around  part,  if  not  the  whole,  of 
the  court  is  a  veranda,  often  nine  or  ten 
feet  deep,  over  which,  when  there  is  more 
than  one  floor,  runs  a  second  gallery  of  like 
depth  with  a  balustrade.  Bearing  in  mind 
that  the  reception-room  is  raised  above  the 
level  of  the  court,  we  may,  in  explaining 
the  circumstances  of  the  miracle  of  the 
paralytic  (Markii.  3;  Luke  v.  18),  suppose, 
(1)  either  that  our  Lord  was  standing  under 
the  veranda,  and  the  people  in  front  in  the 
court.  The  bearers  of  the  sick  man  as¬ 
cended  the  stairs  to  the  roof  of  the 
house,  and  taking  off  a  portion  of  the 
boarded  covering  of  the  veranda,  or  re¬ 
moving  the  awning,  in  the  former  case  let 
down  the  bed  through  the  veranda  roof,  or, 
in  the  latter,  down  by  way  of  the  roof,  and 
deposited  it  before  the  Saviour.  (2)  An¬ 
other  explanation  presents  itself  in  con¬ 
sidering  the  room  where  the  company 
were  assembled  as  the  ‘  upper  chamber,’ 
and  the  roof  opened  for  the  bed  to  be  the 
true  roof  of  the  house.  (3)  And  one  still 
more  simple  is  found  in  regarding  the 
house  as  one  of  the  rude  dwellings  now  to 
be  seen  near  the  sea  of  Galilee,  a  mere 
room  ten  or  twelve  feet  high,  and  as  many 
or  more  square,  with  no  opening  except 
the  door.  The  roof,  used  as  a  sleeping- 
place,  is  reached  by  a  ladder  from  the  out¬ 
side,  and  the  bearers  of  the  paralytic,  un¬ 
able  to  approach  the  door,  would  thus 
have  ascended  the  roof,  and,  having  un¬ 
covered  it,  let  him  down  into  the  room 
where  our  Lord  was.  When  there  is  no 
second  floor,  but  more  than  one  court,  the 
women’s  apartments,  hareem ,  harem ,  or 
haram ,  are  usually  in  the  second  court; 
otherwise  they  form  a  separate  building 
within  the  general  enclosure,  or  are  above 
on  the  first  floor.  When  there  is  an  upper 
story,  the  Ka’ah  forms  the  most  important 
apartment,  and  thus  probably  answers  to 
the  ‘  upper  chamber,’  which  was  often  the 
‘  guest-chamber.’  (Luke  xxii.  12;  Acts  i.  13; 
ix.  37;  xx,  8.)  The  windows  of  the  upper 
rooms  often  project  one  or  two  feet,  and 
form  a  kiosk  or  latticed  chamber.  Such 
may  have  been  the  ‘  chamber  in  the  wall.’ 
(2  Kings  iv.  10,  11.)  The  4  lattice’  through 
which  Ahaziah  fell,  perhaps  belonged  to  an 
upper  chamber  of  this  kind  (2  Kings  i.  2), 


as  also  the  4  third  loft,’  from  which  Euty- 
chus  fell.  (Acts  xx.  9;  comp.  Jer.  xxii.  13.) 
There  are  usually  no  special  bedrooms  in 
Eastern  houses.  The  outer  doors  are  closed 
with  a  wooden  lock,  but  in  some  cases  the 
apartments  are  divided  from  each  other  by 
curtains  only.  There  are  no  chimneys,  but 
fire  is  made  when  required  with  charcoal  in  a 
chafing-dish;  or  a  fire  of  wood  might  be 
kindled  in  the  open  court  of  the.house.  (Luke 
xxii.  55.)  Some  houses  in  Cairo  have  an 
apartment,  open  in  front  to  the  court,  with 
two  or  more  arches,  and  a  railing;  and  a  pil¬ 
lar  to  support  the  wall  above.  It  was  in  a 
chamber  of  this  kind,  probably  one  of  the 
largest  size  to  be  found  in  a  palace,  that 
our  Lord  was  being  arraigned  before  the 
high-priest,  at  the  time  when  the  denial  of 
him  by  St.  Peter  took  place.  He  4  turned 
and  looked  ’  on  Peter  as  he  stood  by  the  fire 
in  the  court  (Luke  xxii.  56,61;  John  xviii. 
24),  whilst  he  himself  was  in  the  4  Hall  of 
Judgment.’  In  no  point  do  Oriental  domestic 
habits  differ  more  from  European  than  in 
the  use  of  the  roof.  Its  flat  surface  is 
made  useful  for  various  household  pur¬ 
poses,  as  drying  corn,  hanging  up  linen, 
and  preparing  figs  and  raisins.  The  roofs 
are  used  as  places  of  recreation  in  the 
evening,  and  often  as  sleeping-places  at 
night.  (2  Sam.  xi.  2;  xvi.  22;  Dan.  iv.  29; 
1  Sam.  ix.  25,  26;  Job.  xxvii.  18;  Prov. 
xxi.  9.)  They  were  also  used  as  places  for 
devotion,  and  even  idolatrous  worship. 
(Jer.  xxxii.  29;  xix.  13;  2  Kings  xxiii.  12; 
Zeph.  i.  5;  Acts  x.  9.)  At  the  time  of  the 
Feast  of  Tabernacles,  booths  were  erected 
by  the  Jews  on  the  tops  of  their  houses. 
Protection  of  the  roof  by  parapets  was  en¬ 
joined  by  the  law.  (Deut.  xxii.  8.)  Special 
apartments  were  devoted  in  larger  houses 
to  winter  and  summer  uses.  (Jer.  xxxvi.  22; 
Amos  iii.  15.)  The  ivory  house  of  Ahab 
was  probably  a  palace  largely  ornamented 
with  inlaid  ivory.  The  circumstance  of 
Samson’s  pulling  down  the  house  by  means 
of  the  pillars  may  be  explained  by  the  fact 
of  the  company  being  assembled  on  tiers 
of  balconies  above  each  other,  supported 
by  central  pillars  on  the  basement;  when 
these  were  pulled  down,  the  whole  of  the 
upper  floors  would  fall,  also.  (Judg.  xvi. 
26.)” — Smith:  Diet .  of  the  Bible .  See 
Architecture,  Hebrew. 

Hovey,  Alvah,  D.  D.  (Brown  Univer¬ 
sity,  Providence,  R.  I.,  1856),  LL.  D. 
(Denison  University,  Granville,  O.,  and 
Richmond  (Va.)  College,  1876),  Baptist;  b. 
at  Greene,  Chenango  Co.,  N.  Y. ,  March  5, 
1820;  was  graduated  at  Dartmouth  College, 
1844,  and  at  Newton  Theological  Insti¬ 
tution,  Newton  Centre,  Mass.,  1848,  with 
which  seminary  he  hqs  been  connected 


How 


(  424  ) 


Hoy 


since  1849;  assistant  teacher  of  Hebrew, 
1349-55  ;  professor  of  church  history, 
1853-55;  then  of  theology  and  Christian 
ethics  since  1855;  since  1S68,  president. 
Among  his  published  works  are:  The  State 
of  the  Impenitent  Dead  (1859);  The  Miracles 
of  Christ  as  Attested  by  the  Evangelists 
(1864);  Religion  and  the  State  (1874);  Man¬ 
ual  of  Systematic  Theology  and  Christian 
Ethics  (1877 ,  new  ed.,  1S80);  The  Gospel  of 
fohn  (1885),  published  in  The  Complete 
Commentary  on  the  New  Testament, edited  by 
Dr.  Hovey,  1881-90  (Phila. ,  1890),  7  vols. 

Howard,  John,  “the  philanthropist;” 
b.  at  Hackney,  near  London,  Sept.  2,  1726; 
d.  at  Cherson,  on  the  Black  Sea,  Jan.  20, 
1790.  When  but  nineteen  he  fell  heir  to 
an  ample  fortune  by  the  death  of  his 
father.  In  1756,  the  year  of  the  great 
earthquake  at  Lisbon,  he  set  sail  for  that 
city.  On  the  voyage  the  vessel  was  taken 
by  a  French  privateer,  and  Howard  was 
imprisoned  at  Brest.  He  suffered  severe 
hardships,  and  the  knowledge  thus  gained 
of  prison  life  determined  him  to  do  all  in 
his  power  to  bring  about  a  reform  in  prison 
management.  He  visited  the  penal  institu¬ 
tions  of  Great  Britain  and  the  continent, 
and  by  persistent  efforts  brought  about  a 
wonderful  change  for  the  better.  The  last 
five  years  of  his  life  he  spent  in  seeking  to 
alleviate  the  suffering  caused  by  the 
plague.  In  this,  as  in  his  prison  work,  he 
incurred  risks  to  life  and  health  with  un¬ 
faltering  courage  and  devotion.  He  died 
from  the  plague,  which  he  caught  from  a 
lady  whom  he  tried  to  cure.  “  The  fame 
of  Howard  is  peculiar.  He  is  remembered 
not  so  much  for  his  talents  as  for  that  de¬ 
votion  to  his  suffering  fellow-men,  in 
which  he  expended  his  fortune  and  his 
life.”  He  published  a  work  on  the  State  of 
Prisons  in  England  and  Wales,  etc.,  and  an 
Account  of  the  Principal  Lazarettos  in 
Europe,  etc. 

Howe,  John,  “who  has  been  called  the 
Platonic  Puritaii,  was  b.  May  17,  1630,  at 
Loughborough,  in  Leicestershire,  to  the 
living  of  which  parish  his  father  had  been 
presented  by  Laud;  d.  in  London,  April  2, 
1705.  He  studied  both  at  Cambridge  and 
Oxford,  and  after  preaching  for  some  time 
at  Winwick,  in  Lancashire,  and  Great  Tor- 
rington,  in  Devonshire,  he  was  appointed 
domestic  chaplain  to  Cromwell  in  1656,  in 
which  difficult  situation  his  conduct  was 
such  as  to  win  praise  even  from  the  en¬ 
emies  of  his  party.  At  the  restoration  he 
returned  to  Torrington,  where  the  position 
he  had  held  during  the  Commonwealth 
made  him  an  object  of  close  suspicion  to 
the  Government.  The  Act  of  Uniformity, 


however,  ejected  him  from  his  parish 
Aug.  24,  1662,  and  he  wandered  about, 
preaching  in  secret  till  1671,  when  he  was 
invited  by  Lord  Massarene,  of  Antrim 
Castle,  in  Ireland,  to  become  his  domestic 
chaplain.  Enjoying  there  the  friendship 
of  the  bishop  of  that  diocese,  and  liberty 
to  preach  in  all  the  churches  under  his  ju¬ 
risdiction,  he  wrote  his  Vanity  of  Man  as 
Mortal,  and  began  his  greatest  work,  The 
Good  Man  the  Living  Temple  of  God  (1676- 
1702),  which  occupies  one  of  the  highest 
places  in  Puritan  theology.  In  1675  he 
was  called  to  be  pastor  of  the  dissenting 
.congregation  in  Silver  Street,  London,  and 
went  thither  in  the  beginning  of  1676.  In 
1677  he  published,  at  the  request  of  Mr. 
Boyle,  The  Reconcilableness  of  God's  Pre¬ 
science  of  the  Sins  of  Men  with  the  Wisdom 
of  His  Counsels  and  Exhortations  ;  in  1681, 
Thoughtfulness  for  the  Morrow  ;  in  1682, 
Self -dedication;  in  1683,  Union  Among  Prot¬ 
estants  ;  and  in  1684,  The  Redeemer  s 
Tears  Wept  over  Lost  Souls.  In  1685  he 
was  invited  by  Lord  Wharton  to  travel 
with  him  on  the  continent;  and  after  visit¬ 
ing  the  principal  cities,  he  resolved,  owing 
to  the  state  of  England,  to  settle  for  a  time 
at  Utrecht,  where  he  was  admitted  to  sev¬ 
eral  interviews  with  the  Prince  of  Orange. 
In  1687  the  Declaration  for  Liberty  of  Con¬ 
science  induced  him  to  return  to  England, 
and  at  the  revolution  next  year  he  headed 
the  deputation  of  dissenting  clergymen 
when  they  brought  their  address  to  the 
throne.  Besides  smaller  works,  he  pub¬ 
lished,  in  1693,  Carnality  of  Religious  Con¬ 
tention;  in  1694-95,  several  treatises  on 
the  Trinity;  in  1699,  The  Redeemer' s  Do¬ 
minion  over  the  Invisible  World ;  and  he 
continued  writing  till  1705,  when  he  pub- 
published  Patience  in  Expectation  of  Future 
Blessedness." — Chambers:  Cyclopcedia.  He 
was  one  of  the  most  profound  of  the  Puri¬ 
tan  writers.  Robert  Hall  said  of  him,  “  I 
have  learned  more  from  John  Howe  than 
from  any  author  I  ever  read.  There  is  an 
astonishing  magnificence  about  his  concep¬ 
tions.”  See  Rogers:  Life  of  John  Howe 
(London,  1836). 

Howson,  John  Saul,  Dean  of  Chester, 
b.  1816;  d.  1886.  Educated  at  Cambridge; 
he  was  appointed  principal  of  Liverpool 
College,  1849;  and  dean  of  Chester,  1887. 
He  is  best  known  as  the  joint  author  with 
W.  J.  Conybeare  of  The  Life  and  Epistles 
of  St.  Paul.  He  was  also  a  contributor  to 
Smith’s  Diet,  of  the  Bible  and  the  Speaker  s 
Commentary.  He  was  active  in  establish¬ 
ing  the  order  of  Deaconesses  in  connection 
with  the  Church  of  England. 

Hoyt,  Wayland,  D.  D.  (University  of 


Hug 


(  425  ) 


Hug 


Rochester,  N.  Y. ,  1877),  Baptist;  b.  at 
Cleveland,  O.,  Feb.  18,  1838.  He  was 
graduated  at  Brown  UniveisLy  i860,  and 
at  Rochester  Theological  Seminary,  1868. 
He  has  occupied  pastorates  at  Pittsfield, 
Mass.,  1863;  Cincinnati,  O.,  1864;  Brook¬ 
lyn,  N.  Y.,  1867;  New  York  City,  1873; 
Boston,  Mass.,  1874;  Brooklyn,  1876; 
Philadelphia,  1882;  Minneapolis,  Minn., 
1890.  He  is  the  author  of  Hints  and  Helps 
in  the  Christian  Life  (1808);  Present  Lessons 
from  Distant  Days  (1881);  Glea?ns  from 
Paufs  Prison  (1882);  Along  the  Pilgrimage 

<1885). 

Hughes,  John,  a  distinguished  Roman 
Catholic  prelate,  and  the  first  archbishop 
of  New  York;  b.  at  Annaloghan,  Ireland, 
June  24,  1797;  d.  in  New  York  City,  Jan. 
3,  1864.  He  was  ordained  priest  in  1826, 
and  labored  in  Philadelphia  until  1837, 
when  he  was  appointed  assistant  bishop  of 
New  York.  He  became  bishop  in  1842, 
and  in  1851  the  see  of  New  York  was  rais¬ 
ed  to  metropolitan  rank.  He  was  a  ready 
controversialist,  and  did  all  he  could  to 
break  down  the  system  of  public  schools, 
and  secure  the  support  of  Roman  Catholic 
schools  through  the  public  treasury.  He 
established  (1841)  St.  John’s  College  at 
Fordham,  and  laid  the  corner-stone  (1855) 
of  the  cathedral  on  Fifth  Avenue,  which 
was  dedicated  in  1879.  No  Romanist  in 
this  country  has  ever  exerted  a  more  com¬ 
manding  influence. 

Hugo  of  St.  Victor,  a  famous  theologian 
of  the  twelfth  century;  b.  about  1097;  d. 
Feb.  11,  1141.  He  was  an  intimate  friend 
of  Bernard  of  Clairvaux,  and  his  learning 
gained  him  the  title  of  the  “  second  St. 
Augustine.”  Suffering  from  ill-health  his 
life  was  spent  in  teaching  and  studious  re¬ 
tirement.  His  writings  are  numerous  and 
marked  by  mystical  speculations. 

Huguenots,  the  name  given  to  the  Prot¬ 
estant  party  in  France  in  the  sixteenth 
century.  The  word  is  supposed  to  have 
been  derived  from  the  German  Eidgenossen , 
which  means  ‘‘confederates.”  When  first 
it  was  adopted  by  the  French,  it  had  the 
form  of  Eguenots,  and  was  changed  later 
into  that  of  Huguenots.  The  Huguenots 
first  became  conspicuous  in  France  in  the 
reign  of  Henry  II.,  when  a  church  was 
established  for  them  in  Paris.  The  acqui¬ 
sition  to  their  party  of  Antoine  of  Bour¬ 
bon,  who  afterwards  became  king  of 
Navarre,  gave  them  fresh  influence;  but, 
at  the  same  time,  the  Cardinal  of  Lorraine 
was  plotting  persecution  with  which  to 
root  them  out  of  the  country.  The  pope 
issued  a  bull  against  the  heretics;  but  so 


powerful  had  their  party  become  that  they 
dared  to  refuse  to  recognize  it.  Henry 
was  very  angry,  and  by  the  most  severe 
measures  tried  to  carry  out  the  pope’s 
orders.  The  Huguenots,  however,  appeal¬ 
ed  for  help  to  the  Protestants  of  Germany, 
and  thus  began  that  long,  fierce  religious 
struggle,  of  terrible  persecution  on  the 
one  hand,  and  self-defence  on  the  other, 
which  for  years  desolated  France,  and  had 
a  terrible  ending  in  the  Massacre  of  St. 
Bartholomew  in  1572.  With  the  accession 
of  Henry  IV.  and  the  publication  of  the 
Edict  of  Nantes,  however,  the  fortunes  of 
the  Protestants  improved.  Though  terri¬ 
bly  lessened  by  the  massacre,  they  rallied 
again  under  the  toleration  they  received  at 
the  Court.  But  about  the  year  1619,  in 
the  reign  of  Louis  XIII.,  fresh  quarrels 
arose  between  the  Huguenots  and  the  Cath¬ 
olics.  The  former  took  up  the  cause  of 
the  Protestants  of  Bearn,  who  were  sup¬ 
pressed  and  deprived  of  political  rights  by 
the  Court  party,  and,  as  punishment,  the 
Catholic  party  besieged  the  town  of  Ro¬ 
chelle,  which  in  the  last  reign  had  been 
granted,  with  some  others,  to  the  Protes¬ 
tants.  The  Catholics  were  defeated,  and 
were  obliged  to  sign  the  Peace  of  Mont¬ 
pellier  in  1622,  in  which  the  Edict  of  Nantes 
was  confirmed,  and  the  Protestants  were 
allowed  to  assemble  in  religious,  but  not 
political,  meetings.  As  on  previous  occa¬ 
sions,  however,  these  engagements  were 
practically  ignored  by  the  Catholic  mon¬ 
arch.  The  head  of  the  Catholic  party  at 
this  time  was  Du  Plessis,  who  soon  after 
obtained  a  cardinal’s  hat,  and  took  the 
name  of  Richelieu.  From  that  time  he 
proved  a  most  powerful  enemy  to  the 
Huguenots,  and  in  1627  planned  a  siege  of 
Rochelle,  still  the  Huguenot  stronghold. 
James  I.  sent  a  small  army  to  their  aid, 
under  the  Duke  of  Buckingham;  but  it  re¬ 
turned  without  accomplishing  anything. 
In  1628  Richelieu  laid  siege  to  Rochelle, 
and  another  expedition  was  on  the  point  of 
leaving  England,  when  the  Duke  of  Buck¬ 
ingham,  commander  of  the  troops,  was 
assassinated  at  Portsmouth.  They  went 
across  the  Channel,  fired  a  few  ineffectual 
shots,  and  returned.  At  the  end  of  a  year 
the  town  yielded,  on  account  of  the  rav¬ 
ages  that  famine  had  made  among  the  in¬ 
habitants  and  defenders.  In  1629  De 
Rohan,  the  head  of  the  Huguenot  party, 
who  had  led  and  governed  them  with  great 
wisdom,  was  forced  to  yield,  and  from 
that  time  they  ceased  to  have  any  military 
or  political  power  in  the  State.  To  the 
end  of  the  reign  of  Louis  XIII.,  and 
through  much  of  that  of  Louis  XIV.,  they 
were  allowed  considerable  liberty  of  con¬ 
science,  and  were  accordingly  peaceable 


Hul 


(  426  ) 


Hum 


and  submissive  to  the  Government.  But 
Louis  XIV.,  from  the  beginning  of  his 
reign,  regarded  them  with  dislike,  and 
toward  the  end  of  his  reign  attempted 
their  final  and  total  suppression.  Their 
clergy  were  forbidden  to  wear  the  ecclesi¬ 
astical  habit,  or  to  attend  the  sick;  their 
professors  were  not  allowed  to  teach  either 
philosophy  or  languages;  and  in  1685,  by 
command  of  the  king,  the  Edict  of  Nantes 
was  revoked.  This  act  proved  the  death¬ 
blow  of  the  Huguenots  in  France.  Vast 
numbers  of  them,  probably  nearly  a  mill¬ 
ion,  including  some  of  the  most  indus¬ 
trious  and  skilful  of  the  population,  left 
the  country,  many  settling  in  London. 
(Nantes,  Edict  of.)  The  rest  worshiped 
in  lonely  places,  but  they  were  subject  to 
the  most  frightful  persecutions,  and  cap¬ 
ture  exposed  their  ministers  to  the  fate  of 
being  broken  on  the  wheel.  In  1787  an 
Edict  of  Toleration  allowed  the  registry  of 
Protestant  births,  marriages,  and  deaths, 
and  forbade  the  disturbance  of  their  wor¬ 
ship.  But  the  mischief  had  been  done, 
and  it  is  the  opinion  of  all  of  the  best  his¬ 
torians  that  France  has  never  recovered, 
in  national  character  and  other  ways,  the 
loss  of  so  many  of  the  most  serious,  de¬ 
vout,  and  industrious  of  her  citizens.  In 
1802  the  Reformed  Church  was  recognized 
by  law. — Benham:  Did.  of  Religion. 

Several  thousands  of  the  Huguenots 
came  to  America.  They  made  settlements 
in  New  York,  in  Maryland,  Virginia,  and 
South  Carolina.  The  French  Church  in 
Charleston  is  the  only  one  that  survives 
as  a  distinct  congregation.  See  H.  M. 
Baird:  History  of  the  Rise  of  the  Huguenots 
of  France ,  1512-74  (New  York,  1879),  2 
vols. ;  R.  L.  Poole:  The  Htiguenots  in 
France  after  the  Revocation  (New  York, 
1S74);  C.  W.  Baird:  History  of  Huguenot 
Emigration  to  America  (New  York,  1885), 
2  vols. 

Hulsean  Lectures.  The  Rev.  John 
Hulse,a  graduate  of  Cambridge,  who  died 
in  1789,  left  a  property  in  trust  to  the  uni¬ 
versity,  the  income  of  which  now  amounts 
to  about  $5,000  a  year,  that  is  in  part  used 
as  the  endowment  of  what  is  now  called 
the  Hulsean  Lecturer,  “  who  has  to  deliver 
and  publish  not  less  than  four  sermons,  nor 
more  than  six,  during  his  year  of  office, 
upon  Christian  evidences,  or  some  diffi¬ 
culty  of  Holy  Scripture.” 

Hulse,  Rev.  John.  See  Hulsean  Lect¬ 
ures. 

Humanists  (from  the  Latin,  liter <2  hu- 
maniores ,  polite  letters),  “was  the  name 
assumed  in  the  beginning  of  the  sixteenth 


century  by  a  party  which,  with  Erasmus 
and  Reuchlin  at  its  head,  was  especially 
devoted  to  the  cultivation  of  classical  lit¬ 
erature,  and  which,  as  not  unfrequently 
happens  in  the  enthusiasm  of  a  new  pur¬ 
suit,  was  arrayed  in  opposition  to  the  re¬ 
ceived  system  of  the  schools,  not  alone  in 
the  study  of  the  classical  languages,  but 
even  in  philosophy,  and  eventually  in  the¬ 
ology.” —  McClintock  and  Strong:  Ency. 
See  Gieseler:  Ch.  Hist.  iii.  406  sq. ;  Kurtz: 
Ch.  Hist.  ii.  35,  127;  Geiger:  Renaissance 
tind  Humanismus  (Berlin,  1882). 

Humanitarians,  a  name  applied  to  those 
who  consider  Christ  as  a  mere  man,  and  to 
those  who  believe  that  the  human  race  may 
attain  perfection  without  superhuman  aid. 
See  Positivists. 

Hume,  David,  “  the  philosopher  and  his¬ 
torian,  was  b.  at  Edinburgh  on  April  26, 
1711;  d.  there,  Aug.  25,  1776.  His  father 
was  the  laird  or  proprietor  of  the  estate 
of  Ninewells  in  Berwickshire;  but  David, 
being  the  youngest  son,  had  to  make  his 
own  fortune  with  no  other  assistance 
than  an  education  and  the  influence  of 
his  respectable  family.  He  was  educated 
at  home  and  at  the  College  of  Edin¬ 
burgh.  His  father  designed  law  as  his 
profession,  and  he  submitted  to  the  initial 
steps  of  the  proper  practical  training,  but 
it  was  not  a  pursuit  to  his  liking.  Desert¬ 
ing  it  he  experimented  on  a  mercantile 
house  in  Bristol,  but  commerce  was  not 
more  congenial  to  him  than  jurisprudence, 
and  he  gave  it  a  very  short  trial.  He  now 
became  a  musty  student,  devoting  himself 
to  books  with  no  settled  practical  object 
before  him.  He  has  recorded  his  suffer¬ 
ings  at  this  time  from  despondency  and 
depression  of  spirits,  caused  apparently 
by  the  effects  of  monotonous  study  on  the 
stomach.  At  23  years  of  age  he  went  to 
France  and  lived  some  time  in  La  Fleche, 
where  he  describes  himself  as  wandering 
about  in  solitude  and  dreaming  the  dream 
of  his  philosophy.  In  1739  he  published 
the  first  and  second  books  of  his  Treatise  on 
Hut?ian  Natzire — the  germ  of  his  philos¬ 
ophy,  and  still,  perhaps,  the  best  exposition 
of  it,  since  it  has  there  a  freshness  and  de¬ 
cision  approaching  to  paradox,  which  he 
modified  in  his  later  works.  Although  the 
dawn  of  a  new  era  in  philosophy,  this  book 
was  little  noticed.  It  was  a  work  of  dem¬ 
olition.  By  separating  the  impressions  or 
ideas  created  on  the  thinking  mind  by  an 
external  world  from  the  absolute  existence 
of  that  world  itself,  he  showed  that  almost 
everything  concerning  the  latter  was  taken 
for  granted,  and  he  demanded  proof  of  its 
existence  of  a  kind  not  yet  afforded.  It 


Hum 


(  427  ) 


Hum 


was  thus  that  he  set  a  whole  army  of  phi¬ 
losophers  at  work,  either  to  refute  what 
he  had  said,  or  seriously  to  fill  up  the 
blanks  which  he  discovered,  and  hence  he 
originated  both  the  Scotch  and  the  German 
schools  of  metaphysicians.  In  1741  and 
1742  he  published  two  small  volumes  called 
Essays,  Moral  and  Political ;  they  were 
marked  by  learning  and  thought,  and  ele¬ 
gantly  written,  but  are  not  among  the  more 
remarkable  of  his  works.  He  felt  keenly 
at  this  time  the  want  of  some  fixed  lucra¬ 
tive  pursuit,  and  his  longing  for  independ¬ 
ence  was  the  cause  of  a  sad  interruption 
to  his  studious  and  philosophical  pursuits. 
He  was  induced  to  become  the  companion 
or  guardian  of  an  insane  nobleman,  and  had 
to  mix  with  the  jealousies  and  mercenary 
objects  of  those  who  naturally  gather 
round  such  a  center.  In  1747  he  obtained 
a  rather  more  congenial  appointment  as 
secretary  to  Gen.  St.  Clair,  whom  he  ac¬ 
companied  in  the  expedition  to  the  coast 
of  France  and  the  attack  on  Port  l’Orient, 
the  depot  of  the  French  East  India  Com¬ 
pany;  this  affair  had  no  important  results, 
but  it  gave  to  Hume  a  notion  of  actual 
warfare.  Next  year  he  accompanied  the 
general  in  a  diplomatic  mission  to  France, 
and  as  he  traveled  he  took  notes  of  his  im¬ 
pressions  of  Holland,  Germany,  and  Italy, 
which  are  published  in  his  Life  and  Corre¬ 
spondence.  In  1751  he  published  his  In¬ 
quiry  into  the  Principles  of  Morals ,  a  work 
of  great  originality,  and  one  of  the  clearest 
expositions  of  the  leading  principles  of 
what  is  termed  the  utilitarian  system.  At 
the  same  time  he  intended  to  publish  his 
Dialogues  concerning  Natural  Religion ,  but 
his  friends,  alarmed  by  the  skeptical  spirit 
pervading  them,  prevailed  on  him  to  lay 
them  aside,  and  they  were  not  made  pub¬ 
lic  till  after  his  death.  In  his  35th  year 
he  had  unsuccessfully  competed  for  the 
chair  of  moral  philosophy  in  Edinburgh, 
and  at  this  period  we  find  him  unsuccessful 
in  an  attempt  to  obtain  the  chair  of  logic 
in  Glasgow.  Next  year,  in  1752,  appeared 
his  Political  Discourses.  Here  again  he 
made  an  era  in  literature,  for  in  this  little 
work  he  announced  those  principles  of  po¬ 
litical  economy  comprehending  the  doc¬ 
trine  of  free-trade,  which  it  fell  to  his 
friend,  Adam  Smith,  more  fullyr  and  com¬ 
prehensively  to  develop.  He  was  appoint¬ 
ed  at  this  time  keeper  of  the  advocates’ 
library  with  a  very  small  salary,  which  he 
devoted  to  a  charitable  purpose.  It  was 
here  that,  surrounded  with  books,  he 
formed  the  design  of  writing  the  history  of 
England.  In  1754  he  issued  a  quarto  vol¬ 
ume  of  the  History  of  the  Stuarts ,  contain¬ 
ing  the  Reigns  of  James  I.  and  Charles  I. , 
and  presently  completed  this  portion  of 


the  work  in  a  second  volume,  bringing  it 
down  to  the  revolution.  He  then  went 
backwards  through  the  house  of  Tudor, 
and  completed  the  work  from  the  Roman 
period  downwards  in  1762.  While  so  em¬ 
ployed  he  published  Four  Dissertations : 
the  Natural  History  of  Religion  ’  of  the  Pas¬ 
sions  ;  of  Tragedy ;  of  the  Standard  of 
Taste  (1777).  Two  other  dissertations  in¬ 
tended  to  accompany  these  were  canceled 
by  him  after  they  were  printed — they  are 
On  Suicide  and  The  Immortality  of  the  Sotily 
and  were  subsequently  printed  in  his 
works.” — Chambers:  Cyclopcedia.  In  1763 
he  went  to  France  as  secretary  to  Lord 
Hertford’s  embassy  and  was  received  with 
distinguished  honor  by  the  most  eminent 
French  scholars  and  writers.  Returning 
to  Edinburgh  in  1769,  he  there  spent  the 
remainder  of  his  life.  Hume  is  an  agnos¬ 
tic  who  raised  difficult  questions,  but  the 
weakness  and  falsity  of  his  positions  as  re¬ 
lated  to  matters  of  Christian  philosophy 
and  faith  have  often  been  shown.  An  edi¬ 
tion  of  Hume’s  Philosophical  Works  were 
published  in  Edinburgh,  1826,  4  vols.  See 
McCosh:  The  Scottish  Philosophy  (New 
York,  1874). 

Humiliati,  the  name  of  a  religious  order 
confirmed  by  Innocent  III.  in  1201.  The 
order  became  very  degenerate,  and  in  1569 
Cardinal  Borromeo  attempted  to  reform  it, 
but  his  efforts  were  repulsed  with  an  at¬ 
tempt  against  his  life,  and  in  1571  the 
order  was  dissolved  by  Pius  V.  A  female 
order  of  Humiliati,  called  also  the  “  Nuns 
of  Blassoni,”  was  founded  by  Clara  Blas- 
soni  of  Milan  in  1150,  and  still  exists. 

Humility,  “a  virtue  opposed  to  pride 
and,  self-conceit,  by  reason  of  which  a  man 
thinks  of  himself  no  more  highly  than  he 
ought  to  think  (Rom.  xii.  3),  and  places 
himself  in  subjection  to  him  to  whom  he 
owes  subjection.  This  person  is  primarily 
God,  so  that  humility  is,  first  of  all,  the 
sense  of  absolute  dependence  upon  him. 
In  the  strict  sense  of  the  term,  humility  is 
proper  only  in  man’s  relations  to  God,  and 
modesty  in  man’s  relations  to  man  (De 
Wette).  It  is  not  merely  the  sense  of  God’s 
infinitude  over  against  human  limitation, 
but  of  God’s  holiness  over  against  man’s 
moral  deficiency  and  guilt.  Sophocles 
came  nearest  to  the  true  conception  of 
humility  in  classical  antiquity.  It  runs 
like  a  thread  through  all  the  piety  of  the 
Old  Testament  (Gen.  xvii.  1  ;  Mic.  vi.  8} 
down  to  John  the  Baptist.  (Matt.  iii.  2.) 
Christ,  although  without  sin,  was  imbued 
with  childlike  humility  (Matt.  xix.  17  * 
John  v.  30),  and  made  it  a  condition  of  en¬ 
trance  into  the  kingdom  of  heaven.  (Matt, 


Hum 


(  428  ) 


Hur 


v.  3;  xviii.  2.)  It  must  actuate  the  Chris¬ 
tian  at  all  times,  and  remind  him  to  work 
out  his  salvation  with  fear  and  trembling. 
(Phil.  ii.  12.)  Love,  which  is  the  pulse- 
beat  of  the  Christian  life,  is  influenced  by 
it,  and  held  back  from  the  errors  of  mys¬ 
ticism  and  quietism,  and  converts  it  into 
adoring  reverence  for  God,  trust  in  and 
obedience  to  him,  even  in  sufferings.  (1  Pet. 
v.  6.)  A  sham  humility  betrays  itself  in 
its  behavior  to  mankind.  (Luke  xviii.  13 
sqq. )  It  is  free  from  all  vain  self-conceit, 
but,  at  the  same  time,  is  conscious  of 
man’s  dignity  in  the  sight  of  God,  and  may 
be  said  to  ascend  upward  on  the  six  steps  of 
patience,  meekness,  kindness,  friendliness, 
peaceableness,  and  placability  (Arndt) — 
virtues  which  the  apostles  so  urgently  in¬ 
sist  upon.  See  the  various  works  on 
Christian  ethics.” — £.  Sc/nvarz,  trans.  in 
Schaff-Herzog:  Encv. 

Humphrey,  Heman,  D.  D.,  b.  in  West 
Simsbury,  Conn.,  March  26,  1779;  d.  at 
Pittsfield,  Mass.,  1859.  After  graduating 
at  Yale  College  in  1805,  he  was  pastor  of 
the  Congregational  church  at  Fairfield, 
Conn.,  then  at  Pittsfield,  Mass.,  and  after¬ 
ward,  for  twenty-three  years  (1823-45), 
president  of  Amherst  College.  He  exerted 
a  wide  influence  in  religious  and  educa¬ 
tional  circles,  and  wrote  extensively. 
Among  the  books  of  which  he  was  author 
is  a  Tour  in  France ,  Great  Britain ,  and 
Belgium. .  He  wrote  pamphlets,  that  had 
a  wide  circulation,  against  slavery  and  in¬ 
temperance. 

Hungary.  Of  its  population  of  15,509,455, 
the  Roman  Catholics  claim  1,599,628;  the 
Greek  Catholics,  5,133;  Armenian  Cath¬ 
olics,  connected  with  the  Greek  Church, 
2,589,319;  Lutherans,  2,031,243;  Calvinists, 
54,822;  Unitarians,  553,641. 

Huntingdon,  Selina,  Countess  of,  b. 
at  Stanton  Harold,  Leicestershire,  Aug. 
24,  1707.  Her  father  was  the  second  Earl 
Ferrers,  and  in  1727  she  married  the  ninth 
Earl  of  Huntingdon.  Circumstances  com¬ 
bined  to  deepen  the  religious  impressions 
of  early  life,  and  after  the  death  of  her 
husband  she  took  a  great  interest  in  the 
revival  movement  under  Wesley  and  White- 
field,  and  actively  aided  them.  She  made 
Whitefield  her  chaplain,  and  he  often 
preached  to  fashionable  audiences  in  her 
London  home.  A  large  part  of  her  income 
was  spent  in  building  chapels  and  support¬ 
ing  their  ministers.  In  1768  she  opened  a 
theological  seminary  at  Trevecca,  in  South 
Wales,  which  after  her  death  was  removed 
to  Chestnut  Herts.  In  1779  the  prohibition 
of  her  chaplains  from  preaching  in  the 


Pantheon,  a  large  building  in  London,  com¬ 
pelled  her  to  take  advantage  of  the  Tolera¬ 
tion  Act,  and  she  withdrew  from  the  Church 
of  England.  Her  chapels  were  bequeathed 
to  trustees,  and  most  of  them  are  now 
virtually  Congregational  churches.  Fond 
of  leadership,  and  imperious  in  disposition. 
Lady  Huntingdon  was  a  devout,  earnest, 
and  self-sacrificing  Christian  woman. 

Huntington,  Rt.  Rev.  Frederick  Dan, 
S.  T.  D.  (Amherst  College,  1855),  Episco¬ 
palian;  b.  at  Hadley,  Mass.,  May  28,  1819; 
was  graduated  from  Amherst  College, 
Mass.,  1839,  and  at  the  Divinity  School  of 
Harvard  University,  1842.  He  was  pastor 
of  a  Unitarian  church  in  Boston  until  1855, 
and  professor  of  Christian  morals  and 
preacher  to  Harvard  University  until  i860, 
when  he  took  orders  in  the  Episcopal 
Church,  and  from  1861  was  rector  of  Em¬ 
manuel  Church,  Boston,  until  1869,  when 
he  was  consecrated  bishop  of  Central  New 
York.  Among  his  published  works  are: 
Lessons  on  the  Parables  of  our  Saviour 
(1856);  Divine  Aspects  of  Huma7i  Society 
(i860);  The  Fitness  of  Christianity  to  Man 
(1878);  Ser77ions  on  the  Christian  Year 
(1881),  2  vols. 

Hupfeld,  Hermann,  a  great  German  ex- 
egete;  b.  at  Marburg,  1796;  d.  at  Halle, 
1866.  In  1843  he  became  the  successor  of 
Gesenius  at  Halle.  “  He  did  not  belong  to 
the  strict  evangelical  school,  but  he  was 
the  friend  of  a  living  biblical  Christianity, 
the  foe  of  all  impiety,  and  a  strict  lover  of 
truth  and  justice.  Tholuck  pronounced  his 
funeral  oration.  His  greatest  work  was 
the  Tra7tslation  a7id  Commentary  071  the 
Psalms (Gotha,  1855-1861).  The  translation 
is  prosaic,  but  in  textual  criticism  it  is  un¬ 
surpassed  among  the  works  on  that  portion 
of  Scripture.” — Kamphause7i  in  Schaff- 
Herzog:  Ency. ,  vol.  ii. ,  p.  1043.  He  wrote 
on  Genesis ,  regarding  it  as  the  work  of  an 
original  Elohist,  added  to  by  a  Jehovist 
editor.  See  Memoir ,  by  Riehm  (Halle, 
1867). 

Hurd,  Richard,  bishop  of  Worcester  ; 
b.  1720;  d.  1808.  In  1765  he  was  made 
preacher  of  Lincoln’s  Inn;  archdeacon  of 
Gloucester,  1767;  bishop  of  Lichfield, 
1 775 ;  bishop  of  Worcester,  1781.  He  was 
a  polished  scholar,  and  as  a  writer  is  best 
known  as  editor  of  Dr.  Warburton’s  works, 
1788. 

Hurst,  John  Fletcher,  D.  D.,  LL.  D. 
(both  from  Dickinson  College,  Carlisle, 
Penn.,  1S66  and  1877),  Methodist;  b.  at 
Salem,  Md.,  Aug.  17,  1834;  was  graduat¬ 
ed  at  Dickinson  College,  1854  ;  studied 


Hus 


(  429  ) 


Hus 


theology  at  Halle  and  Heidelberg,  1856- 
1857;  in  the  pastorate,  1858-66;  professor 
of  theology  in  the  Mission  Institute  at 
Bremen,  1866-69,  and  after  its  removal  to 
Frankfort-on-the-Main,  1869-71;  professor 
of  historical  theology  in  Drew  Theological 
Seminary,  Madison,  N.  J.,  1871-80,  and 
president  from  1873;  bishop  of  the  Metho¬ 
dist-Episcopal  Church,  1880.  Besides  val¬ 
uable  translations,  he  is  the  author  of:  His¬ 
tory  of  Rationalism  (1866)  ;  Outlines  of 
Church  History  (1874,  3d  ed.,  1880);  Short 
History  of  the  Reformation  (1884),  etc. 

Huss,  John,  “an  eminent  reformer  and 
martyr,  the  contemporary  and  friend  of 
Jerome  of  Prague;  b.  in  1369,  at  Hussi- 
netz, Bohemia;  d.  at  the  stake,  in  Constance, 
Germany,  July  6,  1415.  He  appeared  in 
Bohemia  about  the  same  time  that  Wycliffe 
died  in  England.  At  first  he  viewed  the 
doctrines  of  Wycliffe  with  disapprobation; 
but  his  daily  study  of  the  Bible,  and  the 
flagrant  abuses  of  the  papacy,  soon  opened 
his  eyes,  and  he  early  began  to  attack  even 
the  highest  clergy  on  the  scandal  of  their 
lives,  and  the  gross  corruptions  of  their 
system.  He  was  thereupon  summoned  to 
Rome,  but  declined  to  obey  the  summons. 
He  felt  it  his  duty,  however,  to  appear  be¬ 
fore  the  council  which  was  held  at  Con¬ 
stance  for  ‘  the  healing  of  divisions  and 
averting  the  dangers  of  Christendom  ;  ’ 
and,  though  lie  was  provided  with  a  safe- 
conduct  from  the  Emperor  Sigismund,  he 
was  arrested  soon  after  his  arrival  in  that 
city,  and  was  thrown  into  a  dungeon,  to 
which  he  was  speedily  followed  by  his 
friend  Jerome.  For  a  whole  year  he  re¬ 
mained  in  his  dungeon,  heavily  ironed, 
and  chained  to  a  beam.  At  last,  on  the  7th 
of  June,  1415,  he  was  brought  before  the 
council.  Recantation  or  death  were  the 
alternatives  offered  him.  ‘  Even  suppos¬ 
ing,’  said  a  doctor  to  him,  ‘  that  the  coun¬ 
cil  were  to  affirm  that  you  had  only  one 
eye,  when  you  have  in  reality  two,  it 
would  be  your  duty  to  agree  with  it  in  the 
assertion.’  4  So  long  as  God  shall  pre¬ 
serve  my  reason,’  replied  Huss,  4  I  shall 
take  care  not  to  assert  any  such  thing.’ 
On  the  6th  of  July,  his  forty-second  birth¬ 
day,  he  was  ordered  to  be  burned;  and  the 
sentence  was  executed  the  same  day,  his 
ashes  being  afterward  cast  into  the  Rhine. 
After  his  death  a  civil  war  broke  out  in 
Bohemia,  in  which  those  who  followed 
the  martyr’s  doctrines,  and  who  were 
called  Hussites ,  fought  against  the  Emperor 
Sigismund,  who  had  violated  his  safe-con¬ 
duct  to  Huss.  This  war,  which  is  known 
in  history  as  the  Hussite  War ,  lasted  till 
1437.  Huss,  next  perhaps  after  Wycliffe, 
is  regarded  as  the  most  eminent  of  the  re¬ 


formers  before  Luther.  The  Hussites  still 
existed  in  the  time  of  Luther,  and  were 
then  known  as  the  Bohemian  Brethren." — 
Cassell:  Cyclopcedia. 

In  regard  to  the  death  and  character  of 
Huss,  Lechler  says  (Schaff-Herzog:  Ency., 
vol.  ii. ,  p.  1045):  “Valid  ground  for  the 
sentence  of  condemnation,  even  according 
to  the  canons  of  that  day,  there  was  none. 
Huss  denied  holding  to  Wycliffe’s  views 
against  transubstantiation,  and  his  views 
upon  the  Church  he  founded  upon  Augus¬ 
tine.  He  then  died  because  he  based  his 
reform  of  the  Church  upon  conscience  and 
Scripture,  and  not  upon  ecclesiastical 
authority.  Judged  by  the  canons  of  law 
then  prevailing,  Huss’s  death  was  a  judi¬ 
cial  murder.  Huss  regarded  the  Scriptures 
as  an  infallible  authority,  and  the  supreme 
standard  of  conduct.  The  other  main  sub¬ 
ject  of  his  teaching  was  the  nature  of  the 
true  Church,  which,  with  Wycliffe,  he  de¬ 
fined  to  be  the  body  of  the  elect.  Church 
membership  or  ecclesiastical  dignities  were 
no  infallible  sign  of  election.  He  approved 
the  communion  under  both  kinds  to  the 
laity,  but  did  not  oppose  the  doctrine  of 
transubstantiation,  as  was  charged  by  the 
council.  John  Huss  was  not  an  original, 
creative  mind.  As  a  thinker  he  had  neither 
speculative  talent  nor  constructive  faculty. 
In  comparison  with  Wycliffe  he  is  a  moon 
with  borrowed  light.  Nor  was  he  by  nat¬ 
ure  a  strong  character,  twice  hardened, 
and  keen  as  steel.  Rather  was  he  a  feeble 
and  tender  spirit,  more  sensitive  than  de¬ 
signed  for  heroic  deed.  But  with  his  ten¬ 
derness  there  was  combined  moral  tenacity, 
indomitable  constancy,  and  inflexible  firm¬ 
ness.  If  we  add  to  these  characteristics  his 
purity  and  humility,  his  manly  fear  of 
God  and  tender  conscientiousness,  we 
have  in  Huss  a  man  to  love  and  admire. 
Seldom  have  the  power  of  conscience  and 
the  imperial  strength  of  a  faith  rooted  in 
Christ  asserted  themselves  in  so  command¬ 
ing  and  heroic  a  manner.”  See  Gillett: 
Life  a  fid  Times  of  John  Huss  (Boston, 
1861),  2  vols.  (3d  ed.,  1870). 

Hussites.  See  above. 

Husks,  in  Luke  xv.  16,  does  not  mean 
the  outer  covering  of  the  ears  of  corn,  but 
the  fruit  of  the  carob-tree,  which  is  com¬ 
mon  in  Palestine.  It  is  like  a  crooked 
bean-pod,  and  is  filled  with  brown,  glossy 
seeds,  that  are  used  to  fatten  cattle  and 
swine,  and  as  food  for  poor  people.  The 
carob  belongs  to  the  same  family  as  the 
locust,  and  some  suppose  that  they  were 
the  “  locusts  ”  upon  which  John  the  Bap¬ 
tist  subsisted.  Hence,  this  fruit  is  often 
called  “  St.  John’s  Bread.” 


Hut 


(  430  ) 


Hym 


Hutchinson,  Anne,  was  b.  in  Lincoln¬ 
shire,  Eng.,  1591;  emigrated  to  Boston, 
1634,  and  murdered  by  the  Indians  in 
Westchester  county,  New  York,  in  August, 
1643.  She  was  a  woman  of  masculine 
vigor  of  mind,  and  assertive  in  proclaim¬ 
ing  her  views  of  doctrine  and  spiritual  ex¬ 
perience.  She  opened  her  house  in  Boston 
for  weekly  meetings,  and  gathered  quite  a 
company  of  followers.  She  was  excom¬ 
municated  ,  from  Dr.  Cotton  Mather’s 
church  for  preaching  antinomian  errors, 
and  was  ordered  by  the  court  to  leave  the 
colony.  She  first  went  to  Rhode  Island, 
where  she  again  came  under  the  ban  of  the 
authorities,  and  finally  sought  a  home  in 
Westchester,  near  New  York. 

Hutchinson,  John,  Church  of  England, 
layman  ;  b.  at  Spennithorne,  Yorkshire, 
1674;  d.  Aug.  28,  1727.  Having  procured 
a  sinecure  position  under  the  Government, 
with  a  salary  of  £200,  he  devoted  himself 
to  study.  He  gained  an  extensive  knowl¬ 
edge  of  natural  history,  and  was  well 
versed  in  the  Hebrew  Scriptures.  In  his 
book  called  Moses's  Principia ,  and  in  other 
works,  he  developed  peculiar  philosophical 
and  philological  opinions.  He  held  that 
the  Old  Testament  should  be  interpreted 
typically,  and  that  it  contains  a  complete 
system  of  natural  history,  theology,  and 
religion.  Those  who  sympathized  with  his 
views  were  called  Hutchinsonians.  They 
numbered  many  honored  names — Bishops 
Horne  and  Horseley,  Parkhurst,  Romaine, 
etc.  See  his  Philosophical  and  Theological 
Works  (London,  3d  ed.,  1748-49,  12  vols., 
sup.,  1765,  with  Life>  by  R.  Spearman). 

Hutchinsonians.  See  above. 

Hutten,  Ulrich  von,  b.  at  Steckelberg 
in  Hesse-Cassel,  April  22,  1488;  d.  near 
Zurich,  Aug.  19,  1523.  At  ten  years  of 
age  he  was  placed  in  the  monastery  of 
Fulda,  but  escaped  from  it  and  came  to 
Erfurt  in  1504.  After  studying  in  several 
universities  he  was  made  Doctor  of  Law 
at  Pavia,  in  1517.  The  assassination  of  the 
head  of  the  Hutten  family  by  the  Duke  of 
Wiirtemburg,  caused  by  a  criminal  intrigue , 
stirred  the  vengeance  of  Ulrich,  who  pub¬ 
lished  a  series  of  satirical  pamphlets  against 
the  guilty  tyrant.  They  gained  him  popu¬ 
larity,  and  he  continued  to  write  in  behalf 
of  the  freedom  of  the  people  from  the 
power  of  Rome.  He  favored  a  union  of 
the  German  princes  against  the  pope. 
Hutten  joined  Franz  von  Sickingen  in  his 
struggle  with  the  Elector  of  Treves.  The 
failure  of  their  plans  caused  him  to  seek 
refuge  in  Switzerland,  where  he  died. 
“  Though  often  working  in  unison  with  the 


Reformers,  Ulrich  von  Hutten  was  not  a 
Reformer  himself;  he  was  only  a  humorist 
and  a  knight-errant.” — Klupfel. 

Hutter  ( hoot-ter )  Leonhard,  b.  at  Nel- 
lingen,  near  Ulm,  Wiirtemburg,  1563;  d. 
at  Wittenberg,  Oct.  23,  1616,  where  he  was 
appointed  professor  of  theology  in  1596. 
He  was  a  typical  representative  of  the 
Lutheran  Orthodoxy  of  the  older  form. 
He  was  a  voluminous  writer,  and  his  Com¬ 
pendium  Locorum  Theologicorum  (1610) 
superseded  Melanchthon’s  Loci ,  and  has 
passed  through  many  editions. 

Huz'zab,  in  Nahum  ii.  7,  is  considered 
by  some  the  name  of  a  queen  of  Nineveh. 
Others  take  it  as  a  geographical  term  mean¬ 
ing  “the  country  of  Zab,”  or  a  phrase  of 
speech  meaning,  “  And  it  is  decreed.” 

Hyacinthe,  Father  (full  name,  Charles 
Jean  Marie  Augustin  HyacintheLoyson), 
b.  at  Orleans,  France,  March  10,  1827. 
He  studied  theology  in  the  Seminary  of  St. 
Sulpice,  Paris,  and  was  ordained  to  the 
Roman  Catholic  priesthood  in  1851.  He 
became  superior  of  his  order  (Dominican), 
in  Paris,  and  from  1864  to  1869  was  metro¬ 
politan  preacher  at  the  cathedral  of  Notre 
Dame,  and  became  famous  for  his  pulpit 
eloquence.  In  1869  he  published  a  mani¬ 
festo  against  the  usurpations  of  Rome,  and 
after  the  decree  of  infallibility  was  pro¬ 
nounced  he  devoted  himself  to  preaching 
Catholic  reform.  He  married  an  American 
lady  in  1872,  and  after  preaching  at  Geneva, 
Switzerland,  five  years,  he  returned  to 
Paris  in  1877,  and  in  1879  opened  a  ffee 
church  known  as  the  Catholic  Gallican 
Church,  which  now  numbers  over  one 
thousand  members.  He  is  the  author  of 
numerous  works,  some  of  which  have  been 
translated  into  English:  Catholic  Pefor7n ; 
Letters ,  Frag?nents ,  etc . ,  introduced  by  Dean 
Stanley  (London,  1874);  Conferences ,  1878 
(London,  1879). 

Hymnology.  According  to  analogy  in 
the  use  of  words,  Hymnology  is  the  science 
pertaining  to  hymns.  But  Webster's  Dic¬ 
tionary  tells  us  that  this  word  is  employed 
likewise  to  signify  a  treatise  on  hymns. 
The  same  authority  applies  the  term  to 
the  body  of  hymns  or  sacred  lyrics  com¬ 
posed  by  several  authors  of  a  particular 
country  or  period,  considered  with  respect 
to  quantity  and  quality.  With  this  most 
of  our  manuals  agree. 

Our  first  duty,  therefore,  would  be  to 
frame  a  definition  having  general  fitness  to 
the  matter  in  hand:  What  is  a  hymn? 
Here  opinions,  like  the  tastes  which  lie  be¬ 
hind  them,  vary  widely.  Worcester  says. 


Hym 


(  43i  ) 


Hym 


in  brief  phraseology,  it  is  a  divine  song,  a 
song  of  praise.  Then  it  has  to  follow  that 

Prayer  is  the  soul’s  sincere  desire  ”  is  no 
hymn.  Then  the  Imperial  Dictionary  says 
that  a  hymn  is  “  a  song  or  ode  in  honor  of 
God,  or  in  honor  of  some  deity;  a  sacred 
lyric;  a  song  of  praise,  adoration,  or 
thanksgiving.”  Thus  we  surrender  “Just 
as  I  am,  without  one  plea.”  It  becomes 
evident  that  no  formula  is  elastic  enough 
to  satisfy  our  ordinary  conceptions  of  what 
the  churches  have  been  singing. 

Nor  do  the  larger  encyclopaedias  bring 
us  much  help.  Kitto  says  that  the  term 
signifies  “  a  song  of  praise  or  thanksgiving 
to  God.”  At  once  we  wonder  what  to  do 
with  “  How  blest  the  righteous  when  he 
dies,”  for  it  has  in  it  neither  the  name  of 
God  nor  the  mention  of  gratitude.  Smith's 
Dictionary  of  the  Bible  announces  that  the 
word  occurs  in  English  only  twice  in  the 
Old  Testament  and  only  twice  in  the  New; 
so'the  mistake  is  made  of  leaving  out  two 
other  instances  that  have  to  be  indicated 
in  a  foot-note.  It  shows  the  distinction 
between  a  hymn  and  a  psalm  by  stating 
there  is  a  difference  both  in  form  and  in 
spirit,  and  it  makes  an  excellent  suggestion 
concerning  the  music,  proving  that  in 
Greece  the  eight  old  tunes  which  satisfied 
the  exigencies  of  church  use  had  much  to 
do  with  changes  in  later  liturgies  in  re¬ 
spect  to  metre.  A  quiet  avoidance  of  any 
attempt  at  definition  marks  the  wisdom  of 
those  who  compiled  that  scholarly  book. 
The  Schaff-Herzog  Ency.  makes  two  efforts 
in  our  favor;  one  of  which  asserts  the  in¬ 
sufficiency  of  the  dictionary  definitions, 
the  other  of  which  furnishes  one  of  its  own: 
“  A  hymn  is  a  spiritual  meditation  in 
rhythmical  prose  or  verse.”  Now,  al¬ 
though  the  whole  matter  of  singing  is  left 
out,  as  well  as  all  suggestion  of  united  or 
public  use,  and  everything  is  narrowed 
down  to  a  thought  that  is  more  akin  to 
musing  than  to  music,  and  to  prayer  than 
to  praise,  we  are  free  to  say  that  this  def¬ 
inition  is  better  than  the  rest.  Most  likely 
it  is  as  good  as  anything  as  a  formula  for 
flexible  employment. 

It  is  fair  to  state,  moreover,  that  this 
writer  repudiates  the  famous  criteria  given 
by  St.  Augustine.  In  the  course  of  his 
comment  on  Psalm  lxxii.,  this  venerated 
father  of  the  Church  wrote  that  hymns 
were  “  praises  of  God  accompanied  with 
singing.”  And  then  he  added  in  terse  Lat¬ 
in:  “  If  it  be  praise,  and  not  God’s  praise, 
it  is  not  a  hymn;  if  it  be  praise  and  God’s 
praise,  and  not  sung,  it  is  not  a  hymn;  it  is 
necessary  that  it  should  have  these  three — 
God,  praise,  and  singing.”  A  piece  of 
poetry,  in  many  instances,  is  a  meditation 
when  it  could  not  by  any  classification  be 


called  a  hymn.  Dr.  Muhlenberg  was  right 
when  he  entered  his  protest  against  “  I 
would  not  live  alway,”  as  worthy  of  a 
place  in  a  hymnal;  it  is  an  exquisite  poem, 
but  a  very  poor  hymn. 

We  turn  from  this  branch  of  the  subject 
with  an  abrupt  admission  that  as  yet  the 
science  pertaining  to  hymns  has  not  ad¬ 
vanced  enough  to  draw  its  lines  with  much 
rigidness.  A  classification  of  the  hymns 
now  in  use  could  be  made  only  with  the 
greatest  difficulty,  if  at  all,  because  the 
standard  is  not  established,  and  the  terms 
of  competition  elude  or  reject  all  efforts  to 
restrict  them.  Several  attempts,  lately 
made  on  both  sides  of  the  sea,  seeking  to 
test  popular  estimate  and  so  to  fix  Chris¬ 
tian  decisions,  have  failed  to  command 
confidence.  In  one  case,  a  skillful  and  in¬ 
telligent  critic  chose  fifty-two  English 
hymnals  with  one  small  American;  he 
counted  those  which  contained  every  or 
any  particular  hymn,  and  decided  that  all 
hymns  which  were  found  in  thirty  and  up¬ 
ward  of  the  collections  should  be  consid¬ 
ered  as  belonging  to  the  “first  rank”  in 
excellence  and  popularity:  all  which  he 
found  in  twenty  and  in  fewer  than  thirty 
should  be  reckoned  in  the  “second  rank.” 

The  mistake  in  such  a  plan  lay  in  the 
fact  that  the  hymn-books  a  critic  like  that 
would  select  were,  without  exception,  those 
which  had  a  circulation  almost  exclusively 
in  a  single  denomination  of  Christians, 
namely,  that  of  which  he  was  a  preacher. 
Compiled  from  the  same  general  sources, 
used  by  the  same  class  of  people,  and 
governed  by  similar  traditions,  of  course 
these  collections  told  nearly  the  same  story. 

It  illustrates  the  point  well  to  mention 
that  the  hymn  chosen  as  chief,  having  been 
found  in  all  but  one  of  the  books,  appears 
in  every  instance  with  “  All  praise  to  Thee, 
my  God,  this  night  ”  for  its  opening  line, 
while  over  the  whole  American  continent 
it  is  used  as  Bishop  Ken  first  wrote  it, 
“Glory  to  Thee,  my  God,  this  night.” 
This  shows  how  a  general  following  of 
traditional  forms  controlled  the  selections. 

Then  in  our  country  several  of  the  re¬ 
ligious  newspapers  have  offered  prizes 
with  varying  conditions,  all  designed  to 
evoke  the  enthusiasms  of  the  people  in  be¬ 
half  of  their  favorite  lyrics,  and  constrain 
a  vote  as  to  the  worth  and  popularity  of 
the  first  fifty  among  them. 

What  makes  futile  everything  of  this 
sort  is  the  fact  that  newspapers  are  limited 
to  their  own  constituency  of  subscribers; 
and  these  belong  generally  to  the  same 
sect,  and  each  sheet  is  only  one  out  of  a 
hundred  in  the  same  denomination,  and  of 
the  people  scarcely  a  moiety — and  possibly 
these  not  the  most  poetical  or  musical — 


Hym 


(  432  ) 


Hym 


and  of  the  moiety  only  a  portion  interested 
enough  to  write  a  letter  about  it  will  take 
part  in  the  competition.  The  results  are 
therefore  meagre  and  eventually  unsatis¬ 
factory.  But  from  wide  observation  of 
such  historic  tests  one  might  perhaps  be 
venturesome  enough  to  say  that,  of  hymns 
composed  by  British  authors,  “  Rock  of 
Ages,  cleft  for  me,”  by  Augustus  M.  Top- 
lady,  who  died  in  1778,  and  of  American 
authors’  hymns,  “  My  faith  looks  up  to 
Thee,”  by  Dr.  Ray  Palmer,  who  died  in 
1887,  would  probably  constrain  the  suf¬ 
frages  of  the  grateful  Christendom  speak¬ 
ing  the  English  tongue. 

But  now  there  needs  to  be  added  to  this 
assertion  some  small  degree  or  measure  of 
deprecation.  It  cannot  be  said  that  Top- 
lady’s  hymn  has  more  than  the  lowest 
merit  as  a  literary  production.  The  un¬ 
seemly  and  almost  inextricable  confusion 
of  figures  mocks  rhetoric  to  the  very  face. 
Three  things  are  tossed  to  and  fro  till  one’s 
imagination  is  bewildered.  One  rock,  such 
as  David  often  found  in  the  wilderness  and 
of  which  he  often  spoke  in  the  Psalms,  is 
introduced  as  “  riven”  and  thus  hollowed 
out  for  a  place  of  refuge,  into  which  a  soul 
might  run  and  be  hidden.  Then  another 
rock  is  introduced,  that  of  Moses  in  the 
passage  through  the  desert,  smitten  so 
that  water  might  flow  forth  as  from  the 
fountain  of  -which  Zechariah  speaks  in  his 
prophecy,  opened  for  sin  and  uncleanness, 
where  one  may  wash  lest  he  die.  Then 
that  which  is  not  a  rock  at  all  is  introduced, 
even  the  body  of  our  Lord  Jesus  Christ 
upon  the  cross,  pierced  by  the  spear  of  the 
Roman  soldier,  so  that  out  of  a  wounded 
side  of  it  “  the  water  and  the  blood  ” 
might  flow.  Such  a  confusion  would  be 
enough  to  explain  the  many  changes  which 
have  been  made  in  the  form  of  several  of 
the  stanzas.  Indeed,  two  versions  of  the 
hymn  appear  now  and  then  in  the  same 
collection;  for  popular  taste  and  feeling 
are  already  in  possession  of  one  of  four 
verses  and  another  of  three,  recognized  as 
being  of  equal  authority,  and  familiar  to 
the  memory  of  those  who  prefer  what  they 
have  learned  in  the  local  hymn-books  they 
accept.  This  favorite  hymn  has  a  spiritual 
power,  fascinating  and  strange  even  to  the 
verge  of  mysticism,  which  passes  by  the 
faults  of  its  construction,  and  bears  the 
soul  of  a  loving  believer  irresistibly  on  to 
God. 

The  history  of  worship  in  the  various 
churches,  as  traced  in  the  growth  of  forms 
and  methods  of  praise,  is  very  short.  It 
had  its  real  beginning  only  within  a  com¬ 
paratively  few  years.  Previous  to  the 
Reformation  the  hymns  were  in  Latin  and 
Greek,  and  whatever  of  music  held  a  place 


in  the  public  services,  was  of  the  simplest 
character.  Outside  of  the  cathedrals  the 
people  knew  nothing  of  tunes  beyond  the 
incantations  of  an  ignorant  priesthood, 
which  they  heard  droning  out  the  masses 
on  the  public  days.  But  as  soon  as  the 
shackles  of  ecclesiasticism  were  broken, 
all  the  nations  started  to  sing.  It  was 
deemed  enough  for  church  needs  to  chant 
the  Psalms  as  they  were  found  in  the 
Bible.  For  a  hundred  years  there  was  al¬ 
most  no  hymnology  as  a  science  or  an  art. 

Thomas  Sternhold,  groom  of  the  robes 
under  Edward  VI.  of  England  in  the  six¬ 
teenth  century,  perceived  that  the  court¬ 
iers  were  singing  to  their  ladyloves  songs 
which  were  ribald  and  indecent;  he  was 
brave  enough  to  believe  they  would  use 
something  better  if  they  only  found  it 
within  reach.  Being  a  devout  man  withal, 
he  constructed  in  metre  versions  of  fifty- 
one  psalms,  and  these  he  adapted  to  music, 
in  the  expectation  that  the  gallants  would 
prefer  religion  to  indecency;  but  it  is  hard¬ 
ly  necessary  to  say  that  he  was  somewhat 
cruelly  disappointed.  An  ingenuity  of  wit 
was  able  to  turn  his  efforts  into  new  weap¬ 
ons  of  ridicule.  They  called  his  produc¬ 
tions  “  Geneva  jigs,”  and  put  them  in 
company  with  others  they  dubbed  “  Beza’s 
ballads,”  and  made  the  town  ring. 

But  the  churches  were  satisfied  with 
“  Sternhold  and  Hopkins  ”  for  a  hundred 
years  more;  then  came  a  fresh  version,  by 
Thomas  Rouse,  a  member  of  Parliament, 
who  subsequently  had  a  vote  also  in  the 
Westminster  Assembly;  this  was  publish¬ 
ed  in  1646.  Next  in  order,  the  version 
made  by  Tate  and  Brady  appeared.  With¬ 
in  this  period  poetry  was  not  dead  in  the 
hearts  of  believers;  but  it  was  in  no  one’s 
thought  that  what  grew  into  metre  or  rose 
into  praise  should  be  sung  in  public,  as 
if  worth  an  admission  to  equality  with 
David’s  Psalms.  Isaac  Watts  was  the 
father  of  English  hymnology.  He  pub¬ 
lished  his  hymns,  and  defended  their  use. 
He  put  them  in  prayer-meetings,  and  he 
sang  them  in  church  at  the  conclusion  of 
his  sermons.  This  was  in  the  year  1707, 
and  thus  all  genuine  work  in  this  direc¬ 
tion  began  with  the  century.  Charles  Wes¬ 
ley  almost  immediately  followed  on.  And 
now  the  history  is  little  more  than  a  cata¬ 
logue  of  familiar  and  beloved  names — Ken 
and  Gibbons,  Browne  and  Beddome,  Faw¬ 
cett,  the  Stennetts,  Scott  and  Olivers,  Cow- 
per  and  Newton. 

Women  also  have  done  fine  work  in  the 
making  of  songs  for  church  praise.  Miss 
Anne  Steele,  Miss  Harriet  Auber,  Mrs. 
Anna  LaetitiaBarbauld  are  among  the  eldest 
of  the  sisterhood;  Miss  Frances  Ridley 
Havergal,  Miss  Charlotte  Elliot,  Mrs.  Cecil 


Hyp 


'433  ) 


Hys 


Frances  Alexander,  Mrs.  Elizabeth  Payson 
Prentiss,  Mrs.  Fanny  Crosby  Van  Alstyne 
have  followed  in  the  gracious  succession. 
Some  of  these  have  written  voluminously, 
but  all  of  them  have  done  excellent  work 
on  the  two  sides  of  the  sea. 

It  is  much  to  the  encouragement  and 
edification  of  helpful  children  of  God  that 
just  one  sacred  song  has  made  a  writer 
useful  and  beloved  through  a  lifetime  and 
on  into  the  ages.  William  Williams  gave 
us  “  Guide  me,  O  Thou  Great  Jehovah;” 
Augustus  M.  Toplady  gave  us  “  Rock  of 
Ages;”  Edward  Perronet  gave  us  “  All 
Hail  the  Power  of  Jesus’  Name;”  Mrs. 
Sarah  Flower  Adams  gave  us  “  Nearer, 
my  God,  to  Thee;”  Henry  Kirke  White 
gave  us  “  The  Lord  our  God  is  full  of 
Might.”  These  names  are  now  as  truly 
immortal  as  those  of  Doddridge  and 
Montgomery,  Heber  and  Robert  Robin¬ 
son:  they  have  cheered  the  singing  legions 
of  Jesus  Christ. 

It  is  likely  that  the  project  of  uniting 
hymns  and  tunes  together  in  one  volume 
for  the  use  of  congregations  has  given  a 
fine  impulse  to  the  composition  of  relig¬ 
ious  poetry  during  the  last  few  years,  for 
the  increase  in  the  publication  of  excellent 
hymns  has  been  rapid.  On  both  sides  of 
the  ocean  there  have  been  offered  to  the 
churches  a  host  of  lyrics  of  the  highest 
character.  Horatius  Bonar  and  Ray  Pal¬ 
mer  are  in  the  lead;  Thomas  Hastings  and 
Thomas  Hornblower  Gill  are  alongside; 
and  with  these  are  many  authors  of  orig¬ 
inal  pieces  and  translations  of  the  best 
merit.  The  treasures  of  Christian  song 
are  almost  limitless.  It  cannot  be  long 
before  hymnology  will  be  able  to  claim  a 
place  among  the  sciences  with  a  pure  and 
noble  classification  of  its  own. 

Charles  S.  Robinson. 

Hypatia,  daughter  of  the  philosopher 
Theon,  and  remarkable  for  her  attainments 
as  a  scholar,  was  b.  at  Alexandria  about 
350  A.  D.  She  became  the  recognized  head 
of  the  Neo-Platonic  school  in  that  city, 
and  as  a  teacher  attracted  a  large  number 
of  disciples.  In  the  conflicts  of  opinion  that 
raged  in  Alexandria,  shortly  after  the 
accession  of  Cyril  to  the  patriarchate  (412), 
she  identified  herself  with  the  party  of  the 
prefect  Orestes,  and  thus  aroused  the 
hatred  of  the  Nitrian  monks.  Instigated 
by  them  as  the  adherents  of  Cyril,  a  mob 
of  fanatical  Christians  assailed  Hypatia  in 
the  streets,  and,  dragging  her  from  her 
chariot  into  an  adjoining  church,  cut  her 
into  pieces  with  oyster  shells  and  burned 
her.  The  story  of  Hypatia  is  recognized 
in  the  legend  of  St.  Catherine.  (See  Jame¬ 
son;  Sacred  and  Legendary  Art ,  p.  467.) 


Charles  Kingsley  made  Hypatia  the  basis 
of  an  historical  romance. 

Hypostasis  (Gr. ,  upostasis ,  substance  or 
subsistence).  In  connection  with  the  Trin¬ 
itarian  controversies  this  word  was  the 
occasion  of  much  discussion.  Its  use  in 
the  sense  of  ousia ,  essence  or  substance, 
gave  an  advantage  to  the  semi-Arians. 
The  Council  of  Alexandria  (362)  finally  de¬ 
fined  “  hypostasis  ”  as  synonymous  with 
“  person.” 

Hypostatical  Union  denotes  the  union  in 
Christ  of  the  human  and  divine  natures, 
constituting  two  natures  in  one  Person. 

Hypothetical,  or  Conditional  Baptism, 
the  form  of  words,  “  If  thou  art  not  al¬ 
ready  baptized,  N.,  I  baptize  thee  in  the 
name.  ...”  It  is  called  hypothetical  or 
conditional ,  because  the  rubric  states  that 
it  is  to  be  used,  “  if  they  who  bring  the 
infant  to  the  church  do  make  such  uncer¬ 
tain  answers  to  the  priest’s  questions  as 
that  it  cannot  appear  that  the  child  was 
baptized  with  water  in  the  name  of  the 
Father,  and  of  the  Son,  and  of  the  Holy 
Ghost.” 

Hypsistarians,  heretics  in  the  fourth 
century.  Their  views  were  a  strange  mixt¬ 
ure  of  paganism,  Judaism,  and  Christian¬ 
ity.  They  were  fire-worshipers,  observed 
the  Sabbath,  and  Jewish  regulations  re¬ 
garding  the  eating  of  meats,  but  rejected 
circumcision,  and  professed  to  worship 
God  in  accord  with  the  Christians.  Greg¬ 
ory  Nazianzen  belonged  to  them  before  his 
conversion  to  Christianity,  and  it  is  from 
him  we  learn  all  that  is  known  of  the 
sect. 

Hyrcanus  I.,  a  son  of  Simon  Maccabaeus, 
and  king  and  high-priest  of  the  Jews,  135 — 
105  b.  c.  During  his  reign,  which  was 
marked  by  great  national  prosperity,  the 
party  divisions  between  the  Pharisees  and 
Sadducees  began  to  appear.  Hyrcanus  II., 
a  grandson  of  above,  was  made  high-pries c 
by  Pompey  in  63  b.  C.  He  was  put  to 
death,  b.  c.  30,  by  Herod,  who  had  married 
his  daughter  Mariamne. 

Hystaspes,  or  Hydaspes,  the  fictitious 
author  of  one  of  the  spurious  compositions 
which  were  very  common  in  the  first  cen¬ 
tury  of  Christianity.  The  most  remarkable 
productions  of  this  kind  were  the  Sibylline 
Books.  The  Vaticinia  Hystaspis  is  men¬ 
tioned  by  Justin,  Clement  of  Alexandria, 
and  Lactantius,  as  a  prophecy  of  Christ 
and  his  kingdom  by  an  old  Persian  or 
Median  king. 


Ibn 


(  434  ) 


Ign 


I. 

Ibn  Ezra.  See  Aben  Ezra. 

Iceland  was  visited  by  Celtic  monks  from 
Ireland  in  the  latter  part  of  the  eighth  cen¬ 
tury.  The  first  European  settlers  were 
from  Norway.  They  came  about  the  mid¬ 
dle  of  the  ninth  century,  and  soon  after 
this  were  converted  from  paganism 
through  the  influence  of  missionaries  from 
the  mother-country.  By  the  year  1000 
Christianity  was  established  as  the  religion 
of  the  country.  In  1550  the  Danish  king 
introduced  the  Reformation  by  force  of 
arms.  Since  1825  the  whole  island  was 
placed  under  the  authority  of  the  episcopal 
see  of  Rejkyawick.  The  ministers  are  paid 
in  part  from  the  revenues  of  church  prop¬ 
erty,  and  partly  from  tithes. 


the  Middle  Ages,  on  the  part  of  those  who 
sought  to  destroy  all  images  used  for 
worship  in  the  churches.  (See  Image- 
Worship.)  A  person  who  seeks  to  destroy 
recognized  institutions  of  any  kind  is  now 
called  an  iconoclast. 

Iconos'tasis.  A  screen  used  in  Greek 
churches  corresponding  in  position  to  our 
altar-rails,  but  so  formed  as  to  conceal  the 
altar  from  the  congregation.  Only  the 
clergy  are  permitted  to  enter  within  the 
space  thus  hidden,  in  accordance  with  the 
Jewish  custom  of  keeping  the  Holy  of 
Holies  so  sacred  as  only  to  be  entered  by 
the  high-priest.  The  iconostasis  is  so  called 
because  it  is  adorned  with  sacred  pictures 
(/cons). — Benham.  See  Greek  Church. 

Idol  and  Idolatry.  The  conception  of 


1 


ICONIUM. 


Ichthys  (Greek  ichthys ,  a  fish),  an  early 
symbol  of  Christ.  It  is  formed  of  the 
initial  letters  of  the  names  and  titles  of  the 
Saviour  in  Greek:  Iesous  Christos ,  Theou 
Uios .  Soter ,  “  Jesus  Christ,  the  Son  of  God, 
the  Saviour.”  The  word  “ichthys  ”  is  found 
on  seals,  rings,  lamps,  and  tombstones. 
Tertullian,  in  writing  about  this  symbol  is 
the  first  one  to  refer  to  the  acrostic. 

Ico'nium,  the  present  Koniyeh ,  situated 
at  the  foot  of  Mount  Taurus.  It  was  once 
a  flourishing  city,  and  the  capital  of  Lyc- 
aonia.  Paul  visited  it  three  times.  (Acts 
xiii.  5;  xiv.  1,  19,  21;  xvi.) 

Icon'oclasm  ( eikon,  image;  kldzein ,  to 
break),  the  name  which  designates  the 
struggle  in  the  Christian  Church  during 


an  idol,  as  purely  an  object  adored  as  di¬ 
vine,  is  of  Jewish  origin  under  the  first 
covenant.  The  word  eidololatreia ,  idolatry, 
is  first  found  in  the  New  Testament.  (1  Cor. 
x.  14;  Gal.  v.  20;  1  Pet.  iv.  3;  Col.iii.  5.)  The 
reference  is,  in  general,  to  the  worship  of 
false  gods  among  the  pagan  nations  under 
forms  of  bodily  representation.  In  the  prog¬ 
ress  of  Christianity ,  when  such  worship  was 
made  punishable  with  death,  idolatry  took 
a  new  form  in  the  worship  of  bodily  repre¬ 
sentations  of  deity.  See  Image- Worship. 

Idumaea.  See  Edom. 

Ignatian  Epistles.  See  Ignatius  of  An¬ 
tioch. 

Ignatius  of  Antioch,  one  of  the  Apos- 


Ign 


(  435  ) 


Ign 


tolic  Fathers  martyred  early  in  the  second 
century,  at  Rome.  He  was  bishop  of  An¬ 
tioch  for  forty  years  (67-107).  Little  is 
known  of  his  life,  and  the  traditions  that 
have  been  connected  with  his  name  are 
now  generally  discredited. 

The  writings  of  this  father  have  been 
a  subject  of  keen  controversy.  The  trans¬ 
lation  published  by  Archbishop  Wake,  and 
which  is  easily  accessible  through  Hone’s 
Apocryphal  New  Testament,  comprised 
seven  epistles,  viz.,  to  the  Ephesians,  the 
Magnesians,  the  Trallians,  the  Romans, 
the  Philadelphians,  the  Smyrnseans,  and 
to  Polycarp.  To  these  have  been  added 
six  others,  and  this  augmented  collection 
is  called  by  critics,  The  Epistles  of  the  Long 
Recension ;  they  were,  “  Mary  to  Ignatius,” 
“  Ignatius  to  Mary,”  “  To  the  Tarsians,” 
“  Philippians,”  “  Antiochenes,”  “  Hero.” 
It  has,  however,  been  demonstrated  that 
these  were  forgeries  of  the  end  of  the 
fourth  century.  But  a  challenge  was  also 
raised  against  the  other  seven,  on  the 
ground  that  the  view  of  episcopacy,  which 
the  writer  of  them  holds,  belongs  to  a  later 
date  than  the  second  century.  This  attack 
was  greatly  strengthened  by  the  discovery 
of  a  Syriac  copy,  now  in  the  British  Mu¬ 
seum,  which  only  contains  three  of  the 
Epistles,  viz.,  to  Polycarp,  to  the  Ephe¬ 
sians,  and  the  Romans,  and  which  was  edit¬ 
ed  and  published  by  the  late  Canon  Cureton 
in  1845.  This  is  known  as  The  Short  Re¬ 
cension.  It  was  eagerly  taken  up  by  some 
scholars,  and  as  eagerly  repudiated  by  oth¬ 
ers,  who  maintained  that  Cureton’s  was 
merely  a  maimed  edition.  In  consequence, 
the  present  learned  bishop  of  Durham,  Dr. 
Lightfoot,  who  had  been  engaged  in  a 
Commentary  on  St.  Paul’s  Epistles,  turned 
aside,  and  gave  many  years  to  “  The  Apos¬ 
tolic  Fathers.”  In  1885  he  published  the 
result  of  his  labors  on  Ignatius  and  Poly¬ 
carp,  in  three  goodly  volumes,  and  it  is 
probably  the  most  learned  and  exhaustive 
critical  treatise  which  has  appeared  in  this 
century.  No  mystery  is  left  unsolved, 
and  the  genuineness  of  the  seven  Epistles, 
or  The  Middle  Recension ,  is  established  be¬ 
yond  controversy. 

The  central  idea  of  the  Epistles  of  Igna¬ 
tius  may  be  expressed  in  the  words  “  One 
Faith.”  And  that  with  him  is  the  historical 
Christianity  of  the  Gospel  in  continual  ac¬ 
tivity  in  the  lives  of  men.  He  quotes  the 
New  Testament  as  of  equal  authority  with 
the  Old,  prefacing  his  quotations  with  “  it 
is  written.”  The  Eucharist  is  with  him 
the  centre  of  Christian  worship.  He  is  the 
first  writer  to  use  the  expression  “  Cath¬ 
olic  Church.” — Benham:  Diet,  of  Religion. 

Ignatius,  Loyola,  b.  in  the  Castle  of 


Loyola,  Guipuzcoa,  Spain,  1491  ;  d.  in 
Rome,  July  31,  1556.  “  He  was  a  knightly 
soldier  in  early  life  and  was  severely 
wounded  at  the  siege  of  Pamplona.  He 
was  brought  home  to  his  father’s  castle  to 
be  cared  for.  While  on  his  sick-bed  he 
asked  for  books,  and  as  there  were  none  of 
the  kind  at  hand  most  to  his  taste,  he  be¬ 
gan  reading  the  lives  of  the  saints.  A  com¬ 
plete  change  soon  appeared  in  his  character 
and  purposes.  Renouncing  the  pursuit  of 
arms,  and  with  it  all  other  worldly  plans, 
he  tore  himself  from  home  and  friends,  and 
repaired  to  the  monastery  of  Montserrat, 
and  from  there  retired  to  a  cavern  at  Man- 
resa  when  he  drew  up  the  first  outline  of 
his  famous  Exercitia  Spiritualia,  which  is 
considered  a  work  of  divine  inspiration  by 
the  members  of  the  order  he  founded. 

“  From  Manresa  he  repaired  by  Barce¬ 
lona  to  Rome,  whence,  after  receiving  the 
papal  benediction  from  Adrian  VI.,  he  pro¬ 
ceeded  on  foot,  and  as  a  mendicant,  to 
Venice,  and  there  embarked  for  Cyprus  and 
the  Holy  Land.  He  would  gladly  have  re¬ 
mained  at  Jerusalem,  and  devoted  himself 
to  the  propagation  of  the  gospel  among 
the  infidels;  but  not  being  encouraged  in 
this  design  by  the  local  authorities,  he  re¬ 
turned  to  Venice  and  Barcelona  in  1524. 
Taught  by  his  first  failure  he  now  resolved 
to  prepare  himself  by  study  for  the  work  of 
religious  teaching,  and  with  this  view  was 
not  ashamed  to  return,  at  the  age  of  thirty- 
three,  to  the  study  of  the  very  rudiments 
of  grammar.  He  followed  up  these  ele¬ 
mentary  studies  by  a  further  course,  first 
at  the  new  University  of  Alcala,  and  after¬ 
wards  at  Salamanca,  in  both  which  places, 
however,  he  incurred  the  censure  of  the 
authorities  by  gome  unauthorized  attempts 
at  religious  teaching  in  public,  and  event¬ 
ually  he  was  induced  to  repair  to  Paris  for 
the  completion  of  the  studies  thus  repeat¬ 
edly  interrupted.  Here  again  he  continued 
persistently  to  struggle  on  without  any  re¬ 
sources  but  those  which  he  drew  from  the 
charity  of  the  faithful;  and  here  again  he 
returned  to  the  same  humble  elementary 
studies.  It  was  while  engaged  in  these 
studies  that  he  first  formed  the  pious  frater¬ 
nity  which  resulted  in  that  great  organiza¬ 
tion  which  has  exercised  such  influence 
upon  the  religious,  moral,  and  social  con¬ 
dition  of  the  modern  world.  From  the 
close  of  his  residence  in  Paris,  Loyola’s 
history  has  been  told  in  the  history  of  his 
order.  See  Jesuits.” — Chambers  :  Cyclo¬ 
pedia.  Loyola  was  canonized  as  a  saint 
by  Gregory  XV.,  in  1622. 

Ignorantines,  a  name  often  given  to  the 
Brethren  of  the  Christian  Schools,  a  relig¬ 
ious  fraternity  organized  in  1683,  by  Jean 


Ihs 


v  436  ) 


Ima 


Baptiste  de  La  Salle,  for  the  education  and 
religious  training  of  the  children  of  the 
poor.  The  brethren  do  not  receive  holy- 
orders,  but  take  the  vows  of  chastity,  pov¬ 
erty,  and  obedience.  Its  members  are 
found  in  every  part  of  Europe  and  in 
America,  Asia,  and  Africa. 

I.  H.  S.,  an  inscription  found  early  in 
the  history  of  the  Christian  Church,  the 
interpretation  of  which  is  doubtful.  The 
most  probable  explanation  is  that  which  de¬ 
rives  it  from  the  first  three  letters  in  the 
Greek  for  IHSOUS  (Jesus);  thus  IHS  be¬ 
comes  I.  H.  S.  The  similarity  of  the  Greek 
S  to  the  Latin  S  is  so  near  as  to  make  no 
difficulty  in  this  explanation. 

Image- Worship  (Gr.  iconolatrio),  “  the 
use,  in  public  or  private  worship,  of  graven 
or  painted  representations  of  sacred  per¬ 
sons  or  things,  and  especially  the  exhibi¬ 
tion  of  honor,  reverence,  or  worship  to  or 
toward  such  representations.  This  prac¬ 
tice,  in  the  various  degrees  of  which  it  is 
susceptible,  has  formed,  for  many  centu¬ 
ries,  so  fruitful  a  subject  of  controversy 
among  Christians,  that  we  think  it  expe¬ 
dient,  first,  briefly  to  detail  the  history  of 
the  use  of  images  in  Christian  worship 
during  the  several  periods,  and  secondly ,  to 
state  summarily  the  opposite  views  of  this 
history  which  are  taken  by  the  two  great 
parties  into  which  Christians  are  divided 
on  this  question. 

“  Neither  in  the  New  Testament,  nor  in 
any  genuine  writings  of  the  first  age  of 
Christianity,  can  any  trace  be  discovered 
of  the  use  of  statues  or  pictures  in  the  wor¬ 
ship  of  Christians,  whether  public  or  pri¬ 
vate.  The  earliest  allusion  to  such  repre¬ 
sentations  is  found  in  Tertullian,  who  ap¬ 
peals  to  the  image  of  the  Good  Shepherd 
as  engraved  upon  the  chalices.  A  very 
curious  pagan  caricature  of  Christianity,  of 
the  very  same  age,  lately  discovered 
scratched  upon  the  wall  of  a  room  in  the 
palace  of  the  Caesars,  which  rudely  repre¬ 
sents  a  man  standing  in  the  attitude  of 
prayer,  with  outstretched  hand,  before  a 
grotesque  caricature  of  the  crucifixion,  and 
which  bears  the  title  ‘  Alexamenus  wor¬ 
ships  God,’  has  been  recently  alleged  by 
Catholics  as  an  additional  indication  of  at 
least  a  certain  use  of  images  among  the 
Christians  of  the  second  century.  The 
tombs  of  the  Christians  in  the  Roman  cata¬ 
combs,  many  of  which  are  of  a  date  anterior 
to  Constantine,  frequently  have  graven 
upon  them  representations  of  the  dove,  of 
the  cross,  of  the  symbolical  fish,  of  the  ship, 
of  Adam  and  Eve,  of  Moses  striking  the 
rock,  of  Jonas,  of  Daniel  in  the  lions’  den, 
of  the  apostles  Peter  and  Paul,  and  above 


all,  of  the  Good  Shepherd;  and  those  com¬ 
partments  of  the  catacombs  which  were 
used  as  chapels  are  often  profusely  deco¬ 
rated  with  sacred  representations,  the  age 
of  which,  however,  it  is  not  easy  to  deter¬ 
mine  with  accuracy.  But  whatever  opin¬ 
ion  may  be  formed  as  to  particular  in¬ 
stances,  such  as  these,  it  is  admitted  by 
Catholics  themselves  (who  explain  it  by  the 
fear  of  perpetuating  the  idolatrous  notions 
of  the  early  converts  from  paganism)  that 
for  the  first  three  centuries  the  use  of  im¬ 
ages  was  rare  and  exceptional;  nor  was  it 
until  after  the  establishment  of  Christianity 
under  Constantine,  and  particularly  after 
the  condemnation  of  the  Nestorian  heresy 
in  430,  that  statues  and  pictures  of  our 
Lord;  of  the  Virgin  Mary,  and  the  saints, 
were  commonly  introduced  in  churches,  es¬ 
pecially  in  the  East  and  Italy.  And  yet, 
even  in  the  fifth  century,  the  practice  had 
already  reached  a  great  height,  as  we  learn 
from  the  church  historian,  Theodoret,  for 
the  East,  and  from  Paulinus  of  Nola,  for 
Italy;  and  in  the  sixth  and  seventh  centu¬ 
ries  many  popular  practices  prevailed 
which  called  forth  the  condemnation  of 
learned  and  pious  bishops  both  in  the  East 
and  in  the  West.  It  was  usual  not  only  to 
keep  lights  and  burn  incense  before  the 
images,  to  kiss  them  reverently,  and  to 
kneel  down  and  pray  before  them,  but  some 
,  went  so  far  as  to  make  the  images  serve  as 
godfathers  and  godmothers  in  baptism,  and 
even  to  mingle  the  dust  of  the  coloring 
matter  scraped  from  the  images  with  the 
eucharistic  elements  in  the  holy  commun¬ 
ion  !  This  use  of  images  by  Christians 
was  alleged  as  an  obstacle  to  the  con¬ 
version  of  the  Jews,  and  as  one  of  the 
causes  of  the  progress  of  Mohammedanism 
in  the  East;  and  the  excesses  described 
above  provoked  the  reaction  of  iconoclasm. 
In  the  Second  Council  of  Nice,  787,  the  doc¬ 
trine  as  to  the  worship  of  images  was  care¬ 
fully  laid  down.  A  distinction  was  drawn 
between  the  supreme  worship  of  adoration, 
which  is  called  latreia ,  and  the  inferior 
worship  of  honor  or  reverence,  called  dou- 
leia ;  and  still  more  between  absolute  wor¬ 
ship,  which  is  directly  and  ultimately  ren¬ 
dered  to  a  person  or  thing  in  itself ;  and 
relative,  which  is  but  addressed  through  a 
person  or  thing,  ultimately  to  another  per¬ 
son  or  thing  represented  thereby.  The 
Second  Council  of  Nice  declared,  first,  that 
the  worship  to  be  paid  to  images  is  not  the 
supreme  worship  of  latreia ,  but  only  the 
inferior  worship  of  douleia;  and,  secondly, 
that  it  is  not  absolute ,  and  does  not  rest 
upon  the  images  themselves,  but  relative, 
that  is,  only  addressed  through  them,  or 
by  occasion  of  them,  to  the  original  which 
they  represent.  This  explanation  of  the 


Ima 


(  437  ) 


Imm 


doctrine  and  the  practice  was  thenceforth 
generally  received;  but  a  strange  error  in 
the  translation  of  the  Greek  acts  of  the 
Council  of  Nice,  by  which  it  appeared  that 
the  same  adoration  was  decreed  by  that 
council  to  images  ‘  which  is  rendered  to  the 
Holy  Trinity  itself,’  led  to  a  vehement  ag¬ 
itation  in  France  and  Germany  under 
Charlemagne,  and  to  a  condemnation  by  a 
synod  at  Frankfort  of  the  doctrines  of  the 
Council  of  Nice.  But  an  explanation  of 
this  error,  and  of  the  false  translation  on 
which  it  was  based,  was  immediately  after¬ 
wards  given  by  the  pope;  and  eventually 
the  Nicene  exposition  of  the  doctrine  was 
universally  accepted  in  the  Western  as  well 
as  in  the  Eastern  Church. 

“  At  the  Reformation  the  reforming  party 
generally  rejected  the  use  of  images  as  an 
unscriptural  novelty,  irreconcilable  as  well 
with  the  prohibition  of  the  old  law  as  with 
that  characteristic  of  ‘  spirit  and  truth  ’ 
which  is  laid  down  by  our  Lord  as  specially 
distinctive  of  the  new  dispensation,  and 
they  commonly  stigmatized  the  Catholic 
practice  as  superstitious,  and  even  idola¬ 
trous.  The  Zwinglian,  and  subsequently 
the  Calvinistic,  Churches  absolutely  and 
entirely  repudiated  all  use  of  images  for 
the  purposes  of  worship.  Luther,  on  the 
contrary,  while  he  condemned  the  Roman 
worship  of  images,  regarded  the  simple  use 
of  them  even  in  the  church,  for  the  purpose 
of  instruction,  and  as  incentives  to  faith 
and  to  devotion,  as  one  of  those  adiaphora , 
or  indifferent  things,  which  may  be  per¬ 
mitted,  although  not  of  necessary  institu¬ 
tion;  hence,  in  the  Lutheran  churches  of 
Germany  and  the  northern  kingdoms,  pict¬ 
ures,  crucifixes,  and  other  religious  em¬ 
blems  are  still  freely  retained.  In  the  An¬ 
glican  Church  the  practice  is  still  a  subject 
of  controversy.  In  the  Presbyterian 
Church,  and  in  all  the  other  Protestant 
communions,  images  are  entirely  un¬ 
known.” — Chambers:  Cyclopcedia. 

Imam',  the  priest  who  conducts  the  reg¬ 
ular  service  of  the  mosque  among  the 
Mohammedans.  The  title  is  borne  by  the 
caliphs  as  the  successors  of  Mohammed, 
and  the  present  Sultan  assumes  it  on  the 
ground  that  the  last  legitimate  caliph,  El 
Mutawakkel,  ceded  his  right  in  1517  to 
Selim  I.,  the  first  sultan,  and  his  heirs. 

Immaculate  Conception  of  the  Virgin 
Mary.  This  dogma  of  the  Roman  Church 
was  promulgated  by  Pope  Pius  IX.,  on  the 
Feast  of  the  Conception,  Dec.  8,  1854,  in 
St.  Peter’s,  Rome,  in  these  words:  “  That 
the  most  blessed  Virgin  Mary,  in  the  first 
moment  of  her  conception,  by  a  special 
grace  and  privilege  of  Almighty  God,  in 


virtue  of  the  merits  of  Christ,  was  pre¬ 
served  from  all  stain  of  original  sin.” 
While  this  dogma  never  received  the  sanc¬ 
tion  of  an  oecumenical  council,  it  was 
favored  almost  without  a  dissenting  voice 
by  the  bishops  and  other  dignitaries  of  the 
Church,  and  since  the  Vatican  Council  of 
1870  declared  the  infallibility  of  the  pope 
it  stands  as  an  infallible  declaration.  This 
dogma  has  no  Scripture  proof  in  its  favor. 
While  some  of  the  Christian  fathers  ex¬ 
empted  Mary  from  actual  transgression, 
they  did  not  teach  her  exemption  from 
original  sin.  The  mythical  stories  of  the 
Apocryphal  Gospels  and  the  early  worship 
of  saints  nourished  the  adoration  of  Mary, 
which  finally  culminated  in  the  dogma  of 
the  immaculate  conception.  See  Schaff  in 
Johnson’s  Cyclcpcedia  and  in  Schaff- Herzog: 
Ency.;  Hase:  Hand-book  of  Protestant 
Polemics  (1871). 

Imman'uel,  a  Hebrew  word  signifying 
God  with  tis.  It  is  used  as  a  distinctive 
title  of  the  Messiah.  (Isa.  vii.  14;  Matt.  i. 
23.)  See  Christ. 

Immersion.  See  Baptism. 

Immortality.  The  doctrine  of  Immortal¬ 
ity  holds  a  very  subordinate  place  in  the 
Old  Testament;  length  of  life  and  worldly 
prosperity  were  the  promised  reward  of 
obedience.  But  even  in  the  Pentateuch 
there  are  not  wanting  indications  of  a  rev¬ 
elation,  though  dim,  of  a  glory  to  be  re¬ 
vealed,  and  certainly  of  the  immortality  of 
the  soul.  Our  Saviour’s  rebuke  to  the 
Sadducees  declared  that  they  erred  for  not 
perceiving  this.  (Matt.  xxii.  29-33.)  The 
prayer  of  Balaam  (Num.  xxiii.  10)  is  capa¬ 
ble  of  no  other  explanation  than  that  he 
recognized  such  a  hope.  But  when  we 
come  later,  the  Psalms  of  David  are  dis¬ 
tinct  enough,  not  only  in  such  verses  as 
Psa.  xvi.  8-1 1,  and  xxiii.  4-6,  but  in  the 
whole  tenor  of  the  hopes  and  aspirations 
they  breathe  after  God. 

This  belief  was  held  unfalteringly  by 
wise  heathen,  and  was  expressed  in  the 
plainest  terms  by  men  like  Plato  and  Cicero. 
The  effects  of  the  doctrines  of  Socrates 
and  Plato  appear  strongly  in  the  Old 
Testament  Apocrypha;  the  writers  of  Ec- 
clesiasticus  and  Wisdom  had  undoubtedly 
in  Alexandria  become  acquainted  with  the 
Platonist  philosophy,  and  the  beautiful 
hopes  which  they  utter  must  be  unques¬ 
tionably  traced  to  the  light  which  had  been 
thrown  for  them  upon  the  Old  Testament, 
from  the  writings  of  men  whom  God  had 
been  teaching  in  the  far-off  heathen  lands. 
The  belief  is  also  so  widely  spread  amongst 
even  the  most  savage  races,  that  it  may  be 


Imm 


(  438  ) 


Imp 


almost  said  to  belong  to  the  consciousness 
of  humanity. 

When  we  ask  on  what  grounds  such  a 
belief  rests,  the  answer  must  not  be  too 
hastily  given.  It  has  been  asserted  that 
the  very  existence  of  self-consciousness  is 
evidence  of  indestructible  power,  that  the 
very  ability  of  “  looking  before  and  after  ” 
is  an  indication  that  the  soul  is  not  bound 
to  the  material  form.  But  to  this  it  may 
be  replied  that  the  soul  loses  its  conscious¬ 
ness  in  sleep,  in  insanity,  even  through 
narcotics.  Therefore  this  argument  cannot 
be  held  of  itself  convincing.  On  the  other 
hand,  the  fact  of  the  dissolution  of  the 
body,  and  the  absolute  disappearance  of  all 
further  evidence  of  the  soul’s  existence,  is 
no  indication  at  all  of  its  ceasing  to  be,  be¬ 
cause  all  physical  investigation  goes  more 
and  more  to  show  that  the  soul  is  not  a 
simple  bodily  function,  bound  to  the  brain, 
as  materialists  have  supposed.  All  phys¬ 
ical  evidence  is  against  the  theory  that  the 
soul  is  a  part  of  the  body,  and  forces  the 
conclusion  that  it  has  a  peculiar  existence 
of  its  own. 

Consequently  we  come  to  this — that 
physical  investigation  is  baffled  in  this 
question,  and  we  have  to  fall  back  upon 
some  other  form  of  evidence.  Such  evi¬ 
dence,  Christians  hold,  was  given  in  an¬ 
cient  times  by  God  by  his  Voice  within, 
and  in  some  cases  by  outward  revelation 
as  well.  Men  believed  in  God  because  he 
spake  to  them,  and  bade  them  so  believe, 
and  they  recognized  his  voice.  But  the 
revelation  was  consummated  in  the  teach¬ 
ing  of  Christ,  and  his  resurrection  from 
the  dead.  We  have  seen  no  physical  facts 
that  are  capable  of  refuting  that;  all  inves¬ 
tigation  of  moral  phenomena  supports  it. 
(Evidences.)  The  Christian  revelation 
declares  that  the  soul  is  immortal,  and  that 
the  body  shall  rise  from  the  dead,  and  be 
united  with  the  soul  again.  To  deny  that, 
as  St.  Paul  says,  is  to  give  up  Christianity 
itself.  (1  Cor.  xv.  12-17.)  Certainly  relig¬ 
ion  is  worthless  without  it.  (Resurrec¬ 
tion.)  We  believe,  then,  and  science, 
though  it  could  not  indeed  discover  the 
truth,  follows  it  and  acquiesces  in  it  as 
reasonable,  that  this  present  consciousness 
of  ours,  though  it  must  be  robbed  by 
physical  death  of  its  power  of  present 
manifestation,  shall  not  be  lost.  The  be¬ 
lief  in  a  good  and  faithful  Creator  assures 
us  that  we  are  made  for  something  better 
than  a  short  life  of  threescore  years  and 
ten,  that  the.  winding-sheet  is  not  our  right¬ 
ful  vesture,  and  this  beautiful  world  is 
something  better  than  a  great  grave.  Be¬ 
cause  God  is  love,  because  he  is  good  and 
his  works  are  beautiful,  he  cannot  abandon 
the  noblest  of  his  works,  which  returns  his 


love.  In  point  of  fact,  those  who  have  any 
positive  faith  in  a  Supreme  Being  are  also 
believers  in  immortality;  but  nevertheless 
the  two  questions  are  quite  distinct. — Ben- 
ham:  Diet,  of  Religion. 

Imputation  of  Sin.  Christians  of  every 
name  accept  the  fact  that  the  entire  race  of 
mankind  participates  in  the  consequences 
of  the  sin  of  Adam.  This  fact,  however, 
is  accounted  for  on  different  theories, 
which  are  stated  as  follows  by  Dr.  Charles 
Hodge  (Systematic  Theology ,  vol.  ii. ,  pp. 
192,  193): 

(1)  “  That  which  is  adopted  by  Prot¬ 
estants  generally,  as  well  by  Lutherans  as 
Reformed,  and  also  by  the  great  body  of 
the  Latin  Church,  is,  that  in  virtue  of  the 
union,  federal  and  natural,  between  Adam 
and  his  posterity,  his  sin,  although  not 
their  act,  is  so  imputed  to  them  that  it  is 
the  judicial  ground  of  the  penalty  threat¬ 
ened  against  him,  coming  also  upon  them. 
This  is  the  doctrine  of  immediate  imputa¬ 
tion. 

(2)  “  Others,  while  they  admit  that  a 
corrupt  nature  is  derived  from  Adam  by 
all  his  ordinary  posterity,  yet  deny,  first, 
that  this  corruption,  or  spiritual  death,  is 
a  penal  infliction  for  his  sin;  and  second, 
that  there  is  any  imputation  to  Adam’s  de¬ 
scendants  of  the  guilt  of  his  first  sin.  All 
that  is  really  imputed  to  them  is  their  own 
inherent,  hereditary  depravity.  This  is  the 
doctrine  of  mediate  imputation. 

(3)  “  Others  discard  entirely  the  idea  of 
imputation,  so  far  as  Adam’s  sin  is  con¬ 
cerned,  and  refer  the  hereditary  corrup¬ 
tion  of  men  to  the  general  law  of  propa¬ 
gation.  Throughout  the  vegetable  and 
animal  kingdoms,  like  begets  like.  Man 
is  not  an  exception  to  that  law.  Adam, 
having  lost  his  original  righteousness  and 
corrupted  his  nature  by  his  apostasy, 
transmits  that  despoiled  and  deteriorated- 
nature  to  all  his  descendants.  To  what  ex¬ 
tent  man’s  nature  is  injured  by  the  fall,  is 
left  undetermined  by  this  theory.  Accord¬ 
ing  to  some,  it  is  so  deteriorated  as  to  be, 
in  the  true  scriptural  sense  of  the  term, 
spiritually  dead;  while,  according  to  oth¬ 
ers,  the  injury  is  little  if  anything  more 
than  a  physical  infirmity,  an  impaired  con¬ 
stitution,  which  the  first  parent  has  trans¬ 
mitted  to  his  children. 

(4)  “  Others,  again,  adopt  the  realistic 
theory,  and  teach  that,  as  generic  human¬ 
ity  existed  whole  and  entire  in  the  persons 
of  Adam  and  Eve,  their  sin  was  the  sin  of 
the  entire  race.  The  same  numerical,  ra¬ 
tional,  and  voluntary  substance  which  act¬ 
ed  in  our  first  parents,  having  been  com¬ 
municated  to  us,  their  act  was  as  truly 
and  properly  our  act — being  the  act  of  our 


Imp 


(  439  ) 


Ind 


reason  and  will — as  it  was  their  act.  It  is 
imputed  to  us  therefore  not  as  his,  but 
as  our  own.  We  literally  sinned  in  Adam, 
and  consequently  the  guilt  of  that  sin  is 
our  personal  guilt,  and  the  consequent 
corruption  of  nature  is  the  effect  of  our 
own  voluntary  act. 

(5)  “  Others,  finally,  deny  any  casual 
relation,  whether  logical  or  natural,  wheth¬ 
er  judicial  or  physical,  between  the  sin  of 
Adam  and  the  sinfulness  of  his  race.  Some 
who  take  this  ground  say  that  it  was  a  di¬ 
vine  constitution,  that,  if  Adam  sinned,  all 
men  should  sin.  The  one  event  was  connect¬ 
ed  with  the  other  only  in  the  divine  purpose. 
Others  say  that  there  is  no  necessity  to 
account  for  the  fact  that  all  men  are  sin¬ 
ners,  further  than  by  referring  to  their  lib¬ 
erty  of  will.  Adam  sinned,  and  other  men 
sinned.  That  is  all.  The  one  fact  is  as 
easily  accounted  for  as  the  other.” 

Imposition  of  Hands.  The  ceremony  of 
the  laying  on  of  hands  for  imparting  spirit¬ 
ual  gifts  and  authority  is  very  ancient.  It 
was  practised  by  Jacob  (Gen.  xlviii.  14), 
by  Moses  (Num.  xxvii.  18-23  and  Deut. 
xxxiv.  9),  by  our  Lord  himself  (Mark  x.  16), 
by  the  apostles  (Acts  vii.  17,  18;  xix.  6), 
and  their  successors.  (1  Tim.  iv.  14;  v.  22.) 

Imputed  Righteousness  signifies  the 
righteousness  of  Christ  attributed  to  those 
who  are  united  to  him.  The  obedience  and 
sufferings  of  Christ  are  the  meritorious 
ground  of  redemption.  See  Justification; 
Regeneration. 

Inability,  in  theology,  is  used  to  denote 
want  of  power  to  do  the  will  of  God.  Nat- 
iiral inability  means  that  one  cannot,  though 
he  will.  Moral  inability  means  that  one 
will  not,  though  he  can.  This  distinction 
has  been  the  subject  of  much  controversy 
between  Old-school  and  New-school  Cal¬ 
vinists  and  between  Arminians  and  Calvin¬ 
ists.  The  Old-school  deny  both  natural  and 
moral  ability.  The  New-school  affirm  that 
the  sinner  is  naturally  able  to  obey  God, 
but  morally  unable.  Arminians  deny  nat¬ 
ural  and  moral,  but  assert  gracious  ability 
on  the  part  of  the  sinner  to  accept  Christ, 
and  thus  obey  God. 

Incarnation.  See  Christology. 

Incense.  The  burning  of  incense  as  a 
symbolical  act  was  common  in  the  relig¬ 
ious  rituals  of  Judaism  and  Graeco-Roman 
paganism.  At  first  it  was  rejected  by  the 
Christian  Church,  but  afterward  adopted. 
Mention  is  made  by  Evagrius  (sixth  cen¬ 
tury)  of  a  golden  censer,  presented  to  the 
church  of  Jerusalem  by  Chosroes.  The 


use  of  incense  has  never  been  approved  by 
Protestants. 

Independents.  See  Congregationalists. 

India,  Religions  of.  See  Brahminism; 
BrahmoSomaj;  Buddhism;  Sikhs.  On  the 
general  subject  of  the  Indian  religions, 
see  A.  Barth:  Religions  of  India  (Eng. 
trans.,  London,  1882). 

India  Of  the  religions  of  this  great 
empire,  Brahminism  or  Hinduism  is  the 
oldest,  antedating  the  coming  of  Christ 
several  centuries.  The  following  is  an 
approximate  division  of  the  population  as 
to  religion: 

Hindus . 139,000,000 

Mohammedans . 40,000,000 

Buddhists .  3,000,000 

Sikhs .  1,000,000 

Christians .  900,000 

Francis  Xavier  was  sent  as  missionary 
to  India  by  the  king  of  Portugal  in  1541. 
The  first  Protestant  mission  was  founded 
in  1705  by  Frederick  IV.  of  Denmark.  At 
the  present  time  thirty-five  Protestant  so¬ 
cieties  have  missionaries  in  India.  These 
are  ordained  European  and  American  min¬ 
isters.  In  the  Bible,  India,  as  a  country, 
“  was  the  limit  of  the  territories  of  Ahas- 
uerus  in  the  East,  as  was  Ethiopia  in  the 
West.-  The  names  in  Herodotus  are  simi¬ 
larly  connected.  The  Hebrew  form,  Hoddu , 
is  an  abbreviation  of  Honadu ,  which  is 
identical  with  the  names  of  the  Indies, 
Hindu  or  Sindhu ,  as  well  as  with  the  an¬ 
cient  name  of  the  country,  Hapta-Hendu , 
as  it  appears  in  the  Vendidad.  The  India 
of  the  book  of  Esther  is  the  Punjab,  and 
perhaps  Sind,  i. e. ,  the  India  which  Herod¬ 
otus  described  as  forming  part  of  the 
Persian  empire  under  Darius,  and  the 
India  conquered  by  Alexander  the  Great. 
(Esth.  i.  8,  9.)” — Young. 

Indians,  North  American.  The  Indians 
are  believers  in  God,  or  gods,  and  in  the  im¬ 
mortality  of  the  soul.  The  world  to  them 
is  full  of  spiritual  existences.  “  They 
fully  believe  that  the  red  man  mortally  an-  , 
gered  the  Great  Spirit,  which  caused  the, 
deluge;  and  at  the  commencement  of  the 
New  Earth  it  was  only  through  the  me¬ 
dium  and  interest  of  a  powerful  being 
whom  they  denominate  Wa-wen-a-bo-zho, 
that  they  were  allowed  to  exist,  and  means 
were  given  them  whereby  to  subsist,  and 
support  life;  and  a  code  of  religion  was 
more  lately  bestowed  upon  them,  whereby 
they  could  commune  with  the  offending 
Great  Spirit  and  ward  off  the  approach  and 
ravages  of  death.  This  they  term  ‘  Me-da- 
wi-win,’  or  ‘  Grand  Medicine.’  ”  As  to  the 


Ind 


(  440  ) 


Inf 


future  the  Indian  has  no  fear,  or  concep¬ 
tion  that  his  actions  here  influence  his  state 
hereafter.  The  religious  performances  in 
propitiation  of  the  Grand  Medicine  are 
often  attended  by  the  vilest  exhibitions  of 
sensuality,  and  their  religion  is  entirely  di¬ 
vorced  from  morality.  In  recent  years 
earnest  efforts  have  been  made  to  Chris¬ 
tianize  the  Indians,  and  in  many  cases  with 
marked  success. 

Induction  is  the  name  given  to  the  cere¬ 
mony  in  the  Church  of  England  by  which 
the  temporalities  of  a  living  are  conferred 
on  a  new  incumbent.  It  is  performed  at 
the  church  door.  The  inductor  appointed 
by  the  bishop,  having  read  a  legal  docu¬ 
ment,  gives  the  key  of  the  church  to  the 
clergyman,  who  then  unlocks  the  door  and 
tolls  the  bell  in  token  that  he  is  in  posses¬ 
sion. 

Infallibility  of  the  Pope.  This  dogma 
became  an  article  of  faith  by  the  decree  of 
the  Vatican  Council,  July  18,  1870,  in  these 
words:  “  Therefore,  faithfully  adhering 

to  the  tradition  received  from  the  beginning 
of  the  Christian  faith,  for  the  glory  of  God 
our  Saviour,  the  exaltation  of  the  Catholic 
religion,  and  the  salvation  of  Christian 
people,  the  Sacred  Council  approving,  we 
teach  and  define  that  it  is  a  dogma  divinely 
revealed  that  the  Roman  pontiff  when  he 
speaks  ex-cathedra — that  is,  when,  in  dis¬ 
charge  of  the  office  of  pastor  and  doctor  of 
all  Christians,  by  virtue  of  his  supreme 
apostolic  authority,  he  defines  a  doctrine 
regarding  faith  or  morals  to  be  held  by  the 
universal  Church,  by  the  divine  assistance 
promised  to  him  in  blessed  Peter  (Luke 
xxii.  32) — is  possessed  of  that  infallibility 
\ with  which  the  divine  Redeemer  willed  that 
his  Church  should  be  endowed  for  defining 
doctrine  regarding  faith  or  morals:  and  that 
therefore  such  definitions  of  the  Roman 
pontiff  are  irreformable  of  themselves ,  and 
not  from  the  consent  of  the  Church.  But 
if  any  one — which  may  God  avert! — pre¬ 
sume  to  contradict  this  our  definition,  let 
him  be  anathema.” 

When  the  vote  was  first  taken  in  secret 
session  (July  13,  1S70),  Coi  members  being 
present,  451  bishops  voted  in  the  affirma¬ 
tive,  88  in  the  negative,  62  with  qualifica¬ 
tions,  and  over  eighty ,  although  present  in 
Rome,  abstained  from  voting.  On  the 
evening  of  the  same  day  the  minority,  in¬ 
cluding  the  most  distinguished  bishops  of 
the  Church,  begged  the  pope  to  modify 
the  proposed  decree.  On  the  17th  of  July, 
56  of  the  bishops  opposed  to  the  dogma 
asked  leave  to  return  home,  and,  on  the 
evening  of  the  same  day,  with  60  others  of 
the  minority,  making  the  rumors  of  war  an 


excuse,  withdrew  from  Rome.  In  the  pub¬ 
lic  session  of  July  18,  535  members  were 
present, and  all  but  two  voted  placet^ Bishop 
Riccio,  of  Sicily,  and  Bishop  Fitzgerald,  of 
Little  Rock,  Ark.),  but  they  changed  their 
vote  before  the  close  of  the  session.  The 
promulgation  of  the  dogma  caused  the  se¬ 
cession  of  the  “Old  Catholics,”  led  by 
Dr.  Dollinger,  and  has  been  the  fruitful 
cause  of  political  conflicts,  the  end  of  which 
is  not  yet.  This  dogma  arose  in  the  Middle 
Ages,  and,  after  the  Council  of  Trent,  was 
the  source  of  contention  between  the  Galli- 
cans  and  Jesuits.  The  result  of  the  Vati¬ 
can  Council  was  the  complete  victory  of 
the  latter  party.  See  Janus:  The  Pope  and 
the  Council  (London,  1869);  Gladstone:  The 
Vatican  Decrees  in  their  Bearing  on  Civil 
Allegiance  (London,  1874),  with  history  and 
notes  by  Dr.  Schaff  (N.  Y. ,  1875);  Glad¬ 
stone:  Vaticanism:  An  Answer  to  Reproofs 
and  Replies  of  Manning,  Newman,  and 
others  (London,  1875);  Schaff:  Creeds  op 
Christendom ,  i.  147-189;  ii.  234-2  71. 

Infant  Baptism.  See  Baptism  of  In¬ 
fants. 

Infant  Communion.  The  first  trace  of 
the  custom  of  giving  the  elements  to  young 
children,  and  even  to  infants,  is  found  in 
Cyprian  (third  century).  The  custom  of 
infant  communion,  following  baptism,  was 
universal  at  that  time.  Augustine,  speak¬ 
ing  of  young  children,  says,  “  They  are  in¬ 
fants;  but  they  are  made  partakers  of  his 
table  that  they  may  have  life  in  themselves.  ” 
(Serm.  74,  sec.  7.)  By  the  decrees  of  coun¬ 
cils  in  liturgies  and  canons,  infant  commun¬ 
ion  was  enjoined  for  many  centuries,  but  it 
finally  died  out  in  the  West,  and  the  Coun¬ 
cil  of  Trent  removed  any  obligation  for  its 
observance.  Abandoned  by  the  Roman 
Church  it  is  still  practiced  by  the  Greek 
Church,  the  Nestorians,  Armenians,  and 
Maronites,  who  generally  give  only  the 
wine,  in  a  spoon  or  with  the  finger.  The 
doctrine  of  infant  communion  is  rejected 
by  all  Protestant  Churches.  See  art.  in 
Smith  and  Cheetham:  Diet.  Chr.  A ntiq. , 
vol.  i.,  835-837. 

Infant  Salvation.  Whatever  views  may 
have  been  affirmed  by  theologians  in  the 
past,  of  the  Lutheran  and  Calvinistic  faith, 
it  is  now  universally  held  that  all  infants 
who  die  in  infancy  are  saved.  Dr.  Charles 
Hodge  asserts  that  this  is  the  “  common 
doctrine  of  evangelical  Protestants  ”  (6)'j- 
tematic  Theology ,  i.  26). 

Infidelity.  In  a  restricted  sense,  infidel¬ 
ity  denotes  the  denial  of  the  claims  of 
Christianity  as  a  divine  revelation:  in  a 


Inf 


(  44i  ) 


Inn 


wider  sense,  the  rejection  of  religion  gen¬ 
erally.  The  forms  of  modern  infidelity 
have  been  classified  as  follows:  (1)  Athe¬ 
ism,  or  the  denial  of  the  divine  existence. 
(2)  Pantheism,  or  the  denial  of  the  divine 
personality.  (3)  Naturalism,  or  the  de¬ 
nial  of  the  divine  government.  (4)  Spirit¬ 
ualism,  or  the  denial  of  the  divine  redemp¬ 
tion.  See  Deism;  Pantheism;  Spiritual¬ 
ism;  Positivism. 

Infralapsarianism  (from  infra ,  after,  and 
lapsus ,  a  fall).  According  to  this  doc¬ 
trine,  God,  with  the  design  to  reveal  his 
own  glory,  determined:  (1)  To  create  the 
world;  (2)  to  permit  the  fall  of  man;  (3) 
to  elect  from  the  mass  of  fallen  man  a  mul¬ 
titude  whom  no  man  could  number,  as 
“  vessels  of  mercy;”  (4)  to  send  his  Son 
for  their  redemption;  (5)  to  leave  the  res¬ 
idue  of  mankind  to  suffer  the  just  punish¬ 
ment  of  their  sins.  This  doctrine  is  held 
by  Augustinians,  and  is  found  in  the  Cal- 
vinistic  symbolical  books. 

Infula  (sometimes  called  mitral)  is  a  cap 
which,  since  the  sixteenth  century,  has 
been  worn  by  the  bishops  of  the  Roman 
and  Greek  Churches  as  the  insignia  of  their 
office. 

Ingathering,  Feast  of.  See  Taberna¬ 
cles,  Feast  of. 

Ingham,  Benjamin,  b.  in  Yorkshire  in 
1712;  d.  at  Aberford  in  1772.  While  a 
student  at  Oxford  he  was  a  member  of  the 
“  Holy  Club  ”  with  the  Wesleys.  After 
his  ordination,  he  accompanied  John  Wes¬ 
ley  in  his  missionary  expedition  in  Georgia. 
While  on  the  outward  voyage  he  met 
Moravian  bishops,  and  on  his  return  to 
England  joined  the  London  Society;  when 
he  was  prohibited  from  preaching  in  Epis¬ 
copal  churches,  he  went  through  York¬ 
shire  preaching  in  fields  and  barns.  In 
1740  Wesley  was  expelled  from  the  Soci¬ 
ety,  but  Ingham  remained,  and  became  the 
head  of  the  Yorkshire  Moravians.  Having 
married  a  sister-in-law  of  Lady  Hunting¬ 
don,  he  was  brought  into  close  relations 
with  her  in  religious  work.  Withdrawing 
from  the  Moravians  in  1753,  he  founded  a 
sect  in  which  he  took  the  office  of  “  gen¬ 
eral  overseer,”  or  bishop.  In  1759  he  read 
the  works  of  Glass  and  Sandeman,  and  sent 
two  of  his  assistants  to  Scotland  to  see 
these  leaders.  They  came  back  strong 
Sandemanians  ( q .  v. ).  This  caused  a  split 
in  the  sect,  and  only  thirteen  out  of  eighty 
Societies  remained  faithful  to  him.  The 
defection  probably  hastened  his  death. 
The  sect  survives,  but  only  numbers 
six  Societies.  See  Tyerman :  The  Ox¬ 


ford  Methodists  (New  York,  1S73,  pp. 

57-154)* 

Inheritance.  “The  Hebrew  institutions 
relative  to  inheritance  were  of  a  very  sim¬ 
ple  character.  Under  the  patriarchal  sys¬ 
tem  the  property  was  divided  among  the 
sons  of  the  legitimate  wives  (Gen.  xxi.  10; 
xxiv.  36;  xxv.  5),  a  larger  portion  being 
assigned  to  one,  generally  the  eldest,  on 
whom  devolved  the  duty  of  maintaining 
the  females  of  the  family.  The  sons  of 
concubines  were  portioned  off  with  pres¬ 
ents.  (Gen.  xxv.  6.)  At  a  later  period  the 
exclusion  of  the  sons  of  concubines  was 
rigidly  enforced.  (Judg.  xi.  1  jf.)  Daugh¬ 
ters  had  no  share  in  the  patrimony  (Gen. 
xxxi.  14),  but  received  a  marriage  portion. 
The  Mosaic  law  regulated  the  succession 
to  real  property  thus:  It  was  to  be  divided 
among  the  sons,  the  eldest  receiving  a 
double  portion  (Deut.  xxi.  17),  the  others 
equal  shares;  if  there  were  no  sons  it  went 
to  the  daughters  (Num.  xxvii.  8)  on  the 
condition  that  they  did  not  marry  out  of 
their  own  tribe  (Num.  xxxvi.  6  jf.\  Tob. 
vi.  12;  vii.  13),  otherwise  the  patrimony 
was  forfeited.  If  there  were  no  daughters 
it  went  to  the  brother  of  the  deceased;  if 
no  brother,  to  the  paternal  uncle;  and, 
failing  these,  to  the  next  of  kin.  (Num. 
xxvii.  9-1 1.)  In  the  case  of  a  widow  being 
left  without  children,  the  nearest  of  kin  on 
her  husband’s  side  had  the  right  of  marry¬ 
ing  her,  and  in  the  event  of  his  refusal  the 
next  of  kin  (Ruth  iii.  12,  13);  with  him 
rested  the  obligation  of  redeeming  the 
property  of  the  widow  (Ruth  iv.  1  Jf.)y  if  it 
had  been  either  sold  or  mortgaged.  If 
none  stepped  forward  to  marry  the  widow, 
the  inheritance  remained  with  her  until  her 
death,  and  then  reverted  to  the  next  of 
kin.  The  land  being  thus  so  strictly  tied 
up,  the  notion  of  heirship ,  as  we  under¬ 
stand  it,  was  hardly  known  to  the  Jews. 
Testamentary  dispositions  were,  of  course, 
superfluous.  The  references  to  wills  in  St. 
Paul’s  writings  are  borrowed  from  the 
usages  of  Greece  and  Rome  (Heb.  ix.  17), 
whence  the  custom  was  introduced  into 
Judaea.” — Smith:  Did.  of  the  Bible. 

Inner  Mission,  an  agency  organized  in 
Germany  in  1848  for  protmoting  the  spirit¬ 
ual  and  bodily  welfare  of  the  destitute  and 
spiritually  indifferent.  The  first  impulse 
to  this  work  came  with  the  success  and 
development  of  Fliedner’s  various  charities 
at  Kaiserswertli,  but  the  movement  was  in¬ 
augurated  by  Dr.  Wichern,  who  founded 
the  Rauhe  Haus  at  Hamburg  in  1833.  The 
sphere  of  the  efforts  of  the  society  that 
has  now  won  a  large  constituency  includes 
schools  for  children  and  cripples,  houses 


Inn 


(  442  ) 


Inn 


of  refuge,  the  care  of  the  sick  and  poor, 
the  conduct  of  Sunday-schools,  the  organi¬ 
zation  of  Young  Men’s  Christian  Associa¬ 
tions,  the  training  of  servants,  city  mission 
work,  and  other  forms  of  Christian  service. 
Central  committees  direct  trained  evangel¬ 
ists,  colporteurs,  and  helpers.  Its  mission, 
as  will  be  seen,  includes  both  physical  and 
spiritual  agencies,  and  it  has  been  the 
means  of  great  good. 

Innocent,  “  the  name  of  thirteen  popes, 
the  most  remarkable  of  whom  are  the  fol¬ 
lowing: 

“  Innocent  I.,  a  native  of  Albano,  was 
elected  bishop  of  Rome  in  402.  Next  to 
the  pontificate  of  Leo  the  Great,  that  of  In¬ 
nocent  I.  forms  the  most  important  epoch 
in  the  history  of  the  relations  of  the  see  of 
Rome  with  the  other  churches,  both  of  the 
East  and  West.  Under  him,  according  to 
Protestant  historians,  the  system  of  nam¬ 
ing  legates  to  act  in  the  name  of  the  Ro¬ 
man  bishop  in  different  portions  of  the 
Church  originated;  while  Catholics  at  least 
admit  that  it  received  a  fuller  organization 
and  development.  He  was  earnest  and 
vigorous  in  enforcing  the  celibacy  of  the 
clergy.  He  maintained,  with  a  firm  hand, 
the  right  of  the  bishop  of  Rome  to  receive 
and  to  judge  appeals  from  other  churches, 
and  his  letters  abound  with  assertions  of 
universal  jurisdiction,  to  which  Catholics 
appeal  as  evidence  of  the  early  exercise  of 
the  Roman  primacy,  and  from  which  Dean 
Milman  infers  that  there  had  already 
*  dawned  upon  his  mind  the  conception  of 
Rome’s  universal  ecclesiastical  supremacy , 
dim  as  yet  and  shadowy,  yet  full  and  com¬ 
prehensive  in  its  outline  ’  ( Latin  Chris¬ 
tianity ,  i.  p.  87).  Innocent  I.  died  in  417. 

“  Innocent  III.  (Lothario  Conti),  by 
far  the  greatest  pope  of  this  name,  was  b.  at 
Anagni  in  1161.  After  a  course  of  much 
distinction  at  Paris,  Bologna,  and  Rome, 
he  was  made  cardinal;  and  eventually,  in 
1198,  was  elected,  at  the  unprecedentedly 
early  age  of  37,  a  successor  of  Pope  Celes- 
tine  III.  His  pontificate  is  justly  regard¬ 
ed  as  the  culminating  point  of  the  temporal 
as  well  as  the  spiritual  supremacy  of  the 
Roman  see;  and  it  is  freely  avowed  by  the 
learned  historian  of  Latin  Christianity , 
that  if  ever  the  great  idea  of  a  Christian 
republic,  with  a  pope  at  its  head,  was  to  be 
realized,  ‘  none  could  bring  more  lofty  or 
more  various  qualifications  for  its  accom¬ 
plishment  than  Innocent  III.’  (iv.  p.  9). 
Accordingly,  under  the  impulse  of  his 
ardent  but  disinterested  zeal  for  the  glory 
of  the  Church,  almost  every  State  and  king¬ 
dom  was  brought  into  subjection.  In 
Italy,  during  the  minority  of  Frederick  II. 
(son  of  the  Emperor  Henry  VI.,  king  of 


Italy),  who  was  a  ward  of  Innocent’s,  the 
authority  of  the  pope  within  his  own  States 
was  fully  consolidated,  and  his  influence 
among  other  States  of  Italy  was  confirmed 
and  extended.  In  Germany  he  adjudicated 
with  authority  upon  the  rival  claims  of 
Otho  and  Philip;  and  a  second  time  he  in¬ 
terposed  effectually  in  behalf  of  his  ward, 
Frederick  II.  In  France,  espousing  the 
cause  of  the  injured  Ingerburga,  he  com¬ 
pelled  her  unworthy  husband,  Philip 
Augustus,  to  dismiss  Agnes  de  Meranie, 
whom  he  had  unlawfully  married,  and  to 
take  back  Ingerburga.  In  Spain  he  exer¬ 
cised  a  similar  authority  over  the  king  of 
Leon,  who  had  married  within  the  prohibit¬ 
ed  degrees.  The  history  of  his  conflict  with 
the  weak  and  unprincipled  John  of  England 
would  carry  us  beyond  the  space  at  our 
disposal.  If  it  exhibits  Innocent’s  character 
for  consistent  adherence  to  principle,  and 
his  lofty  indifference  to  the  suggestions  of 
expediency  in  a  less  favorable  point  of  view 
than  his  other  similar  contests,  it  at  the 
same  time  displays  in  a  stronger  light  the 
extent  of  his  pretensions  and  the  complete¬ 
ness  of  his  supremacy.  In  Norway  he 
exercised  the  same  authority  in  reference 
to  the  usurper  Swero.  In  Aragon  he  re¬ 
ceived  the  fealty  of  the  King  Alfonso. 
Even  the  king  of  Armenia,  Leo,  received 
his  legates,  and  accepted  from  them  the  in¬ 
vestiture  of  his  kingdom.  And,  as  if  in 
order  that  nothing  might  be  wanting  to  the 
completeness  of  his  authority  throughout 
the  then  known  world,  the  Latin  conquest 
of  Constantinople,  and  the  establishment 
of  the  Latin  kingdom  of  Jerusalem,  put  an 
end,  at  least  during  his  pontificate,  to  the 
shadowy  pretensions  of  the  Eastern  rivals 
of  his  power,  spiritual  as  well  as  temporal. 
Pursuing  consistently  the  great  idea  which 
inspired  his  entire  career,  his  views  of  the 
absoluteness  of  the  authority  of  the  Church 
within  her  own  dominion  were  no  less  un¬ 
bending  than  his  notion  of  the  universality 
of  its  extent.  To  him,  every  offence 
against  religion  was  a  crime  against  society, 
and,  in  his  ideal  Christian  republic,  every 
heresy  was  a  rebellion  which  it  was  the 
duty  of  the  rulers  to  resist  and  repress. 
It  was  at  his  call,  therefore,  that  the  cru¬ 
sade  against  the  Albigenses  was  organized 
and  undertaken;  and  although  he  can  hard¬ 
ly  be  held  responsible  for  the  fearful  ex¬ 
cesses  into  which  it  ran,  and  although  at 
its  close  he  used  all  his  endeavors  to  pro¬ 
cure  the  restitution  of  the  lands  of  the 
young  Count  of  Toulouse,  yet  it  is  clear 
from  his  letters  that  he  regarded  the  under¬ 
taking  itself  not  merely  as  lawful,  but  as  a 
glorious  enterprise  of  religion  and  piety. 
As  an  ecclesiastical  administrator,  Innocent 
holds  a  high  place  in  his  order.  He  was  a 


Inn 


(  443  ) 


Inq 


vigorous  guardian  of  public  and  private 
morality,  a  steady  protector  of  the  weak, 
zealous  in  the  repression  of  simony  and 
other  abuses  of  the  time.  He  prohibited 
the  arbitrary  multiplication  of  religious 
orders  by  private  authority,  but  he  lent  all 
the  force  of  his  power  and  influence  to  the 
remarkable  spiritual  movement  in  which 
the  two  great  orders,  the  Franciscan  and 
the  Dominican  (y.  v. ),  had  their  origin. 
It  was  under  him  that  the  celebrated  fourth 
Lateran  council  was  held  in  1215.  In  the 
following  year  he  was  seized  with  his  fatal 
illness,  and  died  in  July  at  Perugia,  at  the 
early  age  of  fifty-six.  His  works,  consist¬ 
ing  principally  of  letters  and  sermons,  and 
of  a  remarkable  treatise  On  the  Misery  of 
the  Condition  of  Man ,  were  published  in 
two  vols.  folio  (Paris,  1682).  It  is  from 
these  letters  and  decretals  alone  that  the 
character  of  the  age  and  the  true  signifi¬ 
cance  of  the  church  policy  of  this  extraor¬ 
dinary  man  can  be  fully  understood;  and 
it  is  only  from  a  careful  study  of  them  that 
the  nature  of  his  views  and  objects  can  be 
realized  in  their  integrity.  However  ear¬ 
nestly  men  may  dissent  from  these  views, 
no  student  of  mediaeval  history  will  refuse 
to  accept  Dean  Milman’s  verdict  on  the  ca¬ 
reer  of  Innocent  III.,  that  ‘his  high  and 
blameless,  and,  in  some  respects,  wise  and 
gentle  character,  seems  to  approach  more 
nearly  than  any  one  of  the  whole  succession 
of  Roman  bishops  to  the  ideal  light  of  a 
supreme  pontiff;  ’  and  that  *  in  him,  if  ever, 
may  seem  to  be  realized  the  churchman’s 
highest  conception  of  a  vicar  of  Christ 
( Latin  Christianity ,  iv.  277).” — Chambers: 
Cyclopcedia. 

Innocents’  Day,  a  festival  held  on  Dec. 
28  to  commemorate  the  massacre  of  the 
children  at  Bethlehem  by  Herod.  Until 
the  fifth  century  it  was  connected  with  the 
Feast  of  the  Epiphany.  In  England  it  was 
formerly  called  Childermas  Day. 

Inns.  In  ancient  times  inns  were  simply 
enclosures  which  afforded  some  protec¬ 
tion.  The  “  khans  ”  or  “  caravansaries  ” 
of  later  times  were  large  square  buildings 
Containing  rooms  enclosing  an  open  court. 
(Jer.  ix.  2.)  Food  was  not,  as  a  rule,  pro¬ 
vided  for  man  or  beast,  as  the  traveler 
was  expected  to  carry  it  with  him.  An¬ 
other  kind  of  inn  is  that  mentioned  in  the 
parable  of  the  Good  Samaritan  (Luke  x. 
34),  which  had  a  keeper,  and  where  per¬ 
sonal  care  as  well  as  food  could  be  secured. 
It  was  in  one  of  the  stables  connected  with 
a  caravansary  that  our  Lord  was  born. 

Inquisition,  The,  a  tribunal  in  the 
Church  of  Rome  for  the  trial  and  punish¬ 


ment  of  heretics.  The  first  foundation  of 
it  was  laid  by  Innocent  III.  in  the  year 
1215,  when  he  commissioned  Father  Dom¬ 
inic  to  judge  and  deliver  to  punishment 
obstinate  and  relapsed  heretics  among  the 
Albigenses.  The  result  was  that  30,000 
persons  of  every  age,  sex,  and  condition 
were  massacred.  But  the  Court  of  the  In¬ 
quisition  was  not  formally  established  till 
the  Council  of  Toulouse,  under  Gregory 
IX.,  in  1229.  By  this  council  a  tribunal 
was  erected  in  every  city,  consisting  of  a 
priest  and  three  laymen,  who  were  charged 
with  the  work  of  seeking  out  heretics  and 
denouncing  them  to  the  bishops.  In  1233 
Gregory  transferred  the  working  of  the  In¬ 
quisition  from  the  bishops  to  the  Domin¬ 
icans,  who  discharged  their  functions  with 
great  vigor.  In  1263  Urban  IV.  appointed 
an  Inquisitor-General,  to  whom  reference 
might  be  made  by  his  subordinates  in  all 
cases  of  doubt;  and  in  1542  Paul  III., 
alarmed  at  the  spread  of  Lutheran  doctrine, 
appointed  a  committee  of  nine  learned  men 
for  the  reformation  of  church  discipline. 
This  committee  was  reorganized,  and  its 
powers  extended  by  Pius  IV.  in  1564.  The 
new  council  consisted  of  twelve  cardinals 
as  Inquisitors-General,  and  a  number  of 
other  clergy,  called  consultors,  with  a 
Dominican  as  commissary,  and  it  had  power 
to  appoint  provincial  inquisitors,  and  to 
receive  appeals.  Princes  and  rulers  were 
commanded  by  Pius  V.  to  execute  its  or¬ 
ders.  Sixtus  V.,  in  1588,  further  perfected 
the  organization  by  increasing  the  numbers 
of  the  council,  and  dividing  it  into  fifteen 
congregations,  to  each  of  which  a  particular 
branch  was  assigned. 

Spain,  since  1483,  had  its  own  Grand  In¬ 
quisitor,  who  was  nominated  by  the  king, 
and  appointed  by  the  pope.  The  post  was 
first  filled  by  the  famous  Tomas  de  Torque- 
mada,  under  whom,  in  the  first  eighteen 
years  of  the  Inquisition,  10,220  prisoners 
were  burnt,  and  97,321  imprisoned,  exiled, 
or  stripped  of  their  property.  The  Grand 
Inquisitor  named  his  own  assistants,  and 
from  him  there  was  no  appeal,  except  to 
the  king,  who  was  bound  by  his  coronation 
oath  to  submit  to  the  laws  of  the  Inquisi¬ 
tion. 

The  prisoners  of  the  Inquisition  were 
never  confronted  with  witnesses,  but  were 
imprisoned  and  tortured  to  make  them  con¬ 
fess  and  recant  their  error.  The  ceremony  of 
pronouncing  sentence,  called  an  Auto  da  Fd 
(Act  of  Faith), was  solemn  and  imposing, and 
was  performed  in  public.  A  procession  was 
formed  of  the  accused  in  the  order  of  their 
guilt:  first  came  those  who  were  to  be  dis¬ 
charged,  wearing  their  ordinary  dress,  and 
separated  from  the  condemned  by  a  crucifix; 
then  followed  the  bones  and  effigies  of  dead 


Ins 


(  444  ) 


Ins 


heretics,  with  inscriptions  intimating  their 
crimes;  and,  finally,  the  condemned,  each 
clad  in  a  yellow  garment,  called  a  San  Ben¬ 
ito,  decorated  with  significant  emblems. 
St.  Andrew’s  crosses  marked  those  who 
had  escaped  with  their  lives,  red  flames 
those  who  were  threatened  with  burning, 
if  again  convicted,  whilst  representations 
of  devils  amongst  the  flames  covered  the 
robes  of  those  who  were  to  suffer  death. 
Thus  apparelled,  the  prisoners  were  led 
before  the  Inquisitor,  who  “reluctantly” 
handed  them  over  to  the  secular  arm,  and 
delivered  them  to  be  burned.  The  Inquisi¬ 
tion  has  been  vindicated  by  the  Church  of 
Rome  in  our  own  day  by  the  “  Syllabus  ” 
of  1864,  which  asserts  the  right  of  the 
Church  to  use  both  the  spiritual  and  tem¬ 
poral  sword  for  the  reclamation  of  heretics. 
— Benham:  Diet,  of  Religion.  See  Lea: 
History  of  the  Inquisition  (New  York,  1889), 
3  vols. 

Inspiration.  This  term  means,  liter¬ 
ally,  an  inbreathing,  and  is  a  name  for 
spiritual  influence.  In  theological  language 
it  is  usually  applied  to  an  influence  of  the 
divine  spirit  upon  men.  The  term  occurs 
twice  in  our  older  English  version,  viz: 
Job  xxxii.  8,  “  There  is  a  spirit  in  man, 
and  the  inspiration  of  the  Almighty  giveth 
them  understanding;”  and  2  Tim.  iii.  16, 
“  All  Scripture  is  given  by  inspiration  of 
God,”  etc.  In  the  former  case  the  word 
“inspiration”  is  replaced  by  the  literal 
rendering  “breath”  in  the  Revised  Ver¬ 
sion,  and  in  the  latter  the  adjective  {theo- 
pneustos ,  God-breathed)  is  more  exactly 
rendered  :  “  Every  Scripture  inspired  of 
God  is  also  profitable,”  etc. 

In  the  first  passage  the  conception  is 
that  inspiration  is  a  universal  fact  ground¬ 
ed  in  the  spiritual  nature  of  man  and  his 
kinship  of  being  with  God.  This  is  the 
most  comprehensive  use  of  the  term.  In 
the  second  passage  inspiration  is  contem¬ 
plated  with  specific  reference  to  that  influ¬ 
ence  of  God  which  acted  upon  the  Script¬ 
ure  writers,  that  is,  the  writers  of  the  Old 
Testament,  since  at  that  time  there  was  no 
body  of  Christian  writings  which  were 
called  “  Scripture.” 

There  may  be  applications  of  the  term 
“  inspiration”  intermediate  between  these. 
By  it  may  be  denoted  an  influence  of  God 
which  has  for  its  end  the  revelation  of 
himself  to  men — an  influence  more  special 
than  that  which,  in  virtue  of  man’s  consti¬ 
tution,  God  may  be  said  to  exercise  upon 
all  men,  and  less  special  than  is  supposed 
when  inspiration  is  made  to  terminate  upon 
the  writing  of  books.  The  conception  of 
inspiration  turns  largely  upon  the  view 
taken  of  the  primary  end  which  God  is 


supposed  to  be  contemplating  in  inspiring 
men.  The  most  general  sense  of  the  word, 
which  we  have  noticed,  may  be  left  out  ot 
account  here,  -since  theological  usage  em¬ 
ploys  the  term  in  relation  to  the  revela- 
tions,  truths,  or  records  which  are  con¬ 
tained  in  the  Bible.  The  differences  among 
theologians  relate  to  such  questions  as 
these:  Does  the  action  of  God  which  is 
called  inspiration  have  for  its  primary  end 
the  protection  of  a  record  of  the  acts  of 
God  in  history,  or  is  it,  rather,  an  accom¬ 
paniment  of  those  revealing  acts — a  con¬ 
stituent  element  in  the  process  of  revela¬ 
tion  ?  Is  inspiration,  then,  for  writing 
only  or  chiefly,  or  for  leadership,  teaching 
and  other  functions  as  well  ?  What  are  the 
limits  of  inspiration?  If  its  end  is  the 
writing  of  books,  how  far  are  those  books 
to  be  regarded  as  infallible  records  or  ex¬ 
positions  of  doctrine  ? 

In  connection  with  these  questions  it 
may  be  useful  to  quote  the  definitions  of 
inspiration  which  are  given  by  three  repre¬ 
sentative  theologians  of  the  present  day: 
“  By  the  inspiration  of  Scripture  we  mean 
that  special  divine  influence  upon  the 
minds  of  the  Scripture  writers,  in  virtue  of 
which  their  productions,  apart  from  errors 
of  transcription,  and,  when  rightly  inter¬ 
preted,  together  constitute  an  infallible  and 
sufficient  rule  of  faith  and  practice.”  (A. 
H.  Strong:  Syst.  Theol. ,  p.  95.) 

“  Inspiration  is  that  divine  influence  by 
virtue  of  which  the  truths  and  facts  given 
by  revelation,  as  well  as  other  truths  and 
facts  pertaining  to  God’s  kingdom,  are 
spoken  or  written  in  a  truthful  and  author¬ 
itative  manner.”  (H.  B.  Smith:  Int.  to 
Chris.  Theol.,  p.  204.) 

“  Inspiration  is  the  divine  communica¬ 
tion  of  the  permanent  truths  of  the  king¬ 
dom  of  redemption,  in  an  organic  way,  to 
the  writers  of  Scripture,  which  gives  to 
these  writers  their  unique  place  in  the  of¬ 
fices  of  this  kingdom.”  (G.  T.  Ladd:  Doct. 
of  Sac.  Scr.,  ii. ,  464.) 

It  will  be  seen  that  the  first  of  these 
definitions  contemplates  inspiration  as  ter¬ 
minating  more  upon  the  production  of  the 
book  which  we  call  the  Bible;  the  second 
as  terminating  more  upon  the  teaching  or 
writing  of  the  truths  and  facts  of  God’s 
kingdom;  the  third  defines  the  relation  of 
inspiration  to  the  writers,  but  limits  the 
scope  of  its  action  to  the  permanent  truths, 
etc.,  and  indicates  the  method  as  “  organ¬ 
ic,”  that  is,  historic  and  progressive. 

In  modern  times,  more  especially  in  the 
seventeenth  and  eighteenth  centuries,  it 
has  been  customary  to  define  inspiration  as 
terminating  upon  the  writing  of  books, 
and  as  securing  absolute  infallibility  in 
these  books,  not  only  in  teaching,  but  in 


Ins 


(  445  ) 


Ins 


chronology,  geography,  science,  and  the 
like.  This  view  sometimes  went  so  far  as 
to  attribute  the  very  words  chosen  to  the 
Holy  Spirit,  and  to  characterize  the  writers 
•as  amanuenses.  It  is  now  generally  ad¬ 
mitted  that  these  views  were  extreme,  al¬ 
though  a  less  consistent  effort  to  preserve 
the  same  general  conception  of  the  sub¬ 
ject,  without  carrying  it  into  such  minutice , 
is  still  made.  The  gradual  abandonment 
of  this  type  of  theory  has  been  chiefly  due 
to  biblical  criticism,  which  explores  the 
historical  and  doctrinal  contents  of  the 
Bible  in  a  scientific  manner  and  spirit,  and 
which  finds  the  various  books  to  have  been 
largely  affected  by  the  human  conditions 
which  surrounded  their  writers.  Some  re¬ 
flect  the  imperfect  morality  of  the  times  to 
which  they  belong;  the  language  of  Script¬ 
ure  is  conformed  to  the  limited  knowledge 
of  science  and  history  which  its  writers 
possessed;  there  are  in  the  biblical  books 
such  errors  and  discrepancies  as  we  should 
look  for  in  other  literatures  representing 
many  centuries  of  time,  and  originating, 
chiefly,  in  an  uncritical  age. 

Those  who  accepted  these  results  of 
criticism  can  no  longer  hold  to  those  opin¬ 
ions  of  inspiration  which  make  the  Bible 
the  direct  product  of  divine  agency,  and 
deny  to  it  all  traces  of  human  imperfection 
or  mistake.  They  maintain  that  the  nat¬ 
ure  of  the  Bible  is  settled  in  advance  by 
definition  in  such  theories,  and  that  the 
theories  break  down  before  the  facts.  In 
recent  times  the  opinion  has  become  cur¬ 
rent  that  theories  of  inspiration  constructed 
a  priori  can  have  little  truth  or  value. 
The  critical  study  of  the  Bible  itself  alone 
can  decide  whether  it  contains  errors  of 
chronology  and  similar  imperfections  or 
not.  Theology  has  thus  been  forced  to  a 
new  method  of  approaching  the  subject. 
Instead  of  defining  in  advance  what  must  be 
the  facts,  the  effort  is  made  to  study  im¬ 
partially  the  whole  range  of  history  and 
teaching  which  the  Bible  presents,  and  to 
determine  as  accurately  as  possible,  by  an 
inductive  process,  the  ways  and  degrees  in 
which  human  agencies  and  limitations  have 
affected  the  biblical  books.  The  former 
method  was  the  easier,  since  it  is  far  sim¬ 
pler  to  ignore  human  factors  and  to  define 
philosophically  what  the  divine  aim  in  in¬ 
spiration  must  have  been.  The  latter 
method,  which  approaches  the  subject  from 
the  human  side  and  deals  with  the  ascer¬ 
tainable  concrete  facts,  has  the  greater  dif¬ 
ficulty  in  shaping  any  formal  definition, 
and  is  under  the  necessity  of  modifying  its 
conceptions  and  adjusting  them  to  new 
facts,  as  investigation  proceeds,  but  has 
the  great  advantage  of  proceeding  upon 
the  only  method  which  can  commend  itself 


to  a  scientific  age  or  yield  any  trustworthy 
results. 

In  accord  with  the  spirit  and  results  of 
biblical  science  the  following  suggestions 
may  be  made  in  regard  to  the  construction 
of  a  doctrine  of  the  inspiration  of  the 
Scriptures:  (i)  The  chief  difficulty  in  fram¬ 
ing  satisfactory  formal  definitions  arises  (a) 
from  the  fact  that  the  phenomena  of  Script¬ 
ure  are  in  the  process  of  investigation, 
and  many  questions  touching  the  form, 
authorship,  and  historical  conditions  at¬ 
tending  the  origin  of  some  of  the  biblical 
books  are  undetermined.  (l>)  The  great 
variety  of  biblical  literature,  including 
chronicle,  psalmody,  history,  prophecy, 
and  letters,  renders  it  difficult  to  frame  a 
brief  description  which  shall  be  equally 
appropriate  and  true  of  all,  and  shall  satis¬ 
factorily  define  the  part  of  divine  agency 
in  the  production  of  each.  (2)  The  indis¬ 
putable  spiritual  power  and  the  self-evi¬ 
dencing  moral  value  of  the  Bible  give  the 
impulse,  while  biblical  criticism,  impar¬ 
tially  investigating  the  human  conditions 
affecting  the  biblical  books,  sets  the  limits 
to  the  conception  of  inspiration.  The  Bible 
has  been  held  to  be  inspired  because  of  the 
practical  saving  power  of  the  truths  and 
revelations  of  God  of  which  it  is  the  rec¬ 
ord;  the  sense  and  degree  of  its  inspiration 
in  its  various  parts  must  be  defined — so 
far  as  may  be — after  the  most  painstaking 
study  of  the  book  itself,  and  the  fullest  pos¬ 
sible  consideration  of  all  its  phenomena 
which  lie  open  to  investigation.  (3)  The 
question  as  to  the  nature  and  method  of  the 
revelation  of  God  contained  and  recorded  in 
the  Bible  is  a  much  more  comprehensive 
and  important  question  than  that  as  to  the 
nature  and  method  of  the  divine  influence 
in  the  writing  of  the  biblical  books.  This 
larger  question  has  risen  to  such  importance 
in  theology , especially  in  view  of  skepticism 
respecting  the  reality  of  divine  revelation, 
as  to  relatively  diminish  interest  in  the 
special  question  of  inspiration.  The  ques¬ 
tion  of  inspiration  is  a  question  among 
Christian  theologians;  it  is  chiefly  a  ques¬ 
tion  of  method  and  degree  of  divine  influ¬ 
ence;  the  question  of  revelation  is  a  ques¬ 
tion  between  belief  and  unbelief;  it  is  a 
question  affecting  the  truth  and  perpetuity 
of  the  Christian  religion.  Varying  concep¬ 
tions  of  inspiration  may  be  held  without 
affecting  the  practical  value  and  use  of  the 
Bible;  but  with  the  question  of  revelation 
the  Bible  stands  or  falls;  upon  it  hinge 
all  the  interests  of  Christian  faith.  In  ac¬ 
cord  with  this  greater  emphasis  which  is 
laid  in  recent  times  upon  the  idea  and  fact 
of  revelation,  the  defense  of  the  Bible  pro¬ 
ceeds  more  than  formerly  upon  historical, 
rather  than  philosophical  lines.  Apol- 


Ins 


(  44^  ) 


Int 


ogetics  seek  to  prove  the  fact  of  a  divine 
revelation  enshrined  in  the  Bible,  rather 
than  any  special  theory  of  the  activity  of 
God  in  the  writing  of  the  Bible.  The  pri¬ 
mary  question  is  felt  to  be,  whether,  and 
in  how  far,  the  Bible  is  historical,  while 
the  determination  of  the  mode  or  degree  of 
its  inspiration  is  considered  a  subordinate 
inquiry.  (4)  The  conception  of  inspiration 
should  be  held  in  relation  to  the  essential 
moral  and  spiritual  contents  of  the  Bible, 
and  not  merely  in  relation  to  its  form.  In¬ 
spiration  does  not  terminate  upon  the  pro¬ 
duction  of  formally  infallible  records,  but 
upon  the  furnishing  of  men  for  the  com¬ 
munication  of  religious  truth.  (5)  Inspira¬ 
tion  applies  primarily  to  men,  only  second¬ 
arily  to  books.  It  has,  therefore,  for  its 
object,  not  merely  the  writing  of  books, 
but  includes  enlightenment  and  guidance 
in  teaching,  leadership  and  other  functions 
which  the  divine  Spirit  employs  for  the 
ends  of  revelation.  (6)  Biblical  inspiration 
pertains  to  that  whole  course  of  redemptive 
history  whose  product  and  record  is  the 
Bible.  It  cannot  be  rigidly  limited  to 
those  who  wrote  some  part  of  our  canon¬ 
ical  books,  except  by  arbitrary  definition. 
There  is  no  reason  to  doubt  that  there 
were  prophets  as  truly  and  fully  inspired 
as  those  whose  writings  we  have,  or  that 
other  apostles  who  have  not  contributed 
to  our  canon  shared  as  richly  in  the  prom¬ 
ised  gifts  of  the  Spirit  as  those  whose 
epistles  we  possess. 

(7)  The  object  of  inspiration  is  the  com¬ 
munity  of  believers.  Whatever  special 
inspiration  is  given  to  chosen  leaders  or 
for  the  ends  of  writing  can  be  special  only 
in  its  purpose,  not  in  its  nature,  or,  neces¬ 
sarily,  in  its  degree. 

In  harmony  with  the  distinctions  and  sug¬ 
gestions  above  made,  the  following  defini¬ 
tions  are  offered,  not  as  furnishing  an  ade¬ 
quate  presentation  of  the  subject,  but  as 
indicating  what  the  writer  deems  to  be  the 
right  point  of  view  and  the  correct  general 
conception:  Inspiration,  as  properly  ap¬ 
plied  to  the  Bible,  is,  in  general,  (a)  a  name 
for  the  influence  of  God  upon  men  in  re¬ 
vealing  himself  to  them,  so  far  as  that  proc¬ 
ess  of  revelation  is  traced  in  the  Bible; 
( b )  more  particularly,  it  is  a  name  for  that 
divine  influence  upon  the  leaders  and  teach¬ 
ers  of  the  true  religion,  who  were,  at  once, 
the  chief  human  agents  of  the  revelation 
and  the  chief  authors  of  the  Bible,  men  like 
Moses,  Isaiah,  John  and  Paul;  ( c )  in  strict 
application  to  the  biblical  writings  (the 
technical  sense  of  the  word  in  theology), 
inspiration  is  a  name  for  that  guiding  and 
enlightening  influence  of  the  divine  Spirit 
upon  the  biblical  writers,  which  enabled 
them,  in  different  degrees  of  fullness  and  in 


varying  forms,  to  present  in  their  writings 
accounts,  examples,  and  interpretations  of 
the  history  and  contents  of  the  divine  self¬ 
revelation  such  as,  when  taken  together 
and  rightly  interpreted,  constitute  an  ade¬ 
quate  and  authoritative  guide  to  religious 
faith  and  conduct.  See  Wm.  Lee:  Inspira¬ 
tion  of  Scripture;  J.  J.  Given:  Revelation , 
Inspiration ,  and  the  Canon :  Liber  Libr or um 
(anonymous);  Alfred  Cane:  The  Inspiration 
of  the  Old  Testament;  R.  Jamieson:  The 
Inspiration  of  Holy  Scripture;  Inspiration 
(a  clerical  symposium);  R.  F.  Horton:  In¬ 
spiration  and  the  Bible;  C.  Gore:  The  Holy 
Spirit  and  Inspiration  (in  Lux  Mundi);  G.T. 
Ladd :  The  Doctrine  of  Sacred  Scripture ,  and 
What  is  the  Bible  ? 

George  B.  Stevens. 

Inspired,  The,  the  name  of  a  sect  which 
sprang  up  about  1700,  under  the  influence 
of  the  prophets  of  the  Camisards.  Driven 
from  France,  some  of  these  enthusiasts 
found  a  home  in  Germany,  where  they  made 
many  converts.  By  the  close  of  the 
eighteenth  century  they  had  congregations 
in  Halle  and  Berlin  and  in  Hesse,  the  Palat¬ 
inate,  Wiirtemburg,  and  Saxony.  Their 
most  prominent  prophets  were  E.  L.  Gru¬ 
ber  and  J.  F.  Rock.  In  doctrine  they  did 
not  differ  very  much  from  the  evangelical 
churches,  but  their  peculiar  views  of  disci¬ 
pline  and  belief  in  continuous  inspiration 
brought  them  into  antagonism  with  the 
Established  Church.  The  Hessian  and 
Prussian  governments  sought  to  silence 
the  prophets,  and  in  1841  about  eight  hun¬ 
dred  of  the  sect  emigrated  to  this  country 
and  formed  a  colony  at  Ebenezer,  in  the 
State  of  N.  Y.,  and  afterward  in  Canada 
and  Iowa  (1854). 

Installation  is  the  ceremony  by  which  an 
ordained  minister  is  put  into  possession  of 
an  ecclesiastical  benefice.  It  also  denotes 
the  public  and  official  induction  of  a  minis¬ 
ter  into  a  new  pastoral  connection. 

Institution,  according  to  canon  law,  is 
the  final  act  by  which  a  person  elected  by 
the  chapter,  or  nominated  by  the  govern¬ 
ment,  is  appointed  by  the  proper  authority 
to  an  ecclesiastical  benefice. 

Intercession  is  the  act  of  one  who  inter¬ 
poses  between  parties  at  variance,  with  a 
view  to  reconciliation.  In  theological 
language  it  refers  to  the  mediatorial  work 
of  Christ.  “  His  Intercession,  in  its  larg¬ 
est  sense,  may  be  said  to  consist  in  all  his 
agency,  at  the  right  hand  of  the  Father,  for 
the  final  and  complete  redemption  of  man. 
Whatever  he  does,  on  the  basis  of  his  sac¬ 
rifice,  now  and  ever,  in  the  way  of  media- 


Int 


(  447  ) 


Int 


tion  between  God  and  man  is  comprised  in 
this  intercession,  taken  in  its  fullest  scope. 
It  consists  not  in  words  alone,  but  also  in 
deeds  :  his  succor,  his  pity,  his  care,  his 
love  for  each  and  all  of  his  followers;  his 
guardianship  in  the  hour  of  temptation,  his 
aid  in  our  spiritual  conflicts,  his  grace  im¬ 
parted  according  to  our  need,  the  balm  of 
his  consolation,  his  strength  in  our  weak¬ 
ness,  the  answers  to  all  prayers  put  up  in 
his  name;  all  belong  to,  and  make  a  part 
of,  his  intercession.” — Dr.  H.  B.  Smith: 
Systematic  Theology ,  pp.  483,484.  See  Isa. 
liii.  12;  Heb.  vii.  25;  Rom.  viii.  34;  1  John 
ii.  i.  The  intercession  of  saints  as  taught 
by  the  Church  of  Rome  is  not  received  by 
Protestants.  See  Mediator. 

Interdict,  a  punishment  inflicted  upon  its 
members,  by  the  Roman  Catholic  Church, 
by  which  they  are  forbidden  the  celebration 
of  all  services,  the  sacraments,  etc.  The 
pope,  the  councils,  and  the  bishops  alone 
have  the  right  of  pronouncing  an  interdict. 
Innocent  III.  put  England  under  an  inter¬ 
dict  in  1208. 

Interim,  a  provisional  arrangement,  im¬ 
posed  upon  the  German  reformers  by 
Charles  V.,  until  a  general  council  should 
decide  between  them  and  the  pope.  There 
were  three  interims,  named  after  the  places 
from  which  they  were  issued,  viz.,  Ratis- 
bon,  Augsburg,  and  Leipzig. 

Interpretation.  See  Exegesis;  Herme¬ 
neutics. 

Intinction  is  the  name  given  the  mode  in 
which  the  Greek  Church  administers  the 
Eucharist  to  the  laity.  The  consecrated 
bread  being  broken  into  the  wine,  both 
elements  are  given  together  in  a  spoon. 
Greek  writers  claim  that  this  custom  pre¬ 
vailed  as  early  as  the  time  of  Chrysostom. 

Intonation,  the  reading  of  a  liturgical 
service  with  a  musical  accentuation  and 
tone  of  voice.  It  is  practiced  in  the  Roman, 
Greek,  and  some  Episcopal,  churches. 

Introduction  is  a  word  used  with  wide 
variety  of  meaning  to  signify  the  history 
of  the  Scripture  writings.  This  branch  of 
study  is  divided  into  two  parts:  (1)  General 
Introduction,  which  treats  of  the  original 
languages  of  the  Bible,  its  versions,  the 
history  and  criticism  of  the  text,  and  the 
history  of  the  canon:  (2)  Special  Intro¬ 
duction  is  confined  to  the  contents,  origin 
and  credibility  of  the  separate  books.  The 
literature  is  extensive.  See  Horne:  An 
Introduction  to  the  Critical  Study  and 
Knowledge  of  the  Scriptures  (London, 


1818,  last  edition,  1877);  Davidson:  An  In¬ 
troduction  to  the  Old  Testament  (London, 
1862),  3  vols;  Harman:  Introduction  to  the 
Study  of  Holy  Scripture  (N.  Y.,  1873,  4th 
ed.,  1884);  Lumby:  A  Popular  Intro¬ 
duction  to  the  New  Testament  (London, 
1883);  Farrar:  The  Message  of  the  Books 
(1884).  ♦ 

Intuitionists,  those  who  make  the  basis 
of  faith  not  an  external  revelation  (whether 
through  the  Church,  or  through  the  Script¬ 
ures),  but  the  intuitions  and  instincts  of 
the  soul.  The  principle  underlying  this 
theory  has  shown  itself  in  all  ages;  it  be¬ 
longs  to  a  certain  class  of  mind,  and  some 
of  the  early  heretics,  as  well  as  some  of 
the  noblest  of  teachers,  made  it  their  start¬ 
ing  point.  Thus  not  only  the  Gnostics  re¬ 
garded  themselves  as  “  spiritual,”  lifted 
out  of  the  regions  of  sensation  and  verbal 
teaching  by  the  intuitions  of  a  Divine 
knowledge  imparted  to  them,  but  men  like 
Thomas  a  Kempis  felt  comforted  and 
strengthened  by  the  conviction  that  as  they 
retired  into  religious  contemplation,  God 
spoke,  as  confidentially,  to  their  souls. 
(Neo  -  Platonists;  Mystics).  But  In- 
tuitionism  was  concreted  into  a  system  as 
a  result  of  the  Reformation.  That  event 
taught  men  to  challenge  all  traditional  be¬ 
liefs,  and  to  make  themselves  sure  of  their 
foundations.  Not  merely  the  doctrines  of 
the  Creeds,  but  the  authority  of  the  Script¬ 
ures  demanded  at  their  hands  credentials 
for  their  acceptance.  And  hence  followed 
two  lines  of  thought.  There  were  those 
who  declared  that  nothing  is  to  be  believed 
which  imposes  the  acceptance  of  an  ex¬ 
ternal  authority;  that  the  Creeds,  that  the 
Bible  itself,  must  make  way  for  the  re¬ 
ligion  of  nature  and  the  teachings  of  the 
spirit  of  man.  Such  was  the  teaching  of 
some  of  the  Deists,  as  Lord  Herbert  of 
Cherbury  and  Tindal.  But  there  were 
others  who  accepted  the  Christian  faith  as 
true,  on  the  ground  that  the  human  spirit 
bears  witness  to  it,  and  approves  it  to  the 
conscience.  This  was  the  line  taken  by  some 
of  the  eminent  Germans  who  are  lumped  to¬ 
gether  under  the  name  of  Rationalists. 
Their  views  were  opposed,  accepted,  dis¬ 
criminated  by  certain  writers  of  Great  Brit¬ 
ain  who  are  sometimes  known  as  Eclectics, 
the  foremost  of  them  being  Coleridge.  But 
a  new  school  of  Intuitionists  has  arisen  in 
the  nineteenth  century,  to  be  accounted  for 
by  the  altered  conditions  which  are  the  re¬ 
sults  of  fuller  historical  criticisms  and 
scientific  discovery.  The  believer  in  the 
divine  authority  of  the  Church  and  the 
truth  of  the  Creeds  remains  as  he  was  in 
the  conviction  that  from  the  very  nature  of 
the  case  no  questionings  can  touch  these. 


Int 


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Ire 


But  those  who  deny  the  binding  authority 
of  any  external  revelation  have  no  such 
conviction,  though  those  who  are  religious 
and  desire  to  see  the  world  made  better 
cannot  acquiesce  in  negations.  Hence  we 
have  such  writers  as  Emerson  and  Carlyle, 
each  in  his  way  an  Intuitionist  of  the  new 
school.  Carlyle,  however,  with  his  his¬ 
torical  instinct,  put  aside  his  questionings 
in  pursuit  of  historic  facts;  Emerson 
was  religious  above  all  things  besides, 
however  dreamy  and  unpractical.  Accord¬ 
ing  to  him,  it  might  be  said  that  man  is  his 
own  teacher,  his  own  Bible,  practically 
his  own  God. — Benham:  Did.  of  Religion. 
See  Pantheism. 

Introit,  the  name  given  to  the  anthem 
which  is  sung  in  Roman  Catholic  Churches 
at  the  beginning  of  the  communion  service. 
See  Smith  and  Cheetham:  Did .  of  Chr. 
Antiq.  vol.  i.,  pp.  865-867. 

Invention  of  the  Cross.  See  Cross. 

Investure.  Under  the  Frankish  mon¬ 
archy  the  rulers  came  to  claim  the  right 
of  appointing  the  bishops.  When  a  bishop 
died,  the  insignia  of  his  office  were  brought- 
to  the  palace,  and  when  the  king  had 
chosen  a  successor  he  invested  him  with 
the  staff  and  ring,  and  received  his  homage, 
or  oath  of  fealty.  Early  in  the  eleventh 
century  the  Roman  curia  entered  upon  a 
conflict  with  the  kings  in  this  matter,  and 
forbade  ecclesiastics  to  accept  their  offices 
at  the  hands  of  the  laymen.  In  1068  the  king 
appointed  a  bishop  of  Milan  by  investure, 
against  the  wishes  of  the  people,  who 
wished  him  to  be  canonically  appointed 
and  invested.  The  following  year  Gregory 
VII.  denied  the  right  of  the  king,  and  com¬ 
manded  the  people  to  oppose  all  bishops 
who  had  been  thus  appointed  by  the  secu¬ 
lar  power.  This  opened  a  struggle  which 
lasted  until  the  Concordat  of  Worms  (1122), 
which  was  in  favor  of  the  pope.  The  contest 
was  especially  long  and  bitter  in  Germany. 

Invocation  of  Saints.  The  practice  of 
calling  upon  the  souls  of  the  departed  for 
their  intercession  and  aid  found  accept¬ 
ance  in  the  Church  about  the  fourth  cen¬ 
tury.  The  veneration  paid  to  the  martyrs, 
and  the  old  pagan  idea  that  the  spirits  of 
the  dead  lingered  near  the  place  of  their 
burial  no  doubt  favored  the  growth  of  this 
practice.  Invocation  of  saints  occurs  in  all 
the  ancient  liturgies,  from  the  eighth  cen¬ 
tury  on.  See  Intercession. 

Ireland.  Christianity  was  introduced  into 
the  country  in  the  early  part  of  the  fifth 
century;  but  the  founding  of  an  organized 


Church  is  generally  conceded  to  be  due  to 
St.  Patrick. 

At  the  census  of  1881  there  were  3,951,- 
881  Roman  Catholics;  635,670  Protestant 
Episcopalians;  485,503  Presbyterians,  and 
47,669  Methodists.  The  Roman  Catholic 
Church  is  under  the  four  archbishops  of 
Armagh,  Cashel,  Dublin,  and  Tuam,  and 
twenty  -  three  bishops.  The  Protestant 
Episcopal  Church  includes  most  of  the 
land-holding  class.  It  is  under  two  arch¬ 
bishops  and  ten  bishops.  The  Presbyterian 
Church  is  confined  mostly  to  Ulster,  where 
the  population,  to  a  large  extent,  is  of 
Scotch  descent.  In  1880  there  were  660 
congregations  and  104,762  communicants. 
The  other  Presbyterian  bodies  number  but 
few  adherents.  The  Methodist  Church, 
formed  in  1878  by  the  Union  of  the  Wes¬ 
leyan  Methodists  with  the  Primitive  Wes¬ 
leyan  Methodists,  in  1881  had  under  its 
care  10  districts  and  146  stations.  The  Con- 
gregationalists  have  21  ministers,  and  the 
association  of  Baptist  Churches,  25.  The 
Moravians  have  8  congregations. 

Irenaeus,  one  of  the  most  distinguished 
writers  and  theologians  of  the  early  Church, 
was  born,  probably  in  Asia  Minor,  about 
1 15;  d.  in  Lyons  about  202.  He  became 
a  presbyter  in  the  Church  of  Lyons,  and 
after  the  martyrdom  of  Pothinus  was 
elected  bishop. 

The  chief  work  of  Irenaeus  is  his  book, 
Against  Heresies.  He  saw  the  Church  deeply 
afflicted  by  them,  and  he  classified  them 
as  a  physician  would  diseases,  preparing 
the  remedies  with  care,  that  his  heretical 
patients  might  be  healed,  whilst  they  suf¬ 
fered  as  little  as  possible.  His  five  books 
entitled,  A  Reftitation  and  Stibversion  of 
Gnosis,  falsely  so  called,  were  originally  writ¬ 
ten  in  Greek,  of  which  the  original  is  lost, 
except  in  many  quotations  of  subsequent 
Fathers;  but  a  Latin  quotation  has  come 
down  to  us.  The  first  book  is  wholly  oc¬ 
cupied  with  a  statement  of  the  various 
heresies  which  are  confuted  in  the  remain¬ 
der.  Much  information  concerning  ancient 
Church  government  is  contained  in  this 
work.  There  are  many  noble  sentences  well 
worthy  of  remembrance,  e.  g. ,  “Ever  speak¬ 
ing  well  of  the  deserving,  and  never  ill  of 
the  undeserving,  we  attain  to  the  glory  of 
God.”  He  is  also  the  author  of  a  letter  to 
Florinus,  Concer>iing  Monarchy,  in  which 
he  proves  that  God  is  not  the  author  of 
evil;  and  of  another  to  Blastus,  On  Schisms, 
besides  a  treatise  On  Knowledge ,  addressed 
to  the  Gentiles,  and  several  “disserta¬ 
tions.”  Irenaeus  died  in  the  reign  of  Seve- 
rus,  in  the  beginning  of  the  third  century. 
He  is  generally  supposed  to  have  been 
martyred. — Benham:  Did.  of  Religion. 


Ire 


(  449  ) 


Isa 


Irene,  b.  at  Athens,  752;  d.  in  the  Isle  of 
Lesbos,  803.  Although  of  humble  parent¬ 
age  she  became  the  wife  of  Leo  IV.  in  769. 
With  an  insatiable  love  of  power  she  ruled 
the  Eastern  Empire  with  great  vigor  from 
the  death  of  the  emperor  in  780,  until  her 
banishment  in  802.  She  had  the  eyes  of 
her  own  son  put  out  in  order  to  make  him 
unfit  to  reign.  By  her  efforts  the  icono¬ 
clasts  were  defeated  and  image-worship  re¬ 
established.  For  this  service  her  name  is 
found  among  the  saints  of  the  Greek 
Church.  She  was  finally  deposed,  and  died 
in  seclusion  and  poverty  on  the  Isle  of 
Lesbos. 

Irenical  Theology,  or  Irenics  (from 
eirene ,  peace),  has  to  do  with  those  truths 
in  which  may  be  found  points  of  agree¬ 
ment  between  Christians.  Some  cherish 
the  hope  of  ultimate  unity  and  even  the 
organic  union  of  Christendom.  There  are 
many  hopeful  indications  that  point  in  this 
direction. 

Irving,  Rev.  Edward,  “  wasib.  in  the  town 
of  Annan,  Scotland,  Aug.  15,  1792:  studied 
at  the  University  of  Edinburgh,  and  after 
completing  his  curriculum  for  the  ministry 
became  assistant  (in  1819)  to  Dr.  Chalmers, 
then  a  minister  in  Glasgow.  His  sermons 
did  not  prove  very  popular.  Chalmers 
himself  was  not  satisfied.  In  1822  Irving 
received  a  call  to  the  Caledonian  Church, 
Hatton  Garden,  London, \yhich  he  accepted. 
His  success  as  a  preacher  in  the  metropolis 
was  such  as  had  never  previously  been  wit¬ 
nessed.  After  some  years,  however,  the 
world  of  fashion  got  tired  of  Irving;  but  it 
was  not  until  his  more  striking  singularities 
of  opinion  were  developed  that  fashion 
finally  deserted  him.  At  the  close  of  1825 
he  began  to  announce  his  convictions  in  re¬ 
gard  to  the  second  personal  advent  of  the 
Lord  Jesus,  in  which  he  had  become  a  firm 
believer,  and  which  he  declared  to  be  near 
at  hand.  This  was  followed  by  the  trans¬ 
lation  of  a  Spanish  work,  The  Co??iing 
of  the  Messiah  in  Ala  je sty  and  Glory ,  by  Juan 
Josafat  Ben  Ezra,  which  professed  to  be 
written  by  a  Christian  Jew,  but  was,  in 
reality,  the  composition  of  a  Spanish  Jesuit. 
Irving’s  introductory  preface  is  regarded 
as  one  of  his  most  remarkable  literary  per¬ 
formances.  In  1828  appeared  his  Homilies 
on  the  Sacraments.  He  now  began  to 
elaborate  his  views  of  the  incarnation  of 
Christ,  asserting  with  great  emphasis  the 
doctrine  of  his  oneness  with  us  in  all  the 
attributes  of  humanity.  The  language 
which  he  used  on  this  subject  drew  upon 
him  the  accusation  of  heresy;  he  was 
charged  with  maintaining  the  sinfulness  of 
Christ’s  nature,  but  he  paid  little  heed  to 


the  alarm  thus  created.  He  was  now  deep 
in  the  study  of  the  prophecies;  and  when 
the  news  came  to  London,  in  the  early  part 
of  1830,  of  certain  extraordinary  manifesta¬ 
tions  of  prophetic  power  in  the  w.  of  Scot¬ 
land,  Irving  was  prepared  to  believe  them. 
Harassed,  worn,  baffled  in  his  most  sacred 
desires  for  the  regeneration  of  the  great 
Babylon  in  which  he  dwelt,  branded  by  the 
religious  public,  and  satirized  by  the  press, 
the  great  preacher,  who  strove  above  all 
things  to  be  faithful  to  what  seemed  to  him 
the  truth  of  God,  grasped  at  the  new  won¬ 
der  with  a  passionate  earnestness.  Matters 
soon  came  to  a  crisis.  Irving  was  arraign¬ 
ed  before  the  presbytery  of  London  in  1830, 
and  convicted  of  heresy,  ejected  from  his 
new  church  in  Regent’s  Square  in  1832,  and 
finally  deposed  in  1833  by  the  presbytery 
of  Annan,  which  had  licensed  him.  His 
defense  of  himself  on  this  last  occasion 
was  one  of  his  most  splendid  and  sublime 
efforts  of  oratory.  The  majority  of  his 
congregation  adhered  to  him,  and  gradually 
a  new  form  of  Christianity  was  developed, 
commonly  known  as  Irvingism,  though 
Irving  had  really  very  little  to  do  with  its 
development.  Shortly  after,  his  .  health 
failed,  and  in  obedience,  as  he  believed,  to 
the  Spirit  of  God,  he  went  down  to  Scot¬ 
land,  where  he  sank  a  victim  to  consump¬ 
tion.  He  died  at  Glasgow,  Dec.  8,  1834, 
in  the  forty-second  year  of  his  age.  See 
Carlyle’s  Miscellaneous  Essays ,  and  Mrs. 
Oliphant’s  Life  of  Edward  Irving  (London, 
1862).” — Chambers:  Cyclopcedia.  See  chap¬ 
ter  on  his  life  in  Carlyle's  Re?niniscencesy 
edited  by  Froude  (N.  Y.,  1881);  Catholic 
Apostolic  Church. 

Irvingites.  See  Catholic  Apostolic 
Church. 

Isaac  ( laughter ),  the  son  of  Abraham  and 
Sarah.  The  most  significant  event  of  his 
life  occurred  in  his  earlier  years.  Josephus 
says  that  he,  Isaac,  was  twenty-five  years 
old  when  Abraham  led  him  into  the  land  of 
Moriah,  to  sacrifice  him.  He  was  a  dutiful 
son,  a  kind  and  affectionate  husband,  and 
generous  and  obliging  in  his  relations 
with  friends  and  neighbors.  “  Isaac’s  im¬ 
portance  consists  mainly  in  the  fact  that 
he  was  the  link  extending  the  blessing 
of  the  covenant  from  Abraham  to  Jacob. 
Two  sons  were  born  to  him  late  in  life 
(Gen.  xxv.  21),  and  although  he  preferred 
the  older,  Esau,  he  was  deceived  into  con¬ 
ferring  the  blessing  upon  Jacob,  the  young¬ 
er.  A  feud  broke  out,  in  consequence, 
between  the  two  brothers;  but  the  death 
of  the  father,  in  his  hundred  and  eightieth 
year,  was  the  occasion  of  their  reconcilia¬ 
tion.  Isaac  bowed  submissively  tothedis- 


Isa 


(  450  ) 


Isa 


pensations  of  Providence;  and,  although 
the  weakest  of  the  three  patriarchs,  he 
represents  the  pious  fidelity  which  quietly 
preserves  the  inherited  blessing.” — Orelli. 
On  the  sacrifice  of  Isaac,  see  Mozley: 
Ruling'  Ideas  in  Early  Ages,  chaps,  ii. ,  iii. 

Isaiah,  “  the  son  of  Amoz,  prophesied  in 
the  reigns  of  Uzziah,  Jotham,  Ahaz,  and 
Hezekiah,  kings  of  Judah.  He  flourished 
between  the  years  750  and  700  B.  c. ,  was  a 
citizen  of  Jerusalem,  and  a  man  apparently 
of  considerable  account  in  the  city.  He 
was  married,  and  had  a  family,  the  mem¬ 
bers  of  which,  as  well  as  himself,  had 
names  given  to  them  which  were  symbol¬ 
ical  of  the  condition  and  prospects  of  the 
kingdom  of  Judah  at  the  time,  his  own 
name  meaning  Jehovah  the  Salvation;  his 
sons’  names  being,  Immanuel,  God  with 
us;  Shearjashub,  a  remnant  shall  return, 
or  be  converted;  and  Maher-shalal-hash- 
baz,  spoil  speedeth,  prey  hasteneth.  In  this 
last  name  the  prophet  expresses  his  sense 
of  impending  national  calamity,  while  the 
others  reflect  his  faith  and  his  hope,  how, 
nevertheless,  in  the  end  God  would  be 
found  to  stand  by  his  people,  and  they  by 
him. 

“Everything  is  outwardly  going  well  with 
both  the  northern  and  the  southern  king¬ 
doms,  when  the  prophet’s  eye  discovers 
the  signs  of  coming  judgment;  and  before 
the  end  of  his  ministry  the  kingdom  of  the 
north  has  fallen,  and  that  of  the  south  is 
only  saved  from  a  similar  fate  by  the  inter¬ 
vention  of  Providence — the  conquest  of 
Samaria  being  in  721  b.  c. ,  and  the  defeat 
of  Sennacherib’s  siege  of  Jerusalem  in  701. 
Assyria  was  the  dominant  heathen  power 
of  the  period,  and  it  was  bent,  in  its  lust  of 
power,  on  subjugating  all  the  neighboring 
nations.  Isaiah  foresaw  that,  for  their 
unfaithfulness,  the  Jewish  people,  along 
Avith  others,  would  fall  a  prey  to  its  rav¬ 
ages;  and  that  no  combination  with  the 
rest  on  their  part  would  save  them  from 
the  fate  in  store  for  them;  yet  that  the 
Lord  would  not  altogether  forsake  his  peo¬ 
ple,  and  that  a  remnant  should  return  and 
rebuild  Zion.  It  was  nothing  to  him  that 
the  northern  kingdom  had  fallen,  or  that 
he  saw  Assyria  gathering  its  hosts  to  en¬ 
compass'  and  destroy  Jerusalem;  for  the 
nearer  and  more  formidable  the  advance  of 
the  enemy  was,  the  stronger  and  more  as¬ 
sured  grew  his  faith  that  God  was  with 
his  people,  and  would  interpose  to  save  the 
remnant  of  his  chosen  flock.  Isaiah  lived 
to  see  the  fulfillment  of  his  words  in  the 
total  collapse  of  the  designs  of  Assyria 
against  the  holy  city. 

“  In  the  twenty-seven  concluding  chap¬ 
ters  of  the  book  we  are  amid  events  which 


happened  one  hundred  and  fifty  years  after 
Isaiah’s  death,  when  Babylon,  having  suc¬ 
ceeded  to  the  power  and  rdle  of  Assyria,  is 
in  turn  overthrown  by  Cyrus  to  the  release 
from  captivity  of  the  chosen  people.  The 
question  naturally  arises,  Is  this  the  work 
of  the  son  of  Amoz,  and  contemporary  of 
Hezekiah  ?  If  so,  we  must  conceive  of  the 
prophet  projecting  himself  into  the  period 
of  the  Captivity,  describing  it  as  present  in 
elaborate  details,  and  comforting  the  exiles 
of  that  remote  age  with  the  prospect  of  res¬ 
toration  to  the  home  of  their  fathers — and 
all  this  many  generations  before  the  trouble 
had  come  upon  the  nation,  and  even  before 
the  Babylonian  power  had  risen  into  im¬ 
portance.  Only  a  disbeliever  in  divine 
inspiration  can  deny  that  such  a  feat  of 
prophecy  is  possible.  If  a  prophet  can 
foretell  the  future  at  all,  it  is  unreasonable 
to  stumble  at  the  claim  to  foresee  it  with 
an  unusual  copiousness.  Nevertheless,  it 
has  been  pointed  out  that  in  all  other  cases 
the  Hebrew  prophets  chiefly  concerned 
themselves  with  the  present  condition  of 
the  world.  Their  references  to  the  remote 
future  were  few,  and  principally  devoted 
to  the  grand  Messianic  Hope.  It  was  not 
their  function  to  turn  aside  from  the  sins 
and  needs  of  contemporaries  and  write  as 
if  they  belonged  to  a  distant  future,  filling 
their  pages  with  details  of  that  future  and 
ignoring  the  circumstances  of  their  day. 
Though  they  did  predict,  their  chief  work 
was  not  prediction,  but  preaching  in  the 
name  of  God  with  regard  to  the  sins  and 
troubles  around  them.  If  Isaiah  wrote 
the  portion  in  question  he  would  be  more 
than  predicting  the  future.  He  would  be 
ignoring  the  present,  and  writing  as  though 
he  were  in  the  midst  of  the  future  time, 
and  for  the  benefit  of  that  time.  This 
would  be  quite  possible  as  a  miracle,  for 
all  things  are  possible  with  God.  But  it 
shows  no  unbelief  in  God  to  say  that  it  is 
contrary  to  the  custom  of  prophecy,  con¬ 
trary  to  the  analogy  of  other  prophecies. 
Besides  this  consideration,  it  is  urged  that 
the  author  of  the  later  portion  is  not  a  man 
of  the  same  temper  as  the  author  of  the 
earlier  ;  there  is  more  *  copiousness, 
pathos,  and  unction  ’  about  him;  but  ‘  less 
fire,  energy,  and  concentration’  than  in 
his  predecessor;  while  his  inspiration  is 
founded  on  a  deeper  spiritual  insight,  and 
his  hopes  and  expectations  built  upon  a 
different  view  of  the  method  of  salvation. 
This,  as  is  alleged,  appears  in  the  substi¬ 
tution  for  the  original  ideal  of  a  conquer¬ 
ing  prince  of  the  new  ideal  of  a  suffering 
Saviour,  bearing  and  bearing  away  the  sins 
of  the  nation.  On  such  considerations,  and 
others,  the  hypothesis  of  a  second  Isaiah 
is  founded,  and  the  combination  of  the  two 


Isa 


(  45i  ) 


Isa 


sets  of  prophecies  under  one  name,  along 
with  others  of  the  same  stamp,  is  believed 
to  be  due  to  Ezra,  who  had,  it  is  presumed, 
recognized  a  lineal  connection  between  the 
later  and  the  earlier  prophecies.  Some  of 
the  prophecies  which  belong  to  the  later 
Isaiah,  appear  among  those  of  the  earlier; 
such,  it  is  alleged,  as  those  contained  in 
chaps,  xiii.  2-xiv.  23;  xxiv.-xxvii. ;  xxxiv. 
and  xxxv.  On  the  other  hand,  the  following 
points  are  urged  in  favor  of  regarding  the 
prophecy  as  a  work  of  Isaiah:  (1)  This 
was  the  undoubted  opinion  of  Jews  and 
Christians  until  recent  times.  (2)  It  is  dif¬ 
ficult  to  suppose  that  so  great  a  work 
should  have  been  written  by  an  author  of 
whose  very  existence  we  know  nothing, 
and  then  attributed  to  a  predecessor  gen¬ 
erations  earlier.  Who  was  the  ‘  great 
unknown  ?  ’  How  is  it  that  we  have  no 
trace  of  him  in  history  or  tradition  ?  He 
must  have  been  one  of  the  very  greatest  of 
the  prophets,  for  his  work  is  unsurpassed 
by  any.  (3)  It  is  sometimes  the  practice 
of  prophets  to  write  of  the  future  which 
they  foresee  in  vision  as  though  it  were 
present.  (4)  In  regard  to  style,  the  '  same 
plastic  genius  ’  which  we  find  in  Isaiah  is 
said  to  be  seen  in  this  work.  (5)  The  fact 
that  writings  of  a  similar  character  are 
found  mixed  up  with  the  acknowledged 
prophecies  of  Isaiah  complicates  the  ques¬ 
tion  by  requiring  these  writings  and  their 
place  in  the  collection  to  be  accounted  for. 
Whether  we  accept  the  newer  view,  or 
still  hold  to  the  idea  that  Isaiah  was  the 
author  of  the  prophecy,  certain  facts  re¬ 
main  untouched:  (1)  The  twenty-seven 
chapters  form  one  unbroken  prophecy. 
(2)  This  prophecy  is  evidently  inspired  by 
God.  It  is  one  of  the  richest  and  most 
exalted  portions  of  the  whole  Bible.  It 
matters  comparatively  little  whether  we 
know  the  name  of  the  man  who  wrote  it, 
since  we  know  the  divine  Author  from 
whom  it  sprang. 

“  Divisions  of  the  Book. — These,  as  al¬ 
ready  said,  are  in  two  main  divisions,  the 
first  of  which  has  been  divided  into  ( a )  the 
Prelude  (chap.  i. ) ;  if)  Prophecies  of  the  ca¬ 
lamities  to  come  upon  Judah  (chaps,  ii.-v.); 
( c )  the  Call  of  Isaiah  (chap,  vi.);  ( d)  Prophe¬ 
cies  concerning  Immanuel  as  the  consola¬ 
tion  of  Israel  under  Assyrian  oppression 
(chaps,  vii.-xii.);  ( e )  concerning  the  fate  of 
Babylon  (chaps,  xiii.-xiv.  27);  if)  the  Bur¬ 
dens  (chaps,  xiv.  28-xxii.);  ( g )  Desolation 
coming  on  Tyre  (chap,  xxiii. ) ;  (h)  concern¬ 
ing  the  early  days  of  Return  (chaps,  xxiv.- 
xxvii.);  (i)  the  Woes  (chaps,  xxviii.- 
xxxiii.);  (f)  concerning  Edom  and  Israel 
(chaps,  xxxiv. -xxxv.);  (k)  concerning  Sen¬ 
nacherib  (chaps,  xxxvi.-xxxix).  The  sec¬ 
ond  has  been  divided  into  three  sections 


concerning  (a)  the  true  God  of  Israel,  and 
the  false  gods  of  Babylon  (chaps,  xl.— 
xlviii.);  ( b )  the  servant  of  the  Lord  (chaps, 
xlix.-lvii.);  {c)  Israel  after  the  flesh,  and 
Israel  after  the  spirit  (chaps,  lviii.-lxvi). 

“  Contents. — First  Division,  (a)  Chap.  i. 
describes  the  spiritual  condition  of  the 
people  to  whom  the  prophet  prophesies, 
and  urges  them  to  penitence,  if  they  would 
escape  God’s  judgments.  {!>)  Chaps,  ii.- 
iv.  predict  the  downfall  of  the  false,  and 
the  erection  of  the  true,  glory  of  Israel,  as 
this  last  appears  achieving  itself  in  the  way 
of  judgment.  Chap.  v.  denounces  a  seven¬ 
fold  woe  from  the  Lord  on  the  nation  for 
theirabuse  of  his  gifts,  the  iniquity  of  their 
ways,  and  their  neglect  of  his  vineyard. 
{c)  Chap.  vi.  gives  an  account  of  Isaiah’s 
vision  of  the  Divine  glory,  his  consecration 
to  his  office,  and  the  burden  of  his  commis¬ 
sion.  (d)  In  chap.  vii.  Ahaz  is  cautioned 
not  to  league  himself  with  Assyria  against 
the  kings  of  Syria  and  Israel,  and  receives 
a  sign  in  the  promised  birth  of  Immanuel. 
In  chaps,  viii.-ix.  1-7  Isaiah  predicts  the 
triumph  of  Assyria  over  Syria  and  Israel 
within  two  years,  but  that  Immanuel  will 
be  found  to  be  the  defence  of  Judah.  Chaps, 
ix.  8— x.  4  describe  how  Israel  sins  against 
the  Lord  more  and  more,  and  how  the  Di¬ 
vine  judgments  fall  correspondingly  heav¬ 
ier  and  heavier.  Chaps,  x.  5-xii.  represent 
Assyria  as  a  mere  rod  in  the  hand  of  the 
Lord  to  chastise  his  people,  and  predict  the 
reestablishment  of  the  throne  of  David  in 
Jerusalem  with  rejoicing,  when  God’s  judg¬ 
ments  have  done  their  work,  (e)  Chaps, 
xiii.-xiv.  27  represent  the  Lord  as  muster¬ 
ing  his  hosts  against  the  pride  of  the 
Chaldee,  Assyria’s  successor,  and  His  ran¬ 
somed  as  singing  a  song  of  triumph  over 
the  fallen  foe.  if)  Chap.  xiv.  28-32  cau¬ 
tions  Philistia  not  to  exult  over  the  afflic¬ 
tion  that  has  come  upon  the  house  of  Ju¬ 
dah.  Chaps,  xv.  and  xvi.  picture  in  pitiful 
terms  the  desolation  with  which  the  Lord 
is  about  to  lay  low  the  pride  of  Moab. 
Chap.  xvii.  denounces  the  judgments  of 
God  on  the  Syro-Israelitish  spoilers  of  the 
land  of  Judah,  excepting  a  small  remnant. 
Chap,  xviii.  represents  the  prophet  as  call¬ 
ing  upon  Ethiopia  to  witness  how  the  Lord 
has  broken  the  power  of  Assyria,  and 
Ethiopia  as  doing  homage  to  him.  Chap. 

xix.  predicts  the  judgments  of  the  Lord  on 
Egypt,  and  the  conversion,  in  consquence, 
of  both  it  and  Assyria  to  the  Lord.  Chap. 

xx.  represents  Isaiah  warning  the  nation 
against  trust  in  Egypt  and  Ethiopia  by  a 
symbolical  action  in  exhibition  of  their 
shameful  subjugation  to  the  power  of  As¬ 
syria.  Chap.  xxi.  1-10  represents  Isaiah 
as,  for  the  comfojt  of  Judah,  foreseeing 
with  horror  and  describing  the  terrible  fate 


Isa 


(  452  ) 


Isa 


of  Babylon.  Vers.  11-17  contain  the  judg¬ 
ment  on  Edom  and  Arabia.  Chap.  xxii. 
1-14  represents  the  prophet  as  lamenting 
that  Jerusalem  in  her  false  confidence  is 
blind  to  the  judgments  of  the  Lord,  and  as 
threatening  greater  for  this  blindness. 
Vers.  15-25  announce  the  fall  of  Shebna, 
the  treasurer  and  the  head  of  the  disorder, 
with  the  appointment  of  a  successor,  who  in 
his  pride  of  office  shall  also  in  turn  come  to 
grief,  (o-)  Chap,  xxiii.  predicts  the  deso¬ 
lation  to  come  on  Tyre,  her  after-revival, 
and  the  lapsing  of  her  wealth  to  the  service 
of  the  Lord,  (/z)  Chap.  xxiv.  pictures  the 
judgments  to  come  on  the  inhabitants  of 
the  earth  as  preliminary  to  the  glorious 
establishment  of  God’s  kingdom.  Chap, 
xxv.  forecasts  the  time  when  the  salvation 
of  Zion  shall  be  accomplished  in  the  sight 
of  all  nations.  Chap.  xxvi.  is  a  call  to  trust 
in  the  Lord  and  wait  for  him  as  working 
salvation  by  judgment,  and  as  raising  his 
slain  ones  to  life  again.  Chap,  xxvii.  re¬ 
presents  the  Lord’s  judgment-work  done, 
and  the  Lord  as  gathering  together  and 
keeping  watch  over  his  chosen,  (z)  Chap, 
xxviii.  foresees  the  doom  which  the  men 
of  Ephraim,  compared  to  drunkards,  are 
bringing  down  on  their  heads  by  their  in¬ 
fatuation,  and  warns  the  men  of  Jerusalem 
that  they  too  will  come  under  the  same 
scourge,  if  they  with  like  infatuation  make 
lies  their  refuge  instead  of  the  God  with 
whom  alone  they  should  keep  covenant, 
but  whose  ways  they  neither  see  nor  un¬ 
derstand.  Chap.  xxix.  promises  to  Jeru¬ 
salem — the  lion  of  the  Lord — unexpected 
deliverance  out  of  threatened  destruction, 
but  such  a  deliverance  as  shall  astonish 
the  nation  and  give  it  a  rude  awakening 
out  of  its  spiritual  delusions.  Chap.  xxx. 
is  a  warning  to  the  people  to  put  no  trust 
in  Egypt  or  any  other  world  power,  but  to 
wait  for  the  Lord,  who  will,  without  any 
action  even  on  their  part,  break  Assyria  in 
pieces.  Chap.  xxxi.  is  a  call  to  turn  from 
trust  in  Egypt  to  trust  in  the  Lord,  and  see 
the  judgment  of  the  Lord  on  Assyria. 
Chap,  xxxii.  foretells  the  reign  of  Imman¬ 
uel  after  a  season  of  trouble  on  the  women 
who  are  at  ease  in  Zion.  Chap,  xxxiii.  de¬ 
scribes  the  dismay  with  which  the  Lord  by 
his  judgments  will  paralyze  the  nations  and 
the  ungodly,  while  it  portrays  the  charac¬ 
ter  and  the  stronghold  of  those  who  will 
stand  secure  in  the  midst  of  them,  (j) 
Chap,  xxxiv.  calls  upon  the  nations  to  mark 
God’s  indignation  against  them,  and  espe¬ 
cially  his  judgments  on  the  land  of  Edom. 
Chap.  xxxv.  describes  in  anticipation  the 
joy  and  blessedness  of  the  time  which  shall 
succeed  the  day  of  the  Lord’s  vengeance. 
( k )  Chap,  xxxvi.  relates  "how  the  Assyrian 
army  threatens  vengeance  on  Jerusalem, 


and  how  the  matter  is  reported  to  Heze- 
kiah.  Chap,  xxxvii.  relates  how  Hezekiah 
in  his  distress  both  consults  Isaiah  and  lays 
the  matter  before  the  Lord,  and  how,  as 
Isaiah  predicted,  the  Assyrians  are  smitten 
by  the  angel  of  the  Lord.  Chap,  xxxviii. 
relates  how  the  Lord  prolongs  Hezekiah’s 
life,  and  records  Hezekiah’s  song  of  thanks¬ 
giving.  Chap,  xxxix.  relates  how  Heze¬ 
kiah  makes  a  display  of  his  treasures  to  the 
messengers  of  the  king  of  Babylon,  and 
how  Isaiah  predicts  therefrom  the  Baby¬ 
lonish  captivity. 

“  Second  Division. — (a)  Ch?n.  xl.  is  a 
message  of  comfort  to  the  people  in  view 
of  the  approaching  advent  of  the  Lcrd, 
whose  greatness  of  power  and  unfathom¬ 
ableness  of  wisdom  the  prophet  goes  on  to 
magnify.  Chap.  xli.  is  a  challenge  of  the 
Lord  to  the  nations,  and  a  call  to  his  people 
to  judge  between  him  and  the  gods  opposed 
to  him.  Chap.  xlii.  calls  attention  to  the 
servant  of  the  Lord,  his  proper  function 
and  mode  of  action,  while  it  rebukes  Israel 
as  such  for  not  understanding  and  resting 
in  God’s  salvation-workings  in  their  behalf. 
Chap,  xliii.  is  an  appeal  of  the  Lord  to  the 
people  to  witness  that  he  is  their  Saviour, 
and  a  pledge  to  work  still  greater  wonders 
for  them,  notwithstanding  all  their  sins  and 
short-comings.  Chap.  xliv.  is  a  call  of  the 
Lord  to  Israel  to  note  how  by  his  doings 
for  them  he  is  persuading  the  nations  of 
the  vanity  of  their  idolatries,  and  how  by 
restoring  them,  through  Cyrus  especially, 
he  is  showing  them  that  he  alone  of  all 
the  gods  is  able  to  fulfil  his  word.  Chap, 
xlv.  challenges  Israel  to  regard  Cyrus  as 
God’s  servant,  seeing  that  by  him  God  is 
bringing  about  their  salvation,  and  thereby 
the  salvation  of  the  ends  of  the  earth. 
Chap.  xlvi.  bids  Israel  consider  how  omnip¬ 
otent  their  God  is,  and  how  helpless  the 
idols  of  Babylon.  Chap,  xlvii.  is  an  out¬ 
burst  of  exultation  over  the  humiliation  of 
Babylon  under  the  hand  of  the  Lord. 
Chap,  xlviii.  summons  Israel  to  acknowl¬ 
edge  the  hand  of  the  Lord  in  their  deliver¬ 
ance,  and  warns  them  not  to  imitate  the 
hardheartedness  of  their  fathers.  (/>) 
Chap.  xlix.  introduces  the  prophet  of  chap, 
xlviii.  16,  as,  in  the  name  of  the  true  Israel, 
bidding  away  all  mistrust  and  staying  him¬ 
self  in  the  Lord  his  God,  whose  purposes 
will  not  fail.  Chap.  I.  makes  the  prophet 
charge  Israel’s  captivity  to  their  own  sin, 
and  counsels  them  to  accept  the  fact  in  the 
spirit  in  which  it  is  accepted  by  him,  and 
they  will  not  be  confounded.  Chap.  li.  is 
a  pleading  with  them  to  consider  and  see 
how  the  Lord  is  with  them,  and  how  the 
cup  of  affliction  given  them  is  passing  into 
the  hands  of  their  oppressors.  Chap.  lii. 
is  a  call  to  rejoice,  and  a  picture  of  rejoic- 


Ish 


(  453  ) 


Isr 


ing,  over  the  return  of  Israel  from  captiv¬ 
ity.  Chap.  liii.  exhibits  the  servant  of  the 
Lord  as  suffering  and  sorrow-stricken  unto 
death  for  the  sins  of  the  people,  and  as 
thereby  making  intercession  for  them. 
Chap.  liv.  calls  upon  Zion  to  rejoice  that 
the  day  of  the  Lord’s  anger  is  past  and  her 
heritage  established.  Chap.  lv.  is  an  ex¬ 
hortation  to  Israel  to  accept  the  proffered 
salvation  and  continue  loyal  to  him  who 
redeems  her  by  righteousness.  Chap.  lvi. 
ensures  the  proffered  salvation  to  those 
only  who  have  regard  to  justice,  but  to 
all  such,  and  describes  those  who  teach 
otherwise  as  blind  guides  and  mere  self- 
seekers.  Chap.  lvii.  rejects  all  who  have 
forsaken  the  covenant  of  the  Lord,  and  ac¬ 
cepts  only  the  humble  ones  who  respect  it. 
(c)  Chap,  lviii.  is  the  repudiation  of  all 
worship  that  is  not,  and  the  approval  of 
worship  that  is,  associated  with  the  prac¬ 
tice  of  justice  and  mercy.  Chap.  lix.  re¬ 
fers  the  miseries  of  the  people  to  their  sins, 
and  promises  salvation  only  to  such  as  turn 
from  them.  Chap.  lx.  is  a  description  of 
the  glory  that  shall  shine  forth,  and  the 
honor  that  shall  come  upon  Zion  after  her 
restoration,  when  the  Lord  shall  be  her 
light.  Chap.  lxi.  contains  the  message  from 
the  Lord  by  the  prophet  to  the  afflicted  in 
Zion,  and  enumerates  the  consequent  bless¬ 
ings.  Chap.  lxii.  expresses  the  Divine 
impatience  with  which  the  prophet  waits 
for  the  emancipation  of  Zion.  Chap,  lxiii. 
pictures  the  Lord  as  returning  from  his 
work  of  judgment  on  Edom,  which  he  has 
thus  visited  for  love  to  his  people.  Chap, 
lxiv.  is  a  supplication  to  the  Lord  with 
confession  of  sin,  and  a  pleading  with  the 
Lord  to  show  mercy.  Chap.  lxv.  gives  the 
Lord’s  answer,  how  he  had  called  his 
people  and  they  did  not  respond  to  him, 
but  that  for  all  that  his  promises  would  be 
fulfilled  on  the  faithful.  Chap.  lxvi.  de¬ 
scribes  the  homage  God  respects,  and  the 
character  of  those  whose  worship  shall  be 
accepted  in  Zion.” — Bagster:  Bible  Helps. 
See  Nagelsbach  in  Lange,  Eng.  trans. 
(New  York,  1878);  J.  A.  Alexander,  2  vols. 
(New  York,  1846-47,  new  ed.  1875);  The 
Introductions  to  the  Old  Testament  of  Bleek, 
Keil,  Davidson,  and  Reuss,  and  Ewald  and 
Stanley’s  Hist,  of  the  Jews. 

Ish'-bo'sheth  ( man  of  shame),  son  and 
successor  of  Saul.  Through  the  advice  of 
Abner  he  assumed  the  government,  and  all 
of  the  tribes  with  the  exception  of  Judah 
acknowledged  him  as  king.  (2  Sam.  ii.  8, 
11.)  In  the  battle  at  Gibeon  the  army  of 
Ish-bosheth  was  defeated,  and  Abner  was 
soon  after  killed  by  Joab,  and  Ish-bosheth 
assassinated  after  a  brief  reign  of  two 
3'ears.  (2  Sam.  iv.  5-7.) 


Ish'mael  ( whom  God  hears),  the  son  of 
Abraham  by  Hagar.  The  prophecy  made 
to  his  mother  before  his  birth  vividly  de¬ 
scribed  his  after-career:  “  He  will  be  a 
wild  man;  his  hand  will  be  against  every 
man’s  hand,  and  every  man’s  hand  against 
him.”  (Gen.  xvi.  12.)  Ishmael  was  cir¬ 
cumcised  at  the  age  of  thirteen  (Gen.  xvii. 
25),  but  was  sent  away  with  his  mother  by 
Abraham  to  satisfy  Sarah,  whose  jealousy 
had  been  aroused  against  him.  (Gen.  xxi. 
9.)  The  affecting  narrative  of  his  wander¬ 
ings  with  his  mother  and  miraculous  de¬ 
liverance  from  death  is  given  in  Gen.  xxi. 
13-20.  Having  married  an  Egyptian  wo¬ 
man,  his  progeny  multiplied  with  great 
rapidity.  (Gen.  xxxvii.  25.)  With  Isaac  he 
joined  in  interring  the  remains  of  his 
father  at  the  cave  of  Machpelah.  (Gen. 
xxv.  9.)  Ishmael  is  the  progenitor  of  the 
roaming  Bedouin  tribes  of  the  East,  noted 
to  this  day  for  their  lawless  life  and  rob¬ 
beries,  and  the  spiritual  father  of  the 
Mohammedans.  The  Moslem  Arabs  say 
that  Ishmael  and  Hagar  lie  buried  in  the 
Caaba  at  Mecca. 

Isidore  of  Seville,  a  famous  ecclesiastic 
and  author  of  the  sixth  century:  b.  560  at 
Carthagena,  or  Seville;  d.  in  the  latter 
city,  April  4,  636.  Among  his  works  were 
a  kind  of  ecclesiastical  archaeology,  treatises 
on  dogmatics  and  ethics,  and  a  theological 
encyclopaedia  that  is  still  of  value  to 
scholars.  The  “  Isidorian  Decretals  ”  once 
ascribed  to  him  were  long  since  proved  to 
be  forgeries. 

Islam.  See  Mohammed. 

Israel,  Kingdom  of.  “  (1)  The  prophet 
Ahijah,  of  Shiloh,  who  was  commissioned 
in  the  latter  days  of  Solomon  to  announce 
the  division  of  the  kingdom,  left  one  tribe 
(Judah)  to  the  house  of  David,  and  assign¬ 
ed  ten  to  Jeroboam.  (1  Kings  xi.  31,  35.) 
These  were  probably  Joseph  (=  Ephraim 
and  Manasseh),  Issachar,  Zebulun,  Asher, 
Naphtali,  Benjamin,  Dan,  Simeon,  Gad, 
and  Reuben  ;  Levi  being  intentionally 
omitted.  Eventually,  the  greater  part  of 
Benjamin,  and  probably  the  whole  of  Sim¬ 
eon  and  Dan,  were  included,  as  if  by  com¬ 
mon  consent,  in  the  kingdom  of  Judah. 
With  respect  to  the  conquests  of  David, 
Moab  appears  to  have  been  attached  to  the 
kingdom  of  Israel  (2  Kings  iii.  4);  so  much 
of  Syria  as  remained  subject  to  Solomon 
(see  1  Kings  xi.  24)  would  probably  be 
claimed  by  his  successor  in  the  northern 
kingdom;  and  Ammon,  though  connected 
with  Rehoboam  as  his  mother’s  native  land 
(2  Chron.  xii.  13),  and  though  afterwards 
tributary  to  Judah  (2  Chron.  xxvii.  5)  was 


Isr 


(  454  ) 


Isr 


at  one  time  allied  (2  Chron.  xx.  1),  we 
know  not  how  closely  or  how  early,  with 
Moab.  The  sea-coast  between  Accho  and 
Japho  remained  in  the  possession  of  Israel. 
(2)  The  population  of  the  kingdom  is  not 
expressly  stated;  and  in  drawing  any  in¬ 
ference  from  the  numbers  of  fighting  men, 
we  must  bear  in  mind  that  the  numbers  in 
the  Hebrew  text  are  strongly  suspected  to 
have  been  subjected  to  extensive,  perhaps 
systematic,  corruption.  Jeroboam  brought 
into  the  field  an  army  of  800,000  men.  (2 
Chron.  xiii.  3.)  If  in  b.  c.  957  there  were 
actually  under  arms  800,000  of  that  age  in 
Israel,  the  whole  population  may  perhaps 
have  amounted  to  at  least  three  millions 
and  a  half.  (3)  Shechem  was  the  first  cap¬ 
ital  of  the  new  kingdom  (1  Kings  xii.  25), 
venerable  for  its  traditions,  and  beautiful 
in  its  situation.  Subsequently  Tirzah  be¬ 
came  the  royal  residence,  if  not  the  capital, 
of  Jeroboam  (1  Kings  xiv.  17),  and  of  his 
successors  (xv.  33;  xvi.  8,  17,  23).  Sama¬ 
ria,  uniting  in  itself  the  qualities  of  beauty 
and  fertility  and  a  commanding  position, 
was  chosen  by  Omri  (1  Kings  xvi.  24),  and 
remained  the  capital  of  the  kingdom  until 
it  had  given  the  last  proof  of  its  strength 
by  sustaining  for  three  years  the  onset  of 
the  hosts  of  Assyria.  Jezreel  was  probably 
only  a  royal  residence  of  some  of  the  Is- 
raelitish  kings.  (4)  The  disaffection  of 
Ephraim  and  the  northern  tribes,  having 
grown  in  secret  under  the  prosperous  but 
burdensome  reign  of  Solomon,  broke  out 
at  the  critical  moment  of  that  monarch’s 
death.  It  was  just  then  that  Ephraim,  the 
centre  of  the  movement,  found  in  Jero¬ 
boam  an  instrument  prepared  to  give  ex¬ 
pression  to  the  rivalry  of  centuries.  (5) 
The  kingdom  of  Israel  developed  no  new 
power.  It  was  but  a  portion  of  David’s 
kingdom  deprived  of  many  elements  of 
strength.  Its  frontier  was  as  open  and  as 
widely  extended  as  before;  but  it  wanted  a 
capital  for  the  seat  of  organized  power.  Its 
territory  was  as  fertile  and  as  tempting  to 
the  spoiler,  but  its  people  were  less  united 
and  patriotic.  A  corrupt  religion  poisoned 
the  source  of  national  life.  These  causes 
tended  to  increase  the  misfortunes,  and  to 
accelerate  the  early  end  of  the  kingdom  of 
Israel.  It  lasted  254  years,  from  b.  c.  975 
to  b.  c.  721,  about  two-thirds  of  the  dura¬ 
tion  of  its  more  compact  neighbor,  Judah. 
But  it  may  be  doubted  whether  the  divis¬ 
ion  into  two  kingdoms  greatly  shortened 
the  independent  existence  of  the  Hebrew 
race,  or  interfered  with  the  purposes  which, 
it  is  thought,  may  be  traced  in  the  estab¬ 
lishment  of  David’s  monarchy.  (6)  The 
detailed  history  of  the  kingdom  of  Israel 
will  be  found  under  the  names  of  its 
nineteen  kings.  A  summary  view  may 


be  taken  in  four  periods — (a)  b.  C.  975 — 
929.  Jeroboam  had  not  sufficient  force 
of  character  in  himself  to  make  a  lasting 
impression  on  his  people.  A  king,  but  not 
a  founder  of  a  dynasty,  he  aimed  at  noth¬ 
ing  beyond  securing  his  present  elevation. 
The  army  soon  learned  its  power  to  dictate 
to  the  isolated  monarch  and  disunited  peo¬ 
ple.  Baasha,  in  the  midst  of  the  army  of 
Gibbethon,  slew  the  son  and  successor  of 
Jeroboam;  Zimri,  a  captain  of  chariots, 
slew  the  son  and  successor  of  Baasha; 
Omri,  the  captain  of  the  host,  was  chosen 
to  punish  Zimri;  and  after  a  civil  war  of 
four  years  he  prevailed  over  Tibni,  the 
choice  of  half  the  people. — (b)  B.  C.  929— 
884.  For  forty-five  years  Israel  was  gov¬ 
erned  by  the  house  of  Omri.  That  saga¬ 
cious  king  pitched  on  the  strong  hill  of 
Samaria  as  the  site  of  his  capital.  The 
princes  of  his  house  cultivated  an  alliance 
with  the  kings  of  Judah,  which  was  ce¬ 
mented  by  the  marriage  of  Jehoram  and 
Athaliah.  The  adoption  of  Baal-worship 
led  to  a  reaction  in  the  nation,  to  the  mor¬ 
al  triumph  of  the  prophets  in  the  person  of 
Elijah,  and  to  the  extinction  of  the  house 
of  Ahab  in  obedience  to  the  bidding  of 
Elisha. — (r)  b.  C.  884-772.  Unparalleled 
triumphs,  but  deeper  humiliation,  awaited 
the  kingdom  of  Israel  under  the  dynasty 
of  Jehu.  Hazael,  the  ablest  king  of  Da¬ 
mascus,  reduced  Jehoahaz  to  the  condition 
of  a  vassal,  and  triumphed  for  a  time  over 
both  the  disunited  Hebrew  kingdoms. 
Almost  the  first  sign  of  the  restoration  of 
their  strength  was  a  war  between  them; 
and  Jehoash,  the  grandson  of  Jehu,  entered 
Jerusalem  as  the  conqueror  of  Amaziah. 
Jehoash  also  turned  the  tide  of  war  against 
the  Syrians;  and  Jeroboam  II.,  the  most 
powerful  of  all  the  kings  of  Israel,  cap¬ 
tured  Damascus,  and  recovered  the  whole 
ancient  frontier  from  Hamath  to  the  Dead 
Sea.  This  short-lived  greatness  expired 
with  the  last  king  of  Jehu’s  line. — ( d )  b.  c. 
772-721.  Military  violence,  it  would  seem, 
broke  off  the  hereditary  succession  after 
the  obscure  and  probably  convulsed  reign 
of  Zachariah.  An  unsuccessful  usurper, 
Shallum,  is  followed  by  the  cruel  Men- 
ahem,  who,  being  unable  to  make  head 
against  the  first  attack  of  Assyria  under 
Pul,  became  the  agent  of  that  monarch  for 
the  oppressive  taxation  of  his  subjects. 
Yet  his  power  at  home  was  sufficient  to  in¬ 
sure  for  his  son  and  successor,  Pekahiah,  a 
ten-years’  reign,  cut  short  by  a  bold  usurp¬ 
er,  Pekah.  Abandoning  the  northern  and 
transjordanic  regions  to  the  encroaching 
power  of  Assyria  under  Tiglath-pileser, 
he  was  very  near  subjugating  Judah,  with 
the  help  of  Damascus,  now  the  co-equal 
ally  of  Israel.  But  Assyria,  interposing 


Iss 


(  455  ) 


Jac 


summarily,  put  an  end  to  the  independence 
of  Damascus,  and  perhaps  was  the  indirect 
cause  of  the  assassination  of  the  baffled 
Pekah.  The  irresolute  Hoshea,  the  next 
and  last  usurper,  became  tributary  to  his 
invader,  Shalmaneser,  betrayed  the  Assyr¬ 
ian  to  the  rival  monarchy  of  Egypt,  and 
was  punished  by  the  loss  of  his  liberty, 
and  by  the  capture,  after  a  three  years’ 
siege,  of  his  strong  capital,  Samaria.  Some 
gleanings  of  the  ten  tribes  yet  remained  in 
the  land  after  so  many  years  of  religious 
decline,  moral  debasement,  national  degra¬ 
dation,  anarchy,  bloodshed,  and  deporta¬ 
tion.  Even  these  were  gathered  up  by  the 
conqueror  and  carried  to  Assyria,  never 
again,  as  a  distinct  people,  to  occupy  their 
portion  of  that  goodly  and  pleasant  land 
which  their  forefathers  won  under  Joshua 
from  the  heathen.” — Smith:  Diet .  of  the 
Bible .  See  Milman:  History  of  the  Jews; 
Stanley:  Hist,  of  the  Jewish  Church;  Well- 
hausen’s  art.  “  Israel,”  in  Ency .  Britan- 
nica ,  vol.  viii. ;  W.  R.  Smith:  Old  Tes¬ 
tament  in  the  Jewish  Church  (New  York, 
1881);  the  same:  The  Prophets  of  Israel 
(j 882);  Jews. 

Is'sachar.  See  Tribes  of  Israel. 

Italy.  The  Roman  Catholic  Church  has 
265  episcopal  dioceses,  and  24,980  parishes. 
With  a  population  of  28,000,000,  all  are 
Roman  Catholics  with  the  exception  of 
100,000  Greek  Catholics,  96,000  Evangel¬ 
ical  Christians,  36,000  Jews,  and  25,000 
Mohammedans.  Protestantism  is  repre¬ 
sented  by  the  Church  of  the  Waldenses, 
the  Free  Italian  Church,  and  by  the  mis¬ 
sionary  work  of  the  Methodists,  Baptists, 
Presbyterians  and  Episcopalians. 

Itinerancy  is  the  name  given  the  method 
of  the  Methodists,  by  which  the  ministers 
are  assigned  to  churches  by  the  bishops 
presiding  at  the  annual  conferences.  By 
the  action  of  the  General  Conference  of  the 
Methodist  Episcopal  Church,  held  in  New 
York,  May,  1888,  ministers  are  allowed  to 
hold  the  same  charge  for  five  years.  The 
itinerancy  originated  with  Wesley  who,  as 
early  as  May,  1746,  assigned  preachers  to 
certain  fields  of  labor,  then,  as  now,  in  Eng¬ 
land  called  “circuits.”  See  Methodism. 

Iturae'a  (an  enclosed  region ),  “a  small 
province  on  the  northwestern  border  of 
Palestine,  and  at  the  southeastern  base  of 
Hermon,  between  Trachonitis  and  Galilee. 
It  derived  its  name  from  ‘  Jetur,’  a  son  of 
Ishmael.  (Gen.  xxv.  15;  1  Chron.  i.  31;  v. 
19.)  This  district  is  now  called  Jedur,  and 
is  about  seventeen  miles  from  north  to 
south,  by  twenty  from  east  to  west.  The 


greater  portion  is  a  fine  plain,  with  a  rich 
and  well-watered  soil;  the  substratum  is 
black  basalt.  The  district  contains  thirty- 
eight  villages,  ten  of  them  entirely  deso¬ 
late;  the  others  have  a  few  peasant  families 
living  in  wretchedness  and  amid  ruins. 
Philip  was  ‘  tetrarch  of  Iturea  and  of  the 
region  of  Trachonitis.  (Luke  iii.  1.)’” — 
Schaff:  Bible  Diet. 

Ivo  of  Chartres,  b.  about  1040  in  the  dio¬ 
cese  of  Beauvais;  d.  at  Chartres,  Dec.  23, 
1116.  He  studied  philosophy  at  Paris,  and 
theology  at  Bee,  where  he  had  Lanfrance 
as  a  teacher.  In  1075  he  became  director 
of  the  monastery  of  St.  Quentin,  and  bishop 
of  Chartres  in  1090.  He  was  prominent  in 
several  controversies,  the  most  important 
of  which  was  that  regarding  the  right  of 
investure.  He  denounced  with  equal  frank¬ 
ness  the  faults  and  failings  of  the  Roman 
curia,  and  the  extreme  opposition  to 
Paschalis  II.  The  most  important  of  his 
works  are  two  collections  of  canons:  De¬ 
ere  turn  or  Decretorum  Opus  in  seventeen 
books,  and  Pannormia  in  eight  books.  A 
large  number  of  his  letters  are  preserved 
which  have  considerable  historical  interest. 
A  collected  edition  of  his  works  (1647)  has 
been  reprinted  by  Migne  (except  the  Pan - 
nortnia). 

J. 

Jab'bok,  now  called  the  Zerka.  It  rises 
about  twenty-five  miles  east  of  the  Dead 
Sea  at  its  north  end,  and  flows  into  the 
Jordan  about  midway  between  the  sea  of 
Galilee  and  the  Dead  Sea.  It  was  on  its 
south  bank  that  Jacob  wrestled  for  a  bless¬ 
ing.  (Gen.  xxxii.  22-24.)  It  was  the 
northern  boundary  of  Ammon,  and  separat¬ 
ed  the  kingdoms  of  Sihon  and  Og.  (Num. 
xxi.  24;  Deut.  ii.  37;  iii.  16;  Josh.  xii.  2; 
Judg.  xi.  13,  22.) 

Ja'cob  (heel  -  holder  or  supplanter ),  or 
Is'rael  (prince  of  God ,  or  warrior  of  God), 
“  the  second  son  of  Isaac  and  Rebekah.  He 
was  born  with  Esau,  when  Isaac  was  fifty- 
nine  and  Abraham  159  years  old,  probably 
at  the  well  Lahai-roi.  His  history  is  re¬ 
lated  in  the  latter  half  of  the  book  of  Gene¬ 
sis.  He  bought  the  birthright  from  his 
brother  Esau  ;  and  afterwards,  at  his 
mother’s  instigation,  acquired  the  blessing 
intended  for  Esau,  by  practising  a  well- 
known  deceit  on  Isaac.  Hitherto  the  two 
sons  shared  the  wanderings  of  Isaac  in  the 
South  Country  ;  but  now  Jacob  in  his 
seventy-eighth  year  was  sent  from  the 
family  home,  to  avoid  his  brother,  and  to 
seek  a  wife  among  his  kindred  in  Padan- 
aram.  As  he  passed  through  Bethel,  God 


Jac 


(  456  ) 


Jac 


appeared  to  him.  After  the  lapse  of  twenty- 
one  years,  he  returned  from  Padan-aram 
with  two  wives,  two  concubines,  eleven 
sons,  and  a  daughter,  and  large  property. 
He  escaped  from  the  angry  pursuit  of  La¬ 
ban,  from  a  meeting  with  Esau,  and  from 
the  vengeance  of  the  Canaanites  provoked 
by  the  murder  of  Shechem;  and  in  each  of 
those  three  emergencies  he  was  aided  and 
strengthened  by  the  interposition  of  God, 
and  in  sign  of  the  grace  won  by  a  night  of 
wrestling  Avith  God  his  name  was  changed 
at  Jabbokinto  Israel.  Deborah  and  Rachel 
died  before  he  reached  Hebron;  and  it  was 
at  Hebron,  in  the  I22d  year  of  his  age,  that 
he  and  Esau  buried  their  father  Isaac. 
Joseph,  the  favorite  son  of  Jacob,  Avas  sold 
into  Egypt  eleven  years  before  the  death 


is  best  expressed  by  his  name.  Jacob  Avas 
he;  for  he  Avas  naturally  adroit  and  sly, 
and  thus  got  the  better  of  the  physically 
stronger,  more  Avarlike  Esau,  and  the 
egoistical,  calculating  Laban.  Yet  he  Avas 
not  sordid  in  his  aims.  He  sought  some¬ 
thing  higher  than  mere  earthly  possessions, 
and  so  he  Avas  Israel;  for  he  Avrestled  for 
the  divine  blessing  as  the  most  valuable 
thing  one  could  have;  to  Avin  it,  he  sum¬ 
moned  all  his  energy,  and  underAvent  every 
deprivation.  It  Avas  the  ambition  of  his 
life.  It  is  true  he  Avas  far  from  being  per¬ 
fect.  In  him  the  loAver  nature  Avas  in  con¬ 
flict  Avith  the  higher,  and  often  victorious; 
but,  in  the  course  of  a  life  much  more 
troubled  than  that  of  his  father’s,  he  Avas 
purified.  He  Avas  punished  by  a  personal 


Jacob’s  well. 


of  Isaac;  and  Jacob  had  probably  exceeded 
his  130th  year  Avhen  he  Avent  thither,  being 
encouraged  in  a  di\dne  vision  as  he  passed 
for  the  last  time  through  Beer-sheba.  He 
was  presented  to  Pharaoh,  and  dAvelt  for 
seventeen  years  at  Rameses  in  Goshen. 
After  giving  his  solemn  blessing  to  Ephra¬ 
im  and  Manasseh,  and  his  own  sons  one 
by  one,  and  charging  the  ten  to  complete 
their  reconciliation  Avith  Joseph,  he  died  in 
his  147th  year.  His  body  Avas  embalmed, 
carried  Avith  great  care  and  pomp  into  the 
land  of  Canaan,  and  deposited  Avith  his 
fathers,  and  his  Avife  Leah,  in  the  caAre  of 
Machpelah.” — Smith:  Did.  of  the  Bible. 

“  The  character  of  this  remarkable  man 


experience  of  the  treatment  he  had  ghren 
others.  The  decewer  of  his  father  Avas 
deceiAred  by  Laban  and  by  his  OAvn  sons. 
The  loAdng  God  of  Jacob  Avas  by  no  means 
blind  to  the  faults  of  his  faA^orite,  but  he 
approved  his  humble,  hearty,  undaunted 
desire  after  sah'ation.” — Orelli ,  trans.  in 
Schaff-Herzog:  Ency .,  ato1.  ii. ,  p.  1135. 

Jacob’s  Well,  Avhere  Jesus  talked  Avith 
the  Avomar  of  Samaria  (John  iv.),  is  still 
identified  Avith  certainty,  as  situated  one 
mile  and  a  half  to  the  southeast  of  the 
toAvn  of  Nablus,  the  ancient  Shechem,  at 
the  eastern  base  of  Mount  Gerizim.  The 
Avell  is  noAV  badly  choked  and  filled  Avith 


Jac 


(  457  ) 


.  Jac 


the  ruins  of  a  chapel  that  was  built  to  re¬ 
place  one  that  was  in  existence  in  the  time 
of  Jerome,  and  destroyed  during  the 
crusades. 

Jacob  of  Edessa,  b.  in  the  middle  of  the 
seventh  century,  at  ’Indaba,  near  Antioch. 
He  studied  at  Alexandria,  and  was  ap¬ 
pointed  bishop  of  Edessa  in  687,  but,  owing 
to  disputes  with  his  clergy,  resigned  in  688, 
and  lived  eleven  years  in  the  monastery  of 
Eusebona,  and  then  nine  years  in  the 
monastery  of  Tell’eda.  When  his  success¬ 
or  in  the  see  of  Edessa,  Habib,  died  in  708, 
he  accepted  an  invitation  to  resume  the 
office,  but  died  while  on  the  way  to  Edes¬ 
sa,  June  5.  He  was  proficient  in  Syriac, 
Greek  and  Hebrew,  and  wrote  on  theology, 
history,  philosophy  and  grammar.  Many 
of  his  works  are  still  preserved  in  the 
libraries  of  London,  Paris,  Florence  and 
Rome.  His  Syriac  Grammar  was  edited 
by  Wright  (London,  1871). 

Jacob  of  Misa,  also  called  Jacobellus, 
from  his  small  stature;  b.  at  Misa,  in  Bo¬ 
hemia,  in  the  latter  part  of  the  fourteenth 
century.  He  became  pastor  first  at  Tina, 
and  afterward  of  the  Church  of  St.  Michael 
in  Prague,  where  he  died,  Aug.  9,  1459. 
Having  reached  the  conviction  by  his 
studies  of  the  Scriptures  and  the  Fathers, 
that  the  withholding  of  the  cup  from  the 
laity  in  the  administration  of  the  Lord’s 
Supper  was  unwarranted,  he  defended  his 
views  in  a  public  disputation  (1414),  and 
soon  after  began  to  administer  the  cup  to 
his  parishioners  in  spite  of  the  remon¬ 
strances  of  the  bishop  and  the  university. 
His  views  were  condemned  but  he  was  not 
removed  from  his  pastorate. 

Jacobites,  a  sect  which  arose  in  the 
East  about  the  year  450.  They  held  the 
Monophysite  doctrine,  i.  e. ,  that  there  is  but 
one  nature  in  Christ,  the  human  nature  be¬ 
ing  so  absorbed  into  the  Divine  that  Christ 
was  not  perfect  man.  This  heresy  was 
condemned  at  the  Council  of  Chalcedon  in 
451,  and  Dioscorus,  patriarch  of  Alexan¬ 
dria,  its  originator,  deposed.  But  on  the 
death  of  the  Emperor  Marcian,  who  had 
taken  the  side  of  the  orthodox,  a  Monophy¬ 
site  named  Timothy  GEluerus,  called  also 
“  The  Cat,”  caused  himself  to  be  conse¬ 
crated  patriarch  of  Alexandria  in  457,  and 
ever  since  the  Monophysites  have  main¬ 
tained  their  possession  of  the  patriarchate. 
Proterius,  the  orthodox  patriarch,  was  sav¬ 
agely  murdered  by  the  mob.  At  the  same 
time  the  Monophysites  set  up  a  succession 
of  bishops  throughout  Palestine,  and  grad¬ 
ually  outnumbered  the  orthodox  Christians 
in  both  countries;  they  spread  rapidly  also 


in  Armenia.  The  tenets  of  the  sect  were 
modified  somewhat  by  Timothy,  and  again 
about  the  year  520  by  Severus,  who  taught 
that  the  human  nature  in  Christ  was  not 
altogether  lost,  but  rather  amalgamated 
with  the  Divine,  retaining  certain  of  its 
qualities,  but  still  not  a  perfect  human 
nature.  These  modifications,  however, 
caused  divisions,  and  the  sect  was  much 
weakened  and  depressed  in  consequence. 
But  a  great  leader  and  propagator  of  their 
opinions  arose  in  Jacobus  Baradoeus, 
bishop  of  Edessa  (541-578).  Principally 
by  his  exertions  the  sect  spread  rapidly 
throughout  Syria  and  Egypt,  and  hence¬ 
forth  they  took  their  name  from  their  great 
leader,  and  were  called  Jacobites.  At  the 
conquest  of  Egypt  by  the  Mahometans  they 
were  established  as  the  recognized  Chris¬ 
tian  Church  of  that  country;  they  are 
known  in  Egypt  also  under  the  name  of 
Copts.  At  the  present  time  they  possess 
three  patriarchates,  viz. ,  Alexandria,  Anti¬ 
och,  and  Armenia.  The  Church  of  Abys¬ 
sinia  holds  communion  with  the  Coptic 
Church  of  Egypt.  With  the  exception  of 
their  views  regarding  the  nature  of  Christ, 
the  Jacobites  are  in  general  agreement  with 
the  orthodox  Eastern  Church.  See  also 
Eastern  Church;  Monophysites. — Ben- 
ham:  Diet.  of  Religion. 

Jacobs,  Henry  Eyster,  D.  D.  (Thiel 
College,  Carthage,  Ill.,  1877),  Lutheran; 
b.  at  Gettysburg,  Penn.,  Nov.  10,  1844; 
was  graduated  at  Pennsylvania  College, 
Gettysburg,  Penn.,  1862,  and  at  the  Theo¬ 
logical  Seminary  in  the  same  place,  1865. 
Engaged  in  pastoral  work  and  teaching  un¬ 
til  18S3,  and  since  then  professor  of  sys¬ 
tematic  theology  in  the  Evangelical  Luther¬ 
an  Seminary,  Philadelphia,  Pa.  Among 
his  published  works  are:  Proceedings  of  the 
First  Lutheran  Diet  (edited,  1878);  The 
Book  of  Concord;  or,  The  Symbolical  Books  of 
the  Evangelical  Lutheran  Church  (trans. 
with  notes),  2  vols.,  1882-83;  Meyer’s 
Commentary  on  Galatians  and  Ephesians 
(trans.  New  York,  1884).  Since  1883  has 
been  editor  of  Lutheran  Church  Review. 

Jacobus,  Melancthon  Williams,  D.  D., 
b.  at  Newark,  N.  J. ,  Sept.  19,  1816;  d.  at 
Allegheny,  Penn.,  Oct.  28,  1S76.  He  was 
a  graduate  of  the  Colle'ge  of  New  Jersey 
(1834),  and  Princeton  Theological  Semi¬ 
nary  (1838).  He  was  pastor  of  the  First 
Presbyterian  Church  of  Brooklyn,  1839- 
50;  and,  from  1851  till  his  death,  professor 
of  Oriental  and  biblical  literature  in  the 
Theological  Seminary  at  Allegheny,  Penn. 
In  1848  he  began  the  publication  of  a  series 
of  Notes  on  the  New  Testament ,  which  had 
a  wide  circulation,  and  were  republished 


Jac  • 


(  458  ) 


Jam 


in  Edinburgh.  He  published  Notes  on  the 
Book  of  Genesis ,  2  vols.  (1865). 

Jacopone,  Da  Todi,  the  author  of  the 
Stabat  Mater;  b.  at  Todi,  Italy,  about  1240; 
d.  in  the  convent  of  Collazone,  Dec.  24, 
1306.  He  studied  law,  and  in  early  life 
was  altogether  devoted  to  pleasure  and  his 
profession.  The  death  of  his  wife,  from 
the  falling  of  a  gallery  in  a  theatre, 
affected  him  deeply,  and  he  determined 
to  become  a  monk.  In  1278  he  was  ad¬ 
mitted  to  the  Franciscan  order  of  Minor¬ 
ites.  The  corruption  of  the  Church  led 
him  to  compose  poems  in  which  he  con¬ 
demned  the  actions  of  Pope  Boniface  VIII. 
(1294-1303),  and  he  joined  a  company  of 
nobles,  who  sought  to  depose  him. 
Jacopone  was  arrested  and  kept  in  confine¬ 
ment  until  the  death  of  Boniface  in  1303. 
He  wrote  many  poems,  but  his  two  most 
important  Latin  hymns  are  the  Stabat 
mater  dolorosa  (“At  the  cross  her  station 
keeping  ”),  and  its  companion  piece,  re¬ 
cently  discovered,  Stabat  mater  speciosa 
(“  Stood  the  glad  and  beauteous  mother  ”), 
which  depicts  the  joy  of  the  mother  of 
Jesus  at  the  manger. 

Ja'el  {wild goat),  “the  wife  of  Heber,  the 
chief  of  a  nomadic  Arab  tribe,  was  a  heroine 
whose  patriotic  deed  Deborah  magnified  in 
her  triumphant  song  of  victory.  (Judg.  v. 
24-26.)  In  the  precipitate  flight  of  the 
Canaanites,  after  their  defeat  by  Barak 
and  Deborah,  Sisera  was  induced  by  the  in¬ 
vitation  of  Jael  to  stop  in  at  her  tent,  whose 
seclusion  might  be  expected  to  effectually 
conceal  him.  After  refreshing  himself  with 
buttermilk  he  fell  asleep.  While  in  this 
condition,  Jael  took  a  tent  pin,  and  drove 
it  through  his  temples.  The  impassioned 
eulogy  of  Deborah  expressed  the  grati¬ 
tude  of  the  nation  for  its  deliverance  from 
its  enemy.  Jael’s  deed  was  prompted  by 
patriotic  motives,  and  was  a  bold  act;  but 
the  deed  was  carried  out  by  a  resort  to 
treachery,  and  a  disregard  of  the  laws  of 
hospitality.  The  best  treatment  of  the 
general  subject  of  the  justification  of  the 
deed  will  be  found  in  Mozley’s  Ruling 
Ideas  in  Early  Ages.”  —  Schaff-Herzog: 
Ency.,  vol.  ii.,  p.  1138. 

Jahn,  Johann,  adistinguished  Orientalist 
and  critic;  b.  at  Tasswitz,  in  Moravia,  June 
18,  1750;  d.  in  Vienna,  Aug.  16,  1816.  He 
became  professor  of  Oriental  languages 
and  exegesis  at  the  gymnasiums  of  Olmutz 
in  1784,  and  in  the  University  of  Vienna  in 
1789.  A  difference  of  view  on  exegetical 
questions  from  that  held  by  the  theolo¬ 
gians  with  whom  he  was  associated,  com¬ 
pelled  his  resignation  in  1805,  and  he  was 


made  canon  of  St.  Stephen.  Of  his  numer¬ 
ous  works  the  best  known  in  England  and 
this  country  is  his  Biblical  Archceologyt 
which  has  passed  through  several  editions. 

Jains,  a  numerous  and  wealthy  sect 
among  the  Hindus,  founded  in  the  fifth  or 
sixth  century  b.  C. ,  by  Vardhamana  (usu¬ 
ally  called  Maha-viva),  a  contemporary  of 
Gautama.  They  differ  in  almost  everything 
from  the  Buddhists.  By  “  the  practice  of 
the  four  virtues — liberality,  gentleness, 
piety,  and  remorse  for  failings — by  good¬ 
ness  in  thought,  word,  and  deed,  and  by 
kindness  to  the  mute  creation,  and  even  to 
the  forms  of  vegetable  life,”  they  believe 
that  immortality  can  be  secured,  and  the 
soul  delivered  from  the  necessity  of  trans¬ 
migration.  They  are  almost  monotheistic 
in  belief,  and  reject  the  Vedas.  Their  own 
sacred  books,  called  Agamas,  are  now  writ¬ 
ten  in  Sanscrit.  They  are  divided  into  two 
parties — the  Digambaras ,  the  “sky-clad” 
{i.  e.,  naked),  and  the  Swetambaras,  the 
“white-robed.”  Their  founder,  Vardha¬ 
mana,  and  his  early  disciples  went  naked, 
but  this  custom  has  been  abandoned,  al¬ 
though  the  idols  in  their  temples  are  still 
represented  in  a  nude  state.  They  worship 
twenty-four  immortal  saints.  Their  priests 
are  celibates,  and  their  widows  are  not  per¬ 
mitted  to  remarry.  They  deny  the  sacred¬ 
ness  of  caste,  and  the  wealth  and  impor¬ 
tance  of  the  sect  is  seen  in  the  magnificent 
temples  and  shrines  they  have  erected. 
See  Barth :  The  Religions  of  India  ( London , 
1881);  Fergusson  and  Burgess:  Cave  Tei?i- 
ples  in  India  (London,  1880). 

James,  “  (1)  the  Son  of  Zebedee.  This 
is  the  only  one  of  the  apostles  of  whose 
life  and  death  we  can  write  with  cer¬ 
tainty.  Of  his  early  life  we  know  noth¬ 
ing.  We  first  hear  of  him  A.  D.  27,  when 
he  was  called  to  be  our  Lord’s  disciple; 
and  he  disappears  from  view  A.  d.  44,  when 
he  suffered  martyrdom  at  the  hands  of 
Herod  Agrippa  I.  I.  His  history. — In  the 
spring  or  summer  of  the  year  27,  Zebedee, 
a  fisherman  (Mark  i.  20),  was  out  on  the 
sea  of  Galilee  with  his  two  sons,  James 
and  John,  and  some  boatmen.  He  was  en¬ 
gaged  in  his  customary  occupation  of  fish¬ 
ing,  and  near  him  was  another  boat  belong¬ 
ing  to  Simon  and  Andrew,  with  whom  he 
and  his  sons  were  in  partnership.  Find¬ 
ing  themselves  unsuccessful,  the  occupants 
of  both  boats  came  ashore,  and  began  to 
wash  their  nets.  At  this  time  the  new 
Teacher  appeared  upon  the  beach.  At  his 
call  they  left  all,  and  became,  once  and  for¬ 
ever,  his  disciples,  hereafter  to  catch  men. 
For  a  full  year  we  lose  sight  of  St.  James. 
He  is  then,  in  the  spring  of  28,  called  to 


Jam 


(  459  ) 


Jam 


the  apostleship  with  his  eleven  brethren. 
(Matt.  x.  2;  Mark  iii.  14;  Luke  vi.  13; 
Acts  i.  13.)  In  the  list  of  the  apostles 
given  us  by  St.  Mark,  and  in  the  book  of 
Acts,  his  name  occurs  next  to  that  of 
Simon  Peter:  in  the  Gospels  of  St.  Mat¬ 
thew  and  St.  Luke  it  comes  third.  It  is 
worthy  of  notice  that  with  one  exception 
(Luke  ix.  28),  the  name  of  James  is  put  be¬ 
fore  that  of  John,  and  that  John  is  twice 
described  as  ‘the  brother  of  James.’ 
(Mark  v.  37;  Matt.  xvii.  1.)  This  would 
appear  to  imply  that  at  this  time  James, 
either  from  age  or  character,  took  a  higher 
position  than  his  brother.  It  would  seem 
to  have  been  at  the  time  of  the  appoint¬ 
ment  of  the  twelve  apostles  that  the  name 
of  Boanerges  was  given  to  the  sons  of 
Zebedee.  The  ‘  Sons  of  Thunder  ’  had  a 
burning  and  impetuous  spirit,  which  twice 
exhibits  itself  in  its  unchastened  form. 
(Luke  ix.  54;  Mark  x.  37.)  The  first  oc¬ 
casion  on  which  this  natural  character 
manifests  itself  in  St.  James  and  his  broth¬ 
er  is  at  the  commencement  of  our  Lord’s 
last  journey  to  Jerusalem,  in  the  year  30. 
He  was  passing  through  Samaria,  and 
*  sent  messengers  before  his  face  ’  into  a 
certain  village,  ‘  to  make  ready  for  him  ’ 
(Luke  ix.  52),  i.  e.,  in  all  probability  to  an¬ 
nounce  him  as  the  Messiah.  The  Samar¬ 
itans,  with  their  old  jealousy  strong  upon 
them,  refused  to  receive  him;  and  in  their 
exasperation  James  and  John  entreated 
their  Master  to  follow  the  example  of 
Elijah,  and  call  down  fire  to  consume  them. 
At  the  end  of  the  same  journey  a  similar 
spirit  appears  again.  (Mark  x.  35.)  From 
the  time  of  the  Agony  in  the  Garden,  A.  D. 
30,  to  the  time  of  his  martyrdom,  A.  d.  44, 
we  know  nothing  of  St.  James,  except  that 
after  the  Ascension  he  persevered  in  pray¬ 
er  with  the  other  apostles,  and  the  women, 
and  the  Lord’s  brethren.  (Acts  i.  13.)  In 
the  year  44,  Herod  Agrippa  L,  son  of 
Aristobulus,  was  ruler  of  all  the  dominions 
which  at  the  death  of  his  grandfather, 
Herod  the  Great,  had  been  divided  be¬ 
tween  Archelaus,  Antipas,  Philip,  and 
Lysanias.  Policy  and  inclination  would 
alike  lead  such  a  monarch  ‘  to  lay  hands  ’ 
(Acts  xii.  1)  ‘  on  certain  of  the  church;  ’  and 
accordingly,  when  the  Passover  of  the  year 
44  had  brought  St.  James  and  St.  Peter  to 
Jerusalem,  he  seized  them  both.  II. 
Chronological  recapitulation. — In  the  spring 
or  summer  of  the  year  27,  James  was  call¬ 
ed  to  beadisciple  of  Christ.  In  the  spring 
of  28  he  was  appointed  one  of  the  Twelve 
Apostles,  and  at  that  time  probably  receiv¬ 
ed,  with  his  brother,  the  title  of  Boanerges. 
In  the  autumn  of  the  same  year  he  was  ad¬ 
mitted  to  the  miraculous  raising  of  Jairus’s 
daughter.  In  the  spring  of  the  year  29 


he  witnessed  the  Transfiguration.  Very 
early  in  the  year  30  he  urged  his  Lord  to 
call  down  fire  from  heaven  to  consume  the 
Samaritan  village.  About  three  months 
later  in  the  same  year,  just  before  the  final 
arrival  in  Jerusalem,  he  and  his  brother 
made  their  ambitious  request  through  their 
mother,  Salome.  On  the  night  before  the 
Crucifixion  he  was  present  at  the  Agony  in 
the  Garden.  On  the  day  of  the  Ascension, 
he  is  mentioned  as  persevering  with  the 
rest  of  the  apostles  and  disciples  in  prayer. 
Shortly  before  the  day  of  the  Passover,  in 
the  year  44,  he  was  put  to  death.  Thus 
during  fourteen  out  of  the  seventeen  years 
that  elapsed  between  his  call  and  his  death 
we  do  not  even  catch  a  glimpse  of  him. 
(2)  James  the  Son  of  Alph^us.  Matt.  x. 
iii;  Mark  iii.  18;  Luke  vi.  15;  Acts  i.  13. 
— (3)  James  the  Brother  of  the  Lord. 
Matt.  xiii.  55;  Mark  vi.  3;  Gal.  i.  19. — (4) 
James  the  Son  of  Mary.  Matt,  xxvii.  56; 
Luke  xxiv.  10;  also  called  the  Little. 
Mark  xv.  40. — (5)  James  the  Brother  of 
Jude.  Jude  i.— (6)  James  the  Brother  (?) 
of  Jude.  Luke  vi.  16;  Acts  i.  13. — (7) 
James.  Acts  xii.  17;  xv.  13;  xxi.  18;  1  Cor. 
xv.  7;  Gal.  ii.  9,  12.  (8)  James  the  Ser¬ 

vant  of  God  and  of  the  Lord  Jesus 
Christ.  James  i.  1.  St.  Paul  identifies  for 
us  Nos.  3  and  7  (see  Gal.  ii.  9  and  12  com¬ 
pared  with  i.  19).  If  we  may  translate 
Ioiidas  lakobou,  Judas  the  brother,  rather 
than  the  son  of  James,  we  may  conclude 
that  5  and  6  are  identical.  We  may 
identify  5  and  6  with  3,  because  we  know 
that  James  the  Lord’s  brother  had  a  brother 
named  Jude.  We  may  identify  4  with  3  be¬ 
cause  we  know  James  the  son  of  Mary  had 
a  brother  named  Joses,  and  so  also  had 
James  the  Lord’s  brother.  Thus  there  re¬ 
main  two  only,  James  the  son  of  Alphaeus 
(2),  and  James  the  brother  of  the  Lord  (3). 
Can  we,  or  can  we  not  identify  them? 
This  requires  a  longer  consideration.  By 
comparing  Matt,  xxvii.  56  and  Mark  xv. 
40  with  John  xix.  25,  we  find  that  the  Vir¬ 
gin  Mary  had  a  sister  named  like  herself, 
Mary,  who  was  the  wife  of  Clopas,  and 
who  had  two  sons,  James  the  Little  and 
Joses.  By  referring  to  Matt.  xiii.  55  and 
Mark  vi.  3,  we  find  that  a  James  and  a 
Joses,  with  two  other  brethren  called  Jude 
and  Simon,  and  at  least  three  sisters,  were 
living  with  the  Virgin  Mary  at  Nazareth. 
By  referring  to  Luke  vi.  16  and  Acts  i.  13, 
we  find  that  there  were  two  brethren 
named  James  and  Jude  among  the  apostles. 
It  would  certainly  be  natural  to  think  that 
we  had  here  but  one  family  of  four  brothers 
and  three  or  more  sisters,  the  children  of 
Clopas  and  Mary,  nephews  and  nieces  of 
the  Virgin  Mary.  There  are  difficulties, 
however,  in  the  way  of  this  conclusion. 


Jam 


(  460  ) 


Jam 


For  (1),  the  four  brethren  in  Matt.  xiii.  55 
are  described  as  the  brothers  of  Jesus,  not 
as  his  cousins;  (2)  they  are  found  living  as 
at  their  home  with  the  Virgin  Mary,  which 
seems  unnatural  if  she  were  their  aunt, 
their  mother  being,  as  we  know,  still  alive; 
(3)  the  James  of  Luke  vi.  15  is  described  as 
the  son,  not  of  Clopas,  but  of  Alphaeus;  (4) 
the  ‘  brethren  of  the  Lord  ’  appear  to  be 
excluded  from  the  apostolic  band  by  their 
declared  unbelief  in  his  Messiahship  (John 
vii.  3-5),  and  by  being  formally  distinguish¬ 
ed  from  the  disciples  by  the  Gospel-writers 
(Matt.  xii.  48;  Mark  iii.  33;  John  ii.  12; 
Acts  i.  14);  (5)  James  and  Jude  are  not 
designated  as  the  Lord’s  brethren  in  the 
list  of  the  apostles;  (6)  Mary  is  designated 
as  the  mother  of  James  and  Joses,  whereas 
she  would  have  been  called  mother  of  James 
and  Jude,  had  James  and  Jude  been 
apostles,  and  Joses  not  an  apostle.  (Matt, 
xxvii.  46.)  The  following  answers  maybe 
given:  Objection  1.  —  ‘  They  are  called 
brethren'  Now,  it  is  clearly  not  necessary 
to  understand  adelphoi  as  ‘  brothers  ’  in  the 
nearest  sense  of  brotherhood.  It  need  not 
mean  more  than  relative.  But  perhaps 
the  circumstances  of  the  case  would  lead 
us  to  translate  it  brethren.  On  the  con¬ 
trary,  such  a  translation  appears  to  produce 
very  grave  difficulties.  For,  first,  it  intro¬ 
duces  two  sets  of  four  first-cousins,  bear¬ 
ing  the  same  names  of  James,  Joses,  Jude, 
and  Simon;  and,  secondly,  it  drives  us  to 
take  our  choice  between  three  doubt¬ 
ful  and  improbable  hypotheses  as  to  the 
parentage  of  this  second  set  of  James, 
Joses,  Jude,  and  Simon.  There  are  three 
such  hypotheses: — (a)  The  Eastern  hypoth¬ 
esis,  that  they  were  the  children  of  Joseph 
by  a  former  wife,  (b)  The  Helvidian  hypoth¬ 
esis,  that  James,  Joses,  Jude,  Simon,  and 
the  three  sisters,  were  children  of  Joseph 
and  Mary,  (c)  The  Levirate  hypothesis, 
that  Joseph  and  Clopas  were  brothers,  and 
that  Joseph  raised  up  seed  to  his  dead 
brother.  Objection  2. — The  four  brothers 
and  their  sisters  are  always  found  living 
and  moving  about  with  the  Virgin  Mary. 
If  they  were  the  children  of  Clopas,  the 
Virgin  Mary  was  their  aunt.  Her  own 
husband  would  appear  without  doubt  to 
have  died  at  some  time  between  a.  d.  8 
and  a.  d.  26.  Nor  have  we  any  rea¬ 
son  for  believing  Clopas  to  have  been 
alive  during  our  Lord’s  ministry.  What 
difficulty  is  there  in  supposing  that  the 
two  widowed  sisters  should  have  lived 
together,  the  more  so  as  one  of  them 
had  but  one  son,  and  he  was  often 
taken  from  her  by  his  ministerial  duties  ? 
Objection  3. — ‘  James  the  apostle  is  said  to 
be  the  son  of  Alphaeus,  not  Clopas.’  But 
Alphaeus  and  Clopas  are  the  same  name. 


Objection  4. — Dean  Alford  considers  John 
vii.  5,  compared  with  vi.  67- 70,  to  decide 
that  none  of  the  brothers  of  the  Lord  were 
of  the  number  of  the  twelve.  If  this 
verse,  as  he  states,  makes  ‘  the  crowning 
difficulty  ’  to  the  hypothesis  of  the  identity 
of  James  the  son  of  Alphaeus,  the  apostle, 
with  James  the  brother  of  the  Lord,  the 
difficulties  are  not  so  formidable  to  be 
overcome.  It  is  not  at  all  necessary  to 
suppose  that  St.  John  is  here  speaking  of 
all  the  brethren.  If  Joses,  Simon,  and  the 
three  sisters,  disbelieved,  it  would  be 
quite  sufficient  ground  for  the  statement  of 
the  Evangelist.  Nor  does  it  necessarily 
follow  that  the  disbelief  of  the  brethren 
was  of  such  a  nature  that  James  and  Jude 
could  have  had  no  share  in  it.  Objection  5. 
— The  omission  of  a  title  is  so  slight  a 
ground  for  an  argument  that  we  may  pass 
this  by.  Objection  6. — There  is  no  improb¬ 
ability  in  this  objection,  if  Joses  was,  as 
would  seem  likely,  an  elder  brother  of 
Jude,  and  next  in  order  to  James.  Had 
we  not  identified  James  the  son  of  Alphseus 
with  the  brother  of  the  Lord,  we  should 
have  but  little  to  write  of  him.  Of  his 
father,  Alphcens  or  Clopas ,  we  know  noth¬ 
ing,  except  that  he  married  Mary,  the  sis¬ 
ter  of  the  Virgin  Mary,  and  had  by  her  four 
sons  and  three  or  more  daughters.  It  is 
probable  that  these  cousins,  or,  as  they 
were  usually  called,  brothers  and  sisters  of 
the  Lord,  were  older  than  himself.  Of 
James  individually,  we  know  nothing  till 
the  spring  of  the  year  28,  when  we  find 
him,  together  with  his  younger  brother 
Jude,  called  to  the  apostolate.  It  is  not 
likely  (though  far  from  impossible)  that 
James  and  Jude  took  part  with  their  broth¬ 
ers  and  sisters  and  the  Virgin  Mary,  in  try¬ 
ing  ‘  to  lay  hold  on  ’  Jesus  in  the  autumn  of 
the  same  year  (Mark  iii.  21);  and  it  is  likely, 
though  not  certain,  that  it  is  of  the  other 
brothers  and  sisters, without  these  two,  that 
St.  John  says,  *  Neither  did  his  brethren  be¬ 
lieve  on  him  ’  (John  vii.  5),  in  the  autumn 
of  A.  D.  29.  We  hear  no  more  of  James  till 
after  the  Crucifixion  and  the  Resurrection. 
At  some  time  in  the  forty  days  that  inter¬ 
vened  between  the  Resurrection  and  the 
Ascension  the  Lord  appeared  to  him.  This 
is  not  related  by  the  Evangelists,  but  it  is 
mentioned  by  St.  Paul.  (1  Cor.  xv.  7.)  We 
cannot  fix  the  date  of  this  appearance.  It 
was  probably  only  a  few  days  before  the 
Ascension.  Again  we  lose  sight  of  James 
for  ten  years,  and  when  he  appears  once 
more  it  is  in  a  far  higher  position  than  any 
that  he  has  yet  held.  In  the  year  37  oc¬ 
curred  the  conversion  of  Saul.  Three 
years  after  his  conversion  he  paid  his  first 
visit  to  Jerusalem,  but  the  Christians  rec¬ 
ollected  what  they  had  suffered  at  his 


Jam 


(  46i  ) 


Jam 


hands,  and  feared  to  have  anything  to 
do  with  him.  Barnabas,  at  this  time  of 
far  higher  reputation  than  himself,  took 
him  by  the  hand,  and  introduced  him 
to  Peter  and  James  (Acts  ix.  27;  Gal.  i.  18, 
19),  and  by  their  authority  he  was  admit¬ 
ted  into  the  society  of  the  Christians,  and 
allowed  to  associate  freely  with  them  dur¬ 
ing  the  fifteen  days  of  his  stay.  Here  we  find 
James  on  a  level  with  Peter,  and  with  him 
deciding  on  the  admission  of  St.  Paul  into 
fellowship  with  the  Church  at  Jerusalem; 
and  from  henceforth  we  always  find  him 
equal,  or,  in  his  own  department  superior, 
to  the  very  chiefest  apostles,  Peter,  John, 
and  Paul.  For  by  this  time  he  had  been 
appointed  (at  what  exact  date  we  know  not) 
to  preside  over  the  infant  Church  in  its 
most  important  centre,  in  a  position  equiv¬ 
alent  to  that  of  bishop.  This  preeminence 
is  evident  throughout  the  after-history  of 
the  apostles,  whether  we  read  it  in  the 
Acts,  in  the  Epistles,  or  in  ecclesiastical 
writers.  (Acts  xii.  17;  xv.  13,  19;  xxi.  18; 
Gal.  ii.  9.)  The  account  of  his  martyrdom 
is  given  by  Hegesippus.  According  to  the 
tradition  thus  recorded,  he  was  thrown 
down  from  the  Temple  by  Scribes  and 
Pharisees;  he  was  then  stoned,  and  his 
brains  dashed  out  by  a  fuller’s  club.” — 
Smith:  Diet,  of  the  Bible. 

James,  The  General  Epistle  of.  “  I. 
Its  Genuineness  and  Canonicity.  —  In  the 
third  book  of  his  Ecclesiastical  History ,  Eu¬ 
sebius  places  the  Epistle  of  St.  James,  the 
Second  and  Third  Epistles  of  St.  John,  and 
the  Epistle  of  St.  Jude  among  the  disputed 
books  of  the  N.  T.  Elsewhere  he  refers 
the  Epistle  to  the  class  of  ‘  spurious.’  It 
is  found  in  the  Syriac  version,  and  appears 
to  be  referred  to  by  Clement  of  Rome, 
Hermas,  and  Irenaeus,  and  is  quoted  by 
almost  all  the  Fathers  of  the  fourth  cen¬ 
tury;  e.  g.}  Athanasius,  Cyril,  Gregory 
Nazianzen,  Epiphanius,  and  Chrysostom. 
In  397  the  Council  of  Carthage  accepted  it 
as  canonical,  and  from  that  time  there  has 
been  no  further  question  of  its  genuineness 
on  the  score  of  external  testimony.  But  at 
the  time  of  the  Reformation  the  question 
of  its  authenticity  was  again  raised,  and 
now  upon  the  ground  of  internal  evidence; 
the  chief  objection  being  a  supposed  oppo¬ 
sition  between  St.  Paul  and  St.  James,  on 
the  doctrine  of  Justification.  II.  Its  Author. 
— The  author  of  the  Epistle  must  be  either 
James,  the  son  of  Zebedee,  according  to 
the  subscription  of  the  Syriac  version;  or 
James,  the  son  of  Alphaeus;  or  James,  the 
brother  of  the  Lord,  which  is  the  general 
opinion;  or  an  unknown  James.  Internal 
evidence  points  unmistakably  to  James  the 
Just  as  the  writer,  and  we  have  already 


identified  James  the  Just  with  the  son  of 
Alphaeus.  It  was  written  from  Jerusalem, 
which  St.  James  does  not  seem  to  have 
ever  left.  The  time  at  which  he  wrote  it 
has  been  fixed  as  late  as  62,  and  as  early  as 
45.  Those  who  see  in  its  writer  a  desire 
to  counteract  the  effects  of  a  misconstruc¬ 
tion  of  St.  Paul’s  doctrine  of  Justification 
by  Faith,  in  ii.  14-26,  and  those  who  see  a 
reference  to  the  immediate  destruction  of 
Jerusalem  in  v.  1,  and  an  allusion  to  the 
name  Christians  in  ii.  7,  argue  in  favor 
of  the  later  date.  The  earlier  date  is  advo¬ 
cated  chiefly  on  the  ground  that  the  Epis¬ 
tle  could  not  have  been  written  by  St. 
James  after  the  Council  in  Jerusalem,  with¬ 
out  some  allusion  to  what  was  there  de¬ 
cided,  and  because  the  Gentile  Christian 
does  not  yet  appear  to  be  recognized.  III. 
Its  Object. — The  main  object  of  the  Epistle 
is  not  to  teach  doctrine,  but  to  improve 
morality.  St.  James  is  the  moral  teacher 
of  the  N.  T.  There  are  two  ways  of  ex¬ 
plaining  this  characteristic  of  the  Epistle. 
Some  commentators  and  writers  see  in  St. 
James  a  man  who  had  not  realized  the  es¬ 
sential  principles  and  peculiarities  of  Chris¬ 
tianity,  but  was  in  a  transition  state,  half- 
Jew  and  half  -  Christian.  But  there  is 
another  and  much  more  natural  way  of 
accounting  for  the  fact.  St.  James  was 
writing  for  a  special  class  of  persons,  and 
knew  what  that  class  especially  needed. 
Those  for  whom  he  wrote  were  the  Jewish 
Christians,  whether  in  Jerusalem  or  abroad. 
The  two  objects  of  the  Epistle  are:  (1)  To 
warn  against  the  sins  to  which  as  Jews 
they  were  most  liable;  (2)  To  console  and 
exhort  them  under  the  sufferings  to  which 
as  Christians  they  were  most  exposed. 
IV.  There  are  two  points  in  the  Epistle 
which  demand  a  somewhat  more  lengthen¬ 
ed  notice.  These  are:  (a)  ii.  14-26,  which 
has  been  represented  as  a  formal  opposi¬ 
tion  to  St.  Paul’s  doctrine  of  Justification 
by  Faith,  and  (b)  v.  14,  15,  which  is  quoted 
as  the  authority  for  the  Sacrament  of  Ex¬ 
treme  Unction.  (a)  If  we  consider  the 
meaning  of  the  two  apostles,  we  see  at 
once  that  there  is  no  contradiction,  either 
intended  or  possible.  St.  Paul  was  oppos¬ 
ing  the  Judaizing  party,  which  claimed  to 
earn  acceptance  by  good  works,  whether 
the  works  of  the  Mosaic  law,  or  works 
of  piety  done  by  themselves.  In  opposition 
to  these,  St.  Paul  lays  down  the  great 
truth  that  acceptance  cannot  be  earned  by 
man  at  all,  but  is  the  free  gift  of  God  to 
the  Christian  man,  for  the  sake  of  the 
merits  of  Jesus  Christ,  appropriated  by 
each  individual  and  made  his  own  by  the 
instrumentality  of  faith.  St.  James,  on  the 
other  hand,  was  opposing  the  old  Jewish 
tenet,  that  to  be  a  child  of  Abraham  was  all 


Jam 


(  462  ) 


Jan 


in  all;  that  godliness  was  not  necessary, 
so  that  the  belief  was  correct.  (b)  With 
respect  to  v.  14,  15,  it  is  enough  to  say 
that  the  ceremony  of  Extreme  Unction 
and  the  ceremony  described  by  St.  James 
differ  both  in  their  subject  and  in  their  ob¬ 
ject.” — Smith:  Diet  of  the  Bible.  See  com¬ 
mentaries  of  Calvin,  Olshausen,  Alford, 
Lange,  Dean  Scott  {Speaker  s  Commentary, 
1S82),  Schaff  (1883),  etc. 

James,  John  Angell,  an  eminent  Eng¬ 
lish  Congregational  minister;  b.  at  Bland- 
ford,  June  6,  1785;  d.  at  Birmingham,  Oct. 
1,  1859.  Educated  at  the  theological  sem¬ 
inary  at  Gosport,  he  was  ordained  pastor 
of  Carr’s  Lane  Chapel,  Birmingham,  in  the 
spring  of  1806,  and  continued  in  this  office 
until  his  death.  He  was  a  preacher  of  un¬ 
usual  power,  and  as  a  pastor  indefatigable 
in  his  labors.  The  collected  edition  of  his 
writings  numbers  fifteen  volumes.  Of  his 
books  the  best  known  is  The  Anxious  En¬ 
quirer  after  Salvation  Directed  and  Encour¬ 
aged.  See  Dale:  Life  and  Letters  of  John 
Angell  James  (London,  1862). 

Janes,  Edmund  Storer,  D.  D.,  LL.  D., 
a  bishop  of  the  Methodist  Episcopal  Church ; 
b.  at  Sheffield,  Mass.,  April  27,  1807;  d.  in 
New  York  City,  Sept.  18,  1876.  He  entered 
the  ministry  in  1830,  and  in  1840  was  elect¬ 
ed  financial  secretary  of  the  American  Bible 
Society,  which  position  he  resigned  in  1844 
to  accept  the  office  of  bishop.  With  dis¬ 
tinguished  ability  and  singular  fidelity  he 
discharged  the  duties  of  the  episcopate  for 
thirty-two  years.  His  executive  power 
was  combined  with  a  wisdom,  gentleness, 
and  devotion  that  gave  him  unbounded  in¬ 
fluence  in  the  direction  of  affairs.  See  his 
Life ,  by  Henry  B.  Ridgeway,  D.  D.  (N.  Y. , 
1882). 

Jan'nes  and  Jambres,  spoken  of  in  2 
Tim.  iii.  8,  were  two  noted  magicians  of 
Egypt,  who  are  supposed  to  have  employed 
their  art  in  deceiving  Pharaoh.  (Ex.  vii.  9- 
I3-) 

Jansen,  Cornelius,  “  a  celebrated  divine; 
b.  of  humble  parentage  in  1585,  at  Acquoy, 
near  Leerdam,  in  Holland,  from  whom  the 
sect  of  Jansenists  derives  its  name.  He 
was  nephew  of  the  well-known  biblical 
commentator  and  bishop  of  Ghent,  of  the 
same  name.  The  studies  of  Jansen  were 
divided  between  Utrecht,  Louvain,  and 
Paris.  Having  obtained  a  professorship 
at  Bayonne,  he  devoted  himself  with  all  his 
energy  to  scriptural  and  patristic  studies, 
especially  of  the  works  of  St.  Augustine. 
From  Bayonne,  he  returned  to  Louvain, 
where,  in  1617,  he  obtained  the  degree  of 


doctor,  was  appointed  lecturer  on  Script¬ 
ure,  and  took  a  prominent  part  in  the  affairs 
of  the  university,  especially  in  a  contest 
with  the  Jesuits,  on  occasion  of  which  he 
was  sent  upon  a  mission  to  the  court  of 
Madrid.  In  1630  he  was  appointed  to  the 
professorship  of  Scripture  ;  and  having 
distinguished  himself  by  a  pamphlet  on  the 
war  with  France,  Mars  Gallicus,  he  was 
promoted,  in  1636,  to  the  see  of  Ypres.  In 
this  city  he  died  of  the  plague,  May  6,  1638, 
just  as  he  had  completed  his  great  work, 
the  Augustinus ,  which  proved  the  occasion 
of  a  theological  controversy  the  most  im¬ 
portant,  in  its  doctrinal,  social,  and  even 
political  results,  which  has  arisen  since  the 
Reformation.” — Chambers:  Cyclopcedia. 

Jansenism.  The  Jesuits  made  every  ef¬ 
fort  to  suppress  the  publication  of  the 
Augustinus ,  and  when  it  appeared  (1640), 
its  reading  was  prohibited  by  the  Inquisi¬ 
tion  (1641),  and  in  1643  by  a  bull  of  Urban 
VIII.  The  friends  of  Jansen  claimed  that 
the  bull  did  not  specify  any  particular  doc¬ 
trines  as  heretical,  and,  therefore,  tacitly 
accepted  it.  The  Jesuits  thereupon  sub¬ 
mitted  five  propositions,  which  they  found 
sustained  in  the  Augustinus ,  and  which 
they  claimed  were  heretical.  They  were 
as  follows:  (1)  Some  commands  of  God  are 
impossible  for  just  men  to  perform,  even 
when  willing  and  endeavoring  to  do  so,  in 
accordance  with  the  strength  which  they 
at  present  have;  there  is  also  wanting  to 
them  that  grace  by  which  it  may  be  possible 
for  them  to  perform  them.  (2)  In  the  con¬ 
dition  of  fallen  nature  resistance  is  never 
made  to  inward  grace.  (3)  For  deserving 
and  meriting  reward,  in  the  condition  of 
fallen  nature,  there  is  not  required  in  man 
freedom  from  necessity,  but  freedom  from 
compulsion  suffices.  (4)  The  Semi-Pela¬ 
gians  allowed  the  necessity  of  prevenient 
grace  for  single  acts,  even  from  the  begin¬ 
ning  of  faith,  and  in  the  first  they  were 
heretical,  viz.,  that  they  held  that  grace  to 
be  such,  that  the  will  of  man  was  able  to 
resist  it  or  obey  it.  (5)  It  is  Semi-Pelagian 
to  say  that  Christ  died,  or  shed  his  blood 
for  all  men  absolutely.  Innocent  X.  con¬ 
demned  the  propositions  as  heretical.  The 
Jansenists  again  declared  their  willingness 
to  sign  the  condemnation,  affirming  that 
the  propositions  in  the  sense  which  the 
Jesuits  gave  to  them  were  not  to  be  found 
in  the  writings  of  Jansen.  The  pontifical 
command  that  the  bull  should  be  subscribed 
to  was  followed  by  a  general  assembly  of 
the  clergy,  which  declared  that  the  five 
propositions  were  to  be  found  in  the 
Augustinus,  and  that  Jansen  had  perverted 
the  meaning  of  Augustine.  Prominent 
Jansenists  found  safety  only  in  hiding,  and 


Jan 


(  463  ) 


the  Port  Royalists  (See  Port  Royal),  who 
claimed  that  the  pope  had  no  right  to  take 
the  action  he  had  done,  were  bitterly  per¬ 
secuted.  “  Under  Clement  IX.  a  com¬ 
promise  with  the  Jansenists  was  effected, 
but  this  peace  proved  of  short  duration. 
In  1705  Clement  XI.  issued  a  bull  confirm¬ 
ing  all  preceding  condemnations  of  the  five 
propositions.  He  also ,  denounced  the 
Moral  Reflections  on  the  New  Testament  by 
Quesnel  as  a  text-book  of  undisguised  Jan¬ 
senism.  Clement  issued  in  1713,  in  the 
constitution  ‘  Unigenitus,’  a  condemnation 
in  mass  of  101  propositions  extracted  from 
the  Moral  Reflections ,  which,  however,  met 
with  great  resistance  in  France.  The  death 
of  Louis  XIV.  caused  a  relaxation  of  the 
repressive  measures.  The  regent,  Duke 
of  Orleans,  was  urged  to  refer  the  whole 
controversy  to  a  national  council,  and  the 
leaders  of  the  Jansenist  party  appealed  to 
a  general  council.  The  party  thus  formed, 
which  numbered  four  bishops  and  many 
inferior  ecclesiastics,  was  called,  from 
this  circumstance,  the  Appellants.  The 
firmness  of  the  pope,  and  a  change  in  the 
policy  of  the  regent,  brought  them  into 
disfavor.  An  edict  was  published,  June 
4,  1720,  receiving  the  bull;  and  even  the 
parliament  of  Paris  submitted  to  register 
it.  although  with  a  reservation  in  favor  of 
the  liberties  of  the  Gallican  Church.  The 
Appellants  for  the  most  part  submitted,  the 
recusants  being  visited  with  severe  penal¬ 
ties;  and  on  the  accession  of  the  new  king, 
Louis  XV.,  the  unconditional  acceptance 
of  the  bull  was  at  length  formally  accom¬ 
plished,  the  parliament  being  compelled  to 
register  it  in  a  lit  de  justice.  From  this 
time  forward,  the  Appellants  were  rigor¬ 
ously  repressed,  and  a  large  number  emi¬ 
grated  to  the  Netherlands,  where  they 
formed  a  community,  with  Utrecht  as  a 
centre.  The  party  still  remaining  in  France 
persisted  in  their  inveterate  opposition  to 
the  bull,  and  many  of  them  fell  into  great 
excesses  of  fanaticism. 

“  In  one  locality  alone,  Utrecht  and  its 
dependent  churches,  can  the  sect  be  said  to 
have  had  a  regular  and  permanent  organ¬ 
ization,  which  dates  partly  from  the  forced 
emigration  of  the  French  Jansenists  under 
Louis  XIV.,  partly  from  the  controversy 
about  Quesnel.  The  vicar-apostolic,  Peter 
Codde,  having  been  suspended  by  Clement 
XI.  in  1702,  the  chapter  of  Utrecht  refused 
to  acknowledge  the  new  vicar  named  in  his 
place,  and  angrily  joined  themselves  to  the 
Appellant  party  in  France,  many  of  whom 
found  a  refuge  in  Utrecht.  At  length,  in 
1723,  they  elected  an  archbishop,  Cornelius 
Steenhoven,  for  whom  the  form  of  epis¬ 
copal  consecration  was  obtained  from  the 
French  bishop  Vorlet  (titular  of  Babylon), 


Jap 


who  had  been  suspended  for  Jansenist 
opinions.  A  later  Jansenist  archbishop  of 
Utrecht,  Meindarts,  established  Haarlem 
and  Deventer  as  his  suffragan  sees;  and  in 
1763  a  synod  was  held,  which  sent  its  acts 
to  Rome,  in  recognition  of  the  primacy  of 
that  see,  which  the  Church  of  Utrecht  pro¬ 
fesses  to  acknowledge.  Since  that  time, 
the  formal  succession  has  been  maintained, 
each  bishop,  on  being  appointed,  notifying 
his  election  to  the  pope,  and  craving  con¬ 
firmation.  The  popes,  however,  have  uni¬ 
formly  rejected  all  advances,  except  on  the 
condition  of  the  acceptance  of  the  bull 
Unigenitus;  and  the  act  of  the  Holy  See, 
in  defining  as  of  Catholic  faith  the  dog¬ 
ma  of  the  immaculate  conception  of  the 
Blessed  Virgin  Mary,  was  the  occasion  of 
a  new  protest.  The  Jansenists  of  the 
Utrecht  Church  still  number  about  5,000 
souls,  and  are  divided  over  twenty-five 
parishes  in  the  dioceses  of  Utrecht  and 
Haarlem.  Their  clergy  are  about  thirty 
in  number,  with  a  seminary  at  Amersfoort. 
The  Jansenist  archbishop  of  Utrecht  con¬ 
secrated  a  bishop  for  the  Old  Catholics.” — 
Chambers:  Cyclopaedia.  See  Old  Catho¬ 
lics;  Jansen. 

Januarius,  St.,  bishop  of  Benevento,  de¬ 
capitated  at  Puteoli  during  the  persecution 
of  Diocletian.  He  is  the  patron  saint  of 
Naples,  and  his  head  and  two  phials  con¬ 
taining  his  blood  are  kept  in  a  chapel  of 
the  cathedral  in  that  city  and  exhibited 
twice  a  year,  May  1  and  Sept.  19.  When 
the  phials  are  placed  within  sight  of  the 
head  the  blood,  it  is  averred,  becomes 
liquid  and  begins  to  stir.  When  this 
miracle  takes  place  it  is  considered  a  good 
omen  to  the  city  and  people.  Thirteen 
other  saints  and  martyrs  bear  the  name  of 
Januarius. 

Japan.  “  The  religious  beliefs  of  the 
Japanese  people  may  be  divided  under  two 
heads,  the  Shinto  and  the  Buddhist.  By 
the  former  is  meant  the  religious  belief  of 
the  natives,  prior  to  the  introduction  from 
abroad  of  Buddhism  and  the  Confucian 
philosophy.  Shintd  means  literally  “  the 
way  of  the  gods.”  Though  often  styled  by 
foreign  writers  a  religion,  it  really  is  not 
one.  No  concise  definition  of  it  appears  to 
exist,  but  the  following  are  some  of  its 
leading  points:  It  contains  no  moral  code, 
the  writer,  Motoori  (a  high  authority  on 
this  subject,  born  1730,  died  1801),  even  as¬ 
serting  that  in  Japan  there  was  no  necessity 
for  any  system  of  morals,  as  every  Japan¬ 
ese  acted  aright  if  he  only  consulted  his 
own  heart.  He  also  declared  that  the  whole 
duty  of  a  good  Japanese  consisted  in  obey¬ 
ing,  implicitly  and  without  question,  the 


( 464 ) 


Jap 


Jap 


commands  of  the  mikado.  In  Skint 6,  Japan 
is  held  to  be  the  country  of  the  gods,  and 
the  mikado  to  be  the  direct  descendant  and 
actual  representative  of  the  Sun  goddess. 
In  it  there  also  seems  to  be  mixed  up  a 
system  of  hero  worship,  many  renowned 
warriors  and  other  personages  of  ancient 
days  being  exalted  into  what  we  should 
term  demi-gods;  thus  it  inculcates  a  rever¬ 
ential  feeling  toward  the  dead.  By  it,  too, 
spiritual  agencies  are  attributed  to  the  ele¬ 
ments  or  natural  phenomena.  The  Shintd 
shrines  throughout  the  country  are  built  in 
very  simple  style,  being  generally  con¬ 
structed  of  white  wood,  unadorned  by  brill¬ 
iant  coloring  as  in  Buddhist  temples,  and 
roofed  with  thatch.  Before  each  shrine 
stand  one  or  more  torii,  archways  formed 
of  two  upright  posts  with  a  projecting  cross¬ 
bar  laid  on  their  summits,  beneath  which 
is  a  smaller  horizontal  beam,  the  ends  of 
which  do  not  project.  As  its  name  implies, 
the  torii  was  originally  a  perch  for  the 
fowls  offered  to  the  gods,  not  as  a  food, 
but  to  give  warning  of  daybreak.  This 
archway  gradually  assumed  the  character 
of  a  general  symbol  of  Shintd ,  and  the  num¬ 
ber  which  might  be  erected  in  honor  of  a 
deity  became  practically  unlimited.  The 
special  peculiarity  distinguishing  the  pure 
Shintd  shrines  from  the  Buddhist  temples 
is  the  absence  of  images  exposed  as  objects 
for  the  veneration  of  the  worshipper;  but 
at  the  same  time,  the  former  nearly  always 
contains  some  object  in  which  the  spirit  of 
the  deity ,  therein  enshrined,  is  supposed  to 
reside.  The  principal  Shintd  shrines  are 
those  in  the  department  of  Watasai,  in  the 
province  of  Ise,  known  as  Ise  Dai-jiu-gue 
(‘  the  great  divine  palaces  of  Ise  ’),  and 
maintained  by  government.  The  first  Bud¬ 
dhist  images  and  Sutras  were  brought  to 
Japan  from  Corea  in  the  year  552,  if  we 
can  believe  the  Nihougi,  but  it  was  long 
before  the  religion  obtained  much  hold  on 
the  people.  In  the  beginning  of  the  ninth 
century,  the  priest  Kukai  "(now  better 
known  as  Kobo  Daishi),  compounded  out 
of  Buddhism,  Confucianism  and  Shintd ,  a 
system  of  doctrine  called  Riobu  Shintd ,  the 
most  prominent  characteristic  of  which  was 
the  theory  that  Shintd  deities  were  nothing- 
more  than  transmigrations  of  Buddhist 
divinities.  Buddhism,  thus  fairly  intro¬ 
duced,  ere  long  obtained  complete  ascend¬ 
ency;  it  became  the  religion  of  the  whole 
nation,  and  held  that  position  until  the 
Sokugawa  dynasty  of  Shogun,  when  it  was 
supplanted  in  the  intellects  of  the  educated 
class  by  the  philosophy  of  Coo  He.  Its 
teachings  were  calculated  to  awaken  man 
to  a  sense  of  his  own  short-comings,  and 
to  cause  him  to  long  for  perfection:  it  en¬ 
couraged  belief  in  a  succession  of  lives  and 


transmigration  of  souls;  and  the  highest 
reward  promised  to  the  true  believer  was 
to  be  absorbed  into  Buddha  and  to  attain 
to  absolute  perfection.  Under  the  Soku¬ 
gawa  family,  many  grants  were  made  from 
their  treasuries  to  famous  Buddhist  tem¬ 
ples,  notably  to  that  of  Zojoji  in  the  dis¬ 
tricts  of  Shiba,  in  Yedo,  which  was  endow¬ 
ed  by  Iyeyasu  himself  in  the  concluding 
years  of  the  sixteenth  century.  These 
grants  were,  however,  withdrawn  after  the 
restoration  of  the  mikado  in  1868,  and 
Buddhism  has  been  virtually  disestablished 
since  Jan.  1,  1874.  Many  temples  are  still 
kept  up,  but  these  are  maintained  by  vol¬ 
untary  contributions  from  the  people  and 
from  former  patrons.” — Ency.  Britannica. 

Japan,  Christianity  in.  Christianity  was 
introduced  into  Japan  by  Francis  Xavier, 
in  1549.  Within  two  months  he  made  five 
hundred  converts  at  Yamaguchi,  in  Naga- 
to  province,  and  then  going  to  Bungo  prov¬ 
ince  he  soon  after  left  Japan  and  died  on  an 
island  off  the  coast  of  China.  In  1553  new 
missionaries  came  to  Japan,  and  within  a 
few  years  thousands  of  converts  were  gath¬ 
ered,  and  the  hostility  of  the  Buddhist 
priests  became  fiercer  and  relentless.  In 
1582  three  Christian  nobles  were  sent  on  a 
mission  to  the  Holy  See.  The  year  of 
their  return  (1585),  Nobunaga,  who  was 
friendly  to  the  new  faith,  was  assassi¬ 
nated,  and  his  successor,  Hideyoshi,  con¬ 
cealed  his  hatred  only  a  short  time,  and  in 
1587  ordered  all  the  foreign  priests  to  pro¬ 
ceed  to  Hirado  and  leave  the  country. 
They  did  not  do  this,  but  continued  their 
labors  under  the  protection  of  Christian 
princes.  By  the  bull  of  Gregory  XIII. 
(dated  Jan.  28,  1585, and  confirmed  by  Clem¬ 
ent  III.  in  1600),  Japan  was  assigned  ex¬ 
clusively  to  the  Jesuits.  In  1590  a  party 
of  Franciscans,  under  the  plea  that  they 
came  as  attaches  to  the  embassy,  entered 
the  country.  They  broke  their  promise 
made  to  Hideyoshi  that  they  would  not 
preach,  and,  suspecting  that  they  were 
working  out  political  designs,  that  ruler,  on 
a  slight  pretext,  declared  war  against 
Corea,  and  in  1592  sent  an  army  of  a  hun¬ 
dred  and  fifty  thousand  men,  mostly  con¬ 
verts  led  by  Christian  generals,  to  that 
island.  The  following  year  six  Francis¬ 
cans  and  three  Jesuits  were  burned  to  death 
at  Nagasaki.  Other  Spanish  priests  came 
to  Japan,  and  after  the  death  of  Hideyoshi, 
in  1598,  the  Christian  leaders  came  back 
from  Corea,  and  in  1600  a  hundred  Jesuit 
priests  arrived  from  Europe.  Hideyori, 
the  son  of  Hideyoshi,  was  defeated  in  great 
battle  (1600)  by  Iyeyasu,  who  issued  a  de¬ 
cree  of  expulsion  against  the  foreign 
priests.  In  1602  large  numbers  of  mis- 


Jap 


(  465  ) 


Jav 


sionaries  arrived  in  the  country.  The 
number  of  Christians  at  this  time  has  been 
estimated  as  high  as  eighteen  hundred 
thousand.  The  intrigues  of  English  and 
Dutch  traders  increased  the  hostility  of 
lyeyasu,  and  a  decree  was  passed,  in  1614, 
declaring  the  Christian  religion  dangerous 
to  the  state.  The  churches  were  destroyed 
and  the  Roman  priests  were  arrested  and 
sent  out  of  the  country.  Those  who  at¬ 
tempted  to  return  were  seized  and  put  to 
death.  In  1624  the  empire  was  closed 
against  all  foreigners,  with  the  exception 
of  the  Dutch  and  Chinese.  The  native 
Christians  were  persecuted  with  relentless 
fury,  and  great  multitudes  of  them  fled  to 
China,  Formosa,  and  the  Philippines.  At 
length  (1637)  they  rose  in  rebellion,  and 
for  two  months  held  an  old  castle  at  Shim- 
abara,  in  Kiusiu,  against  the  government 
troops.  The  capture  of  these  thirty-seven 
thousand  Christians  was  followed  by  their 
massacre  and  drowning  in  the  sea,  and  for 
a  time  the  hated  religion  seemed  to  be 
stamped  out  of  the  empire. 

When,  after  two  centuries  and  a  half  of 
isolation  from  the  outside  world,  Japan  was 
opened  to  foreign  trade  in  1859,  it  was 
found  that  thousands  of  the  native  descend¬ 
ants  of  the  martyrs  of  the  Christian  relig¬ 
ion  in  the  seventeenth  century  were  still 
believers,  and  practiced  their  faith  in  secret. 
This  gave  an  advantage  to  the  Roman  Cath¬ 
olic  missionaries,  who  began  their  labors  at 
Nagasaki  and  Kanagawa,  but  the  govern¬ 
ment  did  not  cease  its  persecutions  of 
these  Christians  until  1872,  and  large  num¬ 
bers  were  imprisoned  and  exiled  to  the 
northern  provinces. 

Protestant  missions  were  opened  in  1859 
by  the  London  Missionary  Society  and 
four  American  churches  —  Reformed 
(Dutch),  Episcopal,  Presbyterian,  and  Bap¬ 
tist.  For  ten  years  only  a  handful  of  con¬ 
verts  were  gathered,  and  they  held  their 
faith  at  the  risk  of  their  life.  The  first 
Protestant  Christian  Church  was  organized 
at  Yokohama,  in  1872,  by  the  Rev.  James 
Ballagh,  of  the  Reformed  (Dutch)  Church 
in  America.  In  1873  the  edicts  against  the 
Christians  were  removed,  and  since  that 
time  the  progress  of  Christianity  in  Japan 
makes  one  of  the  most  interesting  and  re¬ 
markable  chapters  in  the  history  of  mis¬ 
sions.  All  of  the  more  important  Protes¬ 
tant  denominations  are  represented  in  the 
empire.  Churches  have  been  organized 
in  the  important  centres  of  population  and 
at  many  points  in  the  interior.  The  Ro¬ 
man  and  Greek  communions  claim  a  large 
following,  and  the  Protestant  Missionary 
Statistics,  at  the  close  of  1889,  give  these 
figures: 

Foreign  Missionaries,  527  (of  whom  166 


are  married  males,  34  unmarried  males, 
and  1 71  unmarried  females);  Organized 
churches,  274;  Churches  wholly  self-sup¬ 
porting,  153;  Baptized  adult  converts  in 
1889,  5,007;  Present  membership,  31,181 
(year  before,  25,514);  Boys’  boarding 
schools,  18,  with  2,998  scholars;  Girls’ 
boarding  schools,  51,  with  4,249  scholars; 
Day  schools,  56,  with  3,269  scholars;  Sun¬ 
day-schools,  350,  with  21,597  scholars;  The¬ 
ological  schools,  17,  with  275  students; 
Native  ministers,  135;  Unordained  preach¬ 
ers  and  helpers,  409;Colporteurs,  1 ;  Schools 
for  Bible  women,  3,  with  46  pupils;  Bible 
women,  125;  1  School  for  nurses,  3  Hos¬ 
pitals,  9  Dispensaries;  Contributions  of 
native  Christians  for  all  purposes  during 
1889,  53,503.13  yen.  A  yen  is  76  cents  gold. 
See  Griffis:  The  Mikados  Empire  (N.  Y., 
1876),  and  Corea ,  the  Hermit  Nation  (1882); 
B.  H.  Chamberlain:  Things  Japanese  (Lon¬ 
don,  1890). 

Jarvis,  Samuel  Farmer,  D.  D.,  LL.  D. 
b.  at  Middletown,  Conn.,  Jan.  20,  1786;  d. 
there,  March  26,  1851.  After  graduating 
at  Yale  College  (1805),  he  entered  the  min¬ 
istry  of  the  Episcopal  Church  in  1810.  He 
was  in  active  service  in  New  York  until 
1819,  and  from  1820  to  1826  in  Boston. 
The  nine  following  years  were  spent  in 
Europe.  In  1835  he  accepted  the  position 
of  professor  of  Oriental  literature  in  Trinity 
College,  Hartford,  Conn.  From  1837  to 
1842  he  was  rector  of  the  Episcopal  Church 
at  Middletown,  devoting  the  remainder  of 
his  life  to  literary  work.  He  published:  A 
Chronological  Introduction  to  the  History  of 
the  Church  (London  and  New  York,  1844); 
The  Church  of  the  Redeemed ;  or,  the  History 
of  the  Mediatorial  Kingdom  (Boston,  1850). 

Ja'sher,  Book  of.  Two  allusions  are 
found  to  this  work  in  the  Bible;  Josh  x.  13 
and  2  Sam.  i.  18.  It  was  probably  a  collec¬ 
tion  of  national  songs  now  lost.  Several 
books  claiming  to  be  the  Book  of  Jasher 
have  been  found  to  be  fraudulent. 

Ja'son,  (1)  the  name  of  several  Jews  who 
were  prominent  during  the  period  of  the 
Maccabees.  (2)  A  Thessalonian  Christian 
with  whom  Paul  lived  at  Thessalonica. 
(Acts  xvii.  5-9.)  He  was  probably  a  rela¬ 
tion  of  Paul.  (Rom.  xvi.  21.) 

Ja'van  “designates  in  Hebrew,  as  in  the 
other  Oriental  languages — Syriac,  Arabic, 
Coptic,  and  Persian — the  Greeks,  and  is 
derived  from  ‘  Ionians.’  In  the  table  of 
nations  (Gen.  x.  2-4)  Javan  is  mentioned 
as  the  son  of  Japheth,  and  father  of  Elishah, 
Tarshish,  Kittim,  and  Dodanim.  The 
cuneiform  inscriptions  of  Assyria  contain 


Jay 


(466) 


Jeh 


the  same  notices.  The  Hindoos  also  call 
the  people  of  the  farthest  West  Javana 
(juvenis,  young)  because  the  Western  na¬ 
tions  were  the  youngest  branches  of  the 
Indo-Germanic  race.  There  was  also  a  city 
of  Javan  in  Arabia,  alluded  to  in  Ezek. 
xxvii.  19.” — Riietschi. 

Jay,  William,  an  English  Congregational 
minister;  b.  at  Tisbury  in  Wiltshire,  May 
8,  1769;  d.  at  Bath,  Dec.  27,  1853.  His 
father  who  was  a  stone-cutter  and  mason, 
sent  him  to  the  Marlborough  Academy,  a 
Congregational  training-school  for  the  min¬ 
istry.  Before  he  was  sixteen  he  began  to 
preach,  and  after  some  ministerial  experi¬ 
ence  he  was  ordained  pastor  at  Bath,  where 
he  labored  for  nearly  sixty-two  years.  He 
attracted  large  congregations,  and  John 
Foster  styled  him  the  “  Prince  of  Preach¬ 
ers.”  His  published  sermons  have  had  a 
wide  circulation,  and  his  Morning  and  Even¬ 
ing  Exercises  are  well  known. 

Jealousy,  The  Trial  of,  is  fully  describ¬ 
ed  in  Num.  v.  11-31. 

Jeanne  d’Albret  ( zhan  dal' bra),  queen  of 
Navarre,  and  a  devoted  adherent  of  the 
Reformation;  b.  in  Pau,  Jan.  7,  1528;  d.  in 
Paris,  June  9,  1572.  She  was  the  daughter 
of  Henry  d’Albret,  king  of  Navarre,  and 
Magaret  d’Orleans-Angouleme,  sister  of 
Francis  I.  In  1548  she  was  married  to 
Antoine  de  Bourbon,  duke  of  Vendome. 
Their  third  child  became  Henry  IV.  of 
France.  In  1555,  by  the  death  of  her  fa¬ 
ther,  she  became  queen  of  Navarre.  The  in¬ 
fluence  of  her  mother  had  early  interested 
her  in  the  cause  of  the  Reformation,  and 
in  1560  she  publicly  renounced  Cathol¬ 
icism,  and,  after  the  death  of  her  husband, 
she  sought  the  advice  of  Calvin  as  her 
counselor.  After  the  battle  of  Jarnac, 
March  13,  1569,  and  the  assassination  of 
Conde,  she  joined  the  imperiled  cause  of 
the  Huguenots,  and  did  all  in  her  power 
to  sustain  it.  She  died  in  Paris,  whither 
she  had  gone  to  attend  the  marriage  of  her 
son  with  Margaret  of  Valois.  See  H.  M. 
Baird:  History  of  the  Rise  of  the  Huguenots 
(1880),  2  vols. 

Je'bus  (place  trodden  down),  the  ancient 
name  of  Jerusalem  as  known  among  the 
Canaanites.  (Judg.  xix.  10,  11;  1  Chron.  xi. 
4,  5.)  Jebus  was  probably  a  descendant  of 
Canaan.  (Gen.  x.  16.)  The  name,  as  given 
to  what  afterward  became  the  site  of  Jeru¬ 
salem,  was  confined  to  the  southwest  hill, 
‘‘Mount  Zion,”  a  point  of  great  natural 
strength  in  its  situation. 

Jeb'usites,  the  name  of  the  tribe  living  in 


that  part  of  Canaan  about  Jebus  or  Jeru¬ 
salem,  whom  the  Israelites  were  command¬ 
ed  to  destroy.  (Deut.  vii.  1;  xx.  17.) 
Their  land  was  allotted  to  Benjamin,  but 
Jebus  or  Jebusi  successfully  resisted  Joshua 
and  later  attacks.  They  were  finally  sub¬ 
dued  by  David  (2  Sam.  v.  6;  1  Chron.  xi.  4), 
who  made  their  stronghold  his  capital. 

Jehoi'achin  ( whom  Jehovah  has  appointed), 
the  son  and  successor  of  Jehoiakim,  king 
of  Judah.  (2  Kings  xxiv.  8-16.)  He  reign¬ 
ed  but  three  months  and  ten  days,  when  he 
was  taken  captive  by  Nebuchadnezzar,  and 
carried  to  Babylon  with  the  royal  family 
and  the  chief  men  of  the  nation.  He  re¬ 
mained  in  captivity  for  thirty-seven  years, 
when  he  was  released  by  Evil-merodach, 
who  placed  him  at  the  head  of  all  the  cap¬ 
tive  kings.  (Jer.  lii.  31-34.) 

Jehoi'ada  ( whom  Jehovah  knows),  a  high- 
priest  of  the  Jews,  and  the  husband  of 
Jehosheba.  He  was  the  guardian  of  Joash, 
and  having  killed  Athaliah  he  wisely  di¬ 
rected  the  affairs  of  the  young  king  during 
his  life-time.  In  honor  of  his  eminent  ser¬ 
vices  he  was  buried  “  in  the  city  of  David, 
among  the  kings.”  (2  Chron.  xxiv.  16.) 

Jehoi'akim,  or  Eli'akim,  brother  and  suc¬ 
cessor  of  Jehoahaz,  king  of  Judah,  was 
made  king  by  Necho,  king  of  Egypt,  at  his 
return  from  an  expedition  against  Carcbe- 
mish  (2  Kings  xxiii.  34-36),  b.  C.  609. 
After  four  years  he  was  defeated  by  Neb¬ 
uchadnezzar  and  compelled  to  pay  tribute 
to  him.  Three  years  afterward  he  rebel¬ 
led,  but  was  taken  prisoner,  and  finally 
permitted  to  reign  as  a  vassal.  His  impious 
career  is  given  briefly  in  2  Kings  xxiii.  34- 
xxiv.  6;  2  Chron.  xxxvi.  4-8;  Jer.  xxii.  13- 
19;  xxvi. ;  xxxvi. 

Jeho'ram,  “  (1)  son  and  successor  of  Je- 
hoshaphat,  king  of  Judah  (2  Kings  viii.  16), 
was  b.  A.  M.  3080,  and  associated  with  his 
father  in  the  kingdom,  A.  M.  3112.  He 
reigned  alone  after  the  death  of  Jehosha- 
phat,  and  d.,  according  to  Usher,  b.  c.  885. 
His  queen,  Athaliah,  daughter  of  Omri,  en¬ 
gaged  him  in  idolatry,  and  other  sins, 
which  produced  calamities  throughout  his 
reign.  Jehoram,  being  settled  in  the  king¬ 
dom,  began  his  career  with  the  murder  of 
all  his  brothers,  whom  Jehoshaphat  had 
removed  from  public  business  and  placed 
in  the  fortified  cities  of  Judah.  To  punish 
his  impiety,  the  Lord  permitted  the  Edom¬ 
ites,  who  had  been  subject  to  the  kings  of 
Judah,  to  revolt.  (2  Kings  viii.  20,  21;  2 
Chron.  xxi.  8,  9.)  He  died,  and  vvas  buried 
in  Jerusalem,  but  not  in  a  royal  sepulchre, 
b.  c.  885.” — Calmet,  (2)  A  son  o f  Ahab, 


Jeh 


(  467  ) 


Jeh 


slain  by  Jehu,  b.  c.  896-884.  (2  Kings  i. 
17.)  (3)  A  priest  sent  by  Jehoshaphat  with 
Elishama  to  teach  Judah,  b.  c.  900. 

Jehoshaphat,  “  (1)  son  of  Asa,  a  pious 
and  illustrious  king  of  Judah,  ascended  the 
throne  when  aged  thirty-five,  and  reigned 
twenty-five  years.  He  prevailed  against 
Baasha,  king  of  Israel;  and  placed  garri¬ 
sons  in  the  cities  of  Judah  and  Ephraim, 
which  had  been  conquered  by  his  father. 
He  demolished  the  high  places  and  groves, 
and  God  was  with  him  because  he  was 
faithful.  In  the  third  year  of  his  reign  he 
sent  officers,  with  priests  and  Levites, 
throughout  Judah,  with  the  book  of  the 
law,  to  instruct  the  people,  and  God  bless- 


by  enjoining  them  to  perform  punctually 
their  duty.  After  this,  God  gave  him,  in 
answer  to  his  prayers,  a  complete  triumph 
over  the  Moabites,  Ammonites,  and  others, 
people  of  Arabia  Petraea. 

“  Some  time  afterward  Jehoshaphat,  re¬ 
peating  his  error,  agreed  with  Ahaziah, 
the  idolatrous  king  of  Israel,  jointly  to 
equip  a  fleet  in  the  port  of  Ezion-gaber,  on 
the  Red  Sea,  in  order  to  go  to  Tarshish, 
and  was  punished  by  the  loss  of  his  fleet. 
He  died,  after  reigning  twenty-five  years, 
and  was  buried  in  the  royal  sepulchre, 
b.  c.  889.  (2  Chron.  xxi.  1,  etc.;  1  Kings 
xxii.  42.)” — Calmet. 

(2)  Son  of  Ahilud,  who  filled  the  office  of 
recorder  or  annalist  in  the  courts  of  David 


VALLEY  OF  JEHOSHAPHAT. 

Traditional  Tombs  of  Absalom,  Jehoshaphat  and  Zechariah,  and  Jewish  Burying-ground.  From  a  photograph. 


ed  his  zeal.  He  was  feared  by  all  his 
neighbors,  and  the  Philistines  and  Arabi¬ 
ans  were  tributaries  to  him.  He  built 
several  houses  in  Judah  in  the  form  of 
towers,  and  fortified  several  cities.  He 
generally  kept  an  army,  or,  more  prob¬ 
ably,  an  enrolled  militia,  of  a  million  of 
men,  without  reckoning  the  troops  in  his 
strongholds. 

“  Scripture,  however,  reproaches  Jehosh¬ 
aphat  on  account  of  his  alliance  with  the 
idolatrous  Ahab,  king  of  Israel.  (1  Kings 
xxii.  44;  2  Chron.  xviii.  35;  xix.  1.)  Je¬ 
hoshaphat  repaired  his  fault  by  the  regu¬ 
lations  and  good  order  which  he  afterward 
established  in  his  dominions;  both  as  to 
civil  and  religious  affairs;  by  appointing 
honest  and  able  judges,  by  regulating  the 
discipline  of  the  priests  and  Levites,  and 


(2  Sam.  viii.  16,  etc.)  and  Solomon  (1  Kings 
iv.  3). 

(3)  One  of  the  priests  who(i  Chron.  xv. 
24)  were  appointed  to  blow  trumpets  be¬ 
fore  the  ark  when  it  was  carried  from  the 
house  of  Obed-edom  to  Jerusalem. 

(4)  Son  of  Paruah,  one  of  the  twelve 
purveyors  of  King  Solomon.  (1  Kings  iv. 
J7.) 

(5)  Son  of  Nimshi,  and  father  of  King 
Jehu.  (2  Kings  ix.  2,  14.) 

Jehoshaphat,  Valley  of.  a  valley  men¬ 
tioned  by  Joel  only,  as  the  spot  in  which, 
after  the  return  of  Judah  and  Jerusalem 
from  captivity,  Jehovah  would  gather  all 
the  heathen  (Joel  iii.  2;  Heb.  iv.  2),  and 
would  there  sit  to  judge  them  for  their 
misdeeds  to  Israel  (iii.  12;  Heb.  v.  41). 


Jeh 


(468) 


JeP 


For  many  centuries  the  name  has  been 
given  to  the  deep  ravine  which  separates 
Jerusalem  from  the  Mount  of  Olives.  Both 
Moslems  and  Jews  believe  that  the  last 
judgment  is  to  take  place  there. 

Jeho'vah  (he  will  be),  “  a  title  of  the  Su¬ 
preme  Being,  indicative  of  the  attribute  of 
eternal  and  immutable  self-existence.  (Ex. 
vi.  3.)  It  is  similar  in  import  to  the  title 
I  AM.  (Ex.  iii.  14.)  In  the  English  Bible 
it  is  usually  translated  ‘  Lord,’ and  printed 
in  small  capitals.  It  occurs  first  in  the 
second  chapter  of  Genesis.  As  distinct 
from  Elohim,  it  signifies  the  God  of  revela¬ 
tion  and  redemption,  the  God  of  the  Jews, 
while  Elohim  is  the  God  of  nature,  the 
Creator  and  Preserver  of  all  men.” — Schaff: 
Bible  Dictionary. 

Je'hu,  anointed  king  of  Israel  (2  Kings  ix. 
6)  by  a  messenger  sent  by  Elisha,  in  accord 
with  directions  previously  given  by  Elijah; 
he  was  the  divinely  used  instrument  in  the 
destruction  of  the  house  of  Ahab.  Setting 
out  in  his  chariot  for  Jezreel  he  was  met 
by  messengers  from  Joram,  sent  to  ascer¬ 
tain  his  designs.  When  they  did  not  re¬ 
turn,  Joram  came  to  meet  Jehu, who  charged 
him  with  his  sins,  and  then  shot  him  dead. 
(1  Kings  xxi.  1-24.)  Jehu  then  rode  on  to 
Jezreel,  and  by  his  order  the  prophecy  re¬ 
garding  Jezebel  was  exactly  fulfilled. 
(1  Kings  xxi.  23;  2  Kings  ix.  32-37.)  He 
exterminated  the  family  of  Ahab,  root  and 
branch,  and  under  circumstances  of  great 
cruelty  slaughtered  the  priests  of  Baal. 
(2  Kings  x.  18-28.)  Jehu  himself  was  of  a 
tyrannical  and  ambitious  spirit,  and  fell 
into  idolatrous  practices.  (2  Kings  x.  31.) 
He  reigned  twenty-eight  years  (b.  c.  884- 
856),  and  was  succeeded  by  his  son  Jehoa- 
haz, 

Jeph'thah  ( whom  Goa  sets  free),  a  judge 
of  Israel  whose  tragic  history  is  given  in 
Judges  xi.,  xii.  The  illegitimate  son  of 
Gilead,  he  was  driven  out  of  his  father’s 
house  by  the  legitimate  children,  and  be¬ 
came  the  head  of  a  marauding  party  in  the 
land  of  Tob  in  eastern  Hauran.  When  war 
broke  out  between  Israel  and  the  Ammon¬ 
ites,  the  Israelites  asked  him  to  become 
their  leader.  This  position  he  accepted, 
and  after  some  negotiations  with  the  Am¬ 
monites,  which  failed  to  secure  peace,  he 
fought  a  battle  in  which  the  Ammonites 
were  defeated  with  great  loss  of  life.  On 
the  eve  of  the  battle  Jephthah  made  a  vow 
to  dedicate  to  God,  in  case  of  victory, 
whatever  he  met  first  coming  to  meet  him 
on  his  return  home.  This  proved  to  be  his 
daughter,  an  only  child,  who  came  at  the 
head  of  a  triumphal  procession  to  welcome 


him  home.  Jephthah  was  sorely  afflicted, 
but  the  noble  daughter  was  ready  to  meet 
the  performance  of  the  vow,  which  took 
place  on  the  expiration  of  two  months. 
Not  long  after  this  the  Ephraimites  chal¬ 
lenged  the  right  of  Jephthah  to  go  to  war, 
as  he  had  done,  without  their  consent, 
against  Ammon,  and  at  the  head  of  his 
army  he  met  and  defeated  them.  He 
judged  Israel  six  years  before  his  death. 

“  The  perplexing  question,  what  Jeph¬ 
thah  did  with  his  daughter,  will  perhaps 
never  obtain  a  satisfactory  answer.  The 
passage  reads  thus:  ‘  And  Jephthah  vowed 
a  vow  unto  the  Lord,  and  said,  If  thou 
shalt  without  fail  deliver  the  children  of 
Ammon  into  mine  hands,  then  it  shall  be 
that  whatsoever  cometh  forth  of  the  doors 
of  my  house  to  meet  me,  when  I  return  in 
peace  from  the  children  of  Ammon,  shall 
surely  be  the  Lord’s,  and  I  will  offer  it  up 
for  a  burnt  offering.’  (Judg.  xi.  30,  31.)  An 
unprejudiced  reading  of  the  text  leads  nat¬ 
urally  to  the  conclusion  that  Jephthah 
offered  her  up  as  a  burnt  sacrifice,  but  the 
other  opinion,  that  he  devoted  his  daughter 
to  a  life  of  celibacy,  is  defended  by  these 
arguments:  (1)  The  particle  van  which  in 
the  A.  V.  is  translated  ‘and’  (‘and  I  will 
offer  it  up  ’)  should  be  translated  ‘  or.’  But 
there  is  a  Hebrew  word  with  that  meaning. 
(2)  The  emphasis  is  laid  upon  ‘  him,’  which 
is  made  to  refer  to  the  Lord,  and  the  vow 
is  thus  interpreted  as  contemplating  two 
things:  (a)  a  person  to  be  consecrated  to 
Jehovah,  and  (b)  the  additional  offering  of 
a  burnt  sacrifice.  But  such  a  construction 
would  be  a  solecism  in  Hebrew.  (3)  The 
‘  burnt  offering  ’  has  been  taken  in  a  spir¬ 
itual  sense,  but  that  is  to  put  an  interpre¬ 
tation  upon  the  word  which  the  Hebrew 
will  not  bear.  (4)  Jephthah  could  not  vow 
to  God  a  human  sacrifice,  so  abhorrent  to 
him,  and  so  contrary  to  the  whole  spirit  of 
the  Hebrew  religion.  (Lev.  xx.  2-5;  Deut. 
xii.  31.)  But  it  must  be  borne  in  mind 
that  Jephthah  was  a  rude  warrior  in  the 
semi-barbaric  age  of  the  Judges.  Celibacy 
of  a  voluntary  and  religious  character  was 
unknown  in  Israel.  Jephthah’s  daughter, 
on  this  supposition,  would  have  been  the 
first  and  last  Hebrew  nun.  The  Jews 
looked  upon  the  family  as  a  divine  ordi¬ 
nance,  and  upon  the  unmarried  as  a  mis¬ 
fortune,  equalled  only  by  that  of  being  a 
childless  wife.  It  may  not  be  correct  to 
say  that  each  Hebrew  woman  looked  for¬ 
ward  to  being  the  mother  of  the  Messiah, 
but,  at  all  events,  to  be  a  mother  was  to 
fulfil  the  function  in  society  God  had  de¬ 
signed  for  her.  A  vow  of  celibacy,  there¬ 
fore,  would  have  been  contrary  to  the  spirit 
of  the  Jewish  religion  as  much  as  a  vow  of 
bloody  sacrifice.  The  sojourn  of  Jephthah’s 


% 


Jer 


(  469  ) 


Jer 


daughter  in  the  mountains  for  two  months 
is  inconsistent  with  any  such  dedication  to 
Jehovah.  But  if  she  were  to  be  sacrificed, 
her  home  would  indeed  be  filled  with  too 
mournful  associations,  whereas  the  open 
air,  especially  to  such  a  girl,  and  the  soli¬ 
tude  of  the  hills,  would  be  real  aids  in  pre¬ 
paring  for  death.  Jephthah’s  intense  sor¬ 
row  when  she  came  forth  to  meet  him 
likewise  harmonizes  with  the  literal  and 
natural  interpretation.” — Schaff :  Bible  Did. 

Jeremi'ah  (appointed  by  Jehovah}  “was  the 
son  of  Hilkiah,  a  priest  of  Anathoth  (a 
small  village  close  to  Jerusalem).  He  be¬ 
gan  to  prophesy  in  the  thirteenth  year  of 
Josiah’s  reign,  about  seventy  years  after 
Isaiah’s  death,  and  continued  to  do  so  all 
through  the  troubled  times  of  the  Baby¬ 
lonian  invasion.  His  utterances  were  re¬ 
garded  as  of  evil  omen  by  the  rulers  of  Je¬ 
rusalem,  and  he  was  subjected  to  cruel  per¬ 
secution.  He  saw  the  city  besieged  and 
taken,  his  warnings  neglected  but  fulfilled, 
his  fellow-citizens  carried  captive,  and  Je¬ 
rusalem  a  heap  of  ruins;  and  in  an  adjoining 
cave  he  wrote  his  Lamentations  over  it.  A 
remnant  rallied  round  him  after  the  mur¬ 
der  of  Gedaliah,  and  were  forbidden  by 
God, 'through  his  mouth,  to  flee  into  Egypt; 
but  they  accused  him  of  falsehood,  and, 
disregarding  the  Divine  command,  carried 
him  with  them  into  that  country  (xliii. ), 
where,  according  to  Jerome,  he  was  put  to 
death,  having  prophesied  for  about  forty 
years. 

“  His  prophecies  are  not  in  chronological 
order,  but  seem  to  have  been  re-arranged 
according  to  their  subjects,  viz.:  (1)  Warn¬ 
ings  to  the  Jews.  (2)  Survey  of  all  nations, 
with  an  historical  appendix.  (3)  Prediction 
of  brighter  days  to  come,  with  a  similar 
appendix.  (4)  Prophecies  regarding  Egypt. 
The  concluding  chapters  (from  li.  34)  are 
supposed  to  have  been  compiled  from  the 
later  portions  of  2  Kings,  and  may  have 
been  added  by  Ezra.  Jeremiah  was  contem¬ 
porary  with  Zephaniah,  Habakkuk,  Eze¬ 
kiel,  and  Daniel.  He  foretold  the  precise 
date  of  the  Captivity,  the  fate  of  Zedekiah, 
the  Return  of  the  Jews,  the  future  decay 
of  Babylon,  and  the  fall  of  many  other  na¬ 
tions.  He  is  said  to  have  buried  the  ark; 
and  he  predicted  the  abrogation  of  the  Law, 
the  inauguration  of  a  spiritual  worship,  the 
blessing  of  the  Atonement,  the  call  of  the 
Gentiles  through  the  Gospel,  and  the  final 
acceptance  of  the  Jews.  Bunsen  and  Ew- 
ald  consider  that  the  prophecies  seem  to  be 
most  naturally  grouped  together  by  the 
recurrence  of  the  formula,  “  The  word  of 
the  Lord  came  to  Jeremiah,”  as  follows:  (1) 
(Chap,  i):  An  introduction,  probably  pre¬ 
fixed  to  the  whole  at  the  final  revision.  (2) 


(ii-xxi):  Probably  the  roll  written  by  Ba¬ 
ruch  (xxxvi.  32),  after  the  roll  read  in  the 
ears  of  Jehoiakim  had  been  burnt  by  him. 
(3)  (xxii-xxv):  Shorter  prophecies  deliver¬ 
ed  against  the  kings  of  Judah  and  false 
prophets.  (4)  (xxv-xxviii):  Two  great 
prophecies  of  the  fall  of  Jerusalem.  (5) 
(xxix-xxxi):  The  message  of  comfort  for 
the  exiles  in  Babylon.  (6)  (xxxii-xliv): 
The  history  of  the  last  two  years  before 
the  capture  of  Jerusalem,  and  of  Jere¬ 
miah’s  work  during  that  and  the  subsequent 
period.  (7)  (xlvi-li):  The  prophecies 
against  foreign  nations,  ending  with  the 
great  predictions  against  Babylon.  (8)  (lii): 
The  supplementary  narrative,  which  is 
also  a  preface  to  the  Lamentations.  The 
LXX.  translation  contains  so  many  differ¬ 
ences  of  reading,  as  well  as  variations  in 
the  arrangement  of  the  chapters,  that  it 
would  seem  to  have  been  made  from  some 
other  recension  of  the  Hebrew  than  any 
now  extant;  or  else  the  translators  endeav¬ 
ored  to  make  the  meaning  more  plain,  and 
the  arrangement  more  methodical.  The 
genuineness  of  the  book  has  never  been 
seriously  questioned;  neither  can  its  dates 
be  doubted.  Gesenius  conjectures  that 
more  than  thirty  Psalms  (v,  vi,  xiv,  xxii- 
xli,  lii— lv ,  lix-lxxi)  were  composed  by 
Jeremiah;  if  so,  they  are  a  valuable  record 
of  the  hymnology  of  that  period.” — “  Ox¬ 
ford  ”  Bible  Helps.  See  Commentary  of 
Nagelbach  in  Lange’s  Com.\  History  of  the 
Jews ,  by  Ewald  and  Stanley  (ii.  570-622). 

Jeremiah,  Epistle  of.  See  Apocrypha, 
Old  Testament. 

Jeremiah,  Lamentations  of.  See  Lam¬ 
entations. 

Jer'icho  was  situated  five  miles  west  of 
the  river  Jordan  and  six  or  seven  miles 
north  of  the  Dead  Sea.  The  city  stood  in 
an  oasis  of  beauty  and  fertility  made  by 
the  waters  of  several  springs  which  gush 
forth  at  this  point.  This  garden  spot  is  in 
strange  contrast  with  the  scorched  and  des¬ 
olate  plain  about  it.  In  the  times  of  Joshua 
it  was  known  as  “  the  city  of  the  palm- 
tree  ”  (Deut.  xxxiv.  3),  etc.  When  taken 
by  the  Israelites,  it  was  a  strongly  fortified 
city  and  a  royal  residence.  (Josh.  ii.  3;  vi. 
2.)  After  it  was  conquered  by  the  Romans, 
they  built  an  excellent  road  to  Jerusalem, 
and  it  was  fortified  by  Antony  who  sold  it 
to  Herod  who  chose  it  as  his  winter  res¬ 
idence,  and  embellished  it  with  palaces. 
Destroyed  by  Titus,  it  was  rebuilt  by  Jus¬ 
tinian.  Again  destroyed  by  the  Arabs,  it 
was  partially  restored  on  a  site  near  at 
hand  by  the  Crusaders.  The  modern  Jer¬ 
icho  ( er-Riha ),  consists  of  a  group  of  squalid 


Jer 


( 470 ) 


Jer 


hovels  inhabited  by  about  sixty  families, 
whom  the  Arabs  look  upon  as  a  despised 
race. 

Jerobo'am  ( whose  people  is  many),  (1)  the 
first  king  of  Israel  after  its  separation 
from  Judah.  He  was  the  son  of  Nebat,  an 
Ephraimite,  who  attracted  the  attention  of 
Solomon  by  his  superior  ability,  and  was 
appointed  by  him  to  superintend  the  levies 
furnished  by  the  house  of  Joseph.  While 
passing  events  portended  revolution  he 
was  met  by  the  prophet  Ahijah,  in  a  field 
near  Jerusalem,  who,  tearing  his  mantle 
into  twelve  pieces,  gave  him  ten,  to  indi¬ 
cate  that  the  kingdom  was  to  be  dismem¬ 
bered  and  he  was  to  rule  ten  tribes.  Flee¬ 
ing  into  Egypt  to  escape  from  Solomon,  he 
remained  there  until  the  death  of  the  king. 


x.-xiii.)  (2)  The  son  of  Joash,  and  great- 
grandson  of  Jehu:  he  reigned  over  Israel 
with  great  success  for  forty-one  years. 
(2  Kings  xiv.  23-29.) 

Jerome  of  Prague,  a  Bohemian  reformer 
and  martyr  of  noble  birth;  b.  at  Prague 
about  1365;  burned  at  the  stake  in  Con¬ 
stance,  May  30,  1416.  He  studied  at  Ox¬ 
ford,  where  he  was  brought  under  the  in¬ 
fluence  of  Wycliffe’s  writings.  Upon  re¬ 
turning  to  Prague,  in  1407,  he  cooperated 
with  Huss  in  his  plans  and  views.  A  few 
years  after  this  he  was  suspected  of  heresy 
and  fled  to  Vienna,  but  was  put  in  prison, 
and  released  only  on  the  demand  of  the 
University  of  Prague.  In  October,  1414, 
when  Huss  was  about  to  leave  Constance, 
Jerome  encouraged  him  to  stand  fast,  and 


JERUSALEM. 


He  was  then  recalled  as  the  leader  of  the 
ten  tribes  which  had  revolted.  As  a  mat¬ 
ter  of  policy  he  revived  the  ancient  calf- 
worship  at  Bethel  and  Dan.  While  of¬ 
ficiating  at  the  altar  in  Bethel  a  nameless 
prophet  appeared  from  Judah  and  predicted 
the  birth  of  King  Josiah,  who  would  de¬ 
stroy  that  altar  and  slay  its  priests  upon  it* 
Upon  Jeroboam's  stretching  forth  his  hand 
to  order  the  arrest  of  the  prophet,  he  found 
that  he  could  not  move  it.  The  altar  was 
rent  by  an  unseen  power,  and  Jeroboam  had 
to  ask  the  prophet’s  prayer  for  his  restora¬ 
tion.  He  still  persisted  in  his  calf-worship, 
and  when  the  Levites  refused  to  obey  him, 
and  returned  to  Judah,  he  formed  a  new 
priesthood  without  regard  to  tribal  connec¬ 
tions.  He  reigned  for  twenty-seven  years. 
(1  Kings  xi.  26-39;  xii.  1;  xiv.  20;  2  Chron. 


promised  him  his  assistance.  In  April  of  the 
following  year  he  did  go  to  Constance  to  aid 
his  friend,  but  was  constrained  to  leave  the 
city  the  da5r  after  his  arrival.  He  was  so 
outspoken  in  his  views  that  he  was  recog¬ 
nized  and  sent  back  to  Constance  in  chains. 
After  the  death  of  Huss  the  council  suc¬ 
ceeded  in  getting  Jerome  to  retract,  on 
Sept.  10;  but  the  following  day  he  with¬ 
drew  his  retraction.  The  final  hearing  in 
his  case  took  place  in  May,  1416,  when  he 
was  condemned  as  a  heretic.  He  died  tri¬ 
umphantly. 

Jerusalem.  (1)  Historical. — In  the  earliest 
existing  records  of  this  place  it  is  known 
as  “  Jebus.”  At  that  time  it  was  a  strong¬ 
hold,  and  was  held  by  its  original  inhabi¬ 
tants  until  long  after  the  conquest  of  the 


Jer 


(  471  ) 


Jer 


country  under  Joshua.  Before  the  name 
Jerusalem  was  finally  settled,  there  was  a 
transition  period  when  both  names  were 
used,  the  one  to  explain  the  other.  (Josh, 
xv.  8;  Judg.  xix.  10;  1  Chron.  xi.  4.)  Fora 
full  discussion  of  the  meaning  of  the  name, 
recourse  must  be  had  to  the  lexicons  and 
larger  dictionaries:  while  the  question  is 
not  beyond  dispute  scholars  are,  however, 
pretty  well  agreed  that  it  is  composed  of 
two  Hebrew  words,  signifying  foundation 
of  peace,  or,  possibly,  of  security.  The  name 
“  Holy  City,”  as  applied  to  it,  is  used  sev¬ 
eral  times  in  both  the  Old  and  New  Testa¬ 
ments,  an  interesting  fact  when  we  consider 
that  the  name  given  to  Jerusalem  at  present 
by  the  Arabic-speaking  world  is  El-Kuds, 
The  Holy.  A  similar  example  is  found  in 
the  designation  of  Hebron,  which  the  Arabs 
call  l<  El  Khulil,”  The  Friend ,  reference 
being  made  to  Abraham,  who  was  called 
“  The  friend  of  God.”  Its  conquest  under 
David  is  recorded  in  2  Sam.  v.,  after  which 
time  he  made  it  his  royal  residence,  where 
he  reigned  thirty-three  years,  having  reign¬ 
ed  seven  years  and  a  half  in  Hebron. 
During  the  reigns  of  David  and  Solomon 
it  rose  to  the  position  which  it  has  ever 
since  maintained  as  one  of  the  most  cele¬ 
brated  cities  in  the  world. 

Extensive  preparations  for  building  were 
made  by  David,  but  it  was  left  for  his  son 
to  carry  out  his  designs,  and  Solomon’s 
Palace,  the  House  of  the  Forest  of  Leba¬ 
non,  his  Court  House,  his  House  for 
Pharaoh’s  Daughter,  and  especially  his 
Temple,  were  most  noteworthy  among 
the  new  structures  which  adorned  the  capi¬ 
tal  of  his  empire.  (1  Kings  vii.)  After  the 
division  of  the  kingdom,  which  followed  at 
no  great  interval  the  death  of  Solomon, 
Jerusalem  remained  the  capital  of  Judah 
and  the  residence  of  its  many  kings.  Its 
wide  reputation  for  wealth  and  beauty 
made  it  a  tempting  object  of  conquest  to 
foreign  potentates,  and  in  the  fifth  year  of 
Rehoboam,  b.  c.  945,  the  first  great  calami¬ 
ty  of  the  kind  overtook  it  in  its  capture  by 
Shishak,  king  of  Egypt,  who  stripped  it  of 
all  its  treasures.  (1  Kings  xiv.)  Scarcely 
two  generations  later,  b.  c.  887,  Jehoash, 
king  of  Israel,  captured  it,  robbed  it  of  its 
gold,  silver,  and  sacred  vessels,  and  threw 
down  four  hundred  cubits  of  its  wall.  (2 
Kings  xiv.)  Uzziah,  who  like  Solomon 
was  a  great  builder,  repaired  the  damages 
which  the  city  sustained  in  his  father’s 
reign,  and  added  towers  and  other  means 
of  defence.  The  fortifications  were  still 
further  strengthened  by  Hezekiah  about 
b.  c.  710,  when  the  Assyrian  king,  Sennach¬ 
erib,  was  approaching  Jerusalem.  (2  Chron. 
xxvi;  xxxii.)  Hezekiah  did  much,  also,  tow¬ 
ard  providing  the  inhabitants  with  whole¬ 


some  water.  Only  a  few  years  elapsed, 
however,  before  an  Assyrian  army  was 
again  at  its  gates.  The  city  was  taken,  and 
its  king,  Manasseh,  carried  to  Babylon. 
After  a  time  he  was  released,  and  returned 
to  Jerusalem  whose  gates,  walls,  and  tow¬ 
ers  were  strengthened  by  him.  (2  Chron. 
xxxiii.)  In  the  days  of  Jehoiakim,  about 
b.  c.  600,  the  city  was  again  captured  and 
plundered,  but  this  time  by  Nebuchadnez¬ 
zar,  events  which  were  repeated  during 
the  reign  of  his  son  Jehoiachin.  Owing  to 
the  revolt  of  Zedekiah,  Nebuchadnezzar 
and  his  Chaldean  army  appeared  again  be¬ 
fore  the  walls,  and  after  a  siege  protracted 
to  a  period  of  one  year,  five  months,  and 
seven  days,  characterized  both  by  heroic 
deeds  and  terrible  suffering,  the  place  was 
captured,  and  the  temple  itself,  after  the 
vicissitudes  of  four  and  a  quarter  centuries, 
was  entirely  destroyed.  This  national 
disaster  made  such  an  impression  upon  the 
Jews,  that  it  has  ever  since  been  com¬ 
memorated  by  them  on  the  tenth  of  the 
month  Ab,  corresponding  to  a  part  of 
July  and  August.  For  a  long  period  the 
city  lay  in  ruins,  till  Cyrus,  about  b.  c. 
536,  gave  permission  for  its  rebuilding  and 
likewise  for  the  rebuilding  of  the  temple. 
The  chief  care  of  Zerubbabel,  leader  of  the 
first  company  returning  from  Babylon,  was 
the  erection  of  the  temple.  Nearly  a  cen¬ 
tury  later,  b.  c.  445,  by  direction  of  Ar- 
taxerxes,  Nehemiah  came  back,  and  to  him 
belongs  the  honor  of  rebuilding  the  walls 
and  towers  of  the  holy  city.  (Ezra  iii.-vii.; 
Neh.  i.-vi.) 

The  long  interval  between  the  time  of 
Nehemiah  and  that  of  Pompey  (nearly  four 
centuries)  was  full  of  sad  events  for  Jeru¬ 
salem,  interspersed  here  and  there  with  a 
gleam  of  prosperity  and  joy.  In  b.  c.  320 
Alexander  the  Great  visited  the  city  and 
entered  the  temple.  During  the  years 
following  that  date  it  was  many  times 
taken  and  retaken,  pillaged,  its  temple 
robbed,  its  inhabitants  slain  by  thousands, 
in  the  bloody  wars  between  the  kings  of 
Syria  and  those  of  Egypt.  The  worst  form 
of  desecration  took  place  under  Antiochus 
Epiphanes  (he  died  in  b.  c.  164),  who  in¬ 
troduced  the  Greek  style  of  dress,  and 
^established  a  gymnasium  in  which  heathen 
sports  were  taught  to  the  Hebrew  youth, 
in  order  to  turn  them  away  from  their  na¬ 
tional  faith.  To  help  crush  out  the  Jewish 
religion,  he  even  set  up  an  idol  on  the  holy 
altar,  and  caused  offerings  to  be  made  to  a 
pagan  deity.  The  period  of  independence 
which  was  enjoyed  under  the  Maccabees 
witnessed  the  expiring  glories  of  Jerusa¬ 
lem  as  the  capital  of  a  strictly  Jewish 
nation.  Concerning  the  commotions  and 
upheavals  of  those  ten  centuries,  it  was 


Jer 


(  472  ) 


Jer 


nothing  less  than  miraculous  that  the  first 
temple  should  have  stood  so  long,  or  that 
the  second  temple  was  not  demolished  by 
some  invading  foe,  or  by  the  fanaticism 
engendered  by  internal  strife. 

Herod  the  Great,  as  king  of  Judea,  be¬ 
came  master  of  the  city  in  b.  c.  37,  and  the 
next  marked  change  in  its  political  history 


our  Lord  and  his  disciples  looked  with 
wonder,  and  which  he  prophesied  should 
be  utterly  thrown  down.  (Matt.  xxiv.  1; 
Mark  xiii.  1;  Luke  xxi.  5.)  Titus  would 
have  preserved  the  temple, even  after  the 
greater  portion  of  the  city  had  been  laid  in 
ruins,  but  the  fanaticism  of  the  Jews  made 
such  an  act  impossible.  In  this  memo- 


EAST  CORNER  OF  THE  SOUTH  WALL. 

The  Mount  of  Olives  appears  on  the  right,  crowned  by  the  Church  of  the  Ascension.  From  a  photograph. 


was  its  conquest  by  Titus  in  a.  d.  70.  The 
famous  towers,  Hippicus,  Phasaelus,  and 
Mariamne,  his  two  palaces,  and  the  rebuild¬ 
ing  of  the  temple  on  a  larger  and  grander 
scale  than  either  of  its  predecessors  had 
been,  were  Herod’s  most  important  addi¬ 
tions  to  Jerusalem.  It  was  upon  the 
“  goodly  stones”  of  this  third  Temple  that 


rable  siege  four  legions  (5th,  10th,  12th, 
and  15th),  besides  a  large  body  of  auxil¬ 
iaries,  were  engaged,  and  the  great  engines 
of  the  Romans,  and  their  military  skill  as 
well,  were  severely  taxed  before  the  mass¬ 
ive  walls  were  finally  leveled.  The  Em¬ 
peror  Hadrian,  in  A.  D.  130,  rebuilt  the 
walls  and  erected  a  city  called  ALYia.  Capi- 


Jer 


(  473  ) 


Jer 


tolina — a  name  confirmed  by  the  coins  of 
that  period — upon  this  ancient  site,  but  ater- 
rible  rebellion  against  Rome  soon  followed, 
and  after  that  had  been  suppressed,  the 
Jews  were  forbidden  to  set  foot  within  the 
walls  of  their  holy  city — theirs,  indeed,  no 
longer.  It  remained  in  the  hands  of  the 
pagans  and  Christians  till  A.  D.  614,  when 


while  between  these  were  three  others, 
the  largest  “  the  Tyropoeon,”  running  di¬ 
rectly  through  the  city  from  north  to  south. 
These  valleys  all  trend  from  northwest  to 
southeast.  The  branch  which  passed  down 
near  the  present  St.  Stephen’s  Gate  is 
scarcely  perceptible,  and  only  excavations 
have  established  its  existence  and  great 


THE  CASTLE  OF  DAVID  AND  JAFFA  GATE.  From  a  photograph. 


it  was  captured  by  the  Persians,  but  was 
soon  after  restored.  In  A.  d.  637  the  fol¬ 
lowers  of  Mohammed  appeared  before  the 
walls,  to  whom  the  city  yielded,  and  in 
whose  hands  it  has  remained  until  the 
present  day,  with  the  exception  of  nearly 
one  hundred  years  (a.  d.  1100-1187),  while 
the  Crusaders  were  in  power. 

(2)  At  the  present  tune. — The  first  view 
of  the  city  is  generally  disappointing  to  the 
visitor,  but  if  he  is  a  devout  person  this 
feeling  soon  passes  away,  and  he  becomes 
deeply  interested  in  a  site  where  so  many 
thrilling  events  in  sacred  history  have 
transpired.  Jerusalem  is  surrounded  by  a 
wall  from  forty  to  sixty  feet  in  height, 
which  was  built  by  Sultan  Suleiman,  “  the 
Magnificent”  (1520-1566),  about  A.  D. 
1542. 

The  material  is  by  no  means  uniform, 
many  parts  showing  that  stones  of  different 
periods,  some  of  them  very  ancient,  were 
used  in  its  construction.  The  extent  of 
this  wall  is  less  than  three  miles,  and  its 
outline  is  very  irregular,  owing  to  the  fact 
that  Jerusalem  stands  on  a  cluster  of  hills 
separated  by  intervening  valleys.  On  the 
east  of  the  city  is  the  valley  of  Jehoshaphat, 
and  on  the  west  and  south  that  of  Hinnom, 


depth.  The  one  leading  from  the  Jaffa 
Gate  is  nearly  obliterated,  and  the  Tyro¬ 
poeon  has  been  filled  to  a  depth  varying 
from  twenty  feet  at  the  Damascus  Gate  to 
ninety  feet  at  the  southwest  corner  of  the 
temple  area.  Jerusalem  has  been  destroyed 
so  many  times  that  the  city  of  David  and 
that  of  Christ’s  time  are  buried  under  an 


THE  SO-CALLED  GOLDEN  GATE  OF  JERUSALEM. 


Jer 


(  474  ) 


Jer 


accumulation  of  debris  almost  incredible 
in  its  depth. 

The  hill  to  the  west  and  southwest  is 
Zion,  north  of  that  is  Akra,  and  the  eastern 
portion  is  best  described  as  a  prolonged 
hill  divided  into  sections,  of  which  the 
centre  is  Mount  Moriah,  Ophel  being  to 
the  south,  and  Bezetha  to  the  north  of  it. 
These  five  elevations  are  usually  spoken 
of  as  five  distinct  hills,  Zion  and  Moriah 
being  the  most  conspicuous,  Moriah  being 
2,440,  Zion  2,540,  and  the  northwest  corner 
of  the  city  2,580  feet  above  the  level  of  the 
Mediterranean. 

The  city  has  four  gates,  the  Jaffa  Gate 
on  the  west,  the  Damascus  Gate  on  the 
north,  St.  Stephen’s  Gate  on  the  east,  and 
Zion  Gate  on  the  south.  No  account  is 
here  made  of  gates  that  have  long  been 
closed,  nor  is  the  Dung  Gate,  in  the  lower 
part  of  the  Tyropoeon  valley,  included,  for 


it  was  necessary  to  build  in  this  manner 
for  purposes  of  defence:  the  phrase  in  Psa. 
cxxii.  3,  “  a  city  that  is  compact  together,” 
is  a  most  significant  one.  Sanitary  matters 
in  the  city  are  in  the  worst  possible  condi¬ 
tion,  and  during  the  rainy  season  inde¬ 
scribable  filth  abounds. 

Following  the  most  reliable  sources  (no 
absolute  data  being  obtainable),  the  pres¬ 
ent  population  is  not  far  from  45,000  ; 
Christians  of  all  sects,  8,000;  Mohamme¬ 
dans,  12,000;  and  the  rest  Jews.  Between 
1881-1884  several  thousand  Jews  went  to 
Jerusalem  to  reside,  but  soon  after  that  the 
number  dwindled  to  almost  nothing,  owing 
to  objections  to  their  coming  that  were 
raised  by  the  Turkish  authorities.  There 
is  little  wealth  in  Jerusalem;  the  houses 
are  poor,  many  of  them  squalid,  the  city  is 
poor,  and  a  large  proportion  of  the  inhab¬ 
itants  live  in  a  condition  of  abject  poverty. 


THE  CHURCH  OF  THE  HOLY 

the  reason  that  a  person  can  scarcely  pass 
through  it  on  horseback,  and  it  is  used 
only  by  a  few  water-carriers  and  peasant 
women  who  bring  vegetables  to  the  town. 
All  these  gates  bear  different  names  among 
the  Arabs,  but  those  are  now  given  by 
which  they  are  best  known  among  Chris¬ 
tians.  The  northeastern  portion  of  the 
city  is  known  as  the  Mohammedan  quar¬ 
ter,  the  southern  the  Jewish,  and  all  the 
western  portion  the  Christian;  the  Arme¬ 
nians  occupying  the  southern  part,  or 
Mount  Zion,  the  Greeks  and  Latins  the 
northern  part,  including  the  holy  sepul¬ 
chre,  and  the  sections  lying  to  the  north 
and  west  of  it.  Like  most  Oriental  cities 
the  streets  of  Jerusalem  are  very  narrow, 
winding,  dingy,  many  of  them  being  mere 
lanes  in  which  two  loaded  animals  can 
scarcely  pass  each  other.  In  ancient  times 


SEPULCHRE.  From  a  photograph. 

The  Greek  and  Latin  convents  own  a  large 
amount  of  property  and  they  do  much  for 
their  own  poor,  and  the  Jews  likewise  are 
aided,  many  of  them  being  thus  kept  from 
actual  starvation  by  funds  (“  Haluka,”  dis¬ 
tribution  or  present )  sent  thither  by  their 
brethren  in  the  different  countries  of  Eu¬ 
rope. 

Clustering  immediately  around  the  city 
are  many  points  and  objects  of  interest, 
among  which  are  the  Garden  of  Gethsem- 
ane  on  the  east  side  of  the  valley  of  Je- 
hoshaphat,  which  cannot  be  far  from  the 
place  to  which  Christ  went  on  the  night  of 
his  betrayal;  below  that,  the  tomb  of  Absa¬ 
lom,  a  curious  structure  whose  age  has 
never  been  determined;  the  tomb  of  Je- 
hoshaphat;  the  grotto  of  St.  James  (many 
sepulchral  chambers);  and  the  tomb  of 
Zacharias;  also  the  Virgin’s  Fountain;  En- 


Jer 


(  475  ) 


Jer 


rogel  or  Job’s  Well;  and  in  the  mouth  of 
the  Tyropoeon  Valley  the  Pool  of  Siloam; 
west  of  the  city  are  the  so-called  “  Upper 
and  Lower  Pools  of  Gihon,”  and  north  of  it 
are  found  the  Grotto  of  Jeremiah,  the  hill 
above  which  has  now  become  famous  as 
the  probable  site  of  the  crucifixion  of  our 
Lord,  and  still  north  of  that  the  Tombs  of 
the  Kings,  where  exists  a  large,  flat,  circular 
stone  which  can  be  rolled  back  and  forth 
before  the  entrance  of  the  tomb,  and  may 
well  illustrate  the  “  stone  at  the  door  of 
the  sepulchre  ”  of  the  gospel  narratives. 

Within  the  city,  the  Church  of  the  Holy 
Sepulchre,  which  has  been  destroyed  and 
rebuilt  several  times  during  its  history, 
occupies  the  site  where  Constantine  erected 
a  church,  the  spot  having  been  selected  by 
the  Empress  Helena.  The  building  has 
two  great  domes  over  the  Latin  and  Greek 
sections  respectively,  which  are  conspic¬ 
uous  objects  from  many  points.  Tradition, 
which  is  discarded  by  most  modern 
scholars,  makes  this  the  site  of  the  cruci¬ 
fixion  and  burial  of  our  Lord.  The  Mosque 
of  Omar,  “  Dome  of  the  Rock,”  octagonal 
inform,  one  of  the  finest  remains  of  Arabic 
architecture  in  the  East,  and  the  Mosque 
el-Aksa,  stand  on  the  temple  area,  which 
embraces  not  far  from  thirty-six  acres. 
Beneath  the  dome  of  Omar,  which  rises  to 
the  height  of  nearly  one  hundred  feet,  the 
native  rock  appears,  over  which  the  altar 
in  the  Jewish  temple  was  built.  A  large 
part  of  the  southeastern  section  of  this  vast 
platform  is  supported  on  massive  pillars, 
and  the  cavernous  region  thus  formed  is 
known  as  “Solomon’s  Stables.”  It  is  prob¬ 
able,  however,  that  this  is  Herodian  work. 
The  supporting  wall  of  this  area  is,  on  the 
west  side,  exposed,  and  here  is  the  famous 
wailing-place  of  the  Jews,  where,  on  their 
feaSt  days  and  always  on  Friday,  a  strange 
group  of  men  and  women  may  be  seen,  kiss- 


JEWS’  WAILING-PLACE, 


ing  the  stones  and  chanting  their  lamenta¬ 
tions  over  the  downfall  of  their  ancient  city. 

Very  few  of  the  multitude  of  traditional 
sites  in  the  city  are  worthy  of  a  moment’s 
consideration.  The  excavations  made  dur¬ 
ing  the  past  twenty-five  years,  and  the  in¬ 
vestigations  of  scholars  have  settled  some 
important  points  in  its  topography,  such  as 
the  place  where  the  Jewish  altar  stood ,  from 
which  the  exact  position  of  the  Holy  of 
Holies  is  determined ;  the  site  of  the  Castle 
of  Antonia  where  Paul  was  confined;  the 
bridge  spanning  the  Tyropoeon  and  leading 
from  the  temple  area  to  Mount  Zion,  and 
the  termini  of  the  “  second  wall,”  without 
which  Christ  was  crucified. 

Before  i860  it  was  not  safe  to  reside  out¬ 
side  the  walls  of  Jerusalem;  but  since  that 
date,  particularly  within  the  past  ten  years, 
buildings  have  multiplied,  so  that  to  the 
west  and  north  there  has  sprung  up  a  new 
city.  Here  are  schools,  hospitals,  and 
consular  residences, many  stores  and  shops, 
and  numbers  of  private  dwellings.  In  view 
of  the  poverty  of  Jerusalem,  this  growth 
is  unaccountable;  but  it  is  explained  by  the 
fact  that  most  of  it  was  accomplished  by 
foreign  money.  Rents  are  high,  and  the 
safest  way  of  investing  money  is  in  build¬ 
ings.  Several  hundred  travelers  from  all 
parts  of  the  world  visit  Jerusalem  every 
year,  and,  in  addition,  10,000  or  15,000 
pilgrims.  These,  aside  from  the  Moham¬ 
medan  pilgrims,  come  chiefly  from  Cath¬ 
olic  countries — nearly  one-half  the  number 
being  from  Russia.  The  great  Latin, 
Greek,  and  Armenian  establishments  have 
pilgrim  houses  that  would  accommodate  a 
small  army;  and  in  these  vast  apartments 
the  pilgrims  are  sure  of  a  comfortable 
sleeping-place  free  of  cost,  they  themselves 
providing  their  own  food.  At  Easter — and 
especially  when  the  Latin  and  Greek  East¬ 
ers  occur  at  the  same  time — the  city  is 
packed  with  strangers,  and  the  crowded 
streets  present,  in  the  variety  of  costumes 
and  languages,  a  notable  and  impressive 
scene. 

The  inhabitants  of  Jerusalem  obtain 
their  water  supply  chiefly  from  cisterns, 
the  only  other  sources  being  the  Virgin’s 
Fountain,  the  Pool  of  Siloam,  and  Job’s 
Well.  The  aqueduct,  which  formerly 
brought  water  to  the  temple  from  Solo¬ 
mon’s  Pools,  near  Bethlehem,  has  been  neg¬ 
lected  by  the  authorities  so  that  it  is  of 
little  or  no  use.  The  Pool  of  Hezekiah, 
within  the  city,  is  seldom  dry,  but  the 
water  in  it  can  never  be  used  for  drinking 
purposes. 

Lepers  have  not  for  many  years  past 
been  allowed  within  the  city.  In  the  val¬ 
ley  south  of  the  city  there  is  a  leper  house, 
where  they  find  shelter;  and  in  the  German 


Jer 


(  476  ) 


colony  a  hospital  for  them  has  been  estab¬ 
lished,  supported  chiefly  by  the  Moravians, 
where  they  receive  medical  treatment  and 
the  kindest  attention.  No  law  compels 
them  to  enter  the  hospital,  and  many  pre¬ 
fer  the  ancient  custom  of  sitting  by  the 
wayside  and  begging.  The  form  of  leprosy 
known  in  Jerusalem  is  not  contagious. 

Jerusalem  has  several  printing  estab¬ 
lishments,  but  no  newspaper.  The  pov¬ 
erty  and  ignorance  of  the  people  make  the 
necessity  very  great  for  schools,  missions, 
hospitals,  and  charitable  institutions  of  va¬ 
rious  kinds.  Montefiore  and  Rothschild 
have  done  much  for  the  poor  Jews  ; 
Schneller  (German  Protestant)  has  a  fine 


Jer 


native  youth  receive  a  higher  education; 
and  the  Israelite  Alliance  has  an  establish¬ 
ment  where  the  industrial  arts  and  lan¬ 
guages  are  taught  to  Hebrew  youth,  and 
which  seems  to  flourish  in  spite  of  the  op¬ 
position  it  meets  with  from  fanatical  Jews 
— the  general  characteristic  of  those  in 
Jerusalem.  The  order  of  St.  John  of 
Jerusalem  (English)  established  in  1882 
an  eye  infirmary,  which  has  been  a  bless¬ 
ing  to  thousands  of  afflicted  people.  There 
are  no  American  missions  in  Jerusalem,  nor 
in  all  Palestine.  Among  the  foreign  res¬ 
idents,  the  Germans  form  the  largest  body, 
and  a  Lutheran  church  is  maintained  by 
them,  where  the  service  is  in  the  German 


POOL  OF  HEZEKIAH,  INSIDE  THE  JAFFA  GATE. 


orphanage  for  boys  ;  the  Kaiserswerth 
Deaconesses  have  a  hospital  that  is  mar¬ 
velous  for  its  neatness,  and  a  flourishing 
school  for  girls;  the  London  Society  for 
the  Promotion  of  Christianity  among  the 
Jews  has  a  church,  an  industrial  school 
where  young  men  (Hebrews)  are  taught 
various  trades  while  receiving  a  Christian 
education,  and  a  school  for  Jewish  boys, 
and  another  for  Jewish  girls;  also  a  well- 
conducted  hospital;  the  Church  Missionary 
Society  has,  besides,  a  church  (service  is  in 
Arabic)  and  school,  a  number  of  out-sta¬ 
tions,  and  is  doing  a  good  work;  connected 
with  that  society  is  the  school  on  Mount 
Zion,  founded  by  Bishop  Gobat,  where 


language.  The  churches  belonging  to  the 
other  Christian  sects — the  Greek,  Latin, 
Coptic,  Abyssinian,  Syrian,  Armenian — are 
interesting,  and  connected  with  them  are 
schools  of  different  grades. 

From  the  voluminous  literature  relat¬ 
ing  to  Jerusalem,  a  few  of  the  more  im¬ 
portant  works  are  selected: 

For  accurate  details,  the  Handbooks  of 
Murray  and  Baedeker — especially  that  of 
the  latter — are  invaluable;  Wilson  and 
Warren:  The  Recovery  of  Jerusalem :  War¬ 
ren:  Underground  Jerusalem  ;  Palestine 
Exploration  Fund  Committee:  Our  Work 
in  Palestine.  The  Quarterly  Reports  of 
the  same  society  contain  many  valuable 


Jer 


(  477  ) 


Jer 


papers  and  discussions  on  matters  pertain¬ 
ing  to  the  Holy  City.  In  the  small  vol¬ 
umes  called  Records  of  the  Past  will  be 
found  many  documents  from  the  Assyrian, 
illustrating  the  conquests  of  Jerusalem  by 
the  Assyrian  and  Babylonian  kings;  Besant 
and  Palmer:  Jerusalem ,  the  City  of  Herod 
and  Saladin;  C.  R.  Conder:  Tent  Work  in 
Palestine.  Of  older  works  the  most  val¬ 


uable  is  E.  Robinson’s  Biblical  Researches. 
Other  important  works  are:  W.  M.  Thom¬ 
son:  The  Land  and  the  Book  (the  new  edi¬ 
tion,  New  York,  Harpers,  has  a  different 
title);  G.  Williams:  The  Holy  City  ;  W.  H. 
Bartlett:  Walks  About  Jertisalem  ;  J.  T, 
Barclay:  The  Citv  of  the  Great  King. 

Selah  Merrill. 


Jer 


( 478 ) 


Jes 


1  ^ - 

Jerusalem  Chamber,  a  large  hall  in  the 
deanery  of  Westminster,  London,  famous 
as  the  place  where  the  Westminster  As¬ 
sembly  met  in  the  seventeenth  century, 
and  the  English  revisers  of  the  Authorized 
Version  in  the  nineteenth  century.  The 
hall  is  hung  with  tapestries,  and  some 
think  that  its  name  is  derived  from  the  pic¬ 
tures  of  Jerusalem  upon  them;  others  sug¬ 
gest  that  it  is  taken  from  the  adjoining 
sanctuary  (“  the  place  of  peace”).  See  Dean 
Stanley:  Memorials  of  Westminster  Abbey . 

Jesuits.  The  order  of  Jesuits,  or  Society 
of  Jesus,  was  founded  in  1534  by  Ignatius 
Loyola  (<7.  v. ),  with  the  help  of  Peter  Le 
Fevre,  James  Lainez,  Francis  Xavier,  Nich¬ 
olas  Bo'badilla,  and  Rodriguez.  Pope  Paul 
III.  approved  of  the  plan,  and  it  was  au¬ 
thorized  by  a  bull  in  1540.  The  chief  ob¬ 
jects  of  the  society  were:  The  education  of 
youth,  preaching  to  and  instructing  grown¬ 
up  people,  the  confutation  and  suppression 
of  heresy,  and  teaching  Christianity  to 
heathens  by  missionaries.  The  chief  differ¬ 
ences  between  the  Jesuits  and  the  old  mo¬ 
nastic  orders  were  that  their  society  was 
strictly  monarchical,  that  they  did  not  keep 
the  canonical  hours,  and  therefore  had 
more  time  for  study,  and  they  adopted  no 
particular  dress,  but  simply  wore  that  of  a 
secular  priest.  The  society  consisted  of 
four  classes.  In  the  lowest  class  were 
novices  who  spent  their  time  in  prayer, 
meditation,  and  study,  for  two  years,  until 
they  became  scholastics,  and  either  con¬ 
tinued  their  studies,  or  taught  in  the 
schools.  The  next  class  was  the  Coadju¬ 
tors,  some  of  whom — the  Temporal — acted 
the  part  of  lay-helpers,  while  the  Spiritual, 
who  had  been  ordained,  preached  and 
helped  the  Professed  of  the  highest  class. 
The  candidates  had  to  work  ten  or  twelve 
years  before  they  reached  this  last  class. 
From  among  them  was  chosen  a  general, 
who  governed  the  whole  society.  The  first 
of  these  generals  was  Loyola.  He  drew 
up  the  “  Constitutiones,”  or  rules  of  the 
order,  which  were  published  in  Rome  two 
years  after  his  death  by  Lainez,  his  succes¬ 
sor  as  general.  They  consisted  of  ten 
parts,  subdivided  into  chapters,  and  gave 
instructions  concerning  the  different  or¬ 
ders,  their  manner  of  life,  etc.  The  Jesuits 
soon  spread  into  other  countries,  and  at 
the  time  of  Loyola’s  death  were  established 
in  Italy,  Spain,  Portugal,  and  Germany. 
About  1561  they  began  to  open  schools  and 
colleges  in  France,  where  they  taught 
gratis,  for  which  the  University  attacked 
them ;  but  it  was  a  common  belief  that  they 
were  formed  to  destroy  Protestantism,  so 
they  were  allowed  to  stay,  and  formed  a 
college  in  Paris.  In  the  War  of  the  League 


they  were  opposed  to  Henry  IV.,  and  two 
of  their  number  attempted  to  assassinate 
him.  The  Parliament  of  Paris  decreed 
their  banishment;  but  Henry,  at  the  press¬ 
ing  request  of  the  pope,  recalled  them  in 
1603,  and  they  remained  in  France  till  their 
expulsion  in  1764.  It  is  said  that  Ravaillac, 
the  actual  murderer,  was  instigated  by  the 
Jesuits.  In  Germany  they  were  received 
with  great  favor;  and  in  the  time  of  Lainez 
almost  all  the  German  towns  of  note  had  a 
Jesuit  College.  They  first  came  to  Eng¬ 
land  in  the  reign  of  Queen  Elizabeth,  and 
many  were  executed  for  conspiring  against 
her.  One  of  the  Fawkes  conspirators — 
Garnet — was  a  Jesuit.  A  very  important 
part  of  the  history  of  the  Jesuits  is  their 
missions.  The  first  attempts  were  made  by 
Francis  Xavier  ( q .  v.)  in  the  East.  But  the 
country  where  they  had  most  influence  was 
Paraguay.  They  went  to  South  America 
after  the  Spaniards  had  conquered  the  coun¬ 
try,  and  formed  a  colony  on  the  banks  of 
the  Paraguay  and  Parana  which  is  said  to 
have  included  between  one  and  two  hun¬ 
dred  thousand  Indian  converts,  whom  they 
governed  for  a  century  and  a  half.  In 
1750,  Spain  gave  up  part  of  her  possessions 
in  Paraguay  to  Portugal,  and  ordered  the 
Jesuits  and  their  pupils  to  move  to  some 
other  part  of  the  Spanish  dominions.  The 
Indians  rebelled,  and  some  noblemen  at¬ 
tempted  to  murder  the  Portuguese  king, 
which  was  laid  to  the  charge  of  their  con¬ 
fessors,  the  Jesuits,  who  were  expelled 
from  the  Portuguese  territories,  and  their 
lands  confiscated. 

This  example  was  soon  followed  by  the 
French.  The  Jansenists  had  risen  in  oppo¬ 
sition  to  the  society,  the  Parliament  of 
Paris  had  never  lost  its  old  hostility,  and 
they  had  also  private  enemies  in  the  Min¬ 
ister  Choiseul  and  Madame  de  Pompadour. 
An  opportunity  was  soon  found  for  these 
parties  to  bring  about  their  object.  Father 
Lavalette,  the  head  of  the  missions  in  Mar¬ 
tinique,  speculated  in  colonial  produce;  his 
goods  were  seized  by  the  English,  and  he 
became  bankrupt.  His  French  creditors 
proceeded  against  the  society,  condemned 
them,  and  in  1764  a  proclamation  was  pub¬ 
lished  by  which  they  were  suppressed  in 
France  and  their  property  confiscated. 

Three  years  after,  they  fell  in  Spain 
through  the  instigation  of  Choiseul,  who 
persuaded  Charles  III.  that  an  insurrection 
which  had  broken  out  in  Madrid,  in  1766, 
was  their  work.  A  decree  was  made 
against  them,  and  on  March  31st,  1767, 
they  were  all  commanded  to  turn  out  of 
their  homes,  were  escorted  to  the  coast, 
and  embarked  for  Italy.  They  were  re¬ 
fused  admittance  at  several  ports;  and  after 
being  for  some  months  on  board,  where 


Jes 


(  479  ) 


Jes 


many  died,  the  survivors  were  landed  in 
Corsica.  They  were,  at  the  same  time, 
expelled  from  Spanish  America. 

In  1768  the  Society  was  suppressed  in 
the  Two  Sicilies;  but  it  still  remained  in 
the  papal  dominions  and  in  Sardinia.  Pope 
Clement  XIII.,  who  had  been  their  sup¬ 
porter,  died,  and  Ganganelli  was  raised  to 
the  papal  chair.  He  was  begged  on  all 
sides  to  utterly  exterminate  the  society; 
and  in  1773  he  issued  a  bull,  in  which  he 
said  that  disputes  were  always  rising  up 
among  them,  which  had  compelled  the 
Catholic  princes  to  expel  them,  and  then  he 
declared  them  suppressed  and  extinct,  and 
their  statutes  annulled.  The  society  now 
remained  only  in  Russia  and  Prussia;  and 
from  the  former  they  were  expelled  in  1817. 

The  Jesuits  remained  suppressed  for 
about  thirty  years,  but  at  the  beginning  of 
the  present  century  several  attempts  were 
made  to  restore  them,  in  the  hope  that  they 
might  help  to  bring  peace  to  the  countries 
which  were  convulsed  with  revolutions 
and  wars.  Several  briefs  were  issued  al¬ 
lowing  them  to  return  to  the  various  coun¬ 
tries;  and  in  1814  Pius  VII.  issued  a  bull 
solemnly  reestablishing  the  society  under 
the  constitutions  of  St.  Ignatius.  They 
now  exist  in  every  country,  both  Protes¬ 
tant  and  Roman  Catholic,  in  Europe,  but 
their  public  institutions  are  suppressed  in 
France.  They  have  at  present  thirty-three 
establishments  in  England,  among  which 
are  six  colleges,  the  chief  one  being  at 
Stonyhurst,  near  Whitby,  in  Lancashire. 
See  Jansenists;  Loyola. — Benham:  Did. 
of  Religion. 

Jesus  Christ.  Jesus  is  the  personal 
name  and  Christ  the  official  title  of  our 
Lord.  The  name  “  Jesus  ”  is  derived  from 
a  Hebrew  word  signifying  “  to  save”  or 
“sent  to  save”  (Matt.  i.  21;  Luke  ii.  11, 
21),  while  that  of  Christ  (Gr.  Christos ) 
signifies  Anointed ,  in  allusion  to  the  custom 
of  anointing  with  oil  those  who  were  set 
apart  to  sacred  or  regal  office.  In  the  New 
Testament  the  name  Christ  is  used  as 
equivalent  to  Messiah  (John  i.  41),  the 
name  given  to  the  promised  prophet  and 
king  whose  coming  had  long  been  antici¬ 
pated.  (Acts  xix.  4;  Matt.  xi.  3.)  The  story 
of  the  life,  the  person,  and  the  work  of 
Christ  is  so  wonderfully  told  in  the  Gos¬ 
pels  that  it  is  not  necessary  to  repeat  it 
here.  “  Each  Gospel  has  its  own  charac¬ 
teristics.  Matthew  depicts  Christ  as  the 
promised  Messiah  and  the  son  of  David. 
Mark  portrays  him  as  the  Son  of  God,  who 
established  his  Messianic  mission  by  mirac¬ 
ulous  deeds.  Luke  describes  him  as  the 
Saviour  and  revealer  of  truth,  sent  from 
God  to  save  and  enlighten  all  peoples. 


John  differs  very  materially  from  the  other 
evangelists  by  exhibiting  more  of  the  inner 
life  and  thoughts  of  Christ.  The  other 
writings  of  the  New  Testament  are  very 
valuable  as  witnesses  to  the  truth  of  the 
gospel  narratives, and  their  picture  of  Christ 
which  they  presuppose.  They  corroborate 
many  individual  traits,  the  Acts  giving  an 
account  of  the  ascension  (Acts.  i.  4-1 1),  and 
an  otherwise  unrecorded  saying  of  our 
Lord  (xx.  35);  while  Paul  makes  a  valuable 
addition  to  the  history  of  the  days  succeed¬ 
ing  the  resurrection.  (1  Cor.  xv.  3-8.) 
The  writers  of  the  New  Testament  agree 
in  their  testimony  to  the  reality  of  the  reve¬ 
lation  of  God  in  Christ;  and  their  narrative 
lays  claim  to  our  respect  in  proportion  as 
it  can  stand  alone,  and  does  not  need  any 
illustration  from  the  dull  and  flickering 
light  of  the  apocryphal  inventions.” — 
Zockler  in  Schaff-Herzog:  Ency.,s.v.  Among 
the  best  of  the  many  Lives  of  Christ  written 
in  recent  times,  are  those  of  Ellicott  (i860); 
S.  J.  Andrews  (1862,  4th  ed.,  1879);  F.  W. 
Farrar  (1875);  C.  Geikie  (1877);  A.  Eders- 
heim  (1883).  See  Christology;  Messiah; 
Genealogy  of  Jesus  Christ,  and  other 
articles. 

Jesus  Christ,  Three  Offices  of.  As 
early  as  the  time  of  Eusebius  a  threefold 
office  of  prophet,  high-priest,  and  king  was 
ascribed  to  Jesus.  “Three  passages  in 
the  Old  Testament  are  guiding  lights 
(Deut.  xviii.  15;  Psa.  cx.  4;  Zech.  vi.  13); 
and  this  idea  of  the  Threefold  Office  must 
be  conceded  to  have  strong  claims  on  the 
score  of  giving  a  living  impression  of 
Christ’s  whole  work,  in  a  form  at  once 
adapted  to  popular  use,  and  sufficiently 
comprehensive.  It  calls  up  vivid  images 
of  the  whole  of  the  Mediator’s  functions. 
We  seem  to  see  him  as  the  Great  Teacher, 
imparting  words  of  heavenly  truth;  as  the 
High-Priest  suffering  upon  the  cross,  and 
as  our  Prince  and  King  ruling  in  divine 
majesty.” — H.  B.  Smith. 

Jesus,  Society  of  the  Sacred  Heart  of, 
is  the  society  of  the  Jesuits,  only  under 
another  name.  At  the  time,  near  the  close 
of  the  last  century,  when  the  Jesuits  were 
being  suppressed,  they  formed  organiza-, 
tions  under  other  names  to  propagate  their 
work  and  doctrines.  The  most  prominent 
was  the  Society  of  the  Sacred  Heart  of 
Jesus,  established  in  Belgium  in  1794.  In 
1798,  by  request  of  the  pope,  they  were 
united  with  the  Baccanarists.  A  female 
society,  The  Ladies  of  the  Sacred  Heart, 
was  organized  at  Paris  in  1800,  and  now 
numbers  over  ten  thousand.  Its  object  is 
female  education,  and  its  rules  are  those 
of  the  order  of  Jesuits. 


Jet 


(  43o  ) 


Jew 


Jeter,  Jeremiah  B.,  D.  D.,  a  Baptist 
minister  of  great  influence;  b.  in  Bedford 
County,  Va. ,  July  18,  1802;  d.  in  Richmond, 
Feb.  25,  1880.  He  entered  the  ministry 
in  1822,  and  spent  most  of  his  life  in  Rich¬ 
mond. 

Jew,  The  Wandering.  The  legend  of 
the  Wandering  Jew  appeared  first  in  Eng¬ 
lish  and  French  literature  some  time  in  the 
thirteenth  century.  Matthew  Paris,  an 
English  monk  (d.  1259),  who  lived  in  the 
monastery  of  St.  Albans  in  Paris,  tells  the 
story  of  a  certain  Cartaphilus  who  was  a 
doorkeeper  in  the  palace  of  Pilate,  and 
when  Jesus  was  led  out  to  be  crucified  he 
struck  him,  and  said  to  him,  “  Go,  Jesus; 
go  on  faster,”  to  which  Jesus  replied,  “  I 
go,  but  thou  shalt  wait  till  I  return.”  The 
tradition  was  that  he  was  baptized  by  Ana¬ 
nias,  and  assuming  the  name  of  Joseph 
settled  in  Armenia,  where  he  was  living 
when  Paris  wrote  his  Historia  Major .  The 
legend  appeared  in  German  literature  in  a 
small  pamphlet  published  in  1602.  Accord¬ 
ing  to  this,  “  Ahasuerus  is  the  name  of  the 
Wandering  Jew;  and  he  was  a  shoemaker 
in  Jerusalem  at  the  time  of  Christ.  When 
Jesus,  on  his  way  to  Golgotha,  passed  by 
his  house,  he  stopped  for  a  moment,  and 
leaned  against  the  door-post;  and  when 
Ahasuerus  pushed  him  aside,  and  bade  him 
to  move  on,  Jesus  said  to  him,  ‘  I  will 
stand  here  and  rest,  but  thou  shalt  go  on 
until  the  last  day.’  From  that  day  Ahas¬ 
uerus  found  rest  nowhere.  Wandering 
about  from  place  to  place,  he  was  seen  in 
Spain,  Germany,  and  other  places.” 

Jewel,  John,  bishop  of  Salisbury,  and 
one  of  the  greatest  apologetical  writers  of 
the  Church  of  England;  b.  at  Buden, 
Devonshire,  May  22,  1522;  d.  at  Monkton, 
Farleigh,  Sept.  23,  1571.  He  was  graduated 
at  Corpus  Christi  College,  Oxford,  1540. 
In  1549  he  espoused  the  cause  of  the  Ref¬ 
ormation,  and  for  many  years  he  suffered 
greatly,  and  spent  much  time  in  Europe. 
On  the  death  of  Mary  in  1558  he  returned 
to  England,  and  in  1560  was  consecrated 
bishop  of  Salisbury.  In  1562  he  published 
the  work  upon  which  his  fame  rests,  Apol¬ 
ogy  of  the  Church  of  England.  This  book 
was  translated  into  many  languages,  and 
found  readers  in  every  part  of  Europe. 

Jewish  Christians,  Judaizers.  When 
Gentile  Christian  churches  were  organized, 
the  hatred  of  the  unconverted  Israelites 
increased,  and  the  question  of  the  real  re¬ 
lation  of  Judaism  to  Christianity  claimed 
discussion.  This  caused  a  split  among  the 
Jewish  Christians.  Some  of  them  main¬ 
tained  that  the  whole  Law  was  binding 


upon  the  converted  heathen;  others,  and 
they  were  the  majority  in  the  Councils  of 
Jerusalem,  that  it  was  binding  only  upon 
the  Jewish  Christians.  The  minority  or¬ 
ganized  a  counter-mission  to  that  of  Paul, 
opposed  him  vigorously,  decried  him,  and 
strove  to  bring  the  Gentile  Christians  to 
their  views.  These  were  the  Judaizers 
who  gave  Paul  so  much  trouble.  They 
claimed  the  countenance  of  James,  and 
with  some  show  of  reason.  Exactly  when 
the  Jewish  Christians  were  forbidden  the 
temple  is  not  determinable;  they  would 
scarcely  be  tolerated  in  it  down  to  the  de¬ 
struction  of  the  city.  It  must  have  been  a 
trying  time  for  the  converts,  and  many, 
doubtless,  chose  to  give  up  the  Messiah 
rather  than  their  people  and  the  old  relig¬ 
ion.  The  Epistle  to  the  Hebrews,  written 
at  this  period,  gives  us  a  hint  of  this  per¬ 
plexity.  The  final  separation  between 
Jewish  Christianity  and  Israel  may  be  set 
down  as  taking  place  when  Hadrian  or¬ 
dered  all  Jews  to  leave  Jerusalem.  —  Uhl- 
horn;  see  his  art.  in  Schaff- Herzog:  Ency. 
See  Ebionites. 

Jews.  We  purpose  under  this  head  to 
give  a  short  sketch  of  the  history  of  the 
Jews  after  the  destruction  of  the  temple  by 
Titus.  About  fifty  3’ears  after,  the  Jews 
murdered  nearly  five  hundred  thousand  of 
the  Roman  subjects,  for  which  they  were 
severely  punished  by  Trajan.  They  made 
Jamina  the  seat  of  learning  and  of  the  re¬ 
organization  of  their  religious  life.  About 
130  one  Bar-Cocheba  pretended  that  he  was 
the  Messiah,  and  raised  a  Jewish  army  of 
two  hundred  thousand,  who  murdered  all 
the  heathen  and  Christians  who  came  in 
their  way.  But  he  was  defeated  by  the 
forces  of  Hadrian.  In  this  year  it  is  said 
that  sixty  thousand  Jews  wrere  slain  or  per¬ 
ished.  Hadrian  then  built  a  city  on  Mount 
Calvary,  and  erected  a  marble  statue  of  a 
swine  over  the  gate  that  led  to  Bethlehem; 
no  Jew  was  allowed  to  enter  the  city,  or  to 
look  toward  it  at  a  distance,  on  pain  of 
death.  In  360  they  began  to  rebuild  their 
city  and  temple,  but  a  terrible  earthquake 
killed  the  workmen  and  scattered  their 
materials.  In  the  third,  fourth,  and  fifth 
centuries  many  of  them  were  harassed  and 
murdered.  In  the  fifth  century  Babylonia 
became  their  centre  instead  of  Palestine. 
In  the  sixth  century  twenty  thousand  were 
slain  and  as  many  more  sold  into  slavery. 
In  602  they  were  severely  punished  for 
their  horrible  massacre  of  the  Christians 
at  Antioch.  They  fared  somewhat  better 
at  the  time  of  the  rise  of  Mahomet,  for, 
though  expelled  from  Arabia,  they  wrere  fa¬ 
vorably  received  in  Spain  and  Mau¬ 
ritania,  and  also  in  France  under  the 


Jew 


(  48i  ) 


Jew 


Carlovingian  monarchs.  In  Spain  in  700 
they  were  ordered  to  be  enslaved,  and  in 
the  eighth  and  ninth  centuries  they  were 
greatly  derided  and  abused,  and  in  some 
places  were  made  to  wear  leathern  girdles, 
and  ride  without  stirrups  on  mules  and 
asses.  In  France  multitudes  were  burnt. 
In  England  in  1020  they  were  banished,  and 
at  the  coronation  of  Richard  I.  the  mob  fell 
upon  them  and  murdered  a  great  many  of 
them;  about  one  thousand  five  hundred 
were  buried  in  the  palace  of  the  city  of 
York,  which  they  set  fire  to  themselves, 
after  killing  their  wives  and  children.  In 
Egypt,  Canaan,  and  Syria  the  Crusaders 
greatly  harassed  them.  Provoked  with 
their  mad  running  after  pretended  Mes¬ 
siahs,  Caliph  Nasser  scarce  left  any  of  them 
alive  in  his  dominions  of  Mesopotamia.  In 
Persia  the  Tartars  massacred  them  in  mul¬ 
titudes.  In  Spain  Ferdinand  persecuted 
them  furiously,  and  in  1349  there  was  a 
terrible  massacre  of  them  at  Toledo.  In 
France  in  1253  many  were  murdered  and 
others  banished,  but  they  were  recalled  in 
1275.  In  1320  and  1330  they  were  massacred 
in  the  Crusades  by  the  fanatic  shepherds, 
who  wasted  the  south  of  France;  in  1358 
they  were  totally  banished  from  France, 
and  since  then  few  of  them  have  entered  that 
country.  In  1291  Edward  I.  banished  them 
from  England  to  the  number  of  one  hun¬ 
dred  and  sixty  thousand.  In  1348,  when 
the  Black  Death  was  raging,  the  Jews  were 
accused  of  causing  it  by  polluting  the  rivers 
and  wells,  and  they  had  rendered  them¬ 
selves  very  unpopular  with  the  Christians 
by  having  the  control  of  financial  affairs 
entirely  in  their  hands.  Spain  and  Portu¬ 
gal  likewise  banished  them,  and  they  took 
up  their  abode  chiefly  in  Germany  and 
Italy.  At  the  time  of  the  Reformation  the 
Jews  fared  somewhat  better;  they  were  let 
alone  because  Christians  were  too  busy 
with  their  own  disputes  to  heed  them.  But 
in  most  European  countries  they  have  at 
different  times  since  then  suffered  violent 
persecution  and  frequent  banishment,  but 
in  general  their  present  condition  is  toler¬ 
able.  In  Poland,  however,  which  is  now 
their  chief  residence,  they  were  greatly 
oppressed  even  up  to  present  times.  In 
England  and  the  United  States  they  enjoy 
absolute  liberty.  In  England  in  1723  they 
acquired  the  right  to  possess  land,  and  in 
1 753  they  obtained  the  long-desired  per¬ 
mission  of  naturalization.  Since  1830  civic 
corporations,  since  1833  the  profession  of 
advocates,  since  1845  the  office  of  Aider- 
man  and  of  Lord  Mayor,  and  since  1858  ad¬ 
mission  into  Parliament  have  all  been  ac¬ 
corded  to  Jews.  In  fact,  Jews  are  now,  if 
natural-born  subjects,  nearly  on  the  same 
footing  with  English  subjects;  their  schools 


and  places  of  worship  stand  much  in  the 
position  of  those  of  Protestant  Dissenters. 
Before  they  can  hold  office  in  any  municipal 
corporation  they  must  sign  a  declaration 
that  they  will  not  use  their  influence  so  as 
to  injure  or  weaken  the  Protestant  Church. 
By  Statutes  21  and  22  Viet.,  c.  49,  Jews  are 
excluded  from  holding  the  office  of  guard¬ 
ians  or  justices  of  the  United  Kingdom,  or 
of  Lord  High  Chancellor,  Lord  Keeper,  or 
Lord  Commissioner  of  Great  Britain  or  Ire¬ 
land,  or  the  office  of  Lord  Lieutenant,  or 
deputy,  or  other  chief  governor  of  Ireland, 
or  Her  Majesty’s  Commissioner  to  the 
General  Assembly  of  the  Church  of  Scot¬ 
land. 

In  their  religious  observances  the  mod¬ 
ern  Jews  adhere  as  closely  to  the  Mosaic 
dispensation  as  their  scattered  condition 
will  allow.  Their  service  consists  chiefly 
in  reading  the  Law  in  their  synagogues, 
together  with  a  variety  of  prayers.  They 
abstain  from  the  meats  prohibited  by  the 
Levitical  Law ;  they  observe  the  same  cere¬ 
monies  as  their  ancestors  at  the  Passover. 
They  offer  prayers  for  the  dead,  because 
they  believe  in  purgatory  as  a  place  where 
the  souls  of  the  wicked  go,  but  they  limit 
the  time  of  their  remaining  there  to  a  year, 
and  they  believe  that  only  very  few  will 
suffer  eternal  punishment.  All  Jews  are 
obliged  to  live  and  die  in  the  profession  of 
the  following  Thirteen  Articles,  which 
were  drawn  up  for  them  about  the  end  of 
the  eleventh  century  by  a  celebrated  rabbi 
named  Maimonides: 

I.  That  there  is  one  God,  Creator  of  all  things,  the 
first  principle  of  all  beings,  who  is  able  to  subsist  and 
continue  his  perfections  without  any  part  of  the  Uni¬ 
verse,  but  that  nothing  in  the  world  can  maintain  their 
existence  without  him. 

II.  That  God  is  an  uncompounded,  indivisible  essence; 
but  that  his  unity  is  different  from  all  other  unities. 

III.  That  God  is  an  immaterial  being,  and  that  no 
corporeal  quality,  however  refined,  can  possibly  make 
part  of  his  essence. 

IV.  That  God  is  eternal,  a  parte  ante  as  well  as  a 
parte  post ,  and  that  every  thing  excepting  the  Deity 
had  a  beginning  in  time. 

V.  That  God  alone  ought  to  be  worshipped,  and  that 
we  ought  to  adore  no  other  beings  either  as  mediators 
or  intercessors. 

VI.  That  there  have  been  prophets  qualified  to  re¬ 
ceive  Divine  inspiration,  and  that  there  may  be  such  for 
the  future. 

VII.  That  Moses  was  the  greatest  prophet  that  has 
hitherto  appeared,  and  that  the  degrees  of  supernatural 
light  communicated  to  him  were  altogether  singular, 
and  much  above  the  communications  and  illapses  vouch¬ 
safed  to  other  prophets. 

VIII.  That  the  law  which  Moses  left  them  was,  all  of 
it,  dictated  by  Almighty  God;  that  there  is  not  so  much 
as  a  syllable  in  it  not  received  by  inspiration;  and  that 
by  consequence  the  traditionary  expositions  of  these  pre¬ 
cepts  are  entirely  a  Divine  revelation  given  to  Moses. 

IX.  That  this  law  is  immutable,  and  that  it  is  lawful 
neither  to  add  nor  diminish. 

X.  That  God  knows  all  our  actions,  and  governs  them 
according  to  his  pleasure. 

XI.  That  God  rewards  the  observance  and  punishes 
the  violation  of  his  Law;  that  the  best  reward*-  for  vir- 


Jez 


(  4S2  ) 


Joa 


tue  are  reserved  for  the  other  world,  and  that  the  dam¬ 
nation  of  the  soul  is  the  deepest  punishment. 

XII.  That  a  Messiah  will  appear,  of  much  more  merit 
and  lustre  than  all  the  kings  before  him;  that  though 
his  coming  is  delayed,  we  ought  neither  to  doubt  the 
certainty  nor  prescribe  the  time,  and  much  less  offer  to 
foretell  it  from  the  Scripture. 

XIII.  That  God  will  raise  the  dead  at  the  last  period 
of  time,  and  pass  judgment  upon  all  mankind. 

This  truth,  with  the  consequences  of  it, 
they  maintain  from  Dan.  xii.  2:  “And 
many  of  them  that  sleep  in  the  dust  shall 
awake;  some  to  everlasting  life,  and  some 
to  shame  and  everlasting  contempt.  ” — Ben- 
ham:  Diet,  of  Religion. 

Jez  ebel  ( chaste ),  the  wife  of  Ahab,  and 
the  daughter  of  a  Zidonian  king.  (1  Kings 
xvi.  31.)  Educated  under  the  influences 
of  idolatry,  she  was  the  means  of  intro¬ 
ducing  the  worship  of  Baal  into  Israel. 
Energetic  and  unscrupulous,  she  complete¬ 
ly  swayed  the  mind  of  her  weak  and  vacil¬ 
lating  husband.  At  her  own  expense  she 
maintained  400  priests  of  Astarte,  while 
Ahab  supported  450  priests  of  Baal.  (1 
Kings  xviii.  19.)  She  sought  to  destroy 
the  prophets  of  Israel  (1  Kings  xviii.  4), 
and  threatened  the  life  of  Elijah.  (1  Kings 
xix.  2.)  She  plotted  the  murder  of  Naboth 
in  order  that  Ahab  might  secure  his  vine¬ 
yard.  (1  Kings  xxi.  5.)  Surviving  Ahab, 
she  had  great  influence  at  court  under  her 
son,  and  saw  her  daughter,  Athaliah,  mar¬ 
ried  to  the  king  of  Judah.  (2  Kings  viii.  26.) 
Her  doom,  as  predicted  by  Elijah,  was  ful¬ 
filled  to  the  letter.  (2  Kings  ix.  30-37.) 

Jezreel,  the  plain  or  valley  between  Gil- 
boa  and  Little  Hermon,  to  which  the  name 
of  Esdraelon  has  been  applied  in  modern 
times.  It  was  also  applied  to  the  city 
which  Ahab  chose  for  his  chief  residence. 
In  the  neighborhood  was  a  temple  and 
grove  of  Astarte  with  400  priests  sup¬ 
ported  by  Jezebel.  Her  seraglio  was  on 
the  city  walls.  Whether  the  vineyard  of 
Naboth  was  here  or  at  Samaria  is  doubtful. 
The  site  of  the  city  is  now  occupied  by  a 
little  village  called  Zerin. 

Jimenes,  Cardinal.  See  Ximenes. 

Jo'ab  ( whose  father  is  Jehovah),  the  eldest 
of  the  three  sons  of  Zeruiah,  David’s  sis¬ 
ter,  and  the  commander-in-chief  of  the 
army.  (T  Chron.  ii.  16;  xi.  6.)  Joab  was 
a  man  of  courage,  but  ambitious  and  re¬ 
vengeful.  He  won  a  brilliant  victory  at 
Gibeon  over  Abner  (2  Sam.  ii.  1S-24),  and 
at  a  later  period  murdered  him  under  cir¬ 
cumstances  (2  Sam.  iii.  27)  that  aroused 
the  indignation  of  David.  When  Absalom 
rebelled,  Joab  remained  true  to  his  master, 
but,  contrary  to  the  express  orders  of  Da¬ 


vid,  put  Absalom  to  death  with  his  own 
hands.  His  last  recorded  deed  of  blood 
was  his  treacherous  murder  of  Amasa, 
whom  David  had  promoted  to  be  his  gen- 
eral-in-chief.  In  the  last  years  of  David’s 
reign,  Joab  conspired  to  place  Adonijah  on 
the  throne.  After  Solomon  became  king, 
although  David  had  charged  him  to  punish 
Joab  for  his  crimes,  he  spared  him  for  a 
time,  but  finally  had  him  put  to  death  at 
the  altar  of  the  sanctuary  where  he  had 
fled  for  safety,  (r  Kings  ii.  28-34.) 

Joachim,  abbot  of  Floris,  a  Cistercian 
monk  who  claimed  to  be  inspired,  said  to 
have  been  born  at  Caelicum  in  1145;  d. 
1201.  After  making  a  pilgrimage  to  the 
Holy  Land  he  became  a  monk,  and  after¬ 
ward  abbot  of  the  monastery  at  Corace  in 
Calabria.  From  here  he  retired  to  the 
mountain  solitudes  of  Sylae,  near  Cosenza, 
where  he  built  the  monastery  of  Floris,  and 
introduced  very  severe  rules.  He  wrote 
against  Peter  Lombard,  who  maintained 
that  there  was  but  one  essence  in  God, 
though  there  were  three  persons,  while 
Joachim  asserted  that  since  there  were 
three  persons  there  must  be  three  es¬ 
sences.  For  this  and  other  speculations 
his  writings  were  condemned  by  the  Fourth 
Lateran  Council. 

Joan,  Pope,  a  fable  first  related  by  Ste¬ 
phen  of  Bourbon,  a  French  Dominican, 
who  d.  in  1261.  It  found  considerable  cre¬ 
dence  through  its  insertion  in  the  Chronicle 
of  Martinus  Polonus,  a  popular  text-book. 
According  to  this  story,  Joan  reigned  for 
more  than  two  years,  and  died  in  855  from 
bearing  a  child  while  in  a  procession  be¬ 
tween  the  Colosseum  and  the  Church  of 
St.  Clement. 

Joan  of  Arc,  or  Jeanne  d’Arc,  “  b.  at 
Domremy,  in  the  modern  department  of 
Vosges,  France,  about  a.  d.  1411;  d.  at  the 
stake  in  Rouen,  May  30,  1431;  the  daugh¬ 
ter  of  a  small  French  farmer,  who,  during 
the  wars  of  Henry  VI.  of  England  with 
France,  is  said  to  have  rendered  the  most 
important  services  to  her  country.  While 
employed  as  a  servant  at  an  inn,  she  fan¬ 
cied  that  St.  Michael,  the  tutelary  saint  of 
France,  had  commissioned  her  to  rescue 
her  country  from  its  enemies.  After  some 
hesitation,  the  Dauphin  accepted  the  as¬ 
sistance  of  the  maiden,  who  predicted  that 
the  siege  of  Orleans  (then  invested  by  the 
English)  would  be  raised,  and  that  Charles 
would  be  invested  at  Rheims  with  the 
crown  and  sceptre  of  the  Capets.  By  the  aid 
of  Joan,  whose  enthusiasm  and  heroism  in¬ 
spired  the  French  soldiery,  both  these 
events  were  brought  about.  In  nine  days 


Job 


(  4S3  ) 


Job 


she  drovethe  English  from  Orleans,  which 
they  had  been  assailing  for  nearly  seven 
months.  Within  two  months  Charles  was 
crowned  at  Rheims,  Joan  standing  by  his 
side  with  the  sacred  banner  she  had  borne 
in  her  hands.  At  the  siege  of  Compiegne, 
in  the  following  year,  she  was  captured  by 
the  Burgundians,  and  delivered  to  the  Eng¬ 
lish,  by  whom,  after  the  merest  pretence 
of  a  trial,  she  was  burned  as  a  heretic  and 
witch  in  the  old  market-place  of  Rouen, 
where  her  statue  now  stands.  It  has  been 
asserted,  however,  that  the  story  of  her 
martyrdom  is  fictitious,  and  that  six  years 
after  her  supposed  death  she  was  married 
to  a  French  knight,  Robert  des  Armoise. 
Whatever  her  end,  the  story  both  of  her 
life  and  of  her  death  has  furnished  a  theme 
for  innumerable  writers,  in  both  verse  and 
prose.  The  Joan  of  Arc  of  Southey,  and 
the  Maid  of  Orleans  of  Schiller,  in  addition 
to  the  remarkable  Essay  by  De  Quincey, 
are  only  samples  of  the  literary  composi¬ 
tions  of  note  which  her  history  has  sug¬ 
gested  or  inspired.” — CasselF s  Ency. 

Job.  “  This  book,  which  takes  its  name 
from  the  man,  the  history  and  interpreta¬ 
tion  of  whose  afflictions  form  the  theme  of 
it,  has  been  pronounced  ‘  one  of  the  grand¬ 
est  things  ever  written  with  pen:  grand  in 
its  sincerity,  in  its  simplicity,  in  its  epic 
melody,  and  repose  of  reconcilement.’  One 
perceives  in  it  ‘  the  seeing  eye,  the  mildly 
understanding  heart;  true  eyesight,  and 
vision  for  all  things;  sublime  sorrow,  sub¬ 
lime  reconciliation;  oldest  choral  melody 
as  of  the  heart  of  mankind;  so  soft  and 
great;  as  the  summer  midnight,  as  the 
world  with  its  seas  and  stars;’  the  whole 
giving  evidence  ‘of  a  literary  merit  ’  un¬ 
surpassed  by  anything  ‘  written  in  the  Bible 
or  out  of  it.’ 

“  (1)  Date  and  Authorship. — The  book  of 
Job  was  for  long  believed  to  be  one  of  the 
oldest  books  in  the  world,  and  to  have  had 
its  origin  among  a  patriarchal  people,  such 
as  the  Arabs;  but  it  is  now  pretty  con¬ 
fidently  referred  to  a  Jewish  author  of  the 
age  of  Solomon  or  later.  The  character  of 
the  book  bespeaks  a  knowledge  and  ex¬ 
perience  peculiarly  Jewish.  The  problem, 
both  in  the  statement  and  the  solution  of 
it,  points  both  to  a  recent  date  and  to  a 
Jewish  origin,  although  in  the  treatment 
there  is  an  overstepping  of  the  limits,  both 
of  properly  Jewish  life  and  Jewish  ideas. 
It  is  not  a  Jew’s  book  merely,  but  ‘  all 
men’s  book.' 

“  (2)  Subject  and  Problem. — The  book 
may  be  regarded  as  a  sublime  drama  of 
God's  providence  and  man’s  suffering.  It 
is  based  on  a  narrative  of  unparalleled  ca¬ 
lamities.  But  it  consists  for  the  most  part 


of  dialogue,  poetic  and  passionate,  vehe¬ 
ment  in  denunciation,  keen  in  satire,  sub¬ 
lime  in  its  higher  thoughts.  The  several 
characters  are  true  to  their  individual  dif¬ 
ferences  throughout.  Job  is  a  righteous 
man  sorely  tried,  not  infallibly  patient,  but 
unflinchingly  faithful  to  God,  who  never¬ 
theless  needs  to  be  rebuked  for  his  pride, 
while  he  is  honored  and  rewarded  by  God 
for  his  fidelity.  The  three  -friends  repre¬ 
sent  the  conventional  notion  of  their  age — 
that  suffering  is  a  sure  sign  of  sin.  But 
they  have  their  several  rdles.  Eliphaz  is 
the  prophet  of  visions  and  oracles;  Bildad 
is  the  sage,  the  pedant  of  ancient  lore,  the 
rabbi  of  his  day,  who  bases  his  statements 
on  the  dicta  of  venerable  authorities; 
Zophar  is  neither  a  prophet  nor  a  sage,  but 
a  common  respectable  person,  yet  bigoted 
and  dogmatic.  Elihu,  on  the  other  hand, 
is  a  young  man  in  whose  mind  a  new  light 
is  breaking.  He  is  far  superior  in  intelli¬ 
gence  and  in  heart  to  the  ‘  three  comfort¬ 
ers.’  But  he  has  the  pride  of  his  own  self- 
assurance,  in  spite  of  his  becoming  polite¬ 
ness  in  addressing  his  seniors. 

“  The  problem  of  the  book  is  complex. 
The  primary  object  seems  to  be  to  show 
that  God  can  win,  and  man  can  give,  dis¬ 
interested  devotion.  Thus  Satan  is  an¬ 
swered  when  he  asks  scornfully,  ‘  Doth  Job 
serve  God  for  naught?’  Job’s  fidelity  is  a 
lesson  to  Satan,  and  the  record  of  it  is  a 
lesson  to  all  cynical  disbelievers  in  truly 
disinterested  service  of  God,  and  an  en¬ 
couragement  of  all  attempts  to  live  the 
higher  life  in  spite  of  loss  and  suffering. 
Here  a  secondary  purpose  emerges.  The 
popular  notion  that  suffering  is  only  the 
punishment  of  sin  has  to  be  refuted,  and  it 
is  refuted  most  passionately.  But  no  full 
explanation  of  the  meaning  of  adversity  is 
offered.  On  the  contrary,  the  attempt  to 
solve  the  mystery  is  regarded  as  beyond 
the  scope  of  human  thought.  Nevertheless, 
through  all  God  can  be  trusted,  and  in  the 
vision  of  God  the  soul  of  the  sufferer  finds 
its  rest.  Moreover,  one  end  of  the  afflic¬ 
tion  of  the  servant  of  God  is  discovered  in 
the  purging  of  the  vision  of  God.  Thus  at 
the  last  Job  exclaims,  ‘  Now  mine  eye  seeth 
thee.’ 

“  There  are  three  views  given  of  the 
character  of  human  sufferings;  the  first, 
that  of  Job’s  three  friends,  that  they  are 
punitive  and  corrective;  the  second,  that 
of  the  Prologue,  that  they  are  probative; 
and  the  third,  that  revealed  by  the  Al¬ 
mighty,  that  they  are  part  of  a  system  of 
things,  the  secret  and  scope  of  which  no 
one  knows  anything  of  but  himself,  being 
understood  only  by  him  ‘  whose  way  is  in 
the  deep,  whose  path  is  in  the  great  waters, 
and  whose  footsteps  are  not  known.’  This 


Joe 


(  4§4  ) 


Joe 


last  is  the  view  which  Job  in  the  end  ac¬ 
cepts,  and  which  is  by  implication  the  au¬ 
thor’s  also.  Traces  of  this  sentiment  per¬ 
vade  the  book,  and  it  is  more  or  less 
familiar  to  all  the  speakers;  but  it  was 
matter  of  mere  hearsay  till  the  Lord  him¬ 
self  opened  Job’s  own  eyes,  as  Job  himself 
felt  assured  he  would  at  length  do  (chap, 
xix.  25,  et  seq.).  The  object  of  the  appear¬ 
ance  of  the  Almighty  to  Job  in  the  end, 
according  to  Ruskin,  ‘  is  to  convince  Job  of 
his  nothingness;  and  so,  when  the  Deity 
himself  has  willed  to  end  the  temptation, 
and  accomplish  in  Job  that  for  which  it  was 
sent,  he  does  not  vouchsafe  to  reason  with 
him,  still  less  does  he  overwhelm  him  with 
terror  or  confound  him  by  laying  open  be¬ 
fore  his  eyes  the  book  of  his  iniquities.  He 
opens  before  him  only  the  arch  of  the  day¬ 
spring  and  the  fountains  of  the  deep,  and 
amidst  the  covert  of  the  reeds,  and  on  the 
heaving  waves,  he  bids  him  watch  the 
kings  of  the  children  of  pride:  “  Behold 
now  Behemoth  which  I  made  with  thee.”’ 

“  (3)  Contents. — The  book  consists  of  five 
parts;  (a)  the  Prologue  (chaps,  i.,  ii.);  ( b ) 
a  series  of  Discussions  divided  into  three 
cycles,  all,  except  the  last,  of  four  speeches 
each  (chaps,  iii.-xiv.,  xv.-xxi.,  and  xxii.- 
xxxi.);  (c)  that  in  which  Elihu  expostulates 
(chaps,  xxxii.-xxxvii.);  ( d )  that  in  which 
the  Almighty  appears  (chaps,  xxxviii.- 
xlii.  1-6);  and  the  Epilogue  (chap.  xlii.  7- 
17).” — Bagster:  Bible  Helps.  See  Commen¬ 
taries  of  Davidson,  Delitzsch,  Lange;  W. 
H.  Green:  The  Argument  of  the  Book  of 
Job  Unfolded. 

Joel.  “  Of  the  author  of  this  book  Ave 
know7  nothing,  except  that  he  belonged  to 
the  kingdom  of  Judah,  and  lived  probably 
in  Jerusalem,  and  was,  perhaps,  a  priest. 
His  book  testifies,  too,  that  he  Avas  a  man 
of  tender  feeling,  warm  enthusiasm,  and 
glowing  imagination,  and  that  he  possessed 
a  gift,  unsurpassed  by  any  other  Old  Testa¬ 
ment  writer,  of  clear,  vivid,  and  eloquent 
expression.  We  are  as  much  in  the  dark 
about  the  time  and  circumstances  of  his 
life  as  Ave  are  about  his  personal  history, 
seeing  there  are  no  data  given  in  the  book 
by  Avhich  Ave  can  certainly  identify  its  com¬ 
position  with  any  single  event  as  occurring 
at  the  time  in  the  national  history.  We  can 
only  conclude,  as  there  is  no  mention  in  it 
of  Assyria  or  Babylon,  and  none  of  the  in¬ 
ternal  controversies  Avhich  exercise  the 
other  prophets  from  Amos  to  the  Captivity, 
such  as  that  between  the  worship  of  Je¬ 
hovah  and  idolatry,  that  it  was  not  Avritten 
Avithin  the  period  when  the  latter  proph¬ 
esied,  but  must  ha\re  been  Avritten  either 
before  or  after.  The  manner  and  purity 
of  the  style,  and  certain  A7ague  allusions  to 


early  events,  as  in  chap.  iii.  7-11,  would 
seem  to  point  to  the  former  conclusion, 
and  the  book  has  accordingly  been  general¬ 
ly  referred  to  the  time  of  Joash,  a  date 
somewhere  betAveen  877  and  857  b.  c.  On 
the  other  hand,  recent  criticism  seeks  to 
assign  it  to  a  period  later  than  the  Captiv¬ 
ity,  the  purity  of  the  style  alleged  in  evi¬ 
dence  of  the  former  view  being  accounted 
for  as  in  great  part  ‘  the  fruit  of  literary 
culture.’  The  grounds  adduced  in  favor 
of  the  post-exilian  theory  are — first,  the 
mention  in  chap.  iii.  1,  2,  of  the  Captivity, 
the  dispersion  of  the  people,  and  the  allot¬ 
ment  of  their  land  to  others;  secondly, 
that  there  is  no  mention  of  a  king  in  the 
land,  only  ‘of  sheikhs  and  priests;’  and 
thirdly,  that  the  character  of  the  Avorship 
prevalent  at  the  time  (chaps,  i.  9;  ii.  14), 
is,  in  the  regard  of  recent  criticism,  of 
post-exilian  origin.  But  be  this  as  it  may, 
the  book  is  Avritten  on  the  great  broad  lines 
of  all  Hebrew  prophecy,  and  reads  us  the 
same  great  moral  lesson  Avhich  all  the 
other  prophetic  books  do,  that  from  the 
judgments  of  God  there  is  no  outlet  for  the 
sinner  except  in  repentance,  and  that  in  re¬ 
pentance  lies  the  pledge  of  deliverance  from 
all  evil,  and  the  enjoyment  of  all  good. 

‘  ‘  Divisions.  — The  occasion  of  the  warning 
of  the  prophet  in  this  book  is  the  visitation 
on  the  land  of  a  plague  of  locust-SAvarms, 
and  the  occurrence  of  an  all  -  withering 
drought;  and  as  this  warning,  from  chap, 
ii.  18,  shoAved  signs  of  proving  effectual, 
the  prophet  gives  reins  to  his  imagination 
in  picturing  the  blessed  time  sure  to  folloAv. 
Thus  the  book  divides  itself  into  tAvo  sec¬ 
tions  of  chap.  ii.  18,  the  former  ( a )  being  a 
description  of  the  present  calamity  and  a 
call  to  repentance  and  prayer;  and  the  lat¬ 
ter  (b)  being  a  promise  from  the  Lord,  Avho 
has  heard  the  prayer  of  his  people,  that  he 
Avill,  on  the  ground  of  its  sincerity,  hence¬ 
forth  shed  only  blessing  on  them,  and  re¬ 
serve  all  his  fury  for,  and  ere  long  pour  it 
out  upon,  those  that  rise  up  against  them. 

“  Contents. — (tf)  Chap.  i.  delineates  the 
double  plague  of  the  locusts  and  the 
drought,  and  calls  upon  the  people  to 
humble  themselves  before  the  Lord.  Chap, 
ii.  1-17  represents  these  plagues  as  fore¬ 
casts  of  greater,  as  calls  to  repentance,  and 
as  effective  for  this  end.  ( b )  Chap.  ii.  18- 
27  promises  to  recompense  the  people 
abundantly  for  all  they  ha\'e  suffered. 
Vers.  28-32  promise  an  outpouring  of  the 
Spirit,  and  threaten  collateral  judgments. 
Chap.  iii.  continues  the  threat  of  judgment 
and  the  promise  of  blessing.” — Bagster: 
Bible  Helps.  See  Commentaries  on  the 
Minor  Prophets,  by  Henderson  (And.  ed., 
1S66;  Pusey  ed.,  NeAv  York,  1885);  Lange 

(1875). 


Joh 


( 485 ) 


Joh 


John  the  Apostle.  “  Originally,  like  his 
father,  Zebedee,  a  fisherman  on  the  Gali- 
laean  Lake,  he  became  first  a  disciple  of 
John  the  Baptist,  and  then  a  follower,  one 
of  the  earliest,  of  Jesus  Christ.  He  was 
perhaps  the  youngest  of  Christ’s  disciples, 
a  youth  of  an  ardent,  affectionate  nature; 
and  he  appears  from  the  first  to  have  won 
the  special  love  and  confidence  of 'his  Lord 
and  Master,  being  at  length  specially  des¬ 
ignated  as  that  disciple  ‘  whom  Jesus 
loved.’  He  was  one  of  the  three  who  were 
privileged  to  be  present  on  occasions  on 
which  more  than  usual  manifestations  were 
vouchsafed  of  the  Lord’s  glory;  and  it  was 
to  his  keeping,  when  he  was  dying,  that  the 
Lord  committed  his  sorrowing  mother,  as 
to  the  one  of  the  twelve  that  would  stand 
to  her  in  her  Son’s  stead,  and  was  the  likest 
of  them  all  to  himself.  After  his  Master’s 
death,  John  appears  to  have  lived  princi¬ 
pally  at  Jerusalem,  probably  till  the  death 
of  Mary,  and  afterwards  to  have  taken  up 
his  residence  at  Ephesus,  somewhere  about 
the  year  67  A.  d.  ,  and  after  the  death  of 
Paul.  Of  this  city  he  became  virtually 
bishop,  an  office  which  he  appears  to  have 
held,  under  various  forms  of  persecution, 
till  his  death,  which  is  vaguely  conjectured 
to  have  taken  place  somewhere  between 
89  and  120  A.  D.  He  lived  to  see  the  rise 
of  the  Gnostic  heresy,  which  sought  to  re¬ 
solve  the  facts  of  the  gospel  into  the  mere 
symbols  of  a  philosophical  system;  and  he 
died  protesting  against  it  as  a  denial  of  the 
incarnation  which  he  had  witnessed  in  the 
person  of  his  Master.  His  Gospel,  bear¬ 
ing  witness  against  this  heresy,  was  al¬ 
most,  if  not  quite,  his  last  legacy  to  the 
Church.  In  Christian  art  he  is  represent¬ 
ed  either  as  writing  his  Gospel,  or  as  bear¬ 
ing  a  chalice  from  which  a  poison  once 
given  to  him  to  drink  seems  to  issue  in  the 
form  of  a  serpent.  He  is  also  sometimes 
represented  in  a  cauldron  of  boiling  oil  into 
which,  it  was  said,  he  had  been  thrown, 
and  from  which  he  escaped  unhurt.” 

John,  the  Gospel  of.  “  The  negative 
critics  have  made  a  special  attack  upon  this 
Gospel,  and  have  attempted  to  show  that  it 
was  not  known  till  the  second  half  of  the 
second  century  after  Christ.  It  is  impos¬ 
sible  here  to  enter  into  the  elaborate  argu¬ 
ments  on  either  side  of  the  question.  But 
it  is  a  remarkable  fact  that,  step  by  step, 
the  opponents  of  the  genuineness  of  the 
Gospel  have  had  to  give  ground,  and  con¬ 
fess  an  earlier  date  for  the  appearance  of 
the  Gospel.  In  the  first  place,  the  discov¬ 
ery  of  the  writings  of  Hippolytus  shows 
that  the  Gospel  was  known  to  Gnostic 
heretics  by  at  least  as  early  a  date  as  125. 
Then  Bishop  Lightfoot’s  vindication  of  the 


Ignatian  Letters  puts  it  back  another  ten 
years,  for  these  letters  are  soaked  through 
and  through  with  the  leading  ideas  of  the 
fourth  Gospel.  Moreover,  it  has  been 
shown  that  Justin  Martyr  frequently  al¬ 
ludes  to  the  peculiar  ideas  of  this  Gospel. 
The  author  of  the  Epistle  to  Diognetus, 
who  lived  about  the  time  of  Justin,  evi¬ 
dently  moulds  his  writings  on  the  thoughts 
of  John.  There  can  be  no  reasonable  doubt 
that  the  same  man  wrote  the  Gospel  and 
the  first  Epistle  of  John;  and  Polycarp,  in 
his  Epistle  to  the  Philippians,  quotes  from 
the  latter.  The  Epistle  of  the  Churches  of 
Lyons  and  Vienne,  in  the  reign  of  Marcus 
Aurelius,  quotes  John  xvi.  2.  Even  Keim, 
who  rejects  the  Gospel,  dates  it  at  110-117. 
But  that  brings  it  back  almost  to  the  time 
of  the  apostle.  If  it  was  published  thus 
early,  it  is  unreasonable  to  suppose  that  so 
great  a  work  could  have  come  from  an  un¬ 
known  author,  and  have  been  accepted  as 
the  composition  of  the  Apostle  John. 
Lastly,  the  sublime  character  of  the  work 
is  its  best  witness.  Here  we  have  the  very 
crown  and  glory  of  the  Bible. 

“  Date . — This  Gospel  would  appear  to 
have  been  written  at  Ephesus,  at  the  in¬ 
stance,  Jerome  alleges,  of  the  bishops  of 
the  Asiatic  churches,  with  a  view  to  confirm 
the  faith  of  the  Church  in  the  divinity  of 
Christ,  of  which  he  was  the  special  witness. 
Its  date  must  be  long  after  the  writing  of 
the  other  Gospels,  and  toward  the  end  of 
the  first  century.  It  is  one  of  the  latest 
books  of  the  New  Testament — much  later 
than  the  ‘  Revelation.’  On  this  calculation 
it  must  have  been  composed  after  the  de¬ 
struction  of  Jerusalem.  According  to  the 
author  himself,  the  aim  he  had  in  writing 
his  Gospel  was,  that  its  readers  ‘  might  be¬ 
lieve  that  Jesus  was  the  Christ,  the  Son  of 
God,  and  that  believing  they  might  have 
life  through  his  name.’  His  object  is  to 
show  that  in  Jesus  Christ  the  eternal  Word 
became  flesh,  in  order  that  we  might  be¬ 
come  partakers  of  the  Divine  life  revealed 
in  him,  which,  however,  the  evangelist  is 
all  along  careful  to  show,  no  one  can  be¬ 
come  who  prefers  the  darkness  to  the  light. 
This  Gospel  has  been  from  of  old  defined 
as  the  spiritual  Gospel,  because  it  pre¬ 
eminently  unveils  the  hidden  spiritual 
principle,  or  the  Divine  nature  of  the  per¬ 
son  of  Christ.  But  its  great  design  is  to 
bear  witness  to  the  Son  of  God  as  having 
come  in  the  flesh;  as,  therefore,  not  an 
ideal,  but  a  real  being,  and  as,  in  the  reality 
of  that  being,  the  light  and  life  of  men. 
John’s  Gospel  presupposes  the  existence 
and  prior  circulation  of  the  other  three; 
and  whereas  the  scene  of  their  narratives 
is  mostly  laid  in  Galilee,  the  scene  of  his  is 
mostly  laid  in  Judaea,  recording  as  it  does 


Joh 


(  436  ) 


Joh 


no  fewer  than  seven  visits  of  the  Lord  to 
the  capital  in  the  course  of  his  ministry. 
The  style  of  the  Gospel  is  peculiar,  and 
words,  such  as  ‘  light,’  ‘  life,’  and  ‘  truth,’ 
occur  in  it  which  do  not  occur  in  the  others ; 
or,  if  they  do,  without  the  specialty  of 
meaning  and  the  frequency  peculiar  to  it. 
Some  affect  to  stumble  at  this,  but  there  is 
no  occasion;  for,  as  Neander  says,  this 
Gospel  ‘  could  have  emanated  from  none 
other  than  that  “  beloved  disciple  ”  upon 
whose  soul  the  image  of  the  Saviour  had 
left  its  deepest  impress.’  Conceiving  of 
Christ  as  the  Incarnate  Word,  it  gives 
greater  prominence  to  his  utterances  than 
his  acts,  and  the  latter  only  in  connection 
with  the  former.  And  this  Word  is  uni¬ 
formly  represented  as  misapprehended  by 
those  who  hear  it,  as  if  the  text  of  the  Gos¬ 
pel  were,  as  indeed  some  think  it  is,  ‘  the 
light  shineth  in  darkness,  and  the  darkness 
apprehended  it  not.’  ” —  Bagster  :  Bible 
Helps.  See  Trench:  Life  and  Character  of 
St.  John  the  Evangelist  (London,  1850); 
Commentaries  of  Hengstenberg  (1863, 
Eng.  trans.,  1865);  Meyer  (6th  ed.,  edited 
by  Weiss,  1880);  Godet  (1865,  translated 
and  edited  by  President  Timothy  Dwight, 
of  Yale  University,  New  York,  1S86),  2 
vols. ;  Westcott  (in  Speaker's  Commentary , 
1879);  Ezra  Abbot:  The  Authorship  of  the 
Fourth  Gospel:  The  External  Evidences 
(1S80). 

John  the  Baptist,  more  properly  “  the 
Baptizer  ”  (Matt.  iii.  1),  the  son  of  the 
priest  Zacharias  and  Elizabeth.  His  birth 
and  work  were  predicted  by  the  angel  Ga¬ 
briel.  (Luke  i.  5-15.)  For  thirty  years  he 
lived  in  solitude,  and  then  began  to  preach 
in  the  wilderness  of  Judaea,  calling  men  to 
repentance,  and  baptizing  ail  who  came 
making  confession  of  their  sins.  (Luke  iii. 
S.)  The  fame  of  John  spread  among  all 
classes,  and  multitudes  flocked  to  hear  his 
words  and  be  baptized.  Many  thought 
him  to  be  the  Messiah  (Luke  iii.  15;  John 
i.  20;  Acts  xiii.  25),  but  in  the  spirit  of  hu¬ 
mility  he  rejected  all  such  claims,  and 
pointed  to  Him  whose  shoe’s  latchet  he  was 
not  worthy  to  unloose.  (Matt.  iii.  11;  John 
i.  27.)  His  testimony  to  the  divine  nature 
and  offices  of  Christ  was  full  and  distinct. 
(John  iii.  28-32.)  The  brief  ministry  of 
John  was  brought  to  a  close  by  his  impris¬ 
onment  by  Herod  for  his  bold  arraignment 
of  him  for  his  unlawful  connection  with 
Herodias  (John  iii.  24,  etc.),  and  he  was 
subsequently  beheaded  in  obedience  to  an 
oath  made  to  Salome,  Herodias’  daughter. 
(Matt.  xiv.  3  sqq.)  Christ  pronounced 
John  the  Baptist  the  greatest  among  the 
prophets.  He  did  no  miracle,  but  he  pre¬ 
pared  the  way  of  the  Lord,  and  in  his  life 


and  work  exhibited  a  character  of  singular 
courage,  humility  and  self-denial. 

John,  the  First  Epistle  General  ok. 
“  Its  Authenticity. — The  external  evidence 
is  of  the  most  satisfactory  nature.  Eusebius 
places  it  in  his  list  of  ‘  acknowledged  ’ 
books,  and  we  have  ample  proof  that  it  was 
received  as  the  production  of  the  apostle 
John  in  the  writings  of  Polycarp,  Papias, 
Irenaeus,  Origen,  Clement  of  Alexandria, 
Tertullian,  Cyprian,  and  there  is  no  voice 
in  antiquity  raised  to  the  contrary.  On 
the  other  hand,  the  internal  evidence  for  its 
being  the  work  of  St.  John,  from  its  sim- 
larity  in  style,  language,  and  doctrine,  to 
the  Gospel,  is  overwhelming.  The  allu¬ 
sion,  again,  of  the  writer  to  himself  is  such 
as  would  suit  St.  John  the  apostle,  and 
very  few  but  St.  John.  (1  Ep.  i.  1.)  With 
regard  to  the  time  at  which  St.  John  wrote 
the  Epistle  there  is  considerable  diversity 
of  opinion.  It  was  most  likely  written  at 
the  close  of  the  first  century.  Like  the 
Gospel,  it  was  probably  written  from  Eph¬ 
esus.  Lardner  is  clearly  right  when  he 
says  that  it  was  primarily  meant  for  the 
churches  of  Asia  under  St.  John’s  inspec¬ 
tion,  to  whom  he  had  already  orally  deliv¬ 
ered  his  doctrine  (i.  3;  ii.  7).  The  main 
object  of  the  Epistle  does  not  appear  to  be 
that  of  opposing  the  errors  of  the  Docetae, 
or  of  the  Gnostics,  or  of  the  Nicolaitans, 
or  of  the  Cerinthians,  or  of  all  of  them  to¬ 
gether,  or  of  the  Sabians,  or  of  Judaizers, 
or  of  apostates  to  Judaism;  the  leading 
purpose  of  the  apostle  appears  to  be  rather 
constructive  than  polemical.  In  the  in¬ 
troduction  (i.  1-4)  the  apostle  states  the 
purpose  of  his  Epistle.  It  is  to  declare 
the  Word  of  Life  to  those  whom  he  is  ad¬ 
dressing,  in  order  that  he  and  they  might 
be  united  in  true  communion  with  each 
other,  and  with  God  the  Father,  and  his 
Son  Jesus  Christ.  The  first  part  of  the 
Epistle  may  be  considered  to  end  at  ii.  28. 
The  apostle  begins  afresh  with  the  doctrine 
of  sonship  or  communion  at  ii.  29,  and  re¬ 
turns  to  the  same  theme  at  iv.  7.  His  les¬ 
son  throughout  is,  that  the  means  of  union 
with  God  are,  on  the  part  of  Christ,  his 
atoning  blood  (i.  7;  ii.  2;  iii.  5;  iv.  10,  14; 
v.  6)  and  advocacy  (ii.  1) — on  the  part  of 
man,  holiness  (i.  6),  obedience  (ii.  3),  pu¬ 
rity  (iii.  3),  faith  (iii.  23;  iv.  3;  v.  5),  and, 
above  all,  love  (ii.  7;  iii.  14;  iv.  7;  v.  1). 
There  are  two  doubtful  passages  in  this 
Epistle,  ii.  23,  ‘  but  he  that  acknowledgeth 
the  Son  hath  the  Father  also,’  and  v.  7, 

‘  For  there  are  three  that  bear  record  in 
heaven,  the  Father,  the  Word,  and  the 
Holy  Ghost,  and  these  three  are  one.’  It 
would  appear  without  doubt  that  they  are 
not  genuine.  The  latter  passage  is  con- 


Joh 


(  4S7  ) 


Joh 


tained  in  four  only  of  the  150  MSS.  of  the 
Epistle,  the  Codex  Guelpherbytanus  of 
the  seventeenth  century,  the  Codex  Ra- 
vianus,  a  forgery  subsequent  to  the  year 
1514,  the  Codex  Britannicus  or  Monfortii 
of  the  fifteenth  or  sixteenth  century,  and 
the  Codex  Ottobonianus  of  the  fifteenth 
century.  It  is  not  found  in  any  ancient 
version  except  the  Latin;  and  the  best  edi¬ 
tions  of  even  the  Latin  version  omit  it.  It 
was  not  quoted  by  one  Greek  Father  or 
writer  previous  to  the  fourteenth  century.” 
— Smith:  Diet,  of  the  Bible. 

John,  The  Second  and  Third  Epistles 
of.  “  Their  Authenticity.  —  These  two 
Epistles  are  placed  by  Eusebius  in  the  class 
of  ‘  disputed  ’  books,  and  he  appears  him¬ 
self  to  be  doubtful  whether  they  were  writ¬ 
ten  by  the  evangelist,  or  by  some  other 
John.  The  evidence  of  antiquity  in  their 
favor  is  not  very  strong,  but  yet  it  is  con¬ 
siderable.  Clement  of  Alexandria  speaks 
of  the  First  Epistle  as  ‘  the  larger.’ 
[Strom,  lib.  ii.).  Origen  appears  to  have 
had  the  same  doubts  as  Eusebius.  Diony¬ 
sius  and  Alexander  of  Alexandria  attribute 
them  to  St.  John.  So  does  Irenaeus.  In 
the  fifth  century  they  are  almost  universal¬ 
ly  received.  If  the  external  testimony  is 
not  as  decisive  as  we  might  wish,  the  in¬ 
ternal  evidence  is  peculiarly  strong.  Mill 
has  pointed  out  that  of  the  thirteen  verses 
which  compose  the  Second  Epistle,  eight 
are  to  be  found  in  the  First  Epistle.  The 
title  and  contents  of  the  Epistle  are  strong 
arguments  against  a  fabricator,  whereas 
they  would  account  for  its  non-universal 
reception  in  early  times.  The  Second 
Epistle  is  addressed  eklekto  kuria.  An  in¬ 
dividual  woman  who  had  children,  and  a 
sister  and  nieces,  is  clearly  indicated. 
Whether  her  name  is  given,  and  if  so,  what 
it  is,  has  been  doubted.  According  to  one 
interpretation  she  is  ‘  the  Lady  Electa,’  to 
another,  ‘  the  elect  Kyria,’  to  a  third,  ‘  the 
elect  Lady.’  The  English  version  is  prob¬ 
ably  right,  though  here  too  we  should  have 
expected  the  article.  The  Third  Epistle  is 
addressed  to  Gaius  or  Caius.  We  have  no 
reason  for  identifying  him  with  Caius  of 
Macedonia  (Acts  xix.  29),  or  with  Caius  of 
Derbe  (Acts  xx.  4),  or  with  Caius  of 
Corinth  (Rom.  xvi.  23;  1  Cor.  i.  14),  or 
with  Caius,  bishop  of  Ephesus,  or  with 
Caius,  bishop  of  Thessalonic-a,  or  with 
Caius,  bishop  of  Pergamos.  He  was 
probably  a  convert  of  St.  John  (Ep.  iii.  4), 
and  a  layman  of  wealth  and  distinction 
(Ep.  iii.  5)  in  some  city  near  Ephesus. 
The  object  of  St.  John  in  writing  the  Second 
Epistle  was  to  warn  the  lady,  to  whom  he 
wrote,  against  abetting  the  teaching  known 
as  that  of  Basilides  and  his  followers,  by 


perhaps  an  undue  kindness  displayed  by 
her  toward  the  preachers  of  the  false  doc¬ 
trine.  The  Third  Epistle  was  written  for 
the  purpose  of  commending  to  the  kindness 
and  hospitality  of  Caius  some  Christians 
who  were  strangers  in  the  place  where  he 
lived.  It  is  probable  that  these  Christians 
carried  this  letter  with  them  to  Caius  as 
their  introduction.  We  may  conjecture 
that  the  two  Epistles  were  written  shortly 
after  the  First  Epistle  from  Ephesus. 
They  both  apply  to  individual  cases  of  con¬ 
duct  the  principles  which  had  been  laid 
down  in  their  fulness  in  the  First  Epistle. 
The  title  ‘  Catholic  ’  does  not  properly  be¬ 
long  to  the  Second  and  Third  Epistles.” — 
Smith:  Did.  of  the  Bible.  See  Commen¬ 
taries  of  Calvin,  Neander  (1851,  Eng. 
trans.  by  Mrs.  Conant,  1852);  Ebrard,  in 
Olshausen’s  Commentary  (1859,  trans.  by 
W.  B.  Pope,  Edinburgh,  i860);  Haupt 
(1869,  trans.  by  Pope,  Edinburgh,  1879); 
B.  F.  Westcott  (1883).  See  Revelation. 

John  is  the  name  of  twenty-three  popes. 
See  Popes. 

John  of  Chur,  a  leader  among  the  Pietists 
in  the  latter  part  of  the  fourteenth  century, 
who  were  called  “  Friends  of  God.”  The 
son  of  a  wealthy  merchant,  he  suddenly 
forsook  a  life  of  pleasure-seeking  for  that 
of  a  mystic.  He  distributed  his  fortune 
in  benevolence.  He  regarded  suffering  as 
a  gift  of  grace,  and  deemed  that  evil  sug-» 
gestions  and  doubts  were  to  be  endured 
patiently,  rather  than  striven  against.  He 
taught  that  the  perfect  man  “has  become 
one  with  God  when  he  wants  nothing  else 
except  what  God  wills.”  It  is  supposed, 
from  his  writings,  that  Chur,  in  the  canton 
of  the  Grisons,  Switzerland,  was  his  native 
place.  Seeking  a  life  of  retirement,  the 
tradition  is  that,  with  two  companions  he 
was  miraculously  led  by  a  black  dog  to  a 
mountain  where  he  built  a  chapel,  located 
by  some  near  the  Castle  Riitberg,  in  the 
canton  of  St.  Gall.  He  died  about  the 
year  1380. 

John  of  Damascus,  an  eminent  theo¬ 
logian  of  the  early  Greek  Church;  b.  at 
Damascus  about  the  close  of  the  seventh, 
or  the  beginning  of  the  eighth,  century. 
On  account  of  his  eloquence  he  received 
the  epithet  Chrysorrhoas  ( gold-pouring ). 
His  father,  Sergius,  was  a  Christian,  and 
the  son  was  educated  under  the  care  of  an 
Italian  monk,  whom  Sergius  had  redeemed 
from  a  party  of  captive  slaves.  About  730 
he  wrote  several  treatises  in  favor  of 
image-worship,  which  the  Emperor  Leo 
was  seeking  to  suppress.  Leo  in  revenge, 
through  a  forged  Wter  purporting  to  come 


Joh 


(488) 


Jok 


from  John,  aroused  the  anger  of  the  caliph, 
who  ordered  the  traitor’s  right  hand  to  be 
cut  off.  According  to  tradition,  his  severed 
hand  was  miraculously  restored  by  the 
intercession  of  the  Virgin  Mary.  Although 
the  caliph,  convinced  by  the  miracle, 
offered  to  restore  John  to  his  former  office 
he  decided  to  forsake  the  world.  Dividing 
his  fortune  among  his  friends  and  the  poor, 
he  retired  to  the  monastery  of  St.  Sabus  at 
Jerusalem,  where  he  spent  the  rest  of  his 
life.  He  is  a  saint,  both  in  the  Roman  and 
Greek  Churches.  According  to  Dorner,  he 
“  remains  in  later  times  the  highest  au¬ 
thority  in  the  theological  literature  of  the 
Greeks.”  He  has  been  styled  the  “  Father 
of  Scholasticism,”  and  the  “  Lombard  of 
the  Greeks.”  See  J.  H.  Lupton:  St.  John 
of  Damascus  (London,  1SS2). 

John,  Monophysite  bishop  of  Ephesus, 
flourished  in  the  sixth  century.  His  fame 
rests  upon  a  church  history,  in  three  parts, 
from  the  first  Roman  emperors  to  585.  A 
portion  of  this  work  was  discovered  in 
1853  among  some  Syriac  manuscripts,  and 
^  edited  by  Cureton,  under  the  title,  Third 
Part  of  the  Ecclesiastical  History  of  John , 
Bishop  of  Ephesus  (Oxford,  1853;  Eng. 
trans.  by  R.  Payne  Smith,  Oxford,  i860). 

John  of  Salisbury,  eminent  for  his  attain¬ 
ments  in  philosophy  and  theology;  b. 
about  1120  in  Salisbury;  d.  in  France,  Oct. 
25,  11S0.  He  studied  under  Abelard,  and 
after  his  return  to  England  became  chap¬ 
lain  and  secretary  to  Theobald,  archbishop 
of  Canterbury.  He  was  an  intimate  friend 
of  Thomas  a  Becket,  and  stood  in  close  re¬ 
lations  to  the  popes  and  prelates  of  his  time. 
He  was  chosen  bishop  of  Chartres  in  1176. 
His  complete  works  were  edited,  in  5  vols., 
by  Giles  (Oxford,  1S4S). 

John,  St.,  of  Nepomuk,  the  patron  saint 
of  Bohemia;  b.  at  Pomuk,  about  1330. 
He  was  a  canon  of  the  Cathedral  of  Prague 
and  Vicar-General  of  the  diocese.  He  ap¬ 
pears  to  have  incurred  the  hatred  of  King 
Wenceslaus  IV.,  who  caused  him  to  be 
tortured  and  thrown  into  the  river  Moldau, 
in  March,  1383.  Much  of  his  history  is 
involved  in  obscurity  and  legendary  inci¬ 
dents.  He  was  canonized  by  Benedict 
XII. 

John,  Sr.,  Eve  of.  This  festival  was  of 
heathen  origin,  and  refers  to  the  summer 
solstice,  falling  on  June  24.  A  Christian 
interpretation  was  put  upon  its  symbols; 
the  fire  representing  baptism.  Among 
Germanic  nations  the  festival  was  kept  by 
lighting  bonfires  and  dancing  about  them. 
Within  the  last  century  the  observance  of 


these  festivities  has  almost  entirely  passed 
away. 

John,  St.,  Knights  of.  See  Military 
Orders. 

Johnson,  Herrick,  D.  D.  (Western  Re 
serve  College,  Hudson,  O. ,  1867),  LL.  D. 
(Wooster  University,  Wooster,  O.,  1880), 

I  Presbyterian;  b.  near  Fonda,  Montgomery 
Co.,  N.  Y. ,  Sept.  21,  1832;  was  graduated 
at  Hamilton  College,  Clinton,  N.  Y.,  1857, 
and  at  Auburn  (N.  Y.)  Theological  Sem¬ 
inary,  i860.  He  was  pastor  at  Troy, 
N.  Y.,  1860-62;  Pittsburg,  Penn.,  1862-68; 
Philadelphia,  Penn.,  1868-74;  professor  of 
homiletics  and  pastoral  theology  at  Au¬ 
burn,  1874-80;  professor  of  sacred  rhetoric 
since  1880  in  the  Theological  Seminary  of 
the  Northwest,  Chicago,  Ill.,  and  for  a 
time  pastor  of  the  Fourth  Church  in  that 
city.  He  is  the  author  of:  Christianity' s 
Challenge  (1882);  Plain  Talks  about  the  The¬ 
atre  ( 1883) ;  Revivals  :  Their  Place  and  Pow¬ 
er  (1883). 

Johnson,  Samuel,  D.  D.,  first  president 
of  King’s  (now  Columbia)  College,  New 
York  City;  b.  in  Guilford,  Conn.,  Oct.  14, 
1696;  d.  in  Stratford,  Conn.,  June  6,  1772. 
After  graduating  from  Yale  College  in 
1714,  he  entered  the  Congregational  minis¬ 
try  (1720),  but  in  1723  went  to  England 
and  received  episcopal  ordination.  He  re¬ 
turned  to  this  country  as  a  missionary  of 
the  Church  of  England,  and  settled  in 
Stratford,  Conn.  In  1753  he  was  chosen 
president  of  King’s  College.  After  resign¬ 
ing  this  position,  in  1763,  he  spent  the  re¬ 
mainder  of  his  life  in  Stratford.  He  was 
an  earnest  advocate  of  episcopacy,  and 
wrote  a  number  of  works  in  defence  of  his 
opinions.  See  his  Life ,  by  Beardsley 
(New  York,  1S74). 

Johnson,  Samuel,  b.  in  Salem,  Mass., 
Oct.  10,1822;  d.  at  North  Andover,  Mass., 
Feb.  19, 1882.  He  was  graduated  at  Harvard 
College,  1S42, and  the  Divinity  School,  1843. 
In  1853  he  became  pastor  of  an  Independent 
Church  in  Lynn,  Mass.,  when  he  labored 
for  twenty  years.  He  was  never  connected 
with  any  religious  denomination.  As  an 
active  sympathizer  with  the  anti-slavery 
agitation,  he  was  widely  known,  but  his 
fame  rests  upon  a  work  upon  which  he  was 
engaged  for  many  years:  Oriental  Religions 
and  their  Relation  to  Universal  Religion,  of 
which  India,  China,  and  Persia  have  ap¬ 
peared. 

Joktan,  “  son  of  Eber  (Gen.  x.  25,  30;  1 
Chron.  i.  19),  head  of  the  Joktanite  Arabs. 
Ilis  settlements  were  in  S.  Arabia,  ‘  from 


Jon 


(489) 


Jop 


Mesha  unto  Sephar,  a  mount  of  the  East  ’ 
(. Zafari ,  a  seaport  E.  of  Yemen;  an  em¬ 
porium  of  trade  with  Africa  and  India). 
The  Arab  Kahtan,  whose  sons  peopled  Ye¬ 
men  or  Arabia  Felix.  Cushites  from  Ham 
(Gen.  x.  7)  and  Ludites  from  Shem  (ver. 
22)  were  already  there,  and  intermingled 
with  them.  The  seafaring  element  was  de¬ 
rived  from  the  Cushites,  the  Shemites  not 
being  seafaring;  also  the  Cyclopean  ma¬ 
sonry  and  the  rock-cut  Himyeritic  inscrip¬ 
tions  indicate  the  presence  of  Cushites. 
Arab  tradition  makes  J.  or  Kahtan  progen¬ 
itor  of  the  purest  tribes  of  central  and 
southern  Arabia.  The  Scripture  list  of  his 
descendants  confirms  this;  almost  all  the 
names  are  certainly  connected  with  this 
locality:  ‘  Almodad  (El-Mudad),  Sheleph 
(Sulaf  or  Silfan),  Hazarmaveth  (Hadra- 
maut),  etc.” — Fausset. 

Jo'nah  {dove),  “  one  of  the  Minor  Proph¬ 
ets,  was  the  son  of  Amittai,  who,  accord¬ 
ing  to  2  Kings  xiv.  25,  uttered  a  prophecy 
concerning  Jeroboam  II.  The  book  of 
Jonah  is  distinguished  from  the  other  pro¬ 
phetical  books  by  the  fact  that  it  is  not  the 
prophecy,  but  the  personal  experiences  of 
the  man,  in  which  the  interest  centres. 
In  order  to  escape  the  divine  summons  to 
preach  repentance  to  Nineveh,  he  embark¬ 
ed  from  Joppa  for  Tarshish,  but  during  a 
storm  was,  at  his  own  advice  and  by  the 
issue  of  a  lot,  thrown  overboard,  and  swal¬ 
lowed  by  a  great  fish  (i.  17).  Three  days 
afterward  he  was  thrown  up  upon  the  land, 
and  after  a  second  summons  began  preach¬ 
ing  to  the  Ninevites.  When  both  king  and 
people  began  to  repent,  Jonah  became  in¬ 
dignant  at  the  divine  compassion,  but  was 
convinced  by  God  of  his  foolishness  by  a 
gourd  (iv).  Such  are  the  contents  of  the 
book;  and  many  have  regarded  it  as  an 
allegory  or  a  poetic  myth.  The  prevailing- 
view  at  present  among  the  representatives 
of  modern  criticism  is,  that  it  was  a  nation¬ 
al  prophetic  tradition  designed  to  serve  a 
didactic  aim,  and  with  some  elements  of 
historic  truth.  The  historical,  view  ap¬ 
peals  to  the  geographical  and  historical 
notices  in  the  prophecy;  as,  for  example, 
the  evident  accuracy  of  the  description  of 
Nineveh,  the  fitness  of  Jonah’s  mission  at 
that  particular  period,  when  Israel  was  for 
the  first  time  coming  into  contact  with  As¬ 
syria,  etc.  Those  who  deny  the  credibility 
make  much  of  the  miraculous  story  of  the 
great  fish,  but  this  very  incident  is  attested 
by  our  Lord’s  use  of  it.  (Matt.  xii.  39;  xvi. 
4;  Luke  xi.  29.)  He  here,  in  the  most 
complete  manner,  compares  himself  with 
Jonah,  whose  deglutition  by  the  whale  typ¬ 
ified  his  burial.  But  Christ  was  greater 
than  Jonah.  The  latter  escaped  only  from 


the  peril  of  death:  the  former  overcame 
death.  If  this  be  a  right  interpretation  of 
our  Lord’s  words,  then  the  miraculous 
preservation  of  Jonah  gets  its  significance 
from  the  fact  that  it  happened  to  him  as  a 
prophet.  The  central  purport  of  the  book 
is  not  that  repentance  was  preached  to  the 
heathen,  but  that  the  prophet  of  God  must 
do  whatever  the  Lord  commands;  that  not 
even  death  can  frustrate  his  calling,  and 
that  the  prophet  must  leave  the  fulfilment 
to  God.  Following  the  line  of  these  three 
thoughts,  the  book  details  historical  facts 
which  were  a  prophecy  of  him  in  whom  the 
prophetic  calling  culminated.  As  for  the 
prophet’s  prayer  (ii.  3-10),  we  may  say 
with  Luther,  that  Jonah  in  the  fish’s  belly 
did  not  utter  these  words  with  the  mouth, 
in  their  present  form,  but  he  indicates  how 
he  felt,  and  what  the  thoughts  of  his  heart 
were  while  he  was  engaged  in  such  a  fear¬ 
ful  contest  with  death.  It  cannot  be  proved 
that  the  prophet  left  his  work  in  its  present 
form.  The  abruptness  of  the  record  leads 
us  to  suppose  that  it  was  originally  one  of 
a  series  of  similar  accounts.  An  old  Hag- 
gadah  calls  Jonah  a  prophet  of  Elisha’s 
school,  and  it  is  possible  that  it  originated 
in  one  of  these  schools.  Opinion  has  been 
divided  about  the  date,  some  putting  it  as 
late  as  the  period  of  the  Maccabees.  This 
view  is  entirely  ruled  out  by  the  fact  of  its 
reception  into  the  prophetical  canon,  and 
there  can  be  no  doubt  that  it  was  written 
before  the  Babylonian  captivity.  Jonah’s 
tomb  is  still  shown  near  the  site  of  ancient 
Nineveh.” — Volck  in  Schaff-Herzog:  Ency. , 
vol.  ii.,  p.  1197.  See  Kleinert  (in  Lange’s 
Corn.,  N.  Y. ,  1875);  Huxtable  (in  Speaker's 
Commentary,  N.  Y. ,  1876);  Perowne  (Lon¬ 
don,  1882);  Stuart  Mitchell  on  Jonah 
(Phila.,  1875). 

Jop'pa,  “  the  name  given  in  the  Greek  of 
the  New  Testament  to  a  town  called  in 
Hebrew,  Yafo ;  modern,  Yafa  or  Jaffa, 
i.  e.,  beauty.  It  is  situated  on  the  sea-coast 
of  Syria,  about  thirty-three  miles  n.  w.  of 
Jerusalem,  and,  according  to  Stanley,  still 
deserves  its  name.  Joppa  is  a  place  of 
great  antiquity.  Here,  according  to  the 
classical  myth,  it  was  that  Andromeda  was 
chained  to  the  rock,  and  exposed  to  the 
sea-monster;  a  story  that  has  been  sup¬ 
posed  to  shadow  out,  in  an  obscure  way, 
the  early  intercourse  between  Greece  and 
Syria.  In  sacred  history  it  appears  as  the 
port  of  Jerusalem  in  the  time  of  David  and 
Solomon,  and  the  place  to  which  the  cedars 
of  Lebanon  were  floated  from  Tyre  for  the 
building  of  the  temple.  It  was  at  Joppa 
that  the  apostle  Peter  saw  the  vision  which 
corrected  his  Jewish  prejudices  concerning 
the  Gentiles  and  the  spirit  of  Christianity. 


(  49°  ) 


Jor 


Jor 


In  ihe  reign  of  Constantine  the  Great,  Joppa 
was  made  a  bishop’s  see,  but  it  attained  its 
highest  prosperity  in  the  times  of  the  cru¬ 
sades,  when  it  became  the  principal  land¬ 
ing-place  of  the  warriors  of  Christendom. 
In  1799  it  was  stormed  by  the  French  un¬ 
der  Bonaparte,  and  here  was  perpetrated 
his  shameful  massacre  of  Turkish  prison¬ 
ers.  In  1832  Mohammed  Ali  made  himself 
master  of  it;  but  the  Turks,  with  the  assist¬ 
ance  of  the  British  and  Austrians,  took  it 
from  him  again  in  1S40.  Pop.  about  12,000 
(of  Avhom  3,700  are  Christians  and  800 
Jews).  ” — Chambers :  Cyclopaedia. 


180  yards  broad,  and  3  ft.  deep;  butaiittie 
way  further  up  it  is  only  80  yards  broad, 
and  7  ft.  deep.  From  the  lake  of  Tiberias 
to  the  Dead  Sea  the  Jordan  is  crossed  by 
no  bridge,  although  in  two  or  three  places 
there  are  ruins  of  bridges.  Above  the  lake 
of  Tiberias  is  a  bridge  called  Jacob’s 
Bridge,  over  which  the  road  from  Damas¬ 
cus  to  the  sea-coast  passes.  In  a  number 
of  places  the  Jordan  is  fordable;  in  some, 
even  when  the  river  is  in  flood.  The  course 
of  the  Jordan  was  explored  by  Lieut. 
Molyneux,  an  English  officer,  in  Aug., 
1847,  during  the  dry  season;  and  by  Lieut. 


THE  JORDAN  ON  THE  ROAD  FROM  NABULUS  (SHECHEM)  TO  ES-SAL  T  (RAMOTH-GILEAD  . 


Jordan,  “  the  principal  river  of  Palestine, 
the  bed  of  which  forms  a  great  valley, 
stretching  from  n.  to  s.  in  the  eastern  part 
of  the  country.  The  Jordan,  deriving  its 
head  -  waters  partly  from  the  eastern 
branches  of  the  Lebanon  mountains,  and 
partly  from  Mt.  Hermon,  flows  s.,  and 
after  a  course  of  150  miles,  having  passed 
through  the  small  lake  of  El  Huleh  (the 
waters  of  Merom)  and  the  lake  of  Tiberias 
(sea  of  Galilee),  it  falls  into  the  northern 
extremity  of  the  Dead  Sea  ( q .  v. ).  The  bed 
of  the  river  varies  much  in  breadth,  and  its 
banks  are  in  some  places  flat;  in  others, 
steep.  Where  it  enters  the  Dead  Sea  it  is 


Lynch,  with  an  expedition  sent  out  by  the 
United  States  government  in  April.  1S48, 
when  the  river  was  in  flood,  and  by  Mc¬ 
Gregor  in  1S69.” — Chambers:  Cyclopedia. 
See  Palestine. 

Joris,  Johann  David,  a  famous  leader 
among  the  Anabaptist  fanatics  of  the  time 
of  the  Reformation.  He  professed  to  re¬ 
ceive  divine  revelations,  and  became  the 
head  of  a  party  who  recognized  him  as 
their  Messiah.  Many  were  burned  at  the 
stake,  and  others  suffered  imprisonment 
rather  than  renounce  their  leader.  Having 
accumulated  a  fortune  he  removed  to  Basel 


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in  1544,  and  there  played  the  role  of  a  rich 
and  pious  citizen.  The  deception  was  not 
known  until  after  his  death.  His  sect  did 
not  die  out  until  nearly  a  century  after  his 
death,  which  occurred  in  1556. 

Jo'seph  {he  will  add),  the  oldest  son  of 
Jacob  by  Rachel,  and  his  favorite  child. 
The  envy  of  his  brothers  stirred  up  their 
hatred,  and  they  sold  him  to  a  caravan  of 


his  express  request,  his  bones  were  taken 
with  the  Israelites  when  they  left  Egypt, 
and  after  they  had  conquered  Canaan  were 
deposited  at  Shechem  (Josh.  xxiv.  32), 
within  a  stone’s  throw  of  Jacob’s  Well. 
Ebers,  the  eminent  Egyptologist,  says, 
“  the  whole  history  of  Joseph  must  be  de¬ 
clared,  even  in  its  details,  to  correspond 
throughout  with  the  real  state  of  affairs  in 
ancient  Egypt.”  Most  authorities  place 


Joseph’s  tomb. 


Midianites,  by  whom  he  was  carried  into 
Egypt.  He  was  then  but  seventeen  years 
of  age.  The  story  of  his  resistance  of 
temptation,  his  imprisonment,  deliverance, 
and  exaltation  to  a  position  next  to  the 
throne,  his  meeting  with  his  brothers, 
and  the  filial  care  of  his  aged  father,  is 
familiar  to  every  Bible  reader.  Joseph 
died  at  the  age  of  one  hundred  and  ten.  At 


the  Pharaoh  of  Joseph’s  time  in  the  Hyk- 
sos  dynasty.  Tradition  has  singled  out 
Apophis,  one  of  the  last  of  the  Shepherd- 
kings. 

Josephus,  Flavius,  the  Jewish  historian; 
b.  at  Jerusalem,  37  A.  D.  Of  a  noble  and 
wealthy  family,  he  early  joined  the  Phari¬ 
sees.  In  64  he  visited  Rome  to  secure  the 


Jos 


(  493  ) 


Jos 


release  of  some  priests,  whom  Felix  the 
Governor  had  sent  there  as  prisoners. 
Through  the  aid  of  a  Jewish  actor,  named 
Alityrus,  who  was  a  favorite  of  Nero,  he 
gained  access  to  the  Empress  Poppaea,  and 
was  successful  in  his  mission.  He  took 
part  in  the  revolt  against  the  Romans  (66), 
and  was  chosen  governor  of  Galilee.  When 
Jotapata  was  captured  by  the  army  of  Ves¬ 
pasian,  he  was  taken  prisoner,  but  found 
favor  at  the  hands  of  Vespasian  because  of 
his  prophecy  that  his  captor  would  gain 
the  empire.  Josephus  was  with  Titus  at 
the  siege  of  Jerusalem,  and  afterward  lived 
in  Rome,  and  under  the  protection  of  the 
emperors  studied  and  wrote.  He  died 
during  the  reign  of  Trajan.  His  works  are: 
History  of  the  Jewish  War;  Jewish  Antiq¬ 
uities  ;  his  Autobiography;  and  a  work 
against  Apion  of  Alexandria,  entitled  An¬ 
tiquity  of  the  Jeivs. 

Joshua  (Gr.  Jesous,  “whence  ‘Jesus,’ 
in  the  A.  V.  of  Heb.  iv.  8;  another  form 
of  the  name  is  Hoshea,  Num.  xiii.  8,  16), 
first  the  lieutenant,  and  afterward  the  suc¬ 
cessor  of  Moses,  was  the  son  of  Nun,  of 
the  tribe  of  Ephraim,  and  left  Egypt  along 
with  the  rest  of  the  children  of  Israel  at 
the  time  of  the  exodus.  In  the  Pentateuch 
he  is  first  mentioned  as  being  the  victorious 
commander  of  the  Israelites  in  their  battles 
against  the  Amalekites  at  Rephidim  (Ex. 
xvii.  9-13),  and  he  is  represented  as  having 
earned  further  distinction  along  with  Caleb 
by  his  calm  and  courageous  demeanor  in 
the  midst  of  the  popular  tumult  caused  by 
the  report  of  the  spies.  (Num.  xiv.  6-9, 
38.)  On  the  death  of  Moses  he  assumed 
the  leadership,  to  which  he  had  previously 
been  designated  by  his  chief,  and  the  book 
known  by  his  name  is  entirely  occupied, 
with  details  of  the  manner  in  which  he  car¬ 
ried  out  the  task  thus  laid  to  his  hand — 
that  of  taking  possession  of  the  land  of 
Canaan.  On  the  completion  of  the  recon¬ 
naissance  by  the  two  spies,  he  left  Shittim 
with  his  army,  preceded  by  the  priest- 
borne  ark  of  the  covenant.  The  Jordan 
having  been  miraculously  crossed,  his  first 
encampment  was  at  Gilgal.  Jericho  and 
Ai  soon  fell  into  his  hands,  and  the  people 
of  Gibeon  became  vassals.  In  the  neigh¬ 
borhood  of  Gibeon  the  five  kings  of  the 
Amorites  were  crushed  in  a  decisive  battle, 
in  which  the  very  elements  conspired  to 
favor  the  invader,  and  (to  use  the  poetical 
language  of  the  book  of  Joshua)  *  the  sun 
stood  still,  and  the  moon  stayed  until  the 
people  had  avenged  themselves  upon  their 
enemies.’  The  victorious  arms  of  Israel 
were  now  directed  northward  against  a 
league  of  Canaanite  potentates,  under  the 
hegemony  of  Jabin,  king  of  Hazor;  antic¬ 


ipating  the  attack  of  the  enemy,  Joshua 
surprised  and  crushed  them  at  the  waters 
of  Merom,  Hazor  itself  being  taken  and 
burnt.  Thus  far  the  first  twelve  chapters  of 
the  book  of  Joshua:  the  remaining  twelve 
describe  the  partition  of  the  (conquered  and 
unconquered)  country  among  the  twelve 
tribes,  and  conclude  with  a  resume  of 
his  parting  exhortations.  At  the  age  of 
one  hundred  and  ten  he  died,  and  was 
buried  in  his  inheritance  in  Timnath-serah, 
in  the  territory  of  Ephraim.” — Ency.  Bri- 
tannica.  See  the  Histories  of  Israel,  by 
Ewald,  Stanley,  etc. 

Joshua,  Book  of,  “the  first  of  the  twelve 
so-called  ‘  Historical  Books,’  embracing  a 
period  of  twenty-five  years,  is  supposed  to 
have  been  written  by  Joshua,  whose  name 
it  bears.  It  consists  of  three  parts:  (1) 
The  conquest  of  Canaan  during  the  seven 
years’  war,  and  destruction  of  its  thirty- 
one  kings.  (2)  Distribution  of  the  country 
by  lot,  and  settlement  of  the  tabernacle  at 
Shiloh.  (3)  Final  admonitions,  and  death 
of  Joshua,  which  must  have  been  added  by 
one  of  his  survivors.  The  characteristic 
feature  of  the  book  is  that  ‘  the  Lord  drove 
out  the  nations  before  them,’  and  that  ‘He 
fought  for  Israel.’  The  conquest  opens 
with  the  miraculous  fall  of  Jericho,  after 
the  renewal  of  circumcision,  and  the  ap¬ 
parition  of  the  *  Captain  of  the  Lord’s  host.’ 
Then  follows  a  march  into  the  interior,  to 
the  primary  altar  of  Abraham  at  Shechem, 
where  the  covenant  is  renewed  by  oath 
and  sacrifices;  and  next  the  miraculous 
victory  at  Beth-horon,  and  general  panic 
of  the  heathen  inhabitants.  It  closes  with 
a  general  assembly  at  Shiloh  (where  the 
tabernacle  was  permanently  fixed),  the  al¬ 
lotment  of  territory  to  each  tribe,  and  a 
final  renewal  of  the  covenant  at  Shechem, 
followed  by  Joshua’s  death.  The  typical 
aspect  of  the  history  is  pointed  out  in  the 
Epistle  to  the  Hebrews,  chap.  iv. 

“  Date  and  Authorship. — That  the  events 
are  recorded  by  a  contemporary  is  evi¬ 
denced  by  such  passages  as  iii.  15,  16;  v.  1; 
the  prophetic  character  of  the  writer  by  vi. 
26;  though  some  later  additions  to  the 
original  are  traceable  in  x.  13;  xix.  47; 
xxiv.  29-33.  The  expression  used  of  cer¬ 
tain  memorials  as  remaining  ‘  up  to  this 
day,’  which  occurs  fourteen  times,  does 
not  in  any  case  seem  to  be  inconsistent 
with  the  period  embraced  by  the  narrative ; 
while  it  is  difficult  to  imagine  that  any  but 
a  contemporary  could  have  written  such 
passages  as  vi.  25;  and  his  two  addresses 
(xxiii.  and  xxiv.),  as  well  as  the  various 
records  of  his  intercourse  with  God,  would 
appear  to  have  been  committed  to  writing 
by  Joshua  himself,  who  is  expressly  de- 


Jos 


(  494  ) 


Jud 


dared  to  have  written  some  documents 
(xxiv.  26).  Ewald  supposes  that  the  book 
has  undergone  five  transformations  at  the 
hands  of  successive  compilers;  but  this 
view  has  met  with  little  support.  Others 
have  tried  to  discriminate  between  an  Elo- 
histic  and  Jehovistic  narrative;  but  this 
hypothesis  is  difficult  to  maintain.  The 
authorship  has  been  variously  attributed 
to  Joshua  (according  to  the  tradition  of  the 
Jews  and  early  Christian  writers),  Phine- 
has,  Eleazar,  one  of  the  elders  who  sur¬ 
vived  Joshua,  Samuel,  and  Jeremiah; 
again,  some  have  assigned  its  date  to  the 
time  of  the  Judges,  the  reign  of  Josiah,  and 
even  to  the  time  after  the  Babylonish  Cap¬ 
tivity.  All  these  conjectures  present  far 
greater  difficulties  than  the  old  tradition 
that  it  is  the  work  of  Joshua,  who  followed 
the  example  of  Moses  by  writing  the  an¬ 
nals  of  his  own  time;  a  task  which  seems 
to  have  been  divinely  committed  to  him  on 
his  first  appointment  as  the  assistant  of 
Moses.  (Exod.  xvii.  14.)” — “Oxford” 
Teacher' s  Bible.  See  Fay,  in  Lange’s  Com. 
(New  York,  1872);  Crosby:  Notes  (N.  Y., 
1875);  Miss  Smiley:  The  Fulness  of  Blessing 
(New  York,  1876). 

Joshua,  Spurious  Book  of.  This  com¬ 
pilation  was  made  among  the  Samaritans, 
but  is  not  recognized  by  them.  The  only 
manuscript  copy  of  it  now  in  existence  is 
in  the  library  at  Leyden. 

Josiah,  “  the  last  but  four  of  the  kings  of 
Judah,  was  the  son  of  Amon,  whom  he 
succeeded  when  only  eight  years  old,  the 
people  having  declared  in  his  favor  against 
the  conspirators  who  had  murdered  his 
unworthy  father.  The  circumstances  of 
the  regency  which  must  have  existed  dur¬ 
ing  his  minority  are  not  recorded;  it  is  not 
until  his  eighteenth  year  (for  2  Chr.  xxxiv. 
3  cannot  be  set  against  the  explicit  testi¬ 
mony  of  2  Kings  xxii.;  xxviii.)  that  he 
emerges  into  the  light  of  history,  when  we 
find  him  interested  in  the  repair  of  the  tem¬ 
ple  at  Jerusalem.  The  religious  move¬ 
ment,  of  which  this  was  a  symptom,  took 
more  definite  shape  with  the  finding  by 
Hilkiah,  the  high-priest,  of  a  copy  of  ‘  the 
book  of  the  law.’  The  reasons  for  believ¬ 
ing  this  to  have  been  (substantially  at  least) 
the  book  of  Deuteronomy  cannot  be  de¬ 
tailed  here.  They  were  already  appreciated 
by  Jerome  and  Chrysostom,  and  no  very 
careful  examination  is  required  to  show 
that  the  effect  of  its  perusal  was  to  bring 
about  a  religious  reformation,  which  in  all 
its  features  was  in  accordance  with  the 
prescriptions  and  exhortations  of  that  re¬ 
markable  composition.  On  the  secular 
aspects  of  the  reign  of  Josiah,  Scripture  is 


almost  wholly  silent.  Thus,  nothing  is  re¬ 
lated  of  the  great  Scythian  invasion  which, 
as  we  know  from  Herodotus  (i.  105),  took 
place  at  this  period,  and  must  have  ap¬ 
proached  Judah,  being  probably  alluded  to 
by  Zephaniah  and  Jeremiah.  The  storm 
which  shook  the  great  world  powers  was 
favorable  to  the  peace  of  Josiah’s  king¬ 
dom;  the  power  of  Assyria  was  practi¬ 
cally  broken,  and  that  of  the  Chaldeans 
had  not  yet  developed  itself  into  the  ag¬ 
gressive  forms  it  afterwards  assumed.  But 
in  the  thirty-first  year  of  his  reign,  Josiah, 
for  some  unexplained  reason,  was  rash 
enough  to  place  himself  in  the  path  of 
Pharaoh-Necho  in  his  military  expedition 
against  the  king  of  Assyria;  a  disastrous 
encounter  took  place  at  Megiddo,  in  whicii 
he  lost  at  once  his  crown  and  life  (aet. 
39).  ” — Ency.  Britannica ,  s.  v. 

Jo'tham  {Jehovah  is  upright'),  (1)  the 
youngest  son  of  Gideon,  and  the  only  mem¬ 
ber  of  his  family  who  escaped  the  massacre 
of  Abimelech  at  Ophrah.  (Judg.  ix.  5.)  (2) 
The  son  and  successor  of  Uzziah,  or  Aza- 
riah,  king  of  Judah.  (2  Kings  xv.  32-38.)  He 
reigned  in  connection  with  his  father  seven 
years,  and  for  sixteen  years  as  sole  ruler. 
(Comp.  2  Kings  xv.  30,  32,  33.)  His  reign 
was  prosperous  and  his  life  pious  and  ex¬ 
emplary.  (2  Chron.  xxvii.  5.)  Isaiah 
prophesied  under  him. 

Journey.  Among  Orientals  it  is  the  custom 
to  travel  in  the  early  morning  or  evening, 
resting  during  the  heat  of  the  day,  A  day’s 
journey  covered  10  to  20  miles  (Deut.  i.  2); 
a  Sabbath  day’s  journey  was  2,000  paces, 
or  three-quarters  of  a  mile.  The  term,  “  a 
day’s  journey,”  as  found  in  the  Bible,  prob¬ 
ably  means  the  distance  traveled  on  a  par¬ 
ticular  day,  and  not  a  definite  length. 

Jubilee,  Year  of,  among  the  Hebrews. 
See  Sabbatical  Year. 

Jubilee  Year,  in  the  Roman  Catholic 
Church,  is  an  institution  observed  every 
twenty-fifth  year,  from  Christmas  to  Christ¬ 
mas.  During  this  time  plenary  indulgence 
may  be  obtained  by  all  Catholics  on  certain 
conditions.  The  abuses  of  this  institution 
have  been  recognized  by  those  high  in 
authority,  but  it  has  not  been  abrogated. 
The  last  ordinary  jubilee  was  observed  in 
1875- 

Jubilees,  Book  of.  See  Apocrypha, 
Old  Testament. 

Judaea  was  the  lowermost  of  the  three 
divisions  of  the  Holy  Land.  It  was  that 
part  of  Canaan  occupied  by  the  captive 


Jud 


(  495  ) 


jud 


exiles  on  their  return  from  Assyria  and 
Babylonia.  The  word  first  occurs  in  Dan. 
v.  13  ( A.  V. ,  “Jewry  ”);  and  the  first  men¬ 
tion  of  the  “  province  ”  of  Judaea  is  in  Ezra 
v.  8,  and  it  is  also  alluded  to  in  Neh.  xi.  3 
(A.  V.  “Judah”).  In  the  Apocryphaand 
the  New  Testament  it  is  designated  as  the 
“  land  of  Judaea  ”  and  “  Judaea.”  It  became 
a  portion  of  the  Roman  province  of  Syria 
after  the  deposition  of  Archelaus  (a.  d.  6), 
and  was  governed  by  a  procurator  subject 
to  the  governor  of  that  country.  In  a  loose 
sense  the  name  “  Judaea”  was  sometimes 
given  to  the  whole  country  of  the  Canaan- 
ites. 

The  Hill  Country  of  Judcea  (Luke  i.  65) 
was  the  central  ridge  of  mountains  running 
from  north  to  south  through  Palestine. 

The  Wilderness  of  Judcea  is  the  wild  and 
desolate  region  extending  from  the  hill 
country  near  Jerusalem,  southeast  to  the 
Dead  Sea,  with  an  average  width  of  fifteen 
miles.  (Matt.  iii.  1.)  Here  John  preached, 
and  tradition  has  placed  the  scene  of  the 
temptation  of  Christ. 

Ju  dah  (praise),  a  name  given  to  the 
fourth  son  of  Jacob  and  Leah  as  an  expres¬ 
sion  of  his  mother’s  gratitude.  By  his 
energy  of  character  he  virtually  supplanted 
his  elder  brother  Reuben.  He  advised 
the  selling  of  Joseph  into  Egypt,  and  his 
touching  plea  before  Joseph  for  Benjamin 
is  an  address  of  singular  beauty.  (Gen. 
xxxvii.  26,  27;  xliii.  9.)  “  In  the  matter 

of  Tamar  (xxxviii.)  he  does  not  appear  in 
a  favorable  light;  but  even  then  his  sense 
of  justice  and  his  inherent  nobility  came 
out.  These  traits  characterized  his  de¬ 
scendants;  and  the  prophecy  of  Jacob  was 
fulfilled,  according  to  which  the  right  of 
primogeniture  was  given  to  him  by  his 
brethren,  and  he  held  the  sceptre  until 
Shiloh  came.  (Gen.  xlix.  8-12.)” — v.  Orelli. 
The  descendants  of  Judah  occupied  the 
southern  section  of  Canaan,  bounded  on 
the  east  by  the  Jordan,  and  the  west  by  the 
Mediterranean  Sea,  and  extending  north  to 
the  territory  of  Benjamin  and  Dan.  (Josh, 
xv.  1-63.) 

Judah,  Kingdom  of.  See  Israel. 

Judah,  Tribe  of.  See  Tribes  of  Israel. 

Judaizers.  See  Jewish  Christians. 

Judas,  or  Jude,  “  one  of  the  twelve  apos¬ 
tles,  carefully  distinguished  by  the  evan¬ 
gelists  from  Judas  Iscariot;  called  also 
Lebbaeus  and  Thaddaeus.  (Matt.  x.  3;  Mark 
iii.  18;  Luke  vi.  16;  John  xiv.  22;  Acts  i. 
13.)  His  surnames,  Lebbaeus  and  Thad¬ 
daeus,  mean  the  same  thing.  We  know 


nothing  about  his  history  before  or  after 
his  connection  with  Jesus.”  —  Sieffert. 
Tradition  is  contradictory.  According  to 
Abdias  he  preached  in  Persia,  and  was 
martyred  there,  while  Nicephorus  says  he 
died  a  natural  death  at  Edessa. 

Judas  Iscariot,  “the  son  of  Simon  Iscariot 
(John  vi.  71;  xiii.),  and  one  of  the  twelve 
apostles;  he  is  enumerated  last,  with 
special  mention  of  the  fact  that  he  was  the 
betrayer  of  Jesus.  If  the  now  generally 
accepted  explanation  of  his  surname  ‘  man 
of  Kerioth  ’  (see  Josh.  xv.  25)  be  correct,  he 
was  the  only  original  member  of  the  apos¬ 
tolic  band  who  was  not  a  Galilean.  (For 
suggested  etymologies  of  the  name  see 
Miner’s  Bibl.  ReaTworteil ,  s.  v.)  The  cir¬ 
cumstances  which  led  to  his  admission  into 
the  apostolic  circle  are  not  stated;  accord¬ 
ing  to  the  Fourth  Gospel  (vi.  64)  his 
treachery  had  been  foreseen  by  Jesus  from 
the  very  first,  but  this  is  not  suggested  by 
the  synoptist.  The  motives  by  which  he 
was  actuated  in  rendering  to  the  Jewish 
authorities  the  petty  and  base  service  of 
enabling  them  to  arrest  his  Master  without 
tumult  have  been  analyzed  by  scholars 
with  very  various  degrees  of  subtlety  and 
insight.  According  to  some  his  sole  object 
was  to  place  Jesus  in  a  position  in  which 
he  should  be  compelled  to  make  what  had 
seemed  to  his  followers  the  too  tardy  dis¬ 
play  of  his  Messianic  power.  According 
to  others  (and  their  view  seems  the  best 
supported  by  the  narrative  of  the  Gospels), 
he  was  simply  an  avaricious  and  dishonest 
man,  who  felt  that  his  opportunities  for 
petty  peculation  as  keeper  of  the  common 
purse  (John  xii.  6;  xiii.  29)  were  rapidly 
disappearing.  As  regards  the  effects  of  his 
subsequent  remorse  and  the  use  to  which 
his  ill-gotten  gains  were  put,  the  striking¬ 
ly  apparent  discrepancies  between  the 
narratives  of  Matt,  xxviii.  3-10  and  Acts 
i.  18,  19  have  continually  attracted  the 
attention  of  biblical  scholars  ever  since 
Papias  in  his  fourth  book,  of  which  a  frag¬ 
ment  has  been  preserved,  discussed  the 
subject;  the  probability  is  that  they  simply 
represent  divergent  traditions,  one  of 
which  has  possibly  been  colored  by  the 
history  of  Ahithophel.  In  ecclesiastical 
legends  and  in  sacred  art  Judas  Iscariot 
has  taken  a  prominent  place,  being  gener¬ 
ally  treated  as  the  very  incarnation  of 
treachery,  ingratitude,  and  impiety.” — 
Ency.  Britannica. 

Judas  Maccabaeus.  See  Maccabees. 

Jude,  Epistle  of.  “  I.  Its  authorship. 
— The  writer  of  this  epistle  styles  himself, 
ver.  1,  ‘  Jude  the  brother  of  James,’  and 


Jud 


(  496  ) 


Jud 


has  been  usually  identified  with  the  apostle 
Judas  Lebbaeus  or  Thaddseus.  (Luke  vi.  16.) 
But  there  are  strong  reasons  for  rendering 
the  words,  4  Judas  i/ie  sonoi  James:’  and  in¬ 
asmuch  as  the  author  appears,  ver.  17,  to 
distinguish  himself  from  the  apostles,  we 
may  agree  with  eminent  critics  in  attribut¬ 
ing  the  epistle  to  another  author.  The 
most  probable  conclusion  is  that  the  author 
was  Jude,  one  of  the  brethren  of  Jesus, 
and  brother  of  James,  not  the  apostle  the 
son  of  Alphaeus,  but  the  bishop  of  Jerusa¬ 
lem.  II.  Genuineness  and  canonicity. — Al¬ 
though  the  Epistle  of  Jude  is  one  of  the 
so-called  A ntilegomena ,  and  its  canonicity 
was  questioned  in  the  earliest  ages  of  the 
Church,  there  never  was  any  doubt  of  its 
genuineness  among  those  by  whom  it  was 
known.  The  question  was  never  whether 
it  was  the  work  of  'an  impostor,  but 
whether  its  author  was  of  sufficient  weight 
to  warrant  its  admission  into  the  Canon. 
This  question  was  gradually  decided  in  its 
favor.  It  is  wanting  in  the  Peshito,  nor  is 
there  any  trace  of  its  use  by  the  Asiatic 
churches  up  to  the  commencement  of  the 
fourth  century;  but  it  is  quoted  as  apos¬ 
tolic  by  Ephraem  Syrus.  The  earliest 
notice  of  the  epistle  is  in  the  famous  Mu- 
ratorian  Fragment  (circa  A.  D.  170).  Clem¬ 
ent  of  Alexandria  is  the  first  Father  of  the 
Church  by  whom  it  is  recognized.  Euse¬ 
bius  also  informs  us  (//.  E.  vi.  14)  that  it 
was  among  the  books  of  Canonical  Script¬ 
ure,  of  which  explanations  were  given  in 
the  Hypotyposes  of  Clement.  Origen  refers 
to  it  expressly  as  the  work  of  the  Lord’s 
brother.  Of  the  Latin  Fathers,  Tertullian 
once  expressly  cites  this  epistle  as  the 
Avork  of  an  apostle,  as  does  Jerome.  The 
epistle  is  also  quoted  by  Malchian,  a  pres¬ 
byter  of  Antioch,  and  by  Palladius,  and  is 
contained  in  the  Laodicene  (a.  D.  363), 
Carthaginian  (397),  and  so-called  Apostolic, 
Catalogues,  as  well  as  in  those  emanating 
from  the  churches  of  the  East  and  West, 
with  the  exception  of  the  Synopsis  of  Chrys¬ 
ostom,  and  those  of  Cassiodorus  and  Ebed 
Jesu.  III.  Ti77ie  and  place  of  writing. — 
Here  all  is  conjecture.  The  author  being 
not  absolutely  certain,  there  are  no  exter¬ 
nal  grounds  for  deciding  the  point;  and  the 
internal  evidence  is  but  small.  Lardner 
places  it  between  A.  D.  64  and  66,  Davidson 
before  A.  D.  70,  Credner,  A.  D.  80,  Calmet, 
Estius,  Witsius,  and  Neander,  after  the 
death  of  all  the  apostles  but  John,  and  per¬ 
haps  after  the  fall  of  Jerusalem.  There 
are  no  data  from  which  to  determine  the 
place  of  writing.  IV.  For  what  readers 
designed. — The  readers  are  nowhere  ex¬ 
pressly  defined.  The  address  (ver.  1)  is 
applicable  to  Christians  generally,  and 
there  is  nothing  in  the  body  of  the  epistle 


to  limit  its  reference.  V.  Its  object  and 
contents. — The  object  of  the  epistle  is  plain¬ 
ly  enough  announced,  ver.  3:  the  reason 
for  this  exhortation  is  given,  ver.  4.  The 
remainder  of  the  epistle  is  almost  entirely 
occupied  by  a  minute  depiction  of  the  ad¬ 
versaries  of  the  faith.  The  epistle  closes 
by  briefly  reminding  the  readers  of  the  oft- 
repeated  prediction  of  the  apostles — among 
whom  the  writer  seems  not  to  rank  himself 
— that  the  faith  would  be  assailed  by  such 
enemies  as  he  has  depicted  (vers.  17-19), 
exhorting  them  to  maintain  their  own 
steadfastness  in  the  faith  (vers.  20,  21), 
while  they  earnestly  sought  to  rescue 
others  from  the  corrupt  example  of  those 
licentious  livers  (vers.  22,  23),  and  com¬ 
mending  them  to  the  power  of  God  in  lan¬ 
guage  which  forcibly  recalls  the  closing 
benediction  of  the  Epistle  to  the  Romans, 
(vers.  24, 25 ;  cf.  Rom.  xvi.  25-27).  This  epis¬ 
tle  presents  one  peculiarity,  which,  as  we 
learn  from  St.  Jerome,  caused  its  authority 
to  be  impugned  in  very  early  times — the 
supposed  citation  of  apocryphal  writings 
(vers.  9,  14, 15).  The  former  of  these  pass¬ 
ages,  containing  the  reference  to  the  contest 
of  the  archangel  Michael  and  the  Devil 
4  about  the  body  of  Moses,’  was  supposed 
by  Origen  to  have  been  founded  on  a  Jew¬ 
ish  work  called  the  4  Assumption  of  Moses.’ 
As  regards  the  supposed  quotation  from 
the  book  of  Enoch,  the  question  is  not  so 
clear  whether  St.  Jude  is  making  a  citation 
from  a  work  already  in  the  hands  of  his 
readers,  or  is  employing  a  traditionary 
prophecy  not  at  that  time  committed  to 
writing.  VI.  Relation  between  the  Epistles 
and  2  Peter. — It  is  familiar  to  all  that  the 
larger  portion  of  this  epistle  (vers.  3-16)  is 
almost  identical  in  language  and  subject 
with  a  part  of  the  Second  Epistle  of  Peter. 
(2  Pet.  ii.  1-19.)  This  question  is  ex¬ 
amined  in  the  article  Peter,  Second  Epis¬ 
tle  OF.” — Smith:  Diet,  of  the  Bible.  See 
Fronmiiller,  in  Lange’s  Com.  (Eng.  trans. 
by  Mombert,  New  York,  1867);  Alford; 
T.  R.  Lumby  in  Speaker's  Commentary  (N. 
Y. ,  1S81),  and  Introductions  to  New  Testa¬ 
ment. 

Judges  of  Israel.  44  The  foundation  of 
Jewish  theocratic  legislation  was  laid  by 
Moses,  and  its  regulations  were  first  car¬ 
ried  out  in  Jehovah’s  name  by  the  adminis¬ 
tration  of  judges  both  during  the  founder’s 
lifetime  and  after  his  decease.  These 
judges  were,  for  the  most  part,  the  heads 
of  clans  or  families,  each  of  whom  in  times 
of  peace  administered  justice  among  his 
clansmen,  and  in  times  of  war  acted  as 
their  military  head.  In  judging  their  sev¬ 
eral  tribes  these  functionaries  had  frequent 
occasion  to  refer  the  matter  to  Jehovah, 


Jud 


(  497  ) 


Jud 


and  this  was  done  by  recourse  to  the  sanc¬ 
tuary  and  the  priests.  Thus  were  the 
tribes  taught  to  look  upon  themselves  as 
acting  under  Jehovah’s  instructions,  and, 
in  going  forth  against  their  enemies,  as 
fighting  the  battles  of  the  Lord.  In  the 
field,  however,  they  proved  unable  to  hold 
their  own  against  their  adversaries,  and  it 
was  deemed  politic,  if  they  were  to  main¬ 
tain  their  integrity  among  the  nations,  that 
they  should  array  themselves  under  a  sin¬ 
gle  chief;  and  by  their  election  of  a  king 
they  took  rank,  to  the  detriment  of  their 
religious  life  however,  among  the  nation¬ 
alities  of  the  earth.  To  Samuel,  the  seer, 
belongs  the  merit  of  having  selected  Saul, 
the  son  of  Kish,  as  the  man  under  whom 
they  would  unite,  and  of  having  called  him 
to  the  leadership  of  their  several  hosts. 
At  the  same  time,  by  their  union  with  the 
Canaanites  they  advanced  from  the  pastor¬ 
al  to  the  agricultural  stage  of  civilization.” 
— Bagster:  Bible  Helps. 

Judges,  Book  of.  “This  book  is  so 
called,  because  it  contains  an  account  of 
certain  signal  deliverances  which  the  Lord 
wrought  out  by  the  hands  of  ministers  so 
named,  and  selected  for  the  purpose,  when 
now  this  tribe  of  Israel,  and  now  that,  was 
threatened  with  extinction  by  the  Canaan¬ 
ites,  who  had  been  left  in  the  land.  These 
ministers  were  of  the  character  of  heroes 
rather  than  judges,  but  they  are  justly 
named,  as  it  was  by  them  the  Lord  exe¬ 
cuted  his  judgments.  There  is  mention  by 
name  of  twelve  judges  in  this  book,  though 
only  six  attain  special  distinction;  and  they 
are  all  rather  tribal  than  national  heroes, 
there  being  as  yet  no  king  in  Israel  to 
unite  the  tribes  into  one.  The  account 
embraces  a  period  of  at  least  three  hundred 
years,  covering  the  time  from  the  death  of 
Joshua  to  the  birth  of  Samuel,  and  is  not 
so  much  a  history  as  a  collection  of  narra¬ 
tives  of  events,  some  of  which  were  con¬ 
temporaneous.  The  text  of  the  book,  of 
which  the  body  supplies  the  examples,  is 
given  in  chap.  ii.  14-23,  and  there  are  six 
cycles  of  revolt,  chastisement,  and  deliv¬ 
erance  recorded.  The  story  is  one  through¬ 
out:  the  apostasy  and  consequent  affliction 
of  the  people,  their  conversion,  deliver¬ 
ance,  and  consequent  state  of  peace;  and 
the  object  of  the  book  is  to  show  that,  as 
often  as  Israel  sins  against  the  Lord,  so 
often  does  she  fall  under  the  power  of  her 
enemies,  and  that,  so  soon  as  she  returns 
to  her  allegiance,  so  soon  will  the  Lord 
raise  up  a  deliverer  for  her;  while,  at  the 
same  time,  from  the  emphasis  now  and 
again  laid  on  the  fact  that  there  was  no 
king  in  Israel,  a  reference  is  implied  to  the 
better  state  of  things  to  be  expected  from 


the  establishment  of  the  kingdom.  The 
narrative,  in  its  present  form,  seems  to  be¬ 
long  to  the  prophetic  period,  and  date,  in 
the  main,  from  the  beginning  of  the  reign 
of  David.  Tradition  ascribes  its  origin  to 
Samuel;  and  in  this  there  is  probably  a 
measure  of  truth.” — Bagster:  Bible  Helps. 
See  Commentaries  by  Kiel  (1863,  Eng. 
trans.  Edinburgh,  1865);  Cassel  in  Lange  s 
Com.  (New  York,  1872);  Hervey  in  Speak¬ 
er's  Commentary . 

Judgment,  Day  of.  The  Old  Testament 
is  full  of  declarations  of  coming  judgments 
of  God,  sometimes  executed  by  virtue  of 
prerogative  as  King,  sometimes  as  one  of 
the  works  of  the  promised  Messiah.  When 
our  Lord  declared  his  kingdom  he  spoke 
emphatically  of  this  judgment,  and  con¬ 
nected  it,  not  with  ideas  of  abstract  justice 
and  retribution,  but  with  his  own  especial 
work.  He  (the  Father)  hath  given  him 
(the  Son)  authority  to  execute  judgment, 
because  he  is  the  Son  of  man.  It  is  evi¬ 
dent  that  there  have  been  many  rehearsals 
of  the  great  consummating  judgment  to 
come.  The  language  of  our  Saviour  re¬ 
specting  the  fall  of  Jerusalem  in  Matt, 
xxiv.  cannot  be  taken  as  other  than  a  pre¬ 
diction  of  judgment,  and  the  Book  of  Rev¬ 
elation  so  treats  the  downfall  of  imperial 
Rome.  And  we  need  none  to  tell  us  that 
the  judgment  of  God  upon  sin  is  a  part  of 
the  individual  experience.  But  all  creation 
moves  to  ‘  ‘  one  far-off  event ;  ”  “  it  is  groan¬ 
ing  and  travailing,  waiting  for  the  mani¬ 
festation  of  the  sons  of  God.”  How  far 
the  sublime  passage  which  closes  the  proph¬ 
ecy  of  Matt.  xxv.  has  been  realized  by 
human  imagination  we  cannot  tell.  It  is 
one  of  the  hidden  things  of  God.  To  some 
writers  that  passage  has  appeared  as  “  the 
Great  Assize,”  the  gathering  together  in 
one  view  all  who  have  ever  lived  on  the 
face  of  the  earth.  Pictorial  art,  as  in  the 
great  picture  of  Michael  Angelo,  has  striven 
to  realize  it,  and  it  is  one  of  the  commonest 
subjects  of  elaborate  sculpture  on  cathe¬ 
dral  doors.  But  the  inadequacy  of  any  such 
attempts  becomes  to  other  interpreters  an 
argument  against  such  views,  which  seem 
to  them,  at  best,  only  parables  of  a  truth 
too  tremendous  for  the  intellect  or  imag¬ 
ination  to  grasp.  They  maintain  that  the 
prophecy  is  a  declaration  that,  as  with  in¬ 
dividuals,  so  with  churches  and  with  na¬ 
tions;  they  are  all  gathered  before  the 
throne  of  the  Judge.  Not  only  Christians 
but  heathens  are  judged  by  him  “  because 
he  is  the  Son  of  man.”  To  realize  that 
Christ  is  the  Son  of  man  exalted  to  the 
throne  of  God — this  is  the  foundation  of  all 
Christian  belief  and  knowledge.  Those 
who  have  so  realized  it  can  wait  for  his 


Jud 


(  498  ) 


jul 


second  coming,  and  humbly  and  prayerful¬ 
ly  await  the  fulfilment  and  explanation  of 
the  profession  that  then  “  he  shall  judge 
the  quick  and  the  dead.” — Benham:  Diet, 
of  Religion.  See  Eschatology. 

Judith.  See  Apocrypha. 

Judson,  Adoniram,  the  missionary  apos¬ 
tle  of  Burmah;  b.  Aug.  9,  1788,  at  Malden, 
Mass.;  d.  on  board  a  vessel  off  the  coast 
of  Burmah,  April  12,1850.  He  was  graduat¬ 
ed  at  Brown  University  in  1807.  He  en¬ 
tered  Andover  Seminary  the  following 
year,  and  although  deeply  interested  in  the 
subject  of  religion,  he  did  not  make  a  pro¬ 
fession  of  faith  until  some  months  later. 
His  attention  was  drawn  to  the  need  of 
missionary  service,  and  in  1812  he  was  or¬ 
dained  and  commissioned  with  four  others 
— Nott,  Newell,  Hall,  and  Rice — as  a  mis¬ 
sionary  to  India.  He  went  out  under  the 
direction  of  the  American  Board,  but  on 
the  voyage  to  Calcutta  his  views  in  regard 
to  the  mode  of  baptism  changed,  and  he 
and  Mrs.  Judson  were  baptized  by  immer¬ 
sion  in  the  Baptist  church  at  Calcutta. 
His  work  soon  after  was  done  under  the 
care  of  the  American  Baptist  Missionary 
Union.  The  East  India  Company  would 
not  allow  him  to  labor  in  India,  and  in  1813 
he  removed  to  Rangoon,  Burmah.  Here 
he  labored  with  characteristic  vigor,  and 
became  a  proficient  scholar  in  the  native 
language.  It  was  six  years  before  he  bap¬ 
tized  his  first  convert  in  Burmah.  During 
the  war  of  England  against  Burmah,  1824- 
26,  both  Mr.  and  Mrs.  Judson  suffered 
great  hardship.  For  seventeen  months  he 
was  imprisoned  in  the  jails  of  Ava  and 
Oung-pen-la,  much  of  the  time  bound  in 
fetters.  But  for  the  heroic  devotion  and 
efforts  of  his  noble  wife,  it  is  not  probable 
that  he  would  have  escaped  alive.  Worn 
out  with  the  heavy  strain  that  had  been 
put  upon  a  never  robust  body,  Mrs.  Ann 
Hasseltine  Judson  died,  Oct.  24,  1826. 

In  1830  Judson  began  to  preach  to  the 
Karens,  and  in  1835  he  completed  the  re¬ 
vision  of  the  Old  Testament  in  the  Bur¬ 
mese  language,  and  in  1837  that  of  the  New 
Testament.  In  1845  he  returned  for  the 
first  time  to  his  native  land.  On  the  voy¬ 
age  his  second  wife,  the  widow  of  Dr. 
Boardman,  died  at  St.  Helena.  It  is  seldom 
that  as  general  interest  and  enthusiasm  is 
aroused  as  that  which  greeted  this  noble 
man.  In  the  summer  of  1846  he  returned  to 
Burmah,  having  married,  not  long  before, 
Miss  Emily  Chubbuck,  of  Eaton,  N.  Y., 
who  afterward  wrote  under  the  name 
of  “  Fanny  Forester.”  The  remaining 
years  of  his  life  were  occupied  mostly  in 
editing  a  dictionary  of  the  Burmese  lan¬ 


guage.  His  health,  however,  was  broken, 
and  he  died  while  making  a  voyage  to  the 
Isle  of  Bourbon.  He  lived  to  see  hundreds 
in  Burmah  converted  to  Christ,  and  his 
name  holds  an  exalted  place  in  the  history 
of  modern  missions.  See  Life  and  Labors 
of  Adoniram  Judson ,  D.  D . ,  by  Francis 
Wayland;  also  Life  of  Adoniram  Judson , 
by  his  son,  the  Rev.  Edward  Judson  (1887). 

Juggernaut,  a  town  in  Orissa,  Bengal, 
famous  as  a  place  of  pilgrimages.  It  is 
estimated  that  a  million  pilgrims  visit  every 
year  the  Hindoo  god,  Vishnu,  whose  tem¬ 
ple  is  here.  This  temple  was  completed 
in  1198,  and  its  name  is  a  corruption  of  the 
Sanscrit  word  Jaggdnatha — i.e.,“  The  Lord 
of  the  World.”  The  image  is  carved  from 
a  block  of  wood,  painted  black,  and  having 
hideous  features.  There  are  two  other 
idols  in  the  temple,  Siva,  white;  and  Sud- 
hadra,  yellow.  At  the  festival  in  March 
these  idols  are  drawn  through  the  streets 
on  heavy  cars.  The  pilgrims  in  great 
crowds  follow  them,  and  in  their  frenzy 
many  throw  themselves  before  the  cars, 
and  are  crushed  to  death.  In  recent  years 
European  influence  has  mitigated  to  some 
extent  the  more  cruel  and  revolting  part  of 
this  worship. 

Ju'lian,  “  surnamed  the  Apostate ,  on  ac¬ 
count  of  his  renunciation  of  Christianity; 
Roman  Emperor  361-363  A.  D.,  was  b.  at 
Constantinople,  Nov.  17,  331,  and  was  the 
son  of  Julius  Constantius,  the  brother  of 
Constantine  the  Great.  His  proper  name 
was  Flavius  Claudius  Julianus.  He  and 
his  brother  Gallus,  who  were  too  young  to 
be  dangerous,  were  spared  when  Constan¬ 
tius  II.,  son  of  Constantine,  massacred  the 
rest  of  the  imperial  family.  They  were, 
however,  removed  to  a  castle  in  Cappado¬ 
cia,  where  they  were  subjected  to  a  system 
of  rigorous  espionage.  Julian’s  life  was 
very  miserable,  and  the  monkish  education 
which  he  received  produced  no  other  re¬ 
sult  than  a  strong  detestation  of  the 
religion  professed  by  his  tormentors.  He 
was  fond  of  literature  and  speculation,  and 
he  instinctively  turned  away  from  the  rude 
asceticism,  gloomy  piety,  and  barbarous 
janglings  of  Homodusians  and  Homoiou- 
sians,  to  the  cheerfulness,  refinement,  and 
pure  intellectual  meditativeness  of  the  old 
Greek  philosophers.  Some  of  his  teachers 
appear  to  have  been  (secretly)  pagans,  for 
the  sudden  change  in  the  state  religion 
brought  about  by  Constantine  had  necessi¬ 
tated  a  great  deal  of  hypocrisy,  especially 
among  scholars  and  government  officials. 
At  the  age  of  twenty  Julian  was  at  heart  a 
disbeliever  in  the  divine  origin  of  Chris¬ 
tianity.  On  the  death  of  his  brother  Gal- 


Jul 


(  499  ) 


Jun 


lus,  he  was  removed  by  Constantius  to 
Milan,  but  was  subsequently  allowed  to  go 
to  Athens,  the  home  of  Greek  learning, 
where  he  gave  himself  up  to  philosophical 
pursuits,  and  enjoyed  that  cultivated  soci¬ 
ety,  which  he  so  highly  relished.  The 
emperor — though  still  jealous  and  sus¬ 
picious — now  conferred  on  him  the  title  of 
Caesar,  and  sent  him  to  Gaul  to  protect  it 
from  the  incursions  of  the  Germans.  Julian 
defeated  the  Alemanni  at  Strasburg  (357 
A.  D.),  and  compelled  the  Franks  to  make 
peace.  His  internal  administration  in  Gaul 
was  mild  and  judicious.  His  popularity, 
in  consequence,  became  very  great,  and 
when  Constantius  ordered  him  to  set  out 
for  the  East,  Julian’s  soldiers  rose  in  insur¬ 
rection  and  proclaimed  their  favorite  em¬ 
peror,  who  most  reluctantly  acceded  to 
their  demands.  The  death  of  Constantius 
at  Mopsocrene,  in  Cilicia,  Nov.  3,  361  a.  d. , 
removed  the  only  obstacle  out  of  his  way; 
and  on  Dec.  11  he  made  a  triumphal  en¬ 
trance  into  Constantinople.  He  now  pub¬ 
licly  avowed  himself  a  pagan,  but  surprised 
both  Christians  and  pagans  by  his  edict  of 
toleration.  Yet  he  was  not  absolutely  im¬ 
partial,  for  he  chose  most  of  his  officers 
from  the  professed  followers  of  the  old 
religion,  and  compelled  the  Christians  to 
contribute  to  the  restoration  of  the  heathen 
temples.  In  362  A.  d.  he  made  great  prep¬ 
arations  at  Antioch,  in  the  hope  of  bring¬ 
ing  the  war  with  the  Persians  to  a  success¬ 
ful  termination;  and  in  the  following  year 
advanced  to  Ctesiphon  and  across  the 
Tigris,  but  want  of  provisions  and  treach¬ 
ery  necessitated  his  retreat.  He  was  fol¬ 
lowed  and  attacked  by  the  enemy,  who 
were  repeatedly  repulsed,  but  in  one  of  the 
engagements  he  was  mortally  wounded  by 
an  arrow,  and  died,  June  26,  363.  Julian 
was  both  a  great  monarch  and  a  great  man. 
His  rule,  compared  with  that  of  many  of 
the  so-called  Christian  emperors,  was  just, 
liberal,  and  humane;  and  though  only 
thirty-two  years  of  age  when  he  perished, 
he  had  composed  a  great  number  of  ora¬ 
tions,  letters,  satires,  and  even  poems 
(collected  and  published  by  Spanheim  in 
1696).  Among  his  last  works  are  his 
Refutation  of  the  Christian  Religion ,  and 
memoirs  of  his  German  campaigns  and  his 
diary.  Julian  appears  to  have  been  more 
attached  to  philosophy  than  religion,  and 
to  have  more  readily  apprehended  as  truth 
what  commended  itself  to  the  intellect, 
than  what  spoke  to  the  heart.  See  Nean- 
der:  Ueber  den  Kaiser  Julian ;  Strauss:  Der 
Rornantiker  auf  detn  Throne  der  Casaren;  also 
the  works  of  Mangold,  Semisch,  and  Rode 
(1877)  on  Julian.” — Chambers:  Cyclopcedia. 

Julius.  The  name  of  three  popes:  Jul¬ 


ius  I.  (337-352);  II.  (1503-1513);  HI. 
(1550-1555).  See  Popes. 

Julius  Africanus,  Sextus,  a  great  eccle¬ 
siastical  scholar,  who  flourished  early  in  the 
third  century.  He  lived  in  Emmaus  (Ni- 
copolis),  in  Palestine.  His  chief  work  was 
his  Chronographia,  a  history  of  the  world, 
beginning  with  the  creation,  5499  b.  c. ,  and 
closing  with  the  third  year  of  the  reign  of 
Heliogabalus.  Only  fragments  have  come 
down  to  us. 

Jumpers,  a  name  given  to  certain  Welsh 
enthusiasts  in  the  last  century,  who  intro¬ 
duced  into  their  worship  the  practice  of 
dancing  and  jumping.  The  practice  started 
with  the  Welsh  Methodists,  who  quoted 
the  passages,  “  David  danced  before  the 
Lord  with  all  his  might.  .  .  .  Michal  saw 
David  leaping  and  dancing  before  the  Lord 
(2  Sam.  vi.  14-16),  and  “  Rejoice  ye  in  the 
day,  and  leap  for  joy."  (Luke  vi.  23.)  The 
jumping  usually  followed  the  sermon,  and 
was  accompanied  by  singing,  Mr.  Wesley 
thought  these  people  were  sincere  but  ig¬ 
norant,  and  having  “  little  experience  of 
the  ways  of  God  or  the  devices  of  Satan.” 
See  Tyerman:  Life  of  John  Wesley,  vol.  ii., 
pp.  480,  481. 

Ju'niper,  a  shrub  of  the  broom  family. 
It  is  found  in  the  sandy  region  of  Arabia, 
northern  Africa  and  Spain,  and  is  very 
abundant  in  the  desert  of  Sinai.  Growing 
to  a  height  of  about  twelve  feet  it  affords  a 
grateful  shelter  to  travelers,  who  often  lie 
down  to  rest  at  mid-day  under  its  shade. 
The  roots  of  the  juniper  are  quite  large, 
and  the  Bedouins  make  an  excellent  quality 
of  coal  from  them,  which  they  sell  at  Cairo 
and  other  towns.  Sometimes  its  bitter 
roots  have  been  used  for  food.  (Job  xxx.  4.) 

Junkin,  George,  D.  D.,  LL.  D.,  a  prom¬ 
inent  Presbyterian  minister  and  instructor; 
b.  near  Kingston,  Pa.,  Nov.  1,  1790;  d. 
in  Philadelphia,  May  20,  1868.  He  was 
graduated  at  Jefferson  College,  and  after 
studying  theology  under  Dr.  John  M.  Ma¬ 
son,  he  was  pastor  successively  at  Milton 
and  McEwensville,  Pa.  In  1832  he  became 
president  of  Lafayette  College.  He  re¬ 
mained  here  until  1841,  when  he  accepted 
the  presidency  of  Miami  University.  In 
1844  he  returned  to  Lafayette,  and  in  1848 
became  president  of  Washington  College, 
at  Lexington,  Va.  At  the  breaking  out  of 
the  fwar  in  1861  he  returned  to  the  North. 
During  his  active  life  Dr.  Junkin  was  prom¬ 
inent  in  the  councils  of  the  Presbyte¬ 
rian  Church  (Old  School).  He  was  the  ac¬ 
cuser  of  Albert  Barnes  in  his  famous  trial. 
Among  his  works  are:  Treatise  on  Justifi- 


Jus 


( 500 ) 


Jus 


cation  (1839);  Commentary  on  the  Hebrews 
(Philadelphia,  1873). 

Justification.  The  exact  signification  of 
the  words  justification  and  justified ,  which 
occur  repeatedly  in  St.  Paul’s  Epistles,  has 
been  the  subject  of  prolonged  controversy. 
That  they  imply  a  state  in  which  the  sin¬ 
ner,  by  reason  of  the  redemption  effected 
by  Christ,  is  become  acceptable  to  God, 
is  not  disputed;  but  two  different  views 
have  been  taken  of  the  way  in  which  this 
acceptableness  is  brought  about.  These 
views  maybe  briefly  stated  thus: — Theone, 
that  God  accounts  the  sinner  to  be  right¬ 
eous  because  the  righteousness  of  Christ 
is  imputed  to  him;  the  other,  that  God 
makes  the  sinner  righteous  by  infusing  the 
righteousness  of  Christ  into  him.  In  the 
former  case,  the  word  “  justify  ”  is  used  in 
the  forensic  sense  of  “  acquit,”  “pronounce 
guiltless;”  and,  although  the  primary  sig¬ 
nification  of  the  Greek  verb  is  “  to  make 
righteous,”  yet  it  is  frequently  found  in 
Holy  Scripture  in  the  sense  of  accounting 
or  regardmg  a  person  as  righteous.  Thus,  in 
Luke  x.  29  we  have,  “  He,  willing  to  jus¬ 
tify  himself”  — i.  e.,  wishing  to  make  him¬ 
self  out  righteous;  xvi.  15,  “  Ye  are  they 
that  justify  yourselves  before  men” — i.  e., 
present  the  appearance  of  righteous  men; 
vii.  29,  “All  the  people  justified  God” — 
i.  e.,  acknowledged  God’s  justice;  xviii.  14, 
“  This  man  went  down  to  his  house  justi¬ 
fied  rather  than  the  other” — i.  e.,  counted 
righteous  before  God;  Matt.  xii.  37,  “  By 
thy  words  thou  shalt  be  justified” — i.  e., 
acquitted.  In  all  these  sentences  the  word 
is  used  in  a  sense  more  or  less  connected 
with  the  ideas  of  acquittal,  pardon,  accept¬ 
ance,  or  approbation — i.  e.,  in  a  legal  or  ju¬ 
dicial  sense.  And  the  same  is  to  be  observ¬ 
ed  of  its  use  in  the  Old  Testament — e.  g. , 
Deut.  xxv.  1;  1  Kings  viii.  32;  Prov.  xvii. 
15,  etc.  On  the  other  hand,  there  is  no  in¬ 
stance  of  its  use  in  Holy  Scripture  in  the 
sense  of  “  making  righteous.”  The  usage 
of  the  word  elsewhere  is,  therefore,  re¬ 
garded  as  in  favor  of  the  view  that  the 
terms  justification  and  to  justify ,  in  the 
Epistle  to  the  Romans,  imply  the  imputa¬ 
tion  of  the  merits  of  Christ  to  the  sinner, 
rather  than  the  mfusion  of  righteousness 
into  him;  and  to  this  view  support  is  said 
to  be  given  both  by  detached  expressions, 
and  also  by  the  whole  course  of  St.  Paul’s 
argument  in  the  earlier  chapters  of  this 
epistle.  It  is  stated  (iv.  9)  that  Abraham’s 
faith  was  reckoned  for  righteousness;  in^iii. 
24—26,  the  remissiofi  of  sins  is  equivalent  to 
the  act  of  justifying ;  while  in  v.  18  condem¬ 
nation  and  justification  are  opposed  to  one 
another.  Moreover,  St.  Paul’s  argument  is 
that  all  have  sinned — all,  Jews  as  well  as 


Gentiles;  all  are  condemned  by  a  law,  the 
Jews  by  the  Mosaic  Law,  the  Gentiles  by 
the  law  of  nature  under  which  they  lived. 
All,  without  exception,  need  release  from 
this  condemnation.  This  cannot  be  effected 
by  the  works  of  a  law,  whether  of  Moses 
or  of  nature,  because  it  is  through  law  that 
the  condemnation  has  passed  upon  all  men. 
God  has  revealed  the  remedy.  It  is  the 
righteousness  of  God  through  faith  in  Jesus 
Christ  unto  all  them  that  believe — that  is 
to  say,  justification.  And  justification,  be¬ 
ing  thus  contrasted  with  condeitination , 
must  mean  pardon  for  sins  committed  and 
deliverance  from  condemnation  incurred: 
such  pardon  and  deliverance  are  implied  in 
unputed  righteousness,  but  not  in  infused 
or  imparted  righteousness.  St.  Paul’s 
teaching,  therefore,  appears  to  be  that  the 
justification  of  the  sinner  is  effected  by 
the  imputing  to  him  the  righteousness  of 
Christ. 

A  further  controversy  with  regard  to 
justification  disputes  whether  the  instru¬ 
ment  by  which  man  receives  justification 
from  God  is  faith  alone,  or  faith  in  con¬ 
junction  with  the  Christian  graces  of  char¬ 
ity.  It  is  to  be  observed  that  St.  Paul’s 
argument  in  the  Epistle  to  the  Romans  is 
directed  against  the  doctrine  that  justifica¬ 
tion  could  be  claimed  by  merit,  through 
obedience  to  the  Mosaic  law.  This  leads 
him  to  the  precise  statement,  “  We  reckon 
that  a  man  is  justified  by  faith  apart  from 
the  works  of  the  law  ”  (iii.  28,  Rev.  Ver.); 
but  the  same  apostle  in  his  Epistle  to  Ti¬ 
tus,  iii.  8,  in  close  connection  with  the 
words  “  justified  by  his  grace,”  writes, 
“  Faithful  is  the  saying,  and  concerning 
these  things  I  will  that  thou  affirm  confi¬ 
dently,  to  the  end  that  they  which  have  be¬ 
lieved  God  may  be  careful  to  maintain 
good  works.”  It  is  evident  that  he  is  not 
concerned  to  separate  works  from  faith, 
except  where  any  claims  of  merit  and 
worth  are  founded  upon  them.  The  dis¬ 
tinction  is  drawn  plainly  by  Hooker,  Book 
v.,  Appendix,  p.  553:  “To  the  imputation 
of  Christ’s  death  for  the  remission  of  sins 
we  teach  faith  alone  to  be  necessary, 
whereby  it  is  not  our  meaning  to  separate 
thereby  faith  from  any  other  quality  or 
duty  which  God  requireth  to  be  matched 
therewith,  but  from  faith  to  seclude,  in  jus¬ 
tification ,  the  fellowship  of  worth  through 
precedent  works.  Nor  doth  any  faith  jus¬ 
tify,  but  that  wherewith  there  is  joined  both 
hope  and  love.  Yet  justified  we  are  by 
faith  alone,  because  there  is  no  man  whose 
works  in  whole  or  in  particular  can  make 
him  righteous  in  God’s  sight.”  And  the 
homily  on  salvation,  Part  I.,  puts  the  mat¬ 
ter  thus:  “  Faith  doth  not  shutout  repent¬ 
ance,  hope,  love,  dread,  and  the  fear  of 


Jus 


( 501 ) 


Jus 


God,  to  be  joined  with  faith  in  every  man 
that  is  justified;  but  it  shutteth  them  out 
from  the  office  of  justifying.”  Having  re¬ 
gard  on  the  one  hand  to  St.  Paul’s  words 
— Rom.  iii.  24,  “  Being  justified  freely  by 
his  grace;”  ch.  iii.  28,  “Justified  by  faith 
apart  from  the  works  of  the  law;”  ch.  v.  1, 
“  Justified  by  faith;”  ch.  v.  9,  “  Justified 
by  his  blood;”  and  Gal.  ii.  16,  “  Justified 
by  faith  in  Christ,  and  not  through  the 
works  of  the  law;”  and,  on  the  other  hand, 
to  his  positive  assertion — 1  Cor.  xiii.  2 — 
that  faith  is  worthless  unless  conjoined  with 
love,  it  is  concluded  that  the  instrument  of 
justification  is  faith  alone,  but  such  faith 
only  as  is  productive  of  good  works,  or,  at 
least,  is  capable  of  producing  them  where 
the  opportunity  is  given.  Regarding  jus¬ 
tification,  then,  as  the  imputation  of  Christ’s 
righteousness  to  the  sinner,  and  faith  as 
the  instrument  by  which  the  sinner  re¬ 
ceives  justification,  it  is  concluded  further 
that  justification  is  the  free  gift  of  God, 
and  that  its  meritorious  cause  is  the  atone¬ 
ment  made  by  Christ — “  Who  died  for  our 
sins,  and  rose  again  for  our  justification.” 
Man  is  put  in  possession  of  this  free  gift 
through  the  operation  of  the  Holy  Spirit 
(1  Cor.  vi.  1 1 ),  who  is  thus  the  efficient 
cause  of  justification.  The  Church  holds 
that  the  channels  of  the  conveyance  of  this 
gift  are  those  of  the  ministry  of  the  Word 
and  Sacraments,  especially  the  sacrament 
of  Baptism  (see  Rom.  vi.  4-8) — “  We  were 
buried  therefore  with  him  through  baptism 

into  death . He  that  hath  died  is 

justified  from  sin.”  1  Cor.  vi.  11.,  “But 
ye  were  justified  in  the  name  of  the  Lord 
Jesus  Christ  and  in  the  Spirit  of  our  God ;” 
Titus  iii.  5,  7,  etc.,  and  faith  is  in  the  in¬ 
ternal  instrument  by  which  man  becomes 
the  “  recipient  of  God’s  bounty.”  While, 
however,  we  distinguish  between  the  im¬ 
putation  of  Christ’s  righteousness  ” — i.  e., 
justification — and  “the  infusion  of  his 
righteousness  ” — i.  e.,  sanctification — such 
a  phrase  as  “  justification  of  life  ”  (Rom. 
v.  18)  makes  it  plain  that,  while  justifica¬ 
tion  and  sanctification  are  distinct,  they  are 
not  separate;  the  making  righteous  follows 
on  the  accounting  righteous;  where  justi¬ 
fication  is  accepted,  there  sanctification  will 
follow.  It  is  hardly  necessary  to  add, 
after  all  that  has  been  written  on  the  sub¬ 
ject,  that  there  is  no  opposition  between 
St.  Paul’s  language  about  justification  “  by 
faith  apart  from  the  works  of  the  law,” 
and  that  used  by  St.  James,  who  writes 
that  “  by  works  a  man  is  justified,  and  not 
only  by  faith.”  The  two  apostles  treat  the 
subject  from  different  points  of  view,  and 
the  works  spoken  of  by  the  latter  are  not 
the  works  of  the  Law,  but  works  which 
are  the  fruits  of  a  lively  faith.  Both  would 


hold  that  faith,  to  be  justifying  faith,  must 
be,  not  dead,  but  living  and  productive. — 
Benham  :  Diet,  of  Religion. 

Justin  Martyr,  “a  father,  and,  after  Ter- 
tullian,  the  most  distinguished  apologist  of 
the  Christian  church,  was  a  native  of  Flavia 
Neapolis,  a  Roman  city  erected  on  the  site 
of  the  ancient  Shechem  in  Samaria.  The 
date  of  his  birth  is  variously  assigned  to 
the  years  89,  113,  114,  and  118  A.  D.  His 
father,  Priscus,  was  a  heathen,  and  Justinus 
was  educated  in  the  religion  of  his  father. 
He  became  an  ardent  student  of  the  philos¬ 
ophy  of  his  age,  beginning  with  the  school 
of  the  Stoics,  but  finally  adhering  to  that 
of  the  Platonists.  With  the  last,  as  he 
himself  relates,  he  was  in  the  commence¬ 
ment  highly  satisfied;  but,  as  he  was  one 
day  wandering  along  the  sea-shore,  he  en¬ 
countered  a  man  of  mild  and  venerable  as¬ 
pect,  who  created  in  Justinus’  mind  a  de¬ 
sire  for  higher  knowledge  than  Plato  had 
reached,  referring  him  to  the  study  of  the 
Jewish  prophets,  and  through  them  to  the 
great  Christian  teacher  whom  they  fore¬ 
told.  The  result  was  his  conversion  to 
Christianity,  at”  some  date  between  119  and 
140  A.  d.  After  his  conversion  he  retained 
the  garb  of  a  philosopher,  but,  as  a  Chris¬ 
tian  philosopher,  he  strove  by  his  writings 
and  his  instructions  to  bring  others  to  the 
truth  which  he  had  himself  discovered. 
He  is  said  to  have  been  beheaded  about  the 
year  165,  in  the  reign  of  Marcus  Aurelius, 
because  he  refused  to  offer  sacrifice  to  the 
heathen  gods.  His  death  is  attributed  by 
the  ancients  to  the  enmity  and  malignant 
arts  of  the  Cynic  philosopher,  Crescens. 
The  works  of  Justinus,  although  not  very 
voluminous,  are  highly  interesting  and  im¬ 
portant.  The  books  ascribed  to  him  with 
certainty  are  two  Apologies  for  the  Chris¬ 
tians ,  the  first  addressed  ‘  to  Antoninus 
Pius,’  the  second  ‘  to  the  senate;’  a  Dialogue 
with  Tryphon  the  Jew ,  which  professes  to 
be  the  record  of  an  actual  discussion  held 
at  Ephesus.  The  Address  to  the  Greeks  is 
no  longer  held  to  be  a  genuine  work  of 
Justinus.’  The  Exhortation  to  the  Greeks , 
the  Letter  to  Diognetus,  and  a  work  On  the 
Monarchy  of  God ,  an  argument  against  the 
polytheism  of  paganism,  and  other  works 
once  ascribed  to  him,  are  certainly  spuri¬ 
ous.  The  first  edition  of  his  works  is  that 
of  Robert  Stephens  (Paris,  1551).” — Cham¬ 
bers:  Cyclopcedia.  English  translation  of 
Justin  in  Clark’s  Ante-Nicene  Christian 
Library  (Edinburgh,  1867). 

Justinian  I.,  Roman  Emperor  of  the  East, 
from  A.  d.  527  to  565.  Under  the  leader¬ 
ship  of  Belisarius,  his  armies  won  many 
victories  in  the  East.  But  the  great  fame 


Kaa 


(  502  ) 


Kan 


of  Justinian  rests  upon  his  codification  of 
the  then  existing  Roman  law,  his  Institu- 
tiones,  and  three  other  legislative  works, 
Digesta ,  Codex ,  and  Novella %  forming,  un¬ 
der  the  general  name  of  Corpus  Juris  Civilis , 
the  Roman  law  as  now  received  in  juris¬ 
prudence.  Justinian  was  a  Christian,  and 
upheld  his  faith  by  the  most  strenuous  and 
often  violent  methods.  In  later  life  he 
adopted  heretical  views  regarding  the  per¬ 
son  of  Christ. 

PC. 

Kaaba.  See  Mohammed. 

Ka'desh  (En-mish'pat,  Ka'desh-Bar'- 
nea,  Mer'-ibah-Ka'desh),  a  place  near  the 
southern  boundary  line  of  Canaan.  (Num. 
xxxiv.  4;  Josh.  xv.  3.)  It  was  on  the  bor¬ 
der  of  Edom  (Num.  xx.  16);  not  far  from 
Gerar  (Gen.  xx.  1),  in  the  desert  of  Zin 
(Num.  xiii.  17,  26;  xx.  14,  16;  xxvii.  14; 
xxxiv.  4;  Deut.  i.  19,  20),  and  was  distant 
from  Sinai  an  eleven-days’  journey.  (Deut. 
i.  2.)  Kadesh  appears  to  have  been  the 
rallying-place  of  the  Israelites  during  their 
wanderings.  (Deut.  i.  46.)  Here  Miriam 
died  and  was  buried,  and  the  rock  was  smit¬ 
ten  for  water  (Num.  xx.  1-21),  and  here  the 
people  gathered  .after  theirforty  years’  wan¬ 
dering,  and  prepared  for  their  march  to  Ca¬ 
naan.  (Num.  xx.  1. )  The  location  of  Kadesh 
was  long  a  matter  of  dispute.  Robinson, 
Porter,  and  others  identified  it  with  'Ain 
el  Weibeh.  In  1842  Rowlands  located  it  at 
'Ain  Qadis,  and  since  that  time  this  site  has 
been  accepted  by  the  most  eminent  author¬ 
ities.  The  springs  of  'Ain  Qadis  were  re¬ 
discovered  by  H.  Clay  Trumbull,  in  1881. 
As  the  result  of  his  explorations  and  study 
Dr.  Trumbull  says:  “  All  the  conditions 
of  the  Bible-text  are  met  in  Qadis ,  as  in 
no  other  suggested  site.  A  Wady  Qadis, 
a  Jebel  Qadis,  and  an  ’Ain  Qadis  are  there. 
Wady  Qadis  is  an  extensive  hill-encircled 
region  of  sufficient  extent  to  encamp  and 
guard  a  host  like  Israel’s.  Large  portions 
of  it  are  arable.  Extensive  primitive  ruins 
are  about  it.  Springs  of  rare  abundance 
and  sweetness  flow  from  under  a  high  cliff. 
By  name  and  by  tradition  it  is  the  site  of 
Kadesh.  Just  north  of  it  is  a  lofty  moun¬ 
tain,  over  which  is  a  camel-pass  toward 
Hebron.  It  lies  just  off  the  only  feasible 
route  for  an  invading  army  from  the  direc¬ 
tion  of  Sinai,  or  from  east  of  Akabah,  and 
is  well  adapted  for  a  protected  strategic 
point  of  rendezvous  prior  to  an  immediate 
move  northward.  It  is  at  that  central  posi¬ 
tion  of  the  southern  boundary-line  of  Ca¬ 
naan  which  is  given  to  Kadesh  in  its  later 
mentions  in  the  Bible-text.  Its  relations 
to  the  probable  limits  of  Edom,  and  to  all 
the  well-identified  sites  of  Southern  Canaan, 


and  its  distance  from  Mount  Sinai,  conform 
tothe  Bible  record.” — Schaff- Herzog:  Ency. 
s.  v.  See  Palmer:  Desert  of  the  Exodus 
(London,  1871),  vol.  ii.,  chap.  4;  Robinson: 
Biblical  Researches  in  Palestine  (Boston, 
1874),  vol.  ii.  pp.  175,  194:  Trumbull: 
Kadesh-Barnea  (New  York,  1883). 

Kant,  Emmanuel,  was  b.  April  22,  1724, 
in  Konigsberg,  in  which  place  he  spent  his 
entire  life,  dying  there,  Feb.  12,  1804.  This 
great  philosopher  and  metaphysician  may 
be  called  the  father  of  modern  German 
theology.  Germany  has  always  been  a 
home  of  deep  thought  and  inquiry.  Even 
in  mediaeval  times  it  produced  the  great 
mystics,  such  as  Tauler.  In  the  sixteenth 
century  it  begat  the  Reformation,  and  out 
of  the  same  source,  namely,  profound  medi¬ 
tation  upon  things  visible  and  invisible, 
not  as  seen  through  the  media  of  the 
Church,  or  of  evidences,  but  through  con¬ 
verse  of  the  personal  soul  with  God.  The 
Church  of  Rome  was  obnoxious,  as  resting 
its  claims  on  tradition;  the  seventeenth 
century  Deism  of  England  and  France,  as 
resting  upon  apologetic  evidences.  So  far 
from  Germany  rejecting  either  on  religious 
grounds,  it  was  because  each  professed  a 
religious  object  that  it  was  accepted  at  all. 
When  the  claims  of  each  were  pronounced 
insufficient,  the  attempt  was  made  to  find  a 
new  ground  for  faith,  namely,  the  internal 
reason.  Scripture  was  to  be  accepted  on 
the  ground  that  it  was  in  harmony  with 
that,  not  that  it  came  with  external  proofs 
in  its  hands.  This  is  the  origin  of  what  is 
known  to  us  as  German  Rationalism. 

Kant  was  born  and  educated  at  Konigs- 
berg,  and  in  1770  was  appointed  Professor 
of  Logic  and  Metaphysics  in  his  university. 
He  was  so  attached  to  his  native  place  that 
he  hardly  ever  left  it  all  his  long  life,  and 
never  to  go  any  distance.  He  never  mar¬ 
ried.  It  was  not  until  he  was  fifty-seven 
years  old  that  he  published  the  great  work 
which  formed  the  basis  of  his  philosophy, 
Kritik  der  Reinen  Vernunft  (“  Critique  of 
the  Pure  Reason  ”).  He  is  said  to  have 
been  a  splendid  lecturer,  illustrating  from 
travels,  novels,  all  kinds  of  literature,  with 
wonderful  profusion,  and  possessed  of  such 
humor  that  he  would  keep  a  whole  table  in 
a  roar,  while  he  preserved  his  own  gravity 
unshaken.  But  no  sign  of  humor  or  light¬ 
ness  appears  in  his  book.  He  writes  with 
deep  gravity,  as  though  cognizant  of  the 
serious  interest  of  his  subject.  It  is  impos¬ 
sible  to  give  any  kind  of  conspectus  of  this 
great  work  here.  Kant’s  philosophy  was 
opposed  to  that  of  Hume  on  one  side,  and 
to  the  later  views  of  Paley  on  the  other. 
We  will  quote  F.  D.  Maurice’s  admirable 
summary:  “  All  three  start  from  the  moral 


Kan 


(  503  ) 


Kar 


ground.  All  three  regard  speculation, 
philosophical  or  theological,  as  important 
only  for  moral  ends.  Hume  lays  his  ethical 
groundwork  in  an  easy  happiness  mainly 
social,  but  which  permits  the  amusement 
of  a  free  exercise  of  thought  to  those  who 
like  that  amusement.  To  remove  impedi¬ 
ments  from  this  happiness  he  devotes  him¬ 
self  to  abstruse  philosophy;  he  sweeps 
away  the  doctrine  of  causality,  the  belief 
in  miracles,  supernatural  fears  and  hopes 
generally.  Paley  lays  his  ethical  ground¬ 
work  also  in  happiness,  but  not  exactly  in 
easy  social  happiness.  The  world  must  be 
kept  in  order.  The  polity  of  nations  must 
be  upheld.  There  must  be  a  motive  violent 
enough  to  hinder  men  from  doing  mischief. 
The  Will  of  God,  which  Hume  had  thrown 
aside,  is  necessary  for  these  purposes. 
Such  a  Will  must  somehow  be  proved  (mir¬ 
acles  Paley  thinks  the  only  sufficient  proof) 
to  have  given  laws  to  man,  and  to  have 
confirmed  those  laws  with  sanctions  of  fear 
and  hope.  Such  a  Will  must  somehow  be 
proved  (Paley  thinks  the  adaptations  of 
works  to  different  ends  a  sufficient  proof) 
to  have  designed  our  world.  Kant  is  no  fine 
gentleman.  He  has  no  special  vocation  as 
the  protector  of  drawing-rooms  from  re¬ 
proaches  of  conscience,  or  fears  of  the  fu¬ 
ture.  Neither  does  he  perceive  that  it  is 
his  function  to  provide  the  policeman  with 
those  reproaches  and  fears  to  assist  him  in 
his  work.  But  he  has  a  strong  conviction 
that  there  is  an  authority  over  him,  which 
does  not  suspend  his  liberty,  but  without 
obedience  to  which  he  cannot  enjoy  his  lib¬ 
erty.  The  existence  of  this  law  for  himself 
and  for  his  kind — for  himself  as  one  of  a 
kind — makes  morality  possible  and  real 
for  him.  He  devotes  himself  to  abstract 
philosophy  like  Hume,  also  with  a  moral 
end  always  before  him.  But  the  results 
are  different,  as  the  starting-point  was 
different.  He  accepts  all  Hume’s  pos¬ 
itive  statements  so  far  as  they  assert  the 
dignity  of  experience,  so  far  as  they  make 
that  the  key  to  knowledge.  He  accepts 
Hume’s  negative  statements  so  far  as  they 
show  the  baselessness  of  attempts  to  draw 
principles  out  of  experience  which  are  not 
in  it.  He  says  more  than  had  ever  been 
said  before  of  the  limitation  of  the  human 
intellect.  He  says  more  than  had  ever  been 
said  before  of  the  helplessness  of  mere 
speculation.  But  all  this  searching  criti¬ 
cism,  all  this  denial  lead  us  at  last  to  the 
conclusion,  adopted  without  a  single  theo¬ 
logical  prejudice,  arrived  at  by  casting  all 
such  prejudices  aside,  that  there  are  eternal 
grounds  of  morality,  that  they  have  their 
basis  in  an  Eternal  Being,  that  conformity 
with  them  is  the  condition  of  man’s  eternal 
blessedness.” 


The  rationalizing  arguments  for  the  be¬ 
ing  of  a  God  which  had  been  adduced  by 
the  Deists,  and  which  form  the  basis  of 
Paley’s  natural  theology,  being  rejected  by 
Kant,  he  put  forth  another,  namely,  the 
needs  of  our  moral  nature.  The  sense  of 
responsibility  within  us  necessitates  our 
freedom.  Conscience  says,  You  ought, 
therefore  you  can.  Nevertheless,  reason 
tells  us  we  are  not  free.  How  is  this  diffi¬ 
culty  to  be  solved — the  voice  of  conscience 
against  the  testimony  of  fact  ?  It  can  only 
be  solved  by  the  conclusion  that  the  voice 
of  conscience  is  the  harbinger  of  the  future, 
that  we  have  instincts  which  cannot  be 
satisfied  with  temporal  ends.  Therefore 
there  must  be  a  life  beyond  this,  and  a  law 
in  whose  light  the  soul  shall  find  its  per¬ 
fect  freedom.  This  is  the  doctrine  to  which 
the  name  Transcendentalism  has  been 
given.  It  was  taken  up  and  put  into  Eng¬ 
lish  methods  of  thought  by  Coleridge,  and 
is  the  basis  of  a  great  living  school  of  Eng¬ 
lish  divines.  Upon  this  basis  Kant  pro¬ 
ceeded  to  construct  his  theory  of  Christi¬ 
anity.  But,  setting  aside  all  external 
authority,  as  he  did,  his  reconstruction  was 
simply  an  adaptation  to  his  preconceived 
ideas,  executed  by  cutting  away  whatever 
objective  facts  stood  in  its  way.  The  his¬ 
torical  Christ  might  be  true,  but  was  not  a 
necessity;  the  ideal  Christ  sufficed,  as  rep¬ 
resenting  the  necessary  truth.  “  It  would 
be  unjust,”  says  Dr.  Matheson  in  his  ex¬ 
cellent  hand-book  to  the  study  of  German 
theology,  “  to  deny  that  the  Kantian  phi¬ 
losophy  has  great  and  lasting  merits,  and 
has  left  a  claim  to  the  gratitude  of  all.  .  .  . 
It  has  indirectly  borne  a  testimony  to  the 
truth  of  Christianity,  for  it  has  shown  that 
the  ideas  of  Christianity  are  eternal  ideas, 
that  the  historical  framework  is  the  ex¬ 
pression  and  embodiment  of  the  deepest 
instincts  of  the  human  heart.” — Benham: 
Did.  of  Religion. 

Karaites  (from  the  Hebrew  Kara ,  to 
read  or  recite),  a  Jewish  sect  which,  un¬ 
like  the  Rabbinites,  rejects  tradition  and 
strictly  adheres  to  the  letter  of  the  Bible. 
Their  founder  was  Anan,  a  Babylonish 
Jew,  who  flourished  about  the  middle  of 
the  eighth  century.  He  accepted  only  the 
twenty-four  books  of  the  Bible  which  are 
in  the  Jewish  canon.  He  spoke  of  Christ 
with  great  respect  as  a  wise,  holy,  and  God¬ 
fearing  man.  The  number  of  Karaite  Jews 
has  never  been  very  large.  In  the  Crimea 
they  number  about  six  thousand,  and  at 
Damascus,  Constantinople,  and  Jerusalem 
there  are  a  few  families. 

Karens,  a  race  of  people  found  in  differ¬ 
ent  parts  of  Burmah,  living  in  temporary 


Keb 


(  504  ) 


Kei 


villages.  Drs.  Boardman  and  Judson  were 
the  first  missionaries  who  went  among 
them.  They  found  them  without  any  def¬ 
inite  forms  of  religion  and  with  no  priest¬ 
hood,  the  slaves  of  oppressive  Burman 
masters.  They  received  the  truth  of  the 
gospel  gladly.  Among  the  converts  was 
a  slave,  Kho-Thah-byu,  whose  freedom 
had  been  purchased  by  the  missionaries. 
He  had  been  a  man  of  desperate  and  mur¬ 
derous  character,  but  after  his  conversion 
he  was  indefatigable  in  his  labors  to  win 
his  people  to  Christ.  In  1882  there  were 
21,889  native  church  -  members,  and  432 
Karen  Baptist  churches,  with  ninety-one 
ordained  and  293  unordained  preachers. 
They  have  a  theological  seminary  at  Ran¬ 
goon  with  thirty-one  students.  See  King: 
Life  of  Boardman ;  Wayland:  Life  of  fud- 
son. 

Keble,  John,  one  of  the  most  popular  of 
English  sacred  poets  ;  b.  at  Fairford, 
Gloucester,  April  25,  1792:  d.  at  Bourne¬ 
mouth,  Mar.  29,  1866.  He  entered  Corpus 
Christi  College,  Oxford,  in  1806  and  was 
made  a  fellow  of  Oriel  in  1811.  While 
here  he  was  brought  into  close  relation 
with  Arnold,  Pusey,  Newman,  and  others 
whose  names  have  become  so  widely 
known.  Declining  other  opportunities  in 
the  line  of  scholarly  advancement,  he 
sought  ordination  and  became  curate  of 
East  Leach  and  Burthorpe  (1823),  from 
which  he  removed  in  1825  to  assume  the 
curacy  of  Hursley,  Hampshire,  where  he 
became  vicar  in  1835,  and  spent  the  re¬ 
mainder  of  his  life.  From  1831  to  1841  he 
held  the  lectureship  of  poetry  at  Oxford. 

Keble  was  prominently  connected  with 
the  development  of  the  Oxford,  or  Tracta- 
rian  movement,  but  it  is  as  a  writer  of  de¬ 
votional  poetry  that  he  is  most  widely 
known.  His  collection  of  sacred  lyrics, 
published  under  the  title  of  The  Christian 
Year ,  appeared  in  1827  and  attained  to 
great  popularity.  Between  1827  and  1873, 
when  the  copyright  expired,  a  hundred 
and  forty  editions  had  been  called  for.  In 
1839  Keble  published  a  Metrical  Version  of 
the  Psalter ,  and  in  1846  a  collection  of 
poems  for  children,  entitled  Lyra  Innocent- 
ium.  He  also  prepared  an  edition  of  the 
Works  of  Richard  Hooker ,  published  at  Ox¬ 
ford  in  1836.  A  few  of  Keble’s  hymns  have 
found  a  place  in  English  hymnals.  Among 
them  are  the  well-known  “O  God  of  mercy, 
God  of  might,”  and  the  beautiful  evening 
song,  “  Sun  of  my  soul,  thou  Saviour 
dear.”  Keble  prepared  several  of  the  once 
famous  Tracts  for  the  I'itnes ,  and  while  in 
sympathy  with  the  extreme  High-Church 
party,  he  did  not  leave  the  communion  of 
the  English  Church.  Genial  and  modest 


in  spirit,  he  was  an  earnest  and  impressive 
preacher,  and  attractive  in  social  inter¬ 
course.  See  Tractarianism. 

Ke'dron:  See  Kidron. 

Keim,  Carl  Theodor,  D.  D.,  rationalis¬ 
tic  theologian  and  historian;  b.  at  Stutt¬ 
gart,  Dec.  17,  1825;  d.  at  Giessen,  Nov.  1 7, 
1878.  He  studied  at  Tubingen  and  Bonn, 
and  after  teaching  a  few  years  he  became 
pastor  in  Esslingen,  Wtirtemburg,  1856—59; 
ordinary  professor  of  historical  theology 
at  the  University  of  Zurich,  1860-73;  at 
Giessen  from  1873  until  his  death.  It  was 
as  a  student  and  historian  of  the  beginnings 
of  Christianity  that  he  won  his  great  fame. 
His  fesus  of  Nazareth  and  the  National 
Life  of  Israel  Zurich,  1867-72,  Eng.  trans. 
London,  1873-82),  is  the  most  remarkable 
life  of  Jesus  that  has  been  written,  from  a 
rationalistic  standpoint.  His  last  work 
was  a  series  of  Essays  upon  Points  Connect¬ 
ed  with  Primitive  Christianity  (Zurich, 
1878).  He  was  the  most  learned  and  emi¬ 
nent  historian  of  the  Reformation  in  Swa¬ 
bia.  Theologically  he  belonged  to  the 
school  of  Baur.  He  rejected  the  fourth 
Gospel,  but  admitted  the  superhuman  char¬ 
acter  of  Christ.  See  sketch  of  his  life  by 
H.  Ziegler,  prefixed  to  his  Rom  und  das 
Christenthum ,  published  posthumously 
(1881). 

Keith,  Alexander,  D.  D.,  famous  as 
the  author  of  several  works  on  prophecy; 
b.  at  Keith  Hall,  Aberdeenshire,  Scotland, 
1791;  d.  in  Buxton,  Feb.  7,1880.  He  was 
ordained  as  minister  of  St.  Cyrus,  Kin¬ 
cardineshire,  in  1816,  and  in  1824  published 
his  first  work,  Evidence  of  the  Truth  of  the 
Christian  Religion ,  derived  from  the  Literal 
Fulfihnent  of  Prophecy.  Forty  editions  of 
this  book  were  published  in  the  author’s 
life-time.  Among  his  works  are:  The  Signs 
of  the  Times  (1832);  The  Harmony  of  Proph¬ 
ecy  (1851);  History  and  Destiny  of  the 
World  and  of  the  Church  (1861).  In  1843 
he  aided  in  founding  the  Free  Church  of 
Scotland.  He  early  retired  from  the  active 
work  of  the  ministry  and  devoted  himself 
to  literary  work. 

Keith,  George,  b.  in  Aberdeen,  Scotland, 
about  1640;  d.  in  Edburton,  Sussex,  about 
1714.  In  early  life  he  was  an  ardent 
Quaker,  and  was  associated  with  Robert 
Barclay  and  George  Fox  in  public  discus¬ 
sions  for  the  defense  of  the  sect.  In  1684 
he  was  imprisoned  in  Newgate  for  preach¬ 
ing  without  license,  and  for  refusing  to 
take  an  oath.  Soon  after  this  he  sailed  for 
America,  and  became  surveyor-general  of 
East  Jersey.  Visiting  New  England  in 


Kem 


(  505  ) 


Ken 


1690,  he  became  engaged  in  disputation 
with  Cotton  and  Increase  Mather.  On  re¬ 
turning  to  Philadelphia  he  became  involved 
in  a  doctrinal  controversy  with  his  own 
people,  that  led  to  his  founding  a  new  sect 
known  as  Christian  Quakers  or  “  Keith- 
ians.”  Soon  after,  he  entered  the  Church  of 
England,  and  became  a  missionary  in 
America  among  the  Quakers,  many  of 
whom  were  led  by  him  to  renounce  their 
faith.  He  returned  to  England  in  1706,  and 
was  appointed  rector  of  Edburton,  where  he 
died.  He  was  a  man  of  wide  learning,  and 
wrote  several  volumes,  among  them,  The 
Standard  of  the  Quakers  Examined;  or ,  An 
Answer  to  the  Apology  of  Robert  Barclay 
( 1 702).  See  Tanney’s  History  of  the  Friends 
(Phila.  1867). 

Kempis,  Thomas  a,  the  author  of  the 
De  Imitatione  Christi  (“  The  Imitation  of 
Christ”);  b.  in  1379  or  1380,  at  Kempen, 
forty  miles  north  of  Cologne;  d.  July  26, 
1471,  at  Zwolle,  in  the  Netherlands.  He 
was  educated  at  a  famous  school  in  Deven¬ 
ter.  In  1400  he  entered  the  Augustine 
convent  at  Mount  St.  Agnes,  near  Zwolle; 
was  ordained  priest  in  1413,  and  became 
subprior  in  1429.  His  life  was  uneventful, 
and  found  its  highest  enjoyment  in  the 
quiet  of  the  convent  cloisters  and  the  culti¬ 
vation  of  a  mystical  type  of  piety.  He 
wrote  a  number  of  works  in  Latin  of  a  de¬ 
votional  character,  but  his  fame  rests  upon 
the  De  Imitatione  Christi.  This  remark¬ 
able  book  of  spiritual  meditations,  next  to 
the  Bible,  has  been  more  extensively  used 
as  a  manual  of  devotion  than  any  other 
work.  Translated  into  many  languages  it 
has  passed  through  innumerable  editions. 
During  the  seventeenth  century  a  heated 
discussion  arose  as  to  the  authorship  of 
the  Imitation  of  Christ.  Some  ascribed  it 
to  the  learned  chancellor  of  Paris,  John 
Gerson  ( q .  v.),  others  to  an  abbot  of  the 
order  of  St.  Benedict,  John  Gersen.  As 
to  the  chancellor,  there  is  no  contemporary 
testimony  favoring  his  claim,  and  the  latter 
appears  to  have  been  a  mythical  person, 
brought  forward  to  advance  the  interests 
of  the  Benedictine  order.  The  burden  of 
proof  is  altogether  in  favor  of  Thomas  a 
Kempis.  See  Kettlewell:  The  Authorship 
of  the  De  Ir)iitatione  Christi  (London,  1877). 

Ken,  Thomas,  bishop  of  the  Church  of 
England  and  author  of  the  doxology, 
“  Praise  God  from  whom  all  blessings 
flow  ;”  b.  at  Berkhampstead,  Hertford¬ 
shire,  July,  1637  :  d.  at  Longleat,  March 
19,  1711.  He  was  a  graduate  of  Oxford, 
and  fellow  of  Winchester,  and  prebendary 
of  the  cathedral  in  1669.  He  was  with 
Charles  II.  in  his  last  hours  and  offered 


him  the  sacrament,  which  the  king  refused, 
while  he  respected  the  man  who  had  faith¬ 
fully  admonished  him  in  days  of  health 
and  prosperity.  He  was  loyal  to  James 
II.,  but  was  one  of  the  seven  bishops  sent 
to  the  Tower  for  refusing  to  read  the 
Declaration  of  Indulgence.  After  the  ac¬ 
cession  of  William  and  Mary,  he  was  de¬ 
prived,  in  1691,  of  his  see,  and  retired  to 
Longleat  where  he  spent  the  rest  of  his 
life.  He  was  a  man  of  devout  spirit,  and 
fearless  independence.  He  was  the  au¬ 
thor  of  many  well-known  hymns;  among 
them  are  the  Doxology,  and  “  Awake,  my 
soul,  and  with  the  sun,”  and  “  Glory  to 
thee,  my  God,  this  night.”  Ken’s  Poetical 
Works  with  Life ,  by  Hawkins,  were  pub¬ 
lished  in  4  vols.,  London,  1721;  his  Prose 
Works,  London,  1838. 

Kendrick,  Asahel  Clark,  D.  D.  (Union 
College,  Schenectady,  N.  Y.,  1845),  LL.  D. 
(Lewisburg  University,  Lewisburg,  Penn., 
1870),  Baptist;  b.  at  Poultney,  Vt.,  Dec. 
7,1809;  was  graduated  at  Hamilton  College, 
Clinton,  N.  Y.,  1831;  professor  of  Greek 
in  Madison  University,  Hamilton,  N.  Y. , 
1832-50,  and  since  then  has  taught  in  the 
Rochester(N.  Y.)  University  and  the  Theo¬ 
logical  Seminary  in  same  city.  He  was  a 
member  of  the  American  Bible  Revision 
Committee  (1871-81)  and  has  published 
valuable  translations  :  Olshausen’s  Com¬ 
mentary  (1856-58),  6  vols.;  Moll  on  He¬ 
brews  in  Lange  series  (1868)  ;  Meyer’s 
Connnentdry  on  John  (1884). 

Ken'ite  {smith),  a  small  tribe  belonging 
to  the  Midianites.  They  dwelt  in  the  re¬ 
gion  east  of  the  Gulf  of  Akabah,  between 
Palestine  and  Sinai.  They  are  first  men¬ 
tioned  in  Abraham’s  time.  (Gen.  xv.  19.) 
Balaam  mentions  them  in  his  prophecy. 
(Num.  xxiv.  21.)  At  a  later  period  some 
of  them  lived  in  the  northern  part  of  Ca¬ 
naan  (Judg.  iv.  11),  and  some  in  the  ex¬ 
treme  south,  near  Judah.  (Judg.  i.  16.) 
Because  of  their  kindness  to  Israel  while 
in  the  wilderness,  Saul  spared  them  and 
allowed  them  to  share  in  the  spoils  taken 
from  the  Amalekites.  (1  Sam.  xv.  6;  xxvii. 
10;  xxx.  29.) 

Kennicott,  Benjamin,  an  eminent  He¬ 
brew  scholar;  b.  at  Totnes,  Devonshire, 
April  4,  1718;  d.  at  Oxford,  Sept.  18,  1783. 
Educated  at  Oxford,  while  still  an  under¬ 
graduate  he  published  two  dissertations: 
the  first  on  The  Tree  of  Life  in  Paradise, 
and  the  second  on  The  Oblations  of  Cain 
and  Abel,  which  were  received  with  such 
favor  that  he  was  made  fellow  of  Exeter 
College.  His  great  life-work  was  the  prep¬ 
aration  of  his  Hebrew  Bible.  Aided  by 


Ken 


(  506  ) 


Kid 


large  contributions  for  this  purpose,  a 
number  of  learned  scholars  labored  under 
his  directions  in  collating  Hebrew  manu¬ 
scripts.  Nine  years  were  devoted  to  this 
work,  and  Dr.  Kennicott  published  an  an¬ 
nual  account  of  the  progress  made.  His 
preference  for  the  Samaritan  Pentateuch 
and  neglect  of  the  Massorah  has  been  se¬ 
verely  criticised,  but  his  service  in  textual 
criticism  merits  the  highest  praise. 

Kenosis.  See  Christology,  p.  183. 

Kenrick,  Francis  Patrick,  American 
Roman  Catholic  prelate;  b.  in  Dublin,  Dec. 
3,  1797;  d.  in  Baltimore,  July  8,  1863.  He 
was  educated  at  the  Propaganda,  Rome, 
and  came  to  this  country  in  1821.  He  be¬ 
came  coadjutor-bishop  at  Bardstown,  Ky., 


withhold  their  privileges.  This  authority 
is  based  upon  the  declaration  of  Christ  to 
Peter,  “  I  will  give  unto  thee  the  keys  of 
the  kingdom  of  heaven,”  etc.  (Matt.  xvi. 
19.)  They  make  this  expression  to  refer 
to  the  government  of  the  Church  as  admin¬ 
istered  through  its  spiritual  leaders.  Ro¬ 
man  Catholics  hold  that  this  command  gave 
to  Peter  an  authority  above  that  of  the 
other  apostles,  while  Episcopalians  contend 
that  Christ  regarded  Peter  as  the  represent¬ 
ative  of  the  apostles. 

Khan.  See  Inn. 

Kid'ron,  or  Ke'dron,  a  small  stream,  dry 
in  summer  but  swollen  into  a  torrent  in  the 
rainy  season.  It  rises  a  mile  and  a  half 
northwest  of  Jerusalem,  strikes  the  north- 


GORGE  OF  THE  KIDRON,  NEAR  THE  MONASTERY  OF  MAR  SABA. 


1830;  full  bishop,  1842;  archbishop  of  Bal¬ 
timore,  1852.  In  1859  the  pope  conferred 
upon  him  and  his  successors  the  “  primacy 
of  honor,”  which  places  the  see  of  Balti¬ 
more  at  the  head  of  the  Roman  Catholic 
clergy  in  the  United  States.  He  wrote 
Theologia  Dogmatica  (Phila. ,  1839-40),  4 
vols.,  and  Theologia  Moralis  ( Phila. ,  1841- 
43),  3  vols.  These  works  are  in  Latin  and 
are  in  use  in  all  the  Roman  Catholic  semi¬ 
naries.  He  published  an  annotated  and  re¬ 
vised  translation  of  the  New  Testament, 
and  also  of  several  books  of  the  Old  Tes¬ 
tament,  which  rank  among  the  best  of  the 
Roman  Catholic  versions. 

Keys,  Power  of  the.  This  is  the  name 
given  to  the  authority,  claimed  by  churches 
of  Episcopal  polity,  to  communicate  or 


eastern  corner  of  the  wall  of  the  city,  and 
passes  through  a  deep  gorge  in  the  Valley 
of  Jehoshaphat,  between  Mount  Moriah 
and  Mount  Olivet,  and  continues  its  course 
through  a  wild  and  dismal  channel  through 
the  wilderness  of  Judah,  and  passing  the 
curious  and  lonely  convent  of  Mar  Saba. 
Its  name,  from  a  Hebrew  root  signifying 
“  black,”  may  refer  both  to  the  gloom  of 
the  valley  through  which  it  runs  and  the 
historical  associations  connected  with  it. 
Here  Athaliah  was  executed  (2  Kings  xi.  16), 
and  the  abominations  of  idol  worship  were 
brought  and  destroyed.  (2  Chron.  xxix.  16; 
xxx.  14;  2  Kings  xxiii.  4,  6,  12.)  The  two 
historic  events  of  deepest  interest  connect¬ 
ed  with  this  stream  are  David’s  crossing  it 
on  his  flight  from  Jerusalem  when  Absalom 
rebelled  (2  Sam,  xv,  23,  30),  and  Christ’s 


Kil 


(  507  ) 


Kin 


crossing  it  on  his  way  to  Gethsemane. 
(Johnxviii.  1;  Mark  xiv.  26;  Luke  xxii.  39.) 

Kilham,  Alexander,  founder  of  the 
“  New  Connection  of  Wesleyan  Method¬ 
ists,”  often  called  the  “  Kilhamites;”  b. 
at  Epworth,  Eng. ,  July  10,  1762;  d.  in  1798. 
He  became  an  itinerant  minister  under 
Wesley  in  1785,  and  was  an  earnest  advo¬ 
cate  of  the  separation  of  the  Methodists 
from  the  Church  of  England.  He  was  ex¬ 
pelled  from  the  London  Conference  in  1796, 
and  with  a  band  of  sympathizers  formed 
the  “  New  Connection.”  See  Methodism 
in  Great  Britain  and  Ireland. 

Kilian,  St.,  was  born  in  Ireland  about 
the  middle  of  the  seventh  century.  Im¬ 
pelled  by  a  strong  desire  to  seek  the  con¬ 
version  of  those  in  paganism,  he  visited 
Franconia  with  eleven  companions  in  685. 
Desiring  full  authority  in  his  mission  he 
was  consecrated  bishop  in  686  by  Pope 
Conon.  Within  a  short  time  a  large  part 
of  the  population  were  converted.  Gos- 
pert,  the  governor  of  the  province,  had 
married  Geila,  the  wife  of  his  brother,  and 
after  his  conversion  Kilian  persuaded  him 
to  give  her  up.  In  revenge  Geila  caused 
Kilian  and  his  companions  to  be  assassinat¬ 
ed,  July  8,  689.  According  to  tradition, 
Geila,  Gosbert  and  his  descendants  suffer¬ 
ed  violent  death. 

Kimchi,  David,  a  learned  Jewish  rabbi; 
b.  in  1160;  d.  about  1240.  He  was  a  pro¬ 
lific  writer,  and  prepared  a  Hebrew  gram¬ 
mar,  which  has  been  used  as  the  basis  of 
nearly  all  modern  works.  He  wrote  a 
commentary  on  the  Psalms,  Genesis,  and 
all  the  prophetical  books.  His  commen¬ 
tary  on  Zechariah  was  translated  into  Eng¬ 
lish  by  McCaul  (London,  1837). 

King,  Jonas  D.  D.,  b.  at  Hawley,  Mass., 
July  29,  1792;  d.  at  Athens,  Greece,  May 
22,  1869.  Graduating  at  Williams  College, 
1816,  and  Andover  Seminary  1819,  he  first 
engaged  in  home-mission  work.  From 
1823  to  1825  he  traveled  in  Egypt  and 
Syria.  In  1828  he  relinquished  the  pro¬ 
fessorship  of  languages  at  Amherst  Col¬ 
lege,  and  went  to  Greece  as  a  missionary. 
His  labors  there  were  attended  with  great 
difficulties,  owing  to  the  opposition  of  the 
Greek  Church.  In  1844  he  published  a 
book  on  Mariolatry,  which  was  condemned 
by  the  Greek  Synod.  At  their  instigation 
he  was  brought  to  public  trial.  He  was 
condemned  to  be  tried  before  the  felon’s 
court  in  Sj’ria.  The  excitement  was  in¬ 
tense,  and  his  life  was  threatened;  but 
through  the  efforts  of  British  and  Ameri¬ 
can  representatives  the  trial  was  post¬ 


poned,  and  he  was  permitted  to  return  to 
Athens  and  resume  his  work.  He  suffered 
from  persecution  at  different  times,  but  it 
was  not  until  1852  that  he  was  again 
brought  to  trial.  He  was  condemned  to 
fifteen  days’  imprisonment,  and  to  leave 
the  country.  He  spent  one  day  in  prison, 
and  the  following  day  was  taken  to  the 
police-office,  when,  falling  ill,  he  was  re¬ 
moved  to  his  home  and  put  under  guard. 
He  protested,  in  the  name  of  the  United 
States,  of  which  he  was  now  the  consular 
agent.  In  1854  the  king  of  Greece  issued 
an  order  freeing  Dr.  King  from  the  pen¬ 
alty  of  exile.  He  continued  his  work,  in 
the  face  of  much  petty  persecution,  until 
the  close  of  his  life.  He  wrote  several 
volumes  in  Arabic,  Greek,  and  French, 
and  did  much  in  circulating  school-books 
and  the  Scriptures.  See  his  Memoir  (New 
York,  1879). 

King,  Thomas  Starr,  an  eminent  Uni¬ 
tarian  minister;  b.  in  New  York  City,  Dec. 
17,  1824;  d.  in  San  Francisco,  Cal.,  March 
4,  1864.  The  death  of  his  father,  who  was 
a  Universalist  minister,  compelled  him  to 
give  up  an  academic  course  of  education. 
While  engaged  in  business  he  made  such 
good  use  of  his  leisure  moments  that,  in 
1845,  he  entered  the  ministry.  In  1846 
he  was  settled  as  pastor  of  a  Universalist 
church  in  Charlestown,  and  from  1848  to 
i860  over  the  Hollis  Street  Unitarian 
Church  in  Boston.  In  i860  he  accepted 
a  call  to  San  Francisco,  where  he  labored 
until  his  death.  His  influence  in  this  city 
in  favor  of  the  Union  cause  at  the  break¬ 
ing  out  of  the  civil  war  was  very  great. 
He  was  an  eloquent  orator  and  a  pleasing 
writer.  Several  collections  of  his  lectures 
and  sermons  have  been  printed.  He  pub¬ 
lished  but  one  book:  The  White  Hills: 
Their  Legends ,  Landscapes,  and  Poetry 
(1859),  but  several  volumes  of  his  lectures 
and  sermons  have  appeared  since  his  death. 
See  Afemoir,  by  E.  P.  Whipple,  in  volume 
of  sermons  (Boston,  1877). 

Kingdom  of  Heaven  (Gr.  the  heavens')'. 
of  God.  “The  former  is  Matthew’s  phrase, 
the  latter  Mark’s  and  Luke’s  ;  derived 
from  Dan.  ii.  44;  iv.  26;  vii.  13,  14,  27. 
Messiah’s  kingdom,  as  a  whole,  both  in  its 
present  spiritual  invisible  phase,  the  gos¬ 
pel  dispensation  of  grace,  and  also  in  its 
future  manifestation  on  earth  in  glory, 
when  finally  heaven  and  earth  shall  be 
joined.  (John  i.  51;  Rev.  xxi. ;  xxii.)  Our 
Lord’s  parables  designate  several  aspects 
and  phases  of  it  by  the  one  common 
phrase,  ‘  the  kingdom  of  the  heavens,’ 
or,  ‘  of  God,  is  like,’  etc.” — Fausset:  Bible 
Cyclopedia. 


Kin  (  508  )  Kin 


Kingly  Office  of  Christ.  See  Jesus 
Christ,  Three  Offices  of. 

Kings  of  Israel.  “  The  name  was  given 
in  Israel  first  to  Saul,  then  to  David  and 
Solomon,  and  then  to  the  rulers  of  Israel 
and  Judah,  until  the  Captivity.  The  divine 
plan  was  that  God  alone  should  be  king. 
But  provision  was  made  for  the  natural 
desire  of  the  people  for  a  king  like  those 
of  other  nations.  (Deut.  xvii.  14;  1  Sam. 
viii.  9.)  He  was  to  be  a  native  Israelite; 
was  not  to  multiply  horses,  nor  take  the 
people  back  to  Egypt,  nor  gather  a  harem, 
nor  accumulate  great  treasure;  he  was  to 
keep  a  copy  of  the  Law  by  him,  and  study 
it,  to  fear  God,  be  obedient,  humble,  and 
righteous.  .  .  .  The  kings  over  the  He¬ 
brews  were  regarded  as  the  representa¬ 
tives  of  God,  drawing  their  power  and  re¬ 
ceiving  their  appointments  from  him.  The 
kings’  revenues  were  from  crown-lands, 
flocks,  tithes,  tributes,  customs,  presents, 
trading,  spoils  of  war,  and  enforced  labor. 
(1  Sam.  viii. ;  1  Kings  xx. ;  2  Chron.  xxvii.) 
During  life  they  were  surrounded  by 
splendor  and  signs  of  honor;  after  death 
they  were  buried  in  the  royal  cemetery. 
(1  Kings  ii.  10.)” — Schaff:  Bible  Dict.,s.  v. 

Kings,  I.  and  II.  “  These  books,  like  the 
two  preceding,  formed  originally  one,  and 
appear  as  one  in  the  Hebrew  canon.  The 
division  into  two  was  the  work  of  the 
LXX.,  in  which,  as  in  the  Vulgate,  they 
are  designated  severally  as  the  ‘  Third  and 
Fourth  Books  of  Kings  ’ — the  books  of 
Samuel  being  called  the  First  and  Second. 
They  contain,  as  the  title  implies,  the  his¬ 
tory  of  the  nation  under  the  kings,  and  the 
narrative  covers  a  period  from  its  estab¬ 
lishment  under  David  to  the  fall  of  the 
kingdom  of  Judah.  It  commences  with  the 
death  of  David,  and  the  accession  of  Solo¬ 
mon,  1015  b.  c. ,  and  extends  about  the  year 
560  B.  c.  During  this  time  the  kingdom 
falls  into  two,  named  respectively  Israel 
and  Judah.  For  their  sins  both  kingdoms  go 
into  captivity,  first  Israel,  and  then  Judah 
130  years  after.  It  is  less  a  history  of  the 
kings  themselves  than  of  the  theocracy,  in 
which  the  prophets  play  a  conspicuous  and 
important  rdle,  as  it  is  according  as  their 
words  are  listened  to,  or  disregarded,  that 
the  national  fortunes  are  determined.  The 
author  appears  to  have  belonged  to  this 
class,  but  who  he  was  is  uncertain.  The 
Talmud  assigns  the  work  to  Jeremiah,  but 
this  is  improbable.  The  author  writes 
after  the  commencement  of  the  Captivity, 
and  from  the  place  of  it,  but  he  draws  from 
documents  of  an  earlier  date,  and  incorpo¬ 
rates  in  his  account  narratives,  many  of 
which  look  as  if  they  proceeded  from  con¬ 


temporaries.  His  object,  which  is  didactic, 
is  to  show  how  Israel,  on  the  one  hand, 
because  of  her  apostasy  and  persistent  dis¬ 
regard  of  the  prophet’s  word,  fell  into 
deeper  and  deeper  guilt,  till  she  became 
hopelessly  demoralized,  and  had  to  be 
driven  from  her  land;  and  how  Judah,  on 
the  other  hand,  though  she  too  must  go 
into  captivity,  might,  if  she  repented,  and 
returned  to  the  Lord,  yet  recover  all  her 
forfeited  privileges. 

“  Contents. — The  history  is  divided  into 
three  parts,  and  gives  an  account  (a)  of  the 
Reign  of  Solomon,  (b)  of  the  Kingdoms  of 
Israel  and  Judah  till  the  fall  of  the  former, 
and  ( c )  of  the  Kingdom  of  Judah  after  the 
dispersion  of  Israel  till  the  captivity  to 
Babylon.”  —  Bagster:  Bible  Helps.  See 
Commentaries  of  Bahr  in  Lange  (1872); 
Rawlinson  in  Speaker' s  Commentary  (Lon¬ 
don,  1873). 

Kingsley,  Calvin,  D.  D.,  LL.  D.,  a 
bishop  of  the  Methodist  Episcopal  Church; 
b.  at  Annsville,  Oneida  County,  N.  Y. , 
Sept.  8,  1812;  d.  at  Beirut,  Syria,  April  6, 
1870.  After  graduating  at  Allegheny  Col¬ 
lege,  Meadville,  Pa.  (1841),  he  was  ap¬ 
pointed  professor  of  mathematics  in  that 
institution,  and  with  the  exception  of  two 
years  of  pastoral  service,  he  remained  in 
this  position  until  1856.  He  then  became 
editor  of  the  Western  Christian  Advocate , 
which  service  he  continued  until  elected 
bishop  in  1864.  In  1869  he  visited  China 
and  India  on  an  episcopal  tour,  and  had 
reached  Syria  on  his  homeward  journey 
when  he  suddenly  died.  He  published: 
Resurrection  of  the  Human  Body  (1845)  ; 
A  round  the  World  ( I S  70). 

Kings'ley,  Charles,  “  b.  at  Holne,  near 
Dartmoor,  in  Devonshire,  June  12,  1819; 
d.  at  Eversley,  in  Hampshire,  Jan.  23, 
1875;  an  English  clergyman,  from  1846  to 
his  death  rector  of  Eversley,  and  from 
1859  to  1869  professor  of  modern  history  in 
the  University  of  Cambridge.  He  is  best 
known,  however,  as  a  social  reformer,  and 
as  the  author  of  many  works  of  distinguish¬ 
ed  merit,  which  have  a  place  quite  their 
own  in  the  literature  of  the  nineteenth  cen¬ 
tury.  His  first  work  to  attract  attention 
was  Alton  Locke ,  Tailor  and  Poet  (published 
in  1850),  the  object  of  which  was  to  illus¬ 
trate,  in  the  form  of  fiction,  the  evils  of 
competition  and  the  grievances  of  the 
working-classes.  In  1851  he  published 
Yeast:  A  Problem ,  in  which  he  considered 
more  particularly  the  condition  of  the  ag¬ 
ricultural  laborers,  and  advocated  what  is 
substantially  a  system  of  Christian  social¬ 
ism.  The  publication  of  these  works  gave 
to  Kingsley  an  audience  among  social  re- 


Kir 


(  509  ) 


Kit 


formers  such  as  is  secured  by  few  clergy¬ 
men  of  the  Church  of  England,  or  of  any 
church;  but  they  were  exceeded  in  power 
by  Hypatia  ;  or ,  New  Foes  with  an  Old  Face 
(1851);  Westward  Ho;  or ,  the  Voyages  and 
Adventures  of  Sir  Amyas  Leigh  in  the  Reign 
of  Queen  Elizabeth  (1853);  and  Two  Years 
Ago  (1857).  He  also  wrote  a  dramatic 
poem,  'The  Saints'  Tragedy  (1846);  Androm¬ 
eda  (a  long  poem  in  hexameters),  and  sev¬ 
eral  shorter  poems  and  ballads.  Among 
his  other  works  are:  Glaucus  ;  or,  the  Won¬ 
ders  of  the  Shore;  The  Water-Babies  (an  ex¬ 
quisite  story  for  children);  and  Hereward, 
the  Last  of  the  English.  He  was  also  the 
author  of  many  smaller  pieces,  of  two  vol¬ 
umes  of  Miscellanies ,  and  of  several  vol¬ 
umes  of  Sermons.  He  was  appointed 
canon  of  Chester  in  1869,  and,  shortly  be¬ 
fore  his  death,  canon  of  Westminster.  His 
Life  and  Correspondence ,  edited  by  his  wife, 
serve  to  show,  not  only  his  devotion  and 
courage  and  the  remarkable  earnestness 
and  unselfishness  of  his  life,  but  also  the 
geniality  and  kindliness  of  his  spirit,  which 
endeared  him  to  all  who  knew  him.” — Cas¬ 
sell’s  Ency. 

Kirk,  Edward  Norris, D.  D. ,  an  eminent 
preacher  and  revivalist;  b.  in  New  York 
City,  Aug.  14,  1802;  d.  in  Boston,  March 

27,  1874.  He  was  graduated  at  Princeton  in 
1820,  and  commenced  the  study  of  law,  but 
soon  decided  to  enter  the  ministry.  After 
completing  his  theological  studies,  and  a 
brief  service  as  agent  of  the  American 
Board,  he  became  pastor,  in  1828,  of  a  re¬ 
cently  organized  Presbyterian  church  at 
Albany.  He  remained  here  until  1837, 
when  ill-health  compelled  his  resignation. 
While  visiting  Europe  he  represented  the 
Evangelical  Alliance,  of  which  he  was  sec¬ 
retary.  Upon  his  return  he  accepted  the 
pastorate,  in  1842,  of  the  Mount  Vernon 
Congregational  Church  in  Boston.  He 
preached  here  until  1871,  when  he  accepted 
the  aid  of  a  colleague.  He  was  eminently 
successful  in  his  earlier  years  as  a  revival¬ 
ist,  and  was  an  effective  speaker  and  faith¬ 
ful  pastor.  In  later  years  he  was  almost 
entirely  blind.  He  published  two  volumes 
of  sermons  and  Lectures  on  Parables ,  be¬ 
sides  several  small  books  issued  by  the 
American  Tract  Society.  See  Life  of  Ed¬ 
ward  Norris  Kirk ,  by  D.  O.  Mears  (1877). 

Kirkland,  Samuel,  a  famous  missionary 
among  the  Indians;  b.  in  Norwich,  Conn., 
Dec.  1,  1744;  d.  at  Clinton,  N.  Y.,  Feb. 

28,  1808.  After  graduating  at  the  College 
of  New  Jersey  in  1765,  he  entered  the  Con¬ 
gregational  ministry.  He  labored  among 
the  Indians  of  the  Six  Nations  and  served 
as  a  chaplain  in  the  Revolutionary  War. 


He  founded,  in  1793,  the  Hamilton  Oneida 
Academy,  from  which  Hamilton  College 
had  its  origin. 

Kirk-Session  is  the  lowest  ecclesiastical 
court  in  the  Presbyterian  churches  of  Scot¬ 
land,  consisting  of  the  elders  and  the  minis¬ 
ter  who  presides. 

Ki'shon,  the  present  Nabr  Mukutta.  The 
upper  part,  rising  on  Tabor  and  Little  Her- 
mon,  is  dry  in  summer,  but  a  torrent  in 
winter.  Fed  by  springs  at  the  foot  of  Car¬ 
mel,  the  stream  is  then  perennial  in  its 
flow,  and,  draining  the  plain  of  Esdraelon, 
passes  through  the  plains  of  Acre  and  falls 
into  the  Mediterranean.  In  Psa.  lxxx.  9,  it 
is  called  Ki'son. 

Kiss  of  Peace.  In  the  early  Church  this 
form  of  salutation  was  in  use  as  an  expres¬ 
sion  of  Christian  affection.  (Rom.  xvi.  16; 

1  Cor.  xvi.  20;  2  Cor.  xiii.  12;  1  Thess.  v. 
26;  1  Pet.  v.  14.)  The  kiss  of  peace  was 
given  to  all,  young  and  old.  Origen  and 
Clement  of  Alexandria,  with  others,  called 
attention  to  some  annoyances  connected 
with  the  custom,  and  in  time  certain  restric¬ 
tions  were  imposed.  The  custom  still  sur¬ 
vives  in  the  Eastern  Church,  but  in  the 
Western  it  was  superseded  after  the  thir¬ 
teenth  century  by  the  use  of  the  “  osculato- 
rium,”  a  plate  of  wood  or  metal  with  a 
figure  of  Christ  on  the  cross  stamped  upon 
it.  This  was  kissed,  first  by  the  priest  and 
then  by  all  the  people,  as  a  token  of  their 
mutual  love.  The  plate  is  now  given  only 
at  high  mass,  and  is  embraced  and  not 
kissed. 

Kitto,  John,  D.  D.;  b.  at  Plymouth, 
Eng.,  Dec.  4,  1804;  d.  at  Cannstadt,  Wiir- 
temburg,  Germany,  Nov.  25,  1854.  A  fall 
from  a  ladder  when  but  thirteen  years  of 
age  caused  total  deafness  for  the  rest  of  his 
life.  His  father,  who  was  a  mason  by 
trade,  was  compelled  to  let  his  son  for  a 
time  find  shelter  in  the  Plymouth  work- 
house.  Here  he  learned  the  trade  of  a 
shoemaker,  and  in  1821  was  apprenticed  to 
a  master  who  treated  him  with  such  cruelty 
that  he  was  set  free  from  his  indentures  by 
judicial  action.  The  gentlemen  who  were 
interested  in  his  case  were  so  impressed 
with  his  intellectual  proficiency  that  they 
secured  for  him  the  position  of  assistant 
librarian  at  the  public  library  of  Plymouth. 
His  love  of  reading,  with  these  increased 
opportunities,  was  fully  improved,  and  he 
gave  special  attention  to  the  study  of  the 
Bible,  and  cherished  the  hope  of  becoming 
a  missionary.  A  Mr.  Groves,  a  dentist  of 
Exeter,  took  him  into  his  family  and  offer¬ 
ed  to  teach  him  his  profession.  While 


Kli 


(  5io  ) 


Kno 


here  (1825)  he  published  Essays  and  Letters , 
by  John  Kitto ,  which  attracted  considerable 
attention.  Mr.  Groves,  who  had  decided 
to  become  a  missionary,  learning  that 
printers  were  wanted  to  go  to  the  foreign 
stations  of  the  Church  Missionary  Society, 
generously  paid  the  expense  by  which 
Kitto  fitted  himself  for  this  work.  He  was 
at  the  Missionary  College  at  Islington,  in 
1825,  and  from  1827  to  1829  was  in  the 
service  of  the  society  at  Malta,  but  his 
health  failed,  and  he  became  tutor  to  Mr. 
Groves’  children  during  an  extended  tour 
through  the  East.  Finding  that  his  deaf¬ 
ness  made  it  impossible  to  prosecute  mis¬ 
sionary  labors  he  returned  to  England,  and 
engaged  in  the  production  of  the  biblical 
works  that  have  immortalized  his  name. 
His  Pictorial  Bible  was  published  in  1838; 
History  of  Palestine ,  1843;  Daily  Bible  Il¬ 
lustrations,  1848-53.  The  Cyclopcedia  of 
Biblical  Literature ,  which  he  edited  and 
largely  wrote,  appeared  in  1843-45.  He 
received  the  degree  of  D.  D.  from  the  Uni¬ 
versity  of  Giessen  in  1844.  See  Life  of 
Kitto ,  by  J.  E.  Ryland  (London,  1856),  and 
by  John  Eadie  (Edinburgh,  1857). 

Kling,  Christian  Friedrich,  b.  at  Alt- 
dorf,  Wiirtemburg,  Nov.  4,  1800;  d.  at 
Marbach-on-the-Neckar,  April,  1861.  He 
studied  at  Tubingen  and  Berlin,  and  spent 
his  life  in  pastoral  duties  and  as  pro¬ 
fessor  of  theology  at  Marburg,  1832,  and 
at  Bonn,  1842-49.  He  was  a  pupil  of 
Schleiermacher  and  Neander.  He  prepared 
the  commentary  on  the  Epistles  to  the 
Corinthians  for  Lange’s  Bibelwerk ,  trans¬ 
lated  in  Schaff’s  edition  of  Lange’s  Com¬ 
mentary,  N.  Y.,  1868.  He  contributed  to 
the  leading  theological  reviews  of  Ger¬ 
many,  and  prepared  articles  for  Herzog’s 
Encvclopcedia. 

Klopstock,  Friedrich  Gottlieb,  a  Ger¬ 
man  religious  poet  ;  b.  at  Quedlinburg, 
Saxony,  July  2,  1724;  d.  at  Hamburg, 
March  14,  1803.  His  poetical  gifts  found 
early  expression,  and  he  planned  to  write 
an  epic  poem.  While  studying  theology 
at  Jena  he  decided  to  make  the  life  of 
Christ  his  subject.  The  first  three  cantos  of 
the  Messiah  appeared  (1748)  in  the  Brem- 
ische  Beitrage,  published  at  Leipzig.  They 
attracted  wide  attention.  In  1751  he  went 
to  Copenhagen,  where  he  received  many 
honors,  and  was  given  by  Frederick  V. 
four  hundred  thalers.  After  the  death  of 
the  king  he  removed  to  Hamburg,  where 
he  completed  his  Messiah.  “  In  a  time  in 
which  Lutheran  orthodoxy  had  transform¬ 
ed  religion  into  a  mere  system  of  doctrines, 
Klopstock  made  people  feel  that  Chris¬ 
tianity  is  something  more — that  it  speaks 


as  well  to  the  imagination  and  the  senti¬ 
ment  as  to  the  intellect.  More  especially, 
he  was  the  singer  of  the  resurrection,  and 
of  the  coming  of  the  kingdom  of  heaven; 
and  numerous  proofs  of  the  deep  impres¬ 
sion  he  produced  can  be  found  in  the 
German  literature.” — Freybe.  The  most 
complete  edition  of  his  works  is  that  of 
Herman  Schmidlin  (Leipzig,  1844-45). 
The  Messiah  has  been  translated  into  Eng¬ 
lish. 

Knapp,  Albert, an  eminent  German  relig¬ 
ious  poet  and  hymnologist;  b.  in  Tubingen, 
July  25,  1798;  d.  in  Stuttgart,  June  18, 1864. 
He  studied  theology  in  Tubingen.  In  1820 
he  became  vicar  at  Feuerbach,  and  after¬ 
ward  at  Gaisburg,  and  in  1845  was  made 
pastor  of  St.  Leonhard’s  Church,  Stuttgart. 
His  first  poetical  work,  Christian  Poems , 
was  published  in  1824.  Other  volumes 
appeared  at  intervals,  and  altogether  con¬ 
tain  over  twelve  hundred  original  hymns 
and  poems.  He  edited  a  valuable  collec¬ 
tion  of  hymns:  Treasury  of  Hymns  for  the 
Church  and  Home,  and  published  some 
biographies. 

Kneeling,  Genuflexion,  Prostration. 
Standing  was  the  most  common  posture 
in  prayer  among  the  Jews  (Neh.  ix.  2-4; 
Matt.  vi.  5;  Luke  xviii.  11,  13);  but  they 
also  knelt  (2  Chron.  vi.  13;  Dan.  vi.  10; 
Ezra  ix.  5),  and  sometimes  prostrated 
themselves.  (Num.  xiv.  5;  Josh.  v.  14; 
1  Kings  xviii.  39.)  Kneeling  or  prostra¬ 
tion  was  probably  the  general  posture  of 
the  early  Christians  in  prayer.  See  art. 
“  Genuflexion,”  in  Smith  and  Cheetham: 
Diet,  of  Christian  Antiquities ,  i.  723  sq. 

Knollys,  Hanserd,  an  eminent  English 
Baptist  minister  of  the  seventeenth  cen¬ 
tury;  b.  in  Chalkwell,  Lincolnshire,  1598; 
d.  in  London,  Sept.  19,  1691.  He  was  a 
learned  scholar  and  able  preacher,  but  suf¬ 
fered  much  for  conscience’  sake.  He  was 
educated  at  Cambridge  and  received  orders 
in  the  Episcopal  Church.  Having  changed 
his  views  regarding  infant  baptism,  he  join¬ 
ed  the  Baptists  and  came  to  America. 
After  his  arrival  in  Boston  he  became  in¬ 
volved  in  an  unfortunate  controversy  with 
the  public  authorities.  He  was  the  first 
minister  at  Dover,  N.  H.  Returning  to 
England  in  1641,  he  formed  a  Baptistchurch 
in  London.  He  published:  Flaming  Fire  in 
Zion  (1646)  ;  Rudiments  of  the  Hebrew 
Grammar  (1648),  and  his  Autobiography 
(1672).  The  last  work  was  completed  by 
Kiffin,  1692,  and  reprinted,  1813. 

Knox,  John,  b.  at  Haddington,  in  East 
Lothian,  1505;  d,  at  Edinburgh,  Nov.  24, 


Kno 


(  5ii  ) 


Kor 


1572.  He  was  the  son  of  a  small  land- 
owner,  and  was  educated  at  the  grammar 
school  of  Haddington,  whence  he  pro¬ 
ceeded  to  Glasgow  University ,  and  is  men¬ 
tioned  among  the  Incorporati  in  1522. 
There  is  no  mention  of  his  taking  any  de¬ 
gree,  nor  does  he  appear  to  have  made  any 
mark  as  a  scholar  during  the  years  of  his 
education.  He  was  ordained  to  the  priest¬ 
hood  before  1530,  and  became  professor  of 
logic,  and  tutor  in  the  family  of  Hugh 
Douglas,  of  East  Lothian.  Hitherto  he 
had  adhered  to  the  Romish  doctrines  in 
which  he  had  been  educated,  but  about  this 
time  Patrick  Hamilton,  who  had  been  at 
Wittenberg,  and  there  adopted  the  Reform¬ 
ed  views,  brought  them  back  with  him  to 
Scotland,  and  by  degrees  Protestantism  be¬ 
gan  to  make  its  way.  Knox  is  said  to  have 
first  heard  the  Lutheran  doctrines  from 
Thomas  Guillaume,  a  disciple  of  Hamilton, 
but  the  most  direct  influence  was  exerted 
over  him  by  George  Wishart,  to  whom  he 
attached  himself  till  Wishartwas  seized  and 
burned  as  a  heretic.  Knox  openly  pro¬ 
fessed  himself  a  Protestant  about  1544,  and 
in  1547  was  called  to  officiate  as  Protestant 
minister  at  St.  Andrew’s,  whither  he  had 
fled  from  the  persecution  which  raged 
throughout  Scotland.  His  ministry  had 
only  lasted  a  few  months  when  St.  An¬ 
drew’s  was  attacked  by  the  French  fleet; 
the  city  capitulated,  and  Knox,  with  other 
Protestant  refugees,  was  condemned  for 
nineteen  months  to  work  at  the  galleys. 
His  health  was  injured  for  life  by  the  suf¬ 
fering  which  he  endured,  but  he  never 
abandoned  the  hope  of  returning  to  carry 
on  his  ministry.  He  was  released  early  in 
1549,  and,  finding  that  little  good  could  be 
done  in  Scotland,  he  took  refuge  first  in 
Berwick  and  afterwards  in  Newcastle,  in 
both  places  preaching  and  working  with 
untiring  zeal.  His  fame  having  spread 
southward,  he  was  made  Chaplain  to  Ed¬ 
ward  VI.  in  1551,  and  was  afterward  offer¬ 
ed  the  bishopric  of  Rochester,  which  he 
refused,  as  being  contrary  to  his  principles. 
During  his  stay  in  England,  Knox  married 
the  daughter  of  a  gentleman  of  Northum¬ 
berland,  and  in  1555  went  with  her  to 
Dieppe  and  then  to  Geneva,  where  he  visit¬ 
ed  Calvin.  He  undertook  the  charge  of 
the  Protestant  church  at  Frankfurt-on- 
Main,  but  hearing  in  1559  that  the  persecu¬ 
tions  in  Scotland  were  abating,  he  returned, 
and  arrived  at  a  critical  time.  Some  Prot¬ 
estant  preachers  were  on  the  point  of  be¬ 
ing  tried  for  their  lives,  and  Knox,  who 
had  been  condemned  in  the  early  days  of 
the  persecution,  was  again  proclaimed  as  a 
heretic.  The  Queen-Regent  was  alarmed 
at  the  sympathy  felt  by  the  people  for 
these  clergy,  and  the  trial  was  put  off. 


Knox  was  appointed  minister  of  the  Church 
of  St.  Giles,  the  parish  church  of  Edin¬ 
burgh,  in  1560,  and  was  there  during  the 
remaining  years  of  his  life.  His  wife  died 
in  the  same  year.  On  the  accession  of 
Mary  Queen  of  Scots,  Knox’s  fortitude  was 
put  to  the  test.  He  preached  openly  in  his 
own  church  against  the  idolatry  which  a 
Roman  Catholic  Sovereign  was  seeking  to 
force  upon  Scotland,  and  spoke  in  such 
bold  terms  on  the  subject  of  her  marriage 
that  he  was  sent  for  to  Holyrood  to  answer 
for  his  conduct.  The  queen  desired  that 
in  future  he  would  tell  her  privately  of 
anything  that  he  saw  to  be  wrong,  and  on 
his  refusal,  finding  him  indifferent  to  her 
threats,  she  tried  to  conciliate  him.  Finally 
he  was  summoned  to  trial  on  a  charge  of 
treason,  and  was  only  acquitted  after  a 
long  examination  and  by  a  small  majority. 
It  was  a  decided  victory  for  the  Protes¬ 
tants,  though  in  1564  Knox  was  forbidden 
to  preach,  in  consequence  of  his  having 
given  offence  by  a  sermon  preached  after 
the  queen’s  marriage  with  Lord  Darnley. 
This  prohibition,  however,  lasted  only  till 
her  fall,  in  1567,  and  the  accession  of  King 
James.  After  three  years  more  of  active 
work  he  was  seized  in  1570  with  a  fit  of 
apoplexy,  and  though  he  recovered  suffi¬ 
ciently  to  be  able  to  preach  again  from  time 
to  time,  he  became  gradually  worse,  and 
died  in  1572. — Benham:  Diet .  of  Religion . 
See  Scotland,  Church  of;  Taylor’s  John 
Knox  (N.  Y.,  1885). 

Ko'hath  ( assembly ),  the  second  son  of  Levi 
(Gen.  xlvi.  11),  and  founder  of  the  great 
Kohathite  family  of  the  priests.  (1  Chron. 
xxiii.  12.)  They  were  Levites  of  the  high¬ 
est  rank.  The  Kohathites  encamped  on 
the  south  side  of  the  tabernacle  while  in 
the  wilderness,  and  had  charge  of  the  ark, 
table,  and  other  parts  of  the  tabernacle. 
(Num.  iii.  29-31;  iv.  2,  34.)  They  had 
twenty-three  cities  assigned  them  at  the 
conquest.  (Josh  xxi.  4,  5.)  They  helped 
bring  the  ark  to  Jerusalem  (1  Chron.  xv. 
5),  and  by  their  position  as  leaders  not  only 
secured  wealth,  but  served  as  judges  and 
other  officers.  (1  Chron.  xxiii.  12;  xxvi.  20- 
26.)  They  acted  also  as  temple-singers. 
(2  Chron.  xx.  19.)  See  Levites. 

Kohathites.  See  above. 

Ko'rah,  a  son  of  Izhar.  (Exod.  vi.  18,  21, 
24.)  He  was  the  leader  of  the  rebellion 
against  Moses  and  Aaron.  (Num.  xvi. ; 
xxvi.  9;  xxvii.  3.)  (See  Moses.)  Jude  (v. 
11)  joins  Korah  with  Balaam  and  Cain  in 
his  warnings  against  false  and  self-seeking 
teachers.  The  children  of  Korah  became 
prominent  in  the  temple  service. 


Kor 


(  512  ) 


Kun 


Ko'rahites,  descendants  of  Korah.  Some 
of  them  were  noted  singers.  (2  Chron.  xx. 
19.)  Eleven  of  the  Psalms  have  their  name 
(xl. ,  xliv. ,  xlix.,  lxxxiv.,  lxxxv.,  lxxxvii., 
lxxxviii.).  Others  of  the  Korahites  were 
doorkeepers.  (1  Chron.  ix.  17-19.)  One, 
Mattithiah,  was  over  “  things  that  were 
made  in  the  pans  ”  (1  Chron.  ix.  31);  prob¬ 
ably  the  meat-offerings. 

Koran.  See  Mohammed. 

Kornthal.  See  Pietists. 

Krauth,  Charles  Philip,  D.  D.,  an  emi¬ 
nent  Lutheran  divine;  b.  in  Montgomery 
County,  Pa.,  May  7,  1797;  d.  in  Gettys¬ 
burg,  May  30,  1867.  He  was  ordained  in 
1819;  pastor  in  Philadelphia,  1827;  pro¬ 
fessor  of  biblical  and  Oriental  literature  at 
Gettysburg,  1833;  and  at  the  same  time 
president  of  Pennsylvania  College  from 
1834  to  1850.  He  was  editor  of  the  Evan¬ 
gelical  Quarterly  Review  from  1850  to  1861. 

Krauth,  Charles  Porterfield,  D.  D., 
LL.  D.,  son  of  Dr.  Charles  Philip  Krauth 
(see  above);  b.  at  Martinsburg,  Va. ,  March 
17,  1823;  d.  in  Philadelphia,  Jan.  2,  1883. 
He  was  graduated  at  the  Pennsylvania  Col¬ 
lege,  Gettysburg,  Pa.,  in  1839,  and  at  the 
Lutheran  Theological  Seminary  in  the  same 
place.  He  was  pastor  at  Baltimore,  Md., 
1841-47;  Shepherdstown,  Va. ,  1847-4S; 

Winchester,  Va. ,  1848-55;  Pittsburg,  1855 
-59,  and  of  several  churches  in  Philadelphia 
after  1859;  professor  of  systematic  theology 
in  the  Lutheran  Seminary  at  Philadelphia, 
from  1864  until  his  death;  professor  of 
mental  and  moral  science,  University  of 
Pennsylvania,  from  1S68.  In  his  day  “  he 
was  by  universal  acknowledgment  the  most 
accomplished  scholar  and  theologian  of  the 
Lutheran  Church  in  the  United  States.” 
He  was  a  member  of  the  Old  Testament 
Company  of  the  American  Bible  Revision 
Committee.  Of  his  published  works  the 
most  important  is  The  Conservative  Refor¬ 
mation  audits  Theology  (Phila.,  1872).  See 
Memoir ,  by  A.  Spaeth. 

Krebs,  John  Michael,  D.  D. ,  a  prominent 
Presbyterian  minister;  b.  at  Hagerstown, 
Md.,  May  6,  1804;  d.  in  New  York  City, 
Sept.  30,  1867.  He  was  graduated  at 
Dickinson  College  (1827),  and  at  Princeton 
Theological  Seminary  (1830),  when  he  was 
called  to  the  pastorate  of  the  Rutgers 
Street  Presbyterian  Church,  New  York 
City,  in  which  connection  he  spent  his  life. 
He  held  many  positions  of  official  influ¬ 
ence. 

Krummacher,  Friedrich  Wilhelm,  an 


eloquent  German  preacher,  the  son  of 
Friedrich  Adolf,  an  eminent  Reformed 
pastor,  was  b.  Jan.  28,  1796,  at  Mors  on 
the  Rhine;  d.  Dec.  10,  1868,  at  Potsdam. 
Educated  at  Halle  and  Jena,  he  became  as¬ 
sistant  pastor  at  Frankfurt  in  1819,  and  in 
1823  accepted  a  call  to  Ruhrort.  Two 
years  later  he  removed  to  Barmen,  and 
while  here  delivered  his  lectures  on  Elijah 
and  Elisha,  that  through  translations  are 
so  widely  known  in  this  country.  In  1834 
he  accepted  a  call  to  Elberfeld,  and  while 
there  was  called  to  the  chair  of  theology 
at  Mercersburg,  but  declined.  In  1847  he 
became  successor  to  Marheinecke  in  the 
Trinity  Church,  Berlin,  where  he  preached 
boldly  against  rationalism.  He  labored 
here  until  appointed  court  chaplain  in  1868. 
He  took  a  deep  interest  in  the  organization 
of  the  Evangelical  Alliance.  As  a  pulpit 
orator  he  stood  in  the  front  rank,  and  was 
an  earnest  defender  of  evangelical  faith. 
Among  his  best-known  works,  besides  his 
Elijah,  are  Salomo  and  Sulamith;  The  Suf¬ 
fering  Christ ;  and  David ,  the  King  of  Is¬ 
rael.  See  Autobiography ,  edited  by  his 
daughter  (Eng.  trans.,  Edinburgh,  1871). 

Kuenen,  Abraham,  D.  D.  (Leyden,  1851), 
b.  at  Haarlem,  North  Holland,  Sept.  16, 
1828;  studied  at  the  University  of  Leyden, 
1846-51;  and  since  1851  has  been  professor 
of  theology  there.  He  belongs  to  what  is 
known  in  Holland  as  the  “  modern  school 
of  theology,”  which  is  liberal  to  the  verge 
of  rationalism.  He  is  the  author  of:  His- 
torico-critical  Investigation  into  the  Origin 
and  Collection  of  the  Books  of  the  Old  Testa¬ 
ment  (1861-65,  3  vols.,  2d  ed.,  1885);  (an 
English  trans.  of  the  first  two  chapters  is 
given  by  Bishop  Colenso  in  his  work  on 
the  Pentateuch)',  Israel,  to  the  Fall  of  the 
Jewish  State ( London,  1874),  3  vols. ;  Proph¬ 
ets  and  Prophecy  in  Israel  (1877);  National 
Religions  and  Universal  Religion  (Hibbert 
Lectures,  1882). 

Kunze,  John  Christopher,  D.  D.,  an 
eminent  Lutheran  minister  and  theologian; 
b.  at  Artern,  Prussian  Saxony,  Aug.  4, 
1744;  d.  at  New  York,  July  24,  1807.  He 
was  educated  at  Leipzig,  and  came  to  this 
country  in  1770  to  assume  the  pastorate  of 
St.  Michael’s  and  Zion’s  Lutheran  congre¬ 
gations  in  Philadelphia.  He  accepted  a  call 
to  a  Lutheran  church  in  New  York  in  1774, 
and  aided  in  founding  the  University  of 
New  York,  where  he  served  as  regent  and 
professor  of  Oriental  languages  and  liter¬ 
ature.  He  published  a  Hymn  and  Prayer 
Book  for  the  Use  of  such  Lutheran  Churches 
as  Use  the  English  Language.  This  is  sup¬ 
posed  to  be  the  first  Lutheran  English 
hymn-book  ever  edited. 


Kur 


(  513  ) 


Lac 


Kurtz  (koorts),  Benjamin,  D.  D.,  b.  at 
Harrisburg,  Penn.,  Feb.  28,  1795;  d.  at 
Baltimore,  Md.,  Dec.  29,  1865.  He  was 
one  of  the  founders  of  the  Gettysburg 
Theological  Seminary,  and  edited  the  Lu¬ 
theran  Observer  from  1S33  to  1862. 

Kurtz,  Johann  Heinrich,  D.  D.  (Ros¬ 
tock,  1849),  Lutheran;  b.  at  Montjoie,  near 
Aachen,  Prussia,  Dec.  13,  1809.  He  was 
educated  at  Halle  (1830),  and  Bonn  (1831- 
33);  became  head-master  in  religion  at  the 
Mitau  gymnasium,  1835;  ordinary  profess¬ 
or  of  theology  in  Dorpat  University,  1850; 
professor  emeritus,  1870.  Since  1871  he 
has  resided  at  Marburg.  Several  of  his 
publications  have  been  translated  into 
English,  but  the  great  work  by  which 
he  is  best  known  is  his  History  of  the  Chris¬ 
tian  Church  (latest  Eng.  translation  by  J. 
MacPherson,  New  York,  1890.),  3  vols. 

Kyrie  Eleison,  the  Greek  of  “  Lord,  have 
mercy,”  a  form  of  prayer  which  occurs  in 
the  ancient  Greek  liturgies  and  in  the  Ro¬ 
man  Catholic  mass.  It  is  sometimes  called 
the  “  Lesser  Litany ,”  and  is  retained  in  the 
liturgies  of  some  Protestant  churches. 

L. 

Labadie  (/ a-ba-dee '),  Jean  DE,  the  found¬ 
er  of  the  Labadists;  b.  Feb.  13,  1610,  at 
Bourg,  near  Bordeaux;  d.  Feb.  13,  1674,  at 
Altona.  Educated  at  the  Jesuit  college  at 
Bordeaux,  where  he  made  a  special  study 
of  the  works  of  Augustine  and  St.  Ber¬ 
nard,  he  left  his  order,  in  1639,  and  en¬ 
tered  upon  his  career  as  a  preacher.  His 
sermons  met  with  great  popular  favor,  but 
roused  the  opposition  of  the  Jesuits. 
While  in  retirement  at  the  Carmelite  her¬ 
mitage  at  Graville,  he  read  Calvin’s  Insti- 
tutiones ,  and  accepted  the  Reformed  faith. 
Until  1660  he  was  pastor  and  professor  of 
theology  at  Montauban.  Strenuous  in  his 
efforts  to  secure  a  high  type  of  Christian 
discipleship,  his  activities  led  to  the  ex¬ 
pression  of  views  that  resulted  in  his  dis¬ 
mission.  Removing  first  to  Geneva  and 
then  to  Middelburg,  he  formed,  in  1666,  a 
secret  union  with  several  persons,  which 
became  the  nucleus  of  the  sect  of  the  Lab¬ 
adists.  Expelled  from  Middelburg  for  re¬ 
fusing  to  sign  the  Belgic  Confession,  he 
found  a  refuge  with  his  followers  at  Her- 
ford,  through  the  kindness  of  the  countess 
palatine  Elizabeth.  They  were  banished 
to  Altona  in  1672,  where  Labadie  died  in 
1674.  Many  of  his  writings  were  translated 
into  German,  and  widely  read  by  the  Pie¬ 
tists  and  Moravian  Brethren.  Upon  the 
breaking  out  of  the  war  between  Denmark 
and  Sweden  (1674),  the  Labadists  removed 


to  Wiewart  in  West  Friesland.  For  a  time 
they  flourished  in  the  face  of  strong  per¬ 
secution.  The  foundation  of  a  colony  was 
laid  at  Surinam,  and  an  attempt  was  made 
to  found  one  at  New  Bohemia  on  the  Hud¬ 
son,  but  both  failed,  and  early  in  the 
eighteenth  century  the  sectdied  out.  They 
held  views  similar  to  the  Quakers,  and  at¬ 
tached  great  importance  to  internal  revela¬ 
tions  and  the  purity  of  the  visible  Church. 

Labadists.  See  above. 

Labarum,  the  sacred  military  standard 
adopted  by  Constantine  after  his  vision  of 
the  cross  in  the  sky  with  the  inscription 
En  Touto  Nika,  “  In  this  Conquer.”  Euse¬ 
bius  describes  it  as  consisting  “  of  a  long 
gilded  spear,  crossed  at  the  top  by  a  bar 
from  which  hung  a  square  purple  cloth, 
richly  jeweled.  At  the  upper  extremity  of 
the  spear  was  fixed  a  golden  wreath  encir¬ 
cling  the  second  monogram  formed  of  the 
first  two  letters  of  the  name  of  Christ.” 
Fifty  soldiers  were  appointed  te  protect 
the  standard. 

Laborantes,  a  name  sometimes  given  to 
an  inferior  order  of  the  clergy  who  had  in 
charge  the  interment  of  the  dead.  They 
were  also  known  as  copiatai,  fossarii  and 
lecticarii. 

La  Chaise,  Francois  de,  b.  1624;  d. 
1705.  A  French  Jesuit,  who  taught  phi¬ 
losophy  and  theology  at  Lyons  and  Gren¬ 
oble,  and  in  1673  became  confessor  of 
Louis  XIV.  Through  his  influence  over 
the  king  he  acted  an  important  part  in  ec¬ 
clesiastical  affairs.  His  name  is  immor¬ 
talized  in  connection  with  the  cemetery 
which  is  laid  out  near  Paris,  on  the  site  of 
the  villa  and  grounds  which  were  given  to 
him  by  the  king. 

La'chish,  a  city  of  the  Amorites,  con¬ 
quered  by  Joshua  and  allotted  to  Judah. 
It  was  fortified  by  Rehoboam  after  the  re¬ 
volt  of  the  northern  ^kingdom.  (2  Chron. 
xi.  9.)  Sennacherib  besieged  it  when  on 
his  way  from  Phoenicia  to  Egypt.  (2  Kings 
xviii.  13;  Isa.  xxxvi.  1.)  This  siege  is 
considered  by  Layard  and  Hincks  to  be 
depicted  on  the  slabs  found  by  the  former 
in  one  of  the  chambers  of  the  palace  at 
Kouyunjik.  (2  Chron.  xxxii.  1;  2  Kings 
xix.  8;  Jer.  xxxiv.  7.) 

Lachmann,  Karl,  b.  1793;  d.  1851.  Ed- 
ucated  at  Leipzig  and  Gottingen,  and  pro¬ 
fessor  of  philology  at  Konigsberg  (1816), 
and  then  at  Berlin  (1827),  he  became  fa¬ 
mous  as  a  textual  critic  of  the  New  Testa¬ 
ment.  He  was  the  first  critic  who  sought 


Lac 


(  514  ) 


Lai 


to  restore  the  oldest  attainable  text,  and 
his  labors  opened  the  way  to  the  methods 
which'have  produced  such  valuable  results. 
See  Schaff’s  Companion  to  the  Greek  Tes¬ 
tament,  pp.  253-256. 

Lacordaire,  Jean  Baptiste  Henri,  one 
of  the  greatest  of  modern  French  pulpit 
orators;  b.  at  Recey-sur-Ource,  March  12, 
1802;  d.  at  Sorreze,  in  the  department  of 
Tarn,  Nov.  21,  1861.  Educated  for  the 
law  at  Dijon,  he  became  an  advocate  at 
Paris  in  1824,  and  soon  gained  distinction. 
The  reading  of  Lamennais’  Essai  stir  f  In¬ 
difference  aroused  him  from  a  condition  of 
skepticism  to  the  conviction  that  Christian¬ 
ity  wras  the  only  power  that  could  save 
and  develop  the  human  race.  Entering  the 
College  of  St.  Sulpice,  he  was  ordained 
priest  in  1S27.  His  fame  as  a  preacher 
soon  became  widespread..  In  connection 
with  Lamennais  and  Montalembert,  he 
published  a  journal,  L' Avenir,  which  pro¬ 
mulgated  such  radical  opinions  in  connec¬ 
tion  with  the  highest  church  views  that  it 
was  condemned  by  Gregory  XVI.  in  1831. 
Lacordaire  submitted  to  the  commands  of 
Rome.  In  1S35  he  was  appointed  preacher 
at  the  Cathedral  of  Notre  Dame,  and  his 
sermons  drew  vast  crowds.  He  joined  the 
Dominican  order  in  1840,  and  enthusiasti¬ 
cally  devoted  himself  to  the  advancement  of 
its  interests.  Elected  a  member  of  the 
National  Assembly  in  1848,  he  took  his 
seat  among  the  radicals,  and  was  so  out¬ 
spoken  in  his  Republicanism  that  he  came 
under  ecclesiastical  censure.  Withdraw¬ 
ing  from  political  life,  he  continued  to 
preach  at  Notre  Dame.  His  health  fail¬ 
ing,  he  retired  in  1854  to  the  convent  of 
Sorreze,  where  the  remainder  of  his  life 
was  passed.  Several  of  his  works  have  been 
translated:  Conferences  Delivered  in  the 

Cathedral  of  Arotre  Dame  (by  Henry  Lang- 
don,  N.  Y. ,  1870);  Jesus  Christ  (1870);  God 
and  Man  (1872);  Life  (1875).  His  Life, 
by  Chocarne,  has  been  translated  into  Eng¬ 
lish  by  Father  Aylward  (London  and  N.  Y. , 
1867;  2d  ed.,  1878),  and  by  H.  L.  Sidney 
Lear  (London,  1882). 

Lacroix,  John  Power,  b.  at  Haverhill, 
O. ,  Feb.  13,  1833;  d.  at  Delaware,  O. ,  Sept. 
22,  1879.  He  was  graduated  at  the  Ohio 
Wesleyan  University,  1857.  He  taught 
for  a  time  in  New  Orleans,  and  became  a 
prolific  writer  for  the  periodical  press.  In 
1859  he  entered  the  ministry  of  the  Metho¬ 
dist  Church,  and  from  1864  until  the  time 
of  his  death  was  professor  of  modern  lan¬ 
guages  in  the  Ohio  Wesleyan  University. 
Besides  translations  he  wrote  :  Life  of 
Rudolf  Sticr  (1874);  Outlines  of  Chris¬ 
tian  Ethics  (1879),  arRl  prepared  many 


articles  for  McClintock  and  Strong’s  Cy¬ 
clopaedia. 

Lactantius  Firmianus,  a  famous  Chris¬ 
tian  apologist  who  lived  at  the  end  of  the 
third,  and  the  beginning  of  the  fourth,  cen¬ 
tury.  The  country  of  his  birth  is  disputed. 
He  was  the  tutor  of  Crispus,  the  son  of 
Constantine,  and  his  eloquence  gained  for 
him  the  name  of  the  “  Christian  Cicero.” 
His  most  important  works  are  his  Institu- 
tions,  and  a  treatise  on  the  Death  of  Perse¬ 
cutors. 

Lacticinia  (lit.  milk  dishes'),  a  name  ap¬ 
plied  to  milk,  butter,  cheese,  and  also  eggs, 
as  food  forbidden  on  the  fast-days  in  the 
Eastern  Church.  In  the  Western  Church 
the  conditions  under  w'hich  they  are  for¬ 
bidden  are  made  known  in  pastorals. 
They  are  generally  confined  to  the  Lenten 
fast  and  vary  according  to  time,  climate, 
and  circumstances. 

Lady-Chapel,  a  chapel  dedicated  to  the 
Virgin,  attached  to  cathedrals  and  large 
churches.  It  is  generally  built  at  the  east¬ 
ern  extremity. 

Lady-Day,  the  feast  of  the  Annunciation 
of  the  Virgin  Mary,  celebrated  March  25. 

Ladd,  George  Trumbull,  D.  D.  (West¬ 
ern  Reserve  College,  Hudson,  O.,  1880), 
Congregationalist;  b.  at  Painesville,  O., 
Jan.  19,  1842;  was  graduated  at  Western 
Reserve  College,  Hudson,  O.,  1864,  and  at 
Andover  (Mass.)  Theological  Seminary, 
1869;  pastor  of  the  Spring  Street  Church, 
Milwaukee,  Wis.,  1871-79;  professor  of  in¬ 
tellectual  and  moral  philosophy  in  Bow- 
doin  College,  Brunswick,  Me.,  1879;  and 
since  1881  has  held  the  corresponding  pro¬ 
fessorship  in  Yale  University.  He  is  the  au¬ 
thor  of:  Principles  of  Church  Polity  (1882); 
Doctrine  of  Sacred  Scripture  :  Critical,  His¬ 
torical,  and  Dogmatic  Inquiry  into  the  Origin 
and  ATature  of  the  Old  and  Arew  Testaments 
(1883),  2  vols. 

Lastare  Sunday,  the  fourth  Sunday  of 
Lent,  so  named  from  the  first  word  of  the 
introit  of  the  mass,  Icetare,  “  to  rejoice.” 
Laetare  Sunday  is  chosen  by  the  pope  for 
the  blessing  of  the  golden  rose. 

Lainez,  James,  b.  in  Castile  in  1512;  d. 
at  Rome,  Jan.  19,  1565.  He  was  one  of  the 
founders  of  the  order  of  Jesuits,  and  suc¬ 
ceeded  Loyola  as  the  second  general  of  the 
order.  He  acted  an  influential  part  in  the 
Council  of  Trent,  and  opposed  every  at¬ 
tempt  to  modify  the  doctrine  of  justification 
in  favor  of  Lutheran  views,  and  asserted 


Lai 


(  515  ) 


Lan 


the  supremacy  of  the  papal  power.  He  did 
much  to  develop  in  the  Jesuit  order  the 
characteristics  that  have  marked  its  his¬ 
tory. 

t 

Laity,  the  people  as  distinguished  from 
the  clergy.  In  the  early  Church  laymen 
had  the  right  to  and  did  preach,  baptize, 
administer  the  Lord’s  Supper,  and  exercise 
discipline.  How  long  this  state  of  things 
existed  we  cannot  tell,  but  gradually  the 
performance  of  all  ecclesiastical  functions 
devolved  upon  the  clergy.  The  Lord’s 
Supper  became  the  mass,  and  the  cup  was 
taken  from  the  people.  With  the  Reforma¬ 
tion  the  laity  again  recovered  in  part  its 
rights,  and  the  tendency  in  modern  times 
has  been  to  enlarge  the  scope  of  their  du¬ 
ties  and  privileges.  See  Lay  Represen¬ 
tation. 

Lama,  the  name  given  to  the  Buddhist 
priests  in  Tartary,  and  especially  to  the 
Dalai-Lama,  or  priest  of  priests,  who  has 
full  authority  over  the  rest  of  the  priest¬ 
hood,  and  is  regarded  by  them  as  a  deity. 
He  lives  retired  from  the  world,  and  is 
never  seen  except  in  one  of  the  rooms 
of  his  palace,  where  the  people  come  to 
worship  him,  though  they  are  not  allowed 
to  approach  him,  even  to  kiss  his  feet. 
The  people  are  taught  to  believe  that  he 
was  raised  up  from  death  and  hell  hun¬ 
dreds  of  years  ago,  and  that  he  will  live  for 
ever.  In  order  to  keep  up  this  illusion  they 
conceal  the  fact  of  his  death,  and  another 
Lama  is  secretly  chosen  to  take  his  place. 
The  lower  order  of  priests  in  Tartary  form 
about  one-third  of  the  population,  and  are 
under  vows  of  celibacy.  They  are  partly 
supported  by  lands  and  revenues  granted 
to  them  by  the  Government,  and  by  the 
offerings  of  pilgrims;  but  most  of  them  are 
also  engaged  in  some  trade  for  the  means 
of  gaining  their  livelihood,  and  they  are 
also  the  only  physicians  in  the  country. 
The  Lamas  excel  in  painting  and  sculpture, 
with  which  they  adorn  the  walls  of  their 
temples. — Benham:  Did .  of  Religion. 

Lamb  of  God.  See  Agnus  Dei. 

Lambeth  Articles.  These  were  nine 
brief  statements  of  doctrine  drawn  up  at  a 
conference  held  at  Lambeth  Palace  in  Nov. , 
1595.  They  were  prepared  with  a  view  of 
settling  a  controversy  which  was  raging  in 
the  University  of  Cambridge  regarding 
predestination.  The  articles  were  put  forth 
with  the  sanction  of  Archbishop  Whitgift, 
but  were  never  of  any  authority,  and  their 
interest  is  found  in  the  proof  they  give  of 
the  Calvinistic  tendencies  of  the  English 
theologians  of  the  time. 


Lamentations  is  the  name  of  five  elegies 
in  which  are  bewailed  the  destruction  of 
Jerusalem  and  Judah  by  Nebuchadnezzar 
and  the  Chaldees.  The  author  is  not 
named  in  the  Bible,  but  tradition  has  uni¬ 
formly  assigned  the  composition  of  these 
songs  to  Jeremiah;  it  is  only  within  recent 
years  that  the  Jeremianic  authorship  has 
been  denied  either  in  whole  or  part.  See 
Introductions  to  the  Old  Testament  of  De 
Wette,  Bleek,  and  Reuss,  and  art.  of  Dr. 
Plumptre  in  Smith’s  Bible  Did . ,  and  Prof. 
W.  R.  Smith,  in  Ency.  Britannica.  For 
full  list  of  literature  see  Lange’s  Commen¬ 
tary. 

Lam'mas-Day,  “  an  ancient  festival  of 
the  Church,  held  annually  on  the  first  of 
August.  The  name  is  said  to  be  derived 
from  the  Anglo-Saxon  Hlafmcesse ,  loaf- 
mass,  the  day  being  the  day  of  first-fruit 
offerings,  on  which  it  was  formerly  cus¬ 
tomary  to  give  a  loaf  to  the  clergy,  in  lieu 
of  first-fruits.  In  the  Roman  Catholic 
Church  the  day  is  called  the  Day  of  St. 
Peter  in  the  Fetters ,  it  being  the  day  of  the 
commemoration  of  St.  Peter’s  imprison¬ 
ment.” —  CasselF s  Encv. 

Lance,  The  Holy,  according  to  tradition, 
was  presented  by  King  Rudolph,  of  Bur¬ 
gundy,  to  King  Henry  I.,  of  Germany.  It 
was  said,  according  to  an  early  report,  to 
have  been  made  with  the  nails  with  which 
Jesus  was  fastened  to  the  cross,  but  a  later 
tradition  identified  it  with  the  spear  with 
which  the  Roman  soldier  pierced  the  side 
of  Jesus.  It  was  brought  to  Prague,  and 
in  1354  Innocent  VI.  established  a  festival 
in  its  honor.  Another  lance,  discovered  by 
the  Empress  Helena,  was  brought  to  Anti¬ 
och,  and  was  carried  during  the  crusades. 
The  iron  with  which  it  was  inlaid  was 
brought  to  Rome  under  Innocent  VIII. 
and  preserved  in  the  Vatican.  In  the 
Greek  Church  the  name  “  holy  lance”  is 
given  to  the  knife  with  which  the  priest 
pierces  the  bread  of  Eucharist,  to  symbol¬ 
ize  the  piercing  of  the  side  of  Jesus  by  the 
Roman  soldier. 

Lanfranc,  archbishop  of  Canterbury;  b. 
at  Pavia,  in  Italy,  1005;  d.  at  Canterbury, 
May  28,  1089.  He  was  Prior  of  the  Abbey 
of  Bee,  and  afterwards  of  Caen  in  Nor¬ 
mandy,  and  came  to  England  with  William 
the  Conqueror,  by  whom  he  was  appointed 
archbishop.  Canterbury  Cathedral  was  re¬ 
built  through  his  efforts  and  he  was  very 
active  in  founding  hospitals  and  churches. 
Few  men  in  the  eleventh  century  were 
more  influential  in  the  revival  of  the  Church 
and  theology  in  France  and  England.  He 
held  and  taught  the  most  extreme  views  re- 


Lan 


(  516  ) 


Lao 


garding  the  doctrine  of  transubstantiation, 
and  his  most  important  work,  Liber  de  Cor- 
pore  et  Sanguine  (“  The  Body  and  Blood  of 
Christ  ”),  is  upon  this  subject.  He  sup¬ 
ported  the  supremacy  of  the  king  against 
the  pope.  See  Hook:  Lives  of  Archbishops 
of  Canterbury ,  vol.  ii. ;  Freeman’s  History 
of  the  Norman  Conquest  of  England  (iv. 
345-450),  and  Reign  of  William  Rufus. 

Lang,  John  Dunmore,  D.  D. ,  a  man  who 
had  a  remarkable  influence  in  the  political 
and  religious  life  of  Australia,  was  b.  at 
Greenock,  Scotland,  in  1799,  and  died  at 
Sydney,  New  South  Wales,  in  1878.  He 
was  educated  at  the  University  of  Glasgow; 
and  after  his  ordination  in  1823,  he  became 
the  first  minister  of  the  Church  of  Scotland 
in  Australia.  Many  thousands  of  excellent 
emigrants  were  brought  from  Great  Britain 
to  the  new  colonies  by  his  efforts.  He 
filled  important  positions  of  political  trust, 
and  secured  ministers  and  teachers  for  the 
work  of  Christian  evangelization.  He 
wrote  much  for  the  press,  and  published  a 
History  of  New  South  Wales.  It  is  said 
that  seventy  thousand  people  followed  his 
remains  to  the  grave,  including  the  most 
prominent  citizens  of  the  colony. 

Lange,  Johann  Peter,  D.  D.,  b.  in  the 
parish  of  Sonnborn,  near  Elberfeld,  Prus¬ 
sia,  April  10,  1802;  d.  at  Bonn,  July  8, 
1884.  He  was  educated  at  Dlisseldorf  and 
the  University  of  Bonn.  He  was  engaged 
in  pastoral  work  in  the  United  Evangelical 
Church  from  1825  to  1841,  when  he  was 
called  to  the  professorship  of  theology  in 
the  University  of  Zurich.  He  had  already 
won  a  reputation  as  a  brilliant  writer,  and 
in  i844~47his  Life  of  Jesus  appeared,  which 
refuted  the  famous  work  of  Straus,  and 
won  for  him  wide  recognition.  In  i860  he 
was  called  to  fill  a  chair  in  Bonn  where  he 
spent  the  remainder  of  his  life  in  active 
service  as  a  teacher  and  writer.  He  edited 
and  contributed  very  largely  to  a  Commen¬ 
tary  on  the  Old  and  New  Testaments,  which 
was  translated  and  enlarged  under  the  di¬ 
rection  of  Dr.  Schaff,  and  has  had  a  wide 
circulation  in  this  country.  Dr.  Lange 
was  engaged  on  this  work  for  many  years. 
Genial  in  spirit  and  simple  in  his  tastes, 
this  noble  Christian  scholar  was  beloved  by 
all  with  whom  he  was  brought  in  contact. 

Langton,  Stephen,  “celebrated  in  the 
history  of  the  liberties  of  England,  was  b. 
probably  in  Lincoln  or  Devonshire,  in  the 
early  part  of  the  twelfth  century.  He  re¬ 
ceived  the  chief  part  of  his  education  in  the 
University  of  Paris,  where  he  was  the  fel¬ 
low-student  and  friend  of  Innocent  III.; 
and  having  completed  his  studies  he  rose 


through  successive  grades  to  the  office  of 
chancellor  of  the  university.  After  the 
elevation  of  Innocent,  Langton,  having  vis¬ 
ited  Rome,  was  named  to  the  cardinalate 
by  the  pope;  and,  on  occasion  of  the  dis¬ 
puted  election  to  the  see  of  Canterbury,  he 
was  recommended  to  those  electors  who 
had  come  to  Rome  on  the  appeal,  and,  hav-  v 
ing  been  elected  by  them,  was  consecrated 
by  Innocent  himself  at  Viterbo,  June  27, 
1207.  His  appointment,  nevertheless,  was 
resisted  by  King  John;  and  for  six  years 
Langton  was  excluded  from  the  see.  to 
which  he  was  only  admitted  on  the  adjust¬ 
ment,  in  1213,  of  the  king’s  dispute  with 
Innocent  through  the  legate  Pandulf.  This 
reconciliation,  however,  was  but  tempo¬ 
rary.  In  the  conflict  of  John  with  his  bar¬ 
ons,  Langton  was  a  warm  partisan  of  the  lat¬ 
ter,  and  his  name  is  the  first  of  the  subscrib¬ 
ing  witnesses  of  Magna  Charta.  When  the 
pope,  acting  on  the  representation  of  John, 
and  espousing  his  cause  as  that  of  a  vassal 
of  the  holy  see,  excommunicated  the  bar¬ 
ons,  Langton  refused  to  publish  the  excom¬ 
munication,  and  was.  in  consequence,  sus¬ 
pended  from  his  functions  in  1215.  He  was 
restored,  however,  probably  in  the  follow¬ 
ing  year;  and  on  the  accession  of  Henry 
III.,  he  was  reinstated  (1218)  in  the  see  of 
Canterbury,  from  which  time  he  chiefly  oc¬ 
cupied  himself  with  church  reforms  till  his 
death,  which  took  place  July  9,  1228. 
Langton  was  a  learned  and  successful  writ¬ 
er,  but  his  writings  are  lost,  and  the  chief 
trace  which  he  has  left  in  sacred  literature 
is  the  division  of  the  Bible  into  chapters, 
which  is  ascribed  to  him.  See  Lingard, 
vol.  ii. ;  Milman’s  Latin  Christianity ,  vol. 
iv. ;  and  Dr.  Hook’ s  Lives  of  the  Archbish¬ 
ops  of  Canterbury  ,vol.  ii. ,  657-761.” — Cham¬ 
bers:  Cyclopaedia. 

Laodice'a,  a  city  of  ancient  Phrygia,  near 
the  river  Lycus,  so  called  after  Laodice, 
queen  of  Antiochus  Theos,  its  founder, 
was  built  on  the  site  of  an  older  town, 
named  Diospolis.  It  was  destroyed  by  an 
earthquake  during  thereignof  Tiberius,  but 
rebuilt  by  the  inhabitants,  who  were  very 
wealthy;  fell  into  the  hands  of  the  Turks 
in  1255;  was  again  destroyed  in  1402,  and 
is  now  a  heap  of  uninteresting  ruins,  known 
by  the  name  of  Eski-Hissar.  Art  and 
science  flourished  among  the  ancient  Lao- 
diceans,  and  it  was  the  seat  of  a  famous 
medical  school.  The  number  of  Jews  who 
were  settled  here  at  the  rise  of  Christianity 
will  account  for  its  importance  in  the  prim¬ 
itive  history  of  the  Church.  An  important 
ecclesiastical  council,  the  First  Council  of 
Laodicea,  was  held  here  in  363,  which 
adopted  resolutions  concerning  the  canon 
of  the  Old  and  New  Testaments,  and  con- 


Lao 


(  517  ) 


Lat 


cerning  ecclesiastical  discipline.  A  second 
council  was  held  here  in  476,  which  con¬ 
demned  the  Eutychians.” — Chambers.  See 
Westcott  on  the  Canon. 

Laodicea,  The  Epistle  From,  a  letter 
that  Paul  wrote  (Col.  iv.  16),  has  given  rise 
to  much  speculation.  Lightfoot  identifies 
it  with  the  Epistle  to  the  Ephesians.  The 
so-called  “  Epistle  to  the  Laodiceans  ”  is  a 
forgery,  compiled  in  Greek,  and  translated 
into  Latin  at  an  early  period.  See  Light- 
foot:  St.  Paul’s  Epistle  to  the  Colossians  and 
to  Philemon  (1875). 

Lao'Tsze,  a  celebrated  Chinese  philos¬ 
opher,  and  the  reputed  founder  of  the  re¬ 
ligion  called  “Taoism.”  He  was  born 
about  604  b.  c. ,  in  the  province  of  Ho-nau, 
China.  The  time  and  place  of  his  death 
is  unknown.  While  the  keeper  of  the 
archives  of  the  court  of  Chau,  he  was  vis¬ 
ited  (517  b.  c.)  by  Confucius,  who  desired 
to  learn  about  the  ancient  rites  and  cere¬ 
monies  of  Chau.  He  wrote  a  remarkable 
volume  of  five  thousand  characters  on  the 
subject  of  Tdo  (the  way),  and  Teh  (virtue), 
called  Tdo  Teh  Kins;.  This  work  is  trans¬ 
lated  in  Legge’s  Chinese  Classics.  The  book, 
however,  is  hardly  intelligible  even  to 
native  Chinese  scholars.  One  sentence  has 
been  remarked  as  approaching  Christian 
ethics:  “  It  is  the  way  of  Tao  not  to  act 
from  any  personal  motive,  to  conduct  af¬ 
fairs  without  feeling  the  trouble  of  them, 
to  taste  without  being  aware  of  the  flavor,  to 
account  the  great  as  small,  and  the  small  as 
great,  to  recompense  injury  with  kindness.” 
Taoism  is  now  one  of  the  great  religions  of 
China,  but  its  practices  are  so  far  below  the 
standard  of  Lao’s  teachings  that  Dr.  Legge 
says,  “he  ought  not  to  bear  the  oblo¬ 
quy  of  being  its  founder.”  Professor 
Douglas  says:  “  Every  trace  of  philosophy 
and  truth  has  disappeared  from  it;  and  in 
place  of  the  keen  searchings  after  the  in¬ 
finite,  to  which  Lao-tsze  devoted  himself, 
the  highest  ambition  of  his  priestly  follow¬ 
ers  is  to  learn  how  best  to  impose  on  their 
countrymen  by  the  vainest  of  superstitions, 
and  to  practise  on  their  credulity  by  tricks 
of  legerdemain.”  (Taoism.)  See  Schaff- 
Herzog:  Ency.  vol.  ii.  ,  pp.  1278-79;  James 
Legge:  The  Chinese  Classics ;  Chalmers: 
The  Speculations  on  Metaphysics ,  Polity ,  and 
Morality  of  the  “  Old  Philosopher  ”  ( Ldo - 
Tsze)  (London,  1868);  R.  K.  Douglas:  Con¬ 
fucianism  and  Taonism  (1879);  J-  Legge: 
The  Religions  of  China. 

Lapland.  “  Superficially,  at  least,  the 
great  bulk  of  the  Lapps  have  been  Chris¬ 
tianized;  those  of  the  Scandinavian  coun¬ 
tries  being  Protestants,  those  of  Russia, 


members  of  the  Greek  Church.” — Ency. 
Britannica.  See  Sweden. 

Lapsed.  This  term  was  used  to  denote 
those  who,  in  times  of  persecution,  denied 
the  faith.  A  distinction  was  made  as  to 
the  manner  in  which  they  had  disavowed 
their  faith,  and  the  question  of  their  disci¬ 
plinary  treatment  was  the  cause  of  prolong¬ 
ed  controversy.  In  the  second  century 
the  rule  held  that,  under  no  circumstances 
could  a  Christian  who  had  lapsed  be  re¬ 
admitted  to  the  congregation;  but  by  the 
middle  of  the  third  century  milder  views 
prevailed,  and  the  circumstances  connect¬ 
ed  with  each  case  were  taken  into  consid¬ 
eration. 

Lardner,  Nathaniel,  an  eminent  Eng¬ 
lish  divine  and  critic;  b.  at  Hawkhurst, 
Kent,  June  6,  1684;  d.  there,  July  24,  1786. 
He  belonged  to  a  body  of  English  Pres¬ 
byterians,  who  had  become  Unitarians. 
Having  studied  under  eminent  masters  at 
Utrecht  and  Leyden,  he  returned  to  Eng¬ 
land  in  1703.  Entering  the  ministry  at  the 
age  of  25,  he  became  private  chaplain  to 
Lady  Treby,  whom  he  accompanied  to  the 
Netherlands.  After  her  death,  in  1729,  he 
was  appointed  lecturer  at  the  chapel  in 
Old  Jewry.  Never  popular  as  a  preacher, 
by  reason  of  defective  elocution,  caused 
by  deafness,  he  won  lasting  fame  by  his 
Credibility  of  the  Gospel  Testimony ,  and  his 
Jewish  and  Heathen  Testimonies.  These 
works  rank  among  the  ablest  apologies  for 
Christianity. 

La  Salle,  Jean  Baptiste  de,  founder  of 
the  Ignorantines  (see  art.);  b.  at  Rheims, 
1651;  d.  at  Rouen,  1719.  He  opened  his 
free  schools  for  the  young  in  1681,,  and 
met  with  such  success  that  it  led  to  the 
founding  of  the  order  with  which  his  name 
is  connected.  He  was  canonized  by  Pius 
IX.  in  1852. 

Lat'eran,  Church  of  St.  John,  “  the 
first  in  dignity  of  the  Roman  churches,  and 
styled  in  Roman  usage  *  the  mother  and 
head  of  all  the  churches  of  the  city  and  the 
world,’  is  so  called  from  its  occupying 
the  site  of  the  splendid  palace  of  Plantius 
Lateranus,  which,  having  been  escheated 
(66  a.  D.),  in  consequence  of  Lateranus  be¬ 
ing  implicated  in  the  conspiracy  of  the 
Pisos,  became  imperial  property,  and  was 
assigned  for  Christian  uses  by  the  Emperor 
Constantine.  It  was  originally  dedicated 
to  the  Saviour;  but  Lucius  II. ,  who  rebuilt 
it  in  the  middle  of  the  twelfth  century,  dedi¬ 
cated  it  to  St.  John  the  Baptist.  The  sol¬ 
emn  entrance  of  the  pope  into  office  is  in¬ 
augurated  by  his  taking  possession  of  this 


Lat 


( 51S) 


Lat 


church;  and  over  its  portico  is  the  balcony 
from  which  the  pope,  while  still  sovereign 
of  Rome,  was  used,  on  certain  festivals, 
to  bless  the  entire  world.  The  original 
church  is  said  to  have  been  the  Basilica, 
which  was  presented  to  Sylvester  by  Con¬ 
stantine,  but  it  has  been  several  times  re¬ 
built,  its  final  completion  dating  from  the 
pontificate  of  Clement  XII.  It  has  been 
the  scene  of  five  councils,  regarded  as 
oecumenical  by  the  Roman  Church.  (See 
Council.)  The  Lateran  palace  was  the 
habitual  residence  of  the  popes  until  after 
the  return  from  Avignon,  when  they  re¬ 
moved  to  the  Vatican.  It  was  afterwards 
occupied  by  officials  of  the  chapter,  and  is 
now  under  the  control  of  the  Italian  gov¬ 
ernment.  The  late  pope,  Pius  IX.,  had 
converted  a  portion  of  it  into  a  museum  of 
Christian  archaeology.  In  the  piazza  of  St. 
John  Lateran,  stands  the  celebrated  relic 
called  the  ‘  scala  santa,’  or  1  holy  staircase,’ 
which  is  reputed  to  be  the  stairs  of  Pilate’s 
house  at  Jerusalem,  made  holy  by  the  feet 
of  our  Lord  as  he  passed  to  judgment.” — 
Chambers:  Cyclopcedia. 

Lathrop,  Joseph,  D.  D.,  b.  at  Norwich, 
Conn.,  Oct.  20,  1731:  d.  at  West  Spring- 
field,  Mass.,  Dec.  31,  1820.  During  his 
life-long  pastorate  at  West  Springfield,  he 
gained  a  position  of  commanding  influence 
among  the  neighboring  Congregational 
churches.  He  published  seven  volumes, 
mostly  sermons,  with  autobiography.  Dr. 
Sprague  published  a  memoir  of  Dr.  Lath¬ 
rop  in  1864  with  his  Exposition  of  the  Epis¬ 
tle  to  the  Ephesians. 

Latimer,  Hugh,  “  one  of  the  most  dis¬ 
tinguished  of  the  English  Reformers,  was 
b.  at  Thurcaston,  in  Leicestershire,  in  the 
year  1490  or  1491.  He  was  educated  at 
Cambridge,  and  after  a  brief  period  of  zeal¬ 
ous  devotion  to  the  papacy  (‘I  was  as 
obstinate  a  papist,’  he  says,  ‘  as  any  in 
England  ’),  he  became  attached  to  the  new 
learning  and  divinity  which  had  begun  to 
establish  themselves  there.  He  very  soon 
became  a  zealous  preacher  of  the  reformed 
doctrines.  The  consequence  of  this  new¬ 
born  zeal  was,  that  many  of  the  adherents 
of  the  old  faith  wrere  strongly  excited 
against  him,  and  he  was  embroiled  in  many 
controversies. 

“  The  dispute  about  Henry  VIII. ’s  mar¬ 
riage  with  Catharine  of  Aragon  brought 
Latimer  more  into  notice.  He  was  one  of 
the  divines  appointed  by  the  University  of 
Cambridge  to  examine  as  to  its  lawfulness, 
and  he  declared  on  the  king’s  side.  This 
secured  Henry’s  favor,  and  he  was  appoint¬ 
ed  one  of  his  chaplains,  and  received  a  liv¬ 
ing  in  Wiltshire.  In  1535  he  was  appoint¬ 


ed  bishop  of  Worcester:  and  at  the  opening 
of  convocation  on  June  9,  1536,  he  preach¬ 
ed  two  very  powerful  and  impressive  ser¬ 
mons,  urging  the  necessity  of  reform. 
After  a  while,  the  work  of  reform  rather 
retrograded  than  advanced,  and  Latimer 
found  himself,  with  his  bold  opinions,  in 
little  favor  at  court.  He  retired  to  his  dio¬ 
cese,  and  labored  there  in  a  continual  round 
of  ‘  teaching,  preaching,  exhorting,  writ¬ 
ing,  correcting,  and  reforming,  either  as 
his  ability  would  serve,  or  the  time  would 
bear.’  This  was  his  true  function.  He 
was  an  eminently  practical  reformer.  Dur¬ 
ing  the  close  of  Henry’s  reign,  and  when 
the  reactionary  party,  headed  by  Gardiner 
and  Bonner,  were  in  the  ascendant,  Lati¬ 
mer  lived  in  great  privacy.  He  was  look¬ 
ed  upon  with  jealousy,  and  closely  watched, 
and  finally,  on  coming  up  to  London  for 
medical  advice,  he  was  brought  before  the 
privy  council,  and  cast  into  the  Tower. 

“  On  the  accession  of  Edward-  VI.  he 
again  appeared  in  public.  He  declined, 
however,  to  resume  his  episcopal  func¬ 
tions,  although  his  old  bishopric  was  offer¬ 
ed  to  him  at  the  instance  of  the  House  of 
Commons.  He  devoted  himself  to  preach¬ 
ing  and  practical  works  of  benevolence. 
The  pulpit  was  his  great  power,  and  by  his 
stirring  and  homely  sermons  he  did  much 
to  rouse  a  spirit  of  religious  earnestness 
throughout  the  country.  At  length,  with 
the  lamented  death  of  Edward,  he  and  other 
reformers  were  arrested  in  their  career  of 
activity.  Latimer  was  put  in  prison,  and 
examined  at  Oxford  in  1554.  After  his 
examination,  he  was  transferred  to  the 
common  jail  there,  where  he  lay  for  more 
than  a  year,  feeble,  sickly,  and  worn  out 
with  his  hardships.  Death  would  not  have 
long  spared  the  old  man,  but  his  enemies 
would  not  wait  for  the  natural  termination 
of  his  life.  In  Sept.,  1555,  he  was  sum¬ 
moned  before  certain  commissioners,  ap¬ 
pointed  to  sit  in  judgment  upon  him  and 
Ridley;  and  after  an  ignominious  trial  he 
was  condemned  to  be  burned.  He  suffer¬ 
ed  along  with  Ridley  ‘  without  Bocardo 
Gate,’  opposite  Balliol  College,  on  Oct.  16, 
1555,  exclaiming  to  his  companion:  ‘  Be  of 
good  comfort,  master  Ridley,  and  play  the 
man:  we  shall  this  day  light  such  a  candle, 
by  God’s  grace,  in  England,  as  I  trust  shall 
never  be  put  out.’ 

“  Latimer’s  character  presents  a  com¬ 
bination  of  many  noble  and  disinterested 
qualities.  He  was  brave,  honest,  devot¬ 
ed,  and  energetic,  homely,  and  popular, 
yet  free  from  all  violence;  a  martyr  and 
hero,  yet  a  plain,  simple-hearted,  and  un¬ 
pretending  man.  Humor  and  cheerfulness, 
manly  sense  and  direct  evangelical  fervor, 
distinguish  his  sermons  and  his  life,  and 


Lat 


(  519  ) 


Lau 


make  them  alike  interesting  and  admir¬ 
able. 

“  Latimer’s  sermons  were  reprinted  at 
London,  2  vols.,  1825.  The  latest  edition 
is  by  Rev.  G.  Corrie,  4  vols.,  1845.  See 
Tulloch’s  Leaders  of  the  Reformation  (1859); 
and  Latimer ,  a  biography,  by  Demaus 
(1869,  new  ed.,  1881).” — Chambers:  Cyclo- 
pcedia. 

Latin  Versions.  See  Bible. 

Latitudinarians,  a  name  first  applied  to 
those  within  the  Church  of  England,  who, 
in  the  sixteenth  century,  manifested  a  spirit 
of  toleration  toward  the  Dissenters.  In 
this  party  were  men  who  differed  as  widely 
in  their  theological  views  as  Hales,  Chil¬ 
ling  worth  ,  Cudworth,  Gale,  Tillotson,  and 
Stillingfleet.  In  recent  times  the  members 
of  the  ‘  ‘  Broad-School  ”  party  in  the  Church 
of  England  have  been  designated  as  latitu¬ 
dinarians,  inasmuch  as  they  lay  most  stress 
upon  Christian  character  as  opposed  to 
those  who  emphasize  conformity  to  ritual¬ 
istic  practices  and  sectarian  exclusiveness. 
Coleridge,  Arnold,  Maurice,  Kingsley,  and 
Stanley  have  been  among  the  leading  rep¬ 
resentatives  of  the  “  Broad  -  Church  ” 
school. 

Latter-Day  Saints.  See  Mormons. 

Laud,  William,  “  archbishop  of  Canter¬ 
bury,  was  the  son  of  a  clothier  in  good 
circumstances,  and  was  b.  at  Reading,  in 
Berkshire,  Oct.  7,  1573.  He  entered  St. 
John’s  College,  Oxford,  in  1589,  became  a 
fellow  in  1 593,  and  took  his  degree  of  M.  A. 
in  1598.  Ordained  a  priest  in  1601,  he  soon 
made  himself  conspicuous  at  the  university 
by  his  antipathy  to  Puritanism;  but  being 
then  a  person  of  very  little  consequence, 
he  only  succeeded  in  exciting  displeasure 
against  himself.  Yet  his  learning,  his  per¬ 
sistent  and  definite  ecclesiasticism,  and  the 
genuine  unselfishness  of  his  devotion  to 
the  Church,  soon  won  him  both  friends  and 
patrons.  In  1607  he  was  preferred  to  the 
vicarage  of  Stanford,  in  Northamptonshire, 
and  in  1608  obtained  the  advowson  of 
North  Kilworth,  in  Leicestershire.  In 
both  of  these  livings  he  showed  himself  an 
exemplary  clergyman  according  to  the 
High-Church  pattern — zealous  in  repair¬ 
ing  the  parsonage-houses,  and  liberal  in 
maintaining  the  poor.  In  1609  he  was  ap¬ 
pointed  rector  of  West  Tilbury,  in  Essex; 
in  1611 — in  spite  of  strong  opposition — 
president  of  St.  John’s  College;  in  1614 
prebendary  of  Lincoln;  and  in  1615  arch¬ 
deacon  of  Huntingdon.  King  James  now 
began  to  recognize  what  sort  of  a  man 
Laud  was,  and  to  see  that  he  might  rely 


on  him  as  a  valuable  ally  in  carrying  out 
the  notions  of  the  “  divine  right.”  Not 
that  their  aims  were  quite  identical  — 
James  was  chiefly  anxious  to  maintain  the 
absolute  authority  of  the  sovereign,  and 
Laud  the  absolute  authority  of  episcopacy. 
In  1617  Laud  accompanied  his  majesty  to 
Scotland,  with  the  view  of  introducing 
episcopacy  into  the  church  government  of 
that  country  ;  but  the  attempt  failed.  In 
1621  he  was  consecrated  bishop  of  St. 
Davids.  After  the  accession  of  Charles  I. 
he  was  translated  from  the  see  of  St. 
Davids  to  that  of  Bath  and  Wells,  became 
high  in  favor  at  court,  was  more  than  ever 
hated  by  the  Puritans,  and  was  denounced 
in  Parliament.  In  1628  he  was  made  bish¬ 
op  of  London.  After  the  assassination  of 
Buckingham,  Laud  became  virtually  the 
chief  minister  of  Charles,  and  acted  in  a 
manner  so  utterly  opposed  to  the  spirit  of 
the  times,  and  to  the  opinions  of  the  great 
body  of  Puritans  in  England,  that  one 
might  have  foreseen  his  ruin  to  be  inevita¬ 
ble,  in  spite  of  the  royal  favor.  In  1630 
he  was  chosen  chancellor  of  the  University 
of  Oxford,  the  centre  of  High-Church 
loyalty.  From  this  period  he  was  for 
several  years  busily  but  fruitlessly  em¬ 
ployed  in  repressing  Puritanism.  The 
means  adopted  were  not  only  unchristian, 
but  even  detestable.  Cropping  the  ears, 
slitting  the  nose,  branding  the  forehead, 
fines,  imprisonments,  are  not  at  any  time 
satisfactory  methods  of  defending  a  relig¬ 
ious  system,  but  in  the  then  temper  of  the 
English  nation  they  were  in  the  last  degree 
weak  and  foolish.  In  the  High-Commission 
and  Star-Chamber  courts  the  influence  of 
Laud  was  supreme  ;  but  the  penalty  he 
paid  for  this  influence  was  the  hatred  of 
the  English  Parliament,  and  of  the  people 
generally.  In  1633  he  was  raised  to  the 
archbishopric  of  Canterbury,  and  in  the 
same  year  made  chancellor  of  the  Univer¬ 
sity  of  Dublin.  The  famous  ordinance  re¬ 
garding  Sunday  sports,  which  Avas  pub¬ 
lished  about  this  time  by  royal  command, 
Avas  believed  to  be  draAvn  up  by  Laud,  and 
greatly  increased  the  dislike  felt  toward 
him  by  the  Puritans.  His  minute  altera¬ 
tions  in  public  Avorship,  his  regulations 
about  the  proper  position  of  the  altar  and 
the  fencing  of  it  Avith  decent  rails;  his 
forcing  Dutch  and  Walloon  congregations 
to  use  the  English  liturgy,  and  all  Eng¬ 
lishmen  to  attend  the  parish  churches 
Avhere  they  resided,  display  a  petty  intel¬ 
lect  and  an  intolerant  spirit;  as  other  of 
his  actions  indicate  that  there  lurked  in  his 
small,  obstinate  nature  no  inconsiderable 
amount  of  cruelty  and  malice.  Still,  it 
must  be  confessed  that,  in  the  long  run, 
Laud’s  ritualism  has  triumphed.  The 


Lau 


(  520  ) 


Law 


Church  of  England  was  gradually  pene¬ 
trated  with  his  spirit,  and  the  high  value 
which  she  has  come  to  put  on  religious 
ceremonies  is  partly  owing  to  the  pertina¬ 
cious  efforts  of  the  archbishop.  This  influ¬ 
ence,  in  short,  has  hindered  her  from 
becoming  as  doctrinal  and  Calvinistic  as 
her  articles  would  logically  necessitate. 
During  1635-37  another  effort  was  made 
by  him  to  establish  episcopacy  in  Scotland; 
but  the  first  attempt  to  read  the  liturgy  in 
St.  Giles’s  Church,  Edinburgh,  excited  a 
dangerous  tumult.  Proceedings  were  final¬ 
ly  taken  against  him,  and  on  March  1, 
1640-41,  he  was,  by  order  of  the  House  of 
Commons,  conveyed  to  the  Tower.  After 
being  stripped  of  his  honors,  and  exposed 
to  many  indignities  and  much  injustice,  he 
was  finally  brought  to  trial  before  the 
House  of  Lords,  Nov.  13,  1643,  on  a  charge 
of  treason  and  other  crimes.  The  Lords, 
however,  did  not  find  him  guilty;  but  the  i 
Commons  had  previously  resolved  on  his 
death,  and  passed  an  ordinance  for  his  ex¬ 
ecution.  To  this  the  upper  house  gave  its 
assent;  and,  in  spite  of  Laud’s  producing 
a  royal  pardon,  he  was — undoubtedly  in 
violation  of  express  statute,  and  by  the 
exercise  of  a  prerogative  of  Parliament  as 
arbitrary  as  any  king  had  ever  exhibited — 
beheaded,  Jan.  10,  1644-45.  Laud  had  a 
genuine  regard  for  learning — at  least  ec¬ 
clesiastical  learning  —  and  enriched  the 
University  of  Oxford,  in  the  course  of  his 
life,  with  1,300  MSS.  in  different  European 
and  Oriental  languages:  but  his  exclusive 
sacerdotalism,  his  inability  to  understand 
his  fellow  -  creatures  and  his  consequent 
disregard  for  their  rights,  forbid  us  to  ad¬ 
mire  his  character,  though  we  pity  his 
fate.  His  writings  are  few.  Wharton 
published  his  Diary  in  1694;  and  during 
1857-60,  Parker,  the  Oxford  publisher, 
issued  The  Works  of  the  Jl/ost  Reverend 
Father  in  God ,  William  Laud ,  D .  D.,  some¬ 
time  Lord  Archbishop  of  Canterbury ,  con¬ 
taining,  among  other  things,  his  letters 
and  miscellaneous  papers,  some  of  them 
not  before  published,  and,  like  his  Diary , 
of  great  value  in  helping  us  to  form  an 
adequate  conception  of  the  man  and  his 
time.” — Chambers:  Cj > clop <edi a . 

Laura,  the  name  given  to  the  collection 
of  cells  in  which  the  hermits  lived,  a  short 
distance  apart  from  each  other.  When 
they  lived  together,  with  a  community  of 
goods,  their  dwelling  was  called  a  ccenobium. 

La'vater,  Johann  Kaspar,  b.  at  Zurich, 
Nov.  15,  1741;  d.  there,  Jan.  2,  1801.  After 
traveling  for  a  time  with  the  celebrated 
painter  Fuseli,  and  studying  theology  at 
Barth  under  Spalding,  he  returned  to 


Zurich  in  1764,  and  entered  upon  ministe¬ 
rial  duties.  A  volume  of  poems  published 
in  1767  attracted  wide  attention,  and  in 
17S6  he  became  pastor  of  the  Church  of  St. 
Peter  in  Zurich,  which  office  he  held  until 
his  death.  In  connection  with  his  labors 
here,  he  wrote  many  works  of  a  devotional 
nature.  He  held  the  theory  that  men’s 
characters  could  be  discovered  by  the 
study  of  their  faces,  and  published  a  book 
(1775)  upon  the  subject,  Physiognomic 
Fragments,  which  has  passed  through  many 
editions.  Filled  with  many  fanciful  ideas, 
which  Lavater  himself  afterward  discarded, 
it  was  a  work  of  genius.  Strictly  evangel¬ 
ical  in  doctrine,  Lavater  was  beloved  and 
respected  by  a  large  circle  of  friends  who 
looked  to  him  for  spiritual  counsel.  When 
the  French  Revolution  broke  out  he  sym¬ 
pathized  with  the  movement  until  the  ex¬ 
cesses  committed,  and  the  murder  of  the 
king,  turned  the  tide  of  his  feeling.  He 
was  taken  prisoner  for  preaching  against 
the  rule  of  the  French  in  Switzerland. 
There  was  universal  joy  when  he  returned 
to  Zurich;  but  a  few  weeks  later,  after  the 
battle  with  Massena  (Sept.  25,  1799),  he 
was  shot  by  a  French  grenadier  in  the 
streets  of  the  city,  while  caring  for  the 
wounded  and  dying  soldiers,  and  after 
many  months  of  suffering  died  of  his 
wounds. 

Laver.  See  Tabernacle  and  its  Con¬ 
tents. 

Lavigerie,  Cardinal,  a  great  Roman 
Catholic  administrator  and  orator,  “  whose 
burning  words  during  the  last  few  years 
have  aroused  the  Christian  world  to  a  fresh 
sense  of  the  horrors  of  the  slave  trade  of 
interior  Africa  ;  ”  b.  in  1825  at  Bayonne. 
Educated  at  St.  Sulpice,  he  became  pro¬ 
fessor  at  the  Sorbonne  in  Paris,  but  early 
interested  himself  in  missionary  work  in 
the  East.  Before  he  had  reached  the  age 
of  forty  he  was  made  bishop  of  Nancy, 
from  which  he  was  transferred  to  the  arch¬ 
bishopric  of  Algiers  in  1S67.  His  work 
here  in  building  up  the  institutions  of  the 
Roman  Catholic  Church  has  been  remark¬ 
able  in  many  ways,  but  it  has  been  through 
his  agitation  against  the  slave  traffic,  as 
now  carried  on  in  Africa,  that  his  name  has 
become  generally  known.  Three  volumes 
of  his  principal  speeches,  letters,  and  me¬ 
moirs  were  published  in  18S8,  the  twenty- 
fifth  anniversary  of  his  episcopate. 

Law,  Natural.  See  Natural  Law. 

Law, William,  an  eminent  writer  on  prac¬ 
tical  divinity;  b.  at  Kingscliffe,  Northamp¬ 
tonshire,  16S6;  d,  there,  April  9,  1761.  A 


Lay 


(  52i  ) 


Lay 


graduate  and  fellow  of  Emmanuel  College, 
Cambridge,  he  received  holy  orders  in 
1711.  Refusing  to  take  the  oaths  of  alle¬ 
giance  and  abjuration  on  the  accession 
of  George  I.,  he  renounced  all  hope  of 
preferment,  and  devoted  himself  to  a  life 
of  studious  retirement  and  spiritual  medi¬ 
tation.  His  best-known  work  is  his  Serious 
Call  (1729).  This  remarkable  book  has  had 
an  influence  second  only  to  that  of  the  Pil¬ 
grim’s  Progress.  Gibbon,  Dr.  Johnson,  and 
the  Wesleys  voiced,  in  their  commenda¬ 
tion,  the  verdict  of  multitudes  of  its  read¬ 
ers.  In  The  Spirit  of  Prayer  and  The  Spir¬ 
it  of  Love,  the  mystical  views  of  Law  found 
more  full  expression.  In  later  life  he  was 
a  student  and  admirer  of  the  German  theos- 
ophist,  Jacob  Behmen.  See  Life  of  Will¬ 
iam  Law,  by  J.  H.  Overton  (London, 
1881). 

Lay  Abbots.  See  Abbots. 

Lay  Baptism.  See  Baptism. 

Lay  Brothers.  See  Monasticism. 

Lay  Communion,  a  technical  term  refer¬ 
ring  to  the  reduction  of  a  clegyman  to  the 
state  of  a  layman.  It  has  no  special  ref¬ 
erence  to  the  reception  of  the  Eucharist. 
See  Smith  and  Cheetham:  Diet,  of  Chris. 
A  ntiq. 

Lay  Preaching.  The  distinction  now 
made  between  the  clergy  and  the  laity  was 
unknown  in  apostolic  times.  The  sending 
of  the  seventy  (Luke  x.  1),  and  the  com¬ 
mission  given  the  disciples  at  the  time  of 
our  Lord’s  ascension  (Matt,  xxviii.  19). 
showed  that  the  obligation  was  laid  upon 
all  to  preach  the  gospel.  When  the  mem¬ 
bers  of  the  church  at  Jerusalem  were  scat¬ 
tered,  after  the  death  of  Stephen,  they 
“  went  about  preaching  the  word.”  (Acts 
viii.  4;  xi.  19.)  In  some  cases,  as  at  Anti¬ 
och,  and  probably  at  Rome,  churches  were 
founded  before  the  coming  of  the  apostles 
to  visit  them.  After  a  time  the  lay  mem¬ 
bers  were  excluded  from  the  performance 
of  nearly  all  ecclesiastical  functions.  Ori- 
gen,  while  a  layman,  preached  before  the 
bishop  of  Caesarea,  and  Tertullian  main¬ 
tained  that  all  Christians  were  priests  in  the 
fullest  sense.  Augustine  and  Chrysostom 
defended  lay  preaching,  but  it  was  finally 
prohibited  by  Leo  the  Great.  The  practice 
was  revived  in  the  thirteenth  century  by 
the  Dominican  and  Franciscan  orders, 
which  were  composed  of  laymen.  In  the 
times  of  the  Reformation,  especially  among 
the  Calvinistic  churches,  lay  preaching  was 
sanctioned.  In  the  great  religious  awak¬ 
ening,  of  which  Wesley  was  the  recognized 


}  leader,  lay  preaching  acted  an  important 
part.  The  rapid  spread  of  Methodism  was 
largely  due  to  the  efforts  of  lay  preachers. 
In  our  own  times,  the  career  of  Moody  and 
others  has  proved  that  in  some  respects 
the  lay  preacher  has  an  advantage  over  the 
regular  minister.  “  Lay  preaching  is  an 
adjunct  to  clerical  preaching,  not  a  substi¬ 
tute  for  it.  In  the  hands  of  wise  and  de¬ 
vout  ministers,  the  lay  preacher  can  be  a 
powerful  agent  for  God;  but,  if  ill-directed, 
he  becomes  a  power  for  the  spread  of  big¬ 
otry,  fanaticism,  and  cant.” — Schaff-Her- 
zog:  Ency. 

Lay  Representation.  In  apostolic  times 
the  laity  had  a  voice  in  the  government  of 
the  Church.  With  the  rise  of  sacerdotal¬ 
ism,  the  laity  were  entirely  shut  out  from 
the  church  council.  The  Reformation,  un¬ 
der  the  lead  of  Luther,  again  gave  them 
representation.  “  In  Germany  and  other 
Lutheran  countries  the  Lutheran  Church  is 
governed  by  boards  (consistories),  com¬ 
posed  of  clergy  and  laymen.  In  England, 
the  church  is  governed  by  laymen,  so  far 
as  its  affairs  are  controlled  by  the  Crown 
and  Parliament.  In  Ireland,  laymen  are 
regularly  sent  to  the  church  convocations. 
In  the  Episcopal  Church  of  the  United 
States,  three  delegates  are  sent  from  each 
parish  to  the  annual  diocesan  convention. 
In  the  general  convention,  which  meets 
every  three  years,  there  is,  in  the  House 
of  Clerical  and  Lay  Deputies,  an  equal 
number  of  clerical  and  lay  delegates,  elect¬ 
ed  by  the  diocesan  conventions.  In  the 
Presbyterian  churches  throughout  the 
world,  the  laity  have  representation  in,  (1) 
the  Session,  composed  of  the  pastor  and 
the  elders,  both  elected  by  the  congrega¬ 
tion;  (2)  in  Presbytery,  composed  of  the 
ministers,  and  one  elder  from  each  congre¬ 
gation  in  a  certain  district;  (3)  in  Synod, 
composed  of  all  the  ministers,  and  one  elder 
from  each  congregation,  in  a  larger  district 
embracing  several  presbyteries  ;  (4)  in 

General  Assembly,  composed  of  ministers 
and  elders  in  equal  numbers,  elected  by 
Presbytery.  In  the  Reformed  (Dutch) 
Church  in  America,  similar  courts  exist; 
but  they  are  named  differently,  being  called 
Consistory,  Classis,  Particular  Synod,  and 
General  Synod,  respectively.  The  consti¬ 
tution  of  the  first  two  is  similar  to  that  just 
described.  The  last  two  are  delegate 
bodies,  and  so  the  laity  have  less  numer¬ 
ous  representatives;  but  as  the  number  of 
ministers  and  elders  is  equal,  they  have 
more  equable  representation. 

“  In  churches  of  the  Congregational 
order  (Congregationalists,  Baptists.  Uni- 
j  versalists,  Unitarians)  the  laity  have  full 
I  representation.  In  the  Wesleyan  Metho- 


Lay 


(  522  ) 


Leb 


dist  Church  of  England  there  is  no  lay  rep¬ 
resentation;  but  in  the  Methodist  Episco¬ 
pal  Church  in  the  United  States  there 
are  one  or  two  lay  delegates  for  each 
annual  conference,  chosen  by  an  elec¬ 
toral  conference  of  laymen,  composed  of 
one  layman  from  each  circuit  or  station 
within  the  bounds  of  the  annual  conference; 
such  laymen  being  chosen  by  the  preceding 
quarterly  conference.  The  lay  and  minis¬ 
terial  delegates  sit  together,  but  may  vote 
separately.” — Schaff- Herzog:  Ency. 

Laying  on  of  Hands.  See  Imposition 
of  Hands. 

Lazarists,  the  common  name  of  the 
“  Congregation  of  the  Priests  of  the  Mis¬ 
sion,”  founded  by  St.  Vincent  de  Paul  in 
1624.  The  name  4  4  Lazarists  ”  originated 
from  the  house  in  which  they  were  estab¬ 
lished  in  Paris  in  1632,  the  College  of  St. 
Lazare.  Their  object  was  to  do  missionary 
work  in  the  rural  districts  and  in  foreign 
countries,  and  to  train  young  priests. 
During  the  Revolution,  many  of  the  mem¬ 
bers  were  killed.  Dissolved  by  the  Con¬ 
vention,  the  congregation  was  restored  by 
Napoleon  in  1804;  again  dissolved  in  1809, 
it  was  restored  in  1816,  and  the  use  of  a 
house  granted  to  them. 

League  and  Covenant,  Solemn.  See 
Covenanters. 

Leathes,  Stanley,  D.  D.  (Edinburgh, 
1878),  Church  of  England;  b.  at  Ellesbor- 
ough,  Bucks,  March  21 , 1830;  was  graduated 
at  Cambridge,  1825;  curate  and  minister 
in  London,  1856-80;  rector  of  Cliffe-at-Hoo, 
diocese  of  Rochester,  since  1880,  and  since 
1863  professor  of  Hebrew,  King’s  College, 
London.  He  was  Boyle  lecturer,  1868-70; 
Hulsean  lecturer,  1873;  Bampton  lecturer, 
1874,  Warburtonian  lecturer,  1876-80,  and 
a  member  of  the  Old  Testament  Company 
of  the  Bible  Revision  Committee.  He  has 
published  several  important  volumes  grow¬ 
ing  out  of  the  lectureships  which  he  has 
filled. 

Leaven.  “  Various  substances  were 
known  to  have  fermenting  qualities ;  but  the 
ordinary  leaven  consisted  of  a  lump  of  old 
dough  in  a  high  state  of  fermentation, 
which  was  inserted  into  the  mass  of  dough 
prepared  for  baking.  The  use  of  leaven 
was  strictly  forbidden  in  all  offerings  made 
to  the  Lord  by  fire.  It  is  in  reference  to 
these  prohibitions  that  Amos  (iv.  5)  iron¬ 
ically  bids  the  Jews  of  his  day  to  4  offer  a 
sacrifice  of  thanksgiving  with  leaven.'  In 
other  instances,  where  the  offering  was  to 
be  consumed  by  the  priests,  and  not  on  the 


altar,  leaven  might  be  used.  Various  ideas 
were  associated  with  the  prohibition  of 
leaven  in  the  instances  above  quoted.  But 
the  most  prominent  idea,  and  the  one  which 
applies  equally  to  all  the  cases  of  prohi¬ 
bition,  is  connected  with  the  corruption 
which  leaven  itself  had  undergone,  and 
which  it  communicated  to  bread  in  the  proc¬ 
ess  of  fermentation.  It  is  to  this  property 
of  leaven  that  our  Saviour  points  when  he 
speaks  of  the  4  leaven  ’  (i.  e.,  the  corrupt 
doctrine)  4  of  the  Pharisees  and  of  the  Sad- 
ducees  ’  (Matt.  xvi.  6);  and  St.  Paul,  when 
he  speaks  of  the  4  old  leaven’  (1  Cor.  v. 
7).” — Smith:  Diet,  of  the  Bible. 

Leavitt,  Joshua,  b.  in  Heath,  Mass., 
Sept.  8,  1794;  d.  in  Brooklyn,  N.  Y.,Jan. 
16,  1873.  After  graduating  from  Yale  Col¬ 
lege,  in  1810,  he  studied  law,  but  after  a 
practice  of  two  years  he  entered  Yale  Di¬ 
vinity  School.  From  1825-28  he  was  pas¬ 
tor  of  the  Congregational  church  in  Strat¬ 
ford,  Conn.;  Secretary  of  the  Seamens’ 
Friend  Society,  1828-31;  editor  and  pro¬ 
prietor  of  the  New  York  Evangelist,  1831— 
37.  He  became  deeply  interested  in  the 
anti-slavery  cause,  and  in  1837  he  edited 
the  Emancipator.  In  1841  he  removed  to 
Boston  and  started  the  Daily  Chronicle ,  the 
first  daily  newspaper  devoted  to  the  anti¬ 
slavery  interest.  He  accepted  the  position 
of  managing  editor  of  The  Independent ,  in 
1848,  and  was  connected  with  this  paper  up 
to  the  time  of  his  death.  He  was  the  first 
lecturer  sent  out  by  the  American  Tem¬ 
perance  Society,  and  he  edited  the  Chris¬ 
tian  Lyre,  the  first  hymn-book  published  in 
this  country  with  notes. 

Leb  anon  ( exceeding  white'),  a  name  given 
to  a  double  mountain  range  —  Lebanon 
proper,  and  Anti-Lebanon — to  the  north  of 
Palestine,  whose  peaks  are  covered  with 
snow  for  the  larger  part  of  the  year.  Leb¬ 
anon  proper  begins  in  the  south  at  the 
river  Litani,  the  ancient  Leontes,  and  for 
a  distance  of  ninety  miles  extends  in  a  di¬ 
rection  parallel  with  the  Mediterranean 
northward  to  the  river  Nahr-el-Kebir,  the 
ancient  Eleutheros.  From  the  shore  of  the 
sea  it  rises  to  a  height  of  from  six  to  eight 
thousand  feet.  Its  highest  peaks  are  Jebel 
Mukhmel,  10,200  feet,  and  Sannin,  9.000 
feet.  The  line  of  cultivation  runs  at  an 
elevation  of  about  6,000  feet.  Anti-Lebanon 
begins  in  the  south  at  Mount  Hermon  and 
runs  northeast,  nearly  parallel  with  Leb¬ 
anon.  to  the  plain  of  Emesa.  Its  general 
aspect  is  bleak  and  barren,  while  Lebanon 
is  fruitful  and  beautiful.  14  The  country 
covered  by  these  mountains  never  belonged 
to  the  Israelites,  though  it  is  mentioned 
(Josh.  xiii.  5)  as  a  territory  which  should 


Leb 


(  523  ) 


Lee 


be  conquered,  and  though  parts  of  South¬ 
ern  Lebanon  really  seem  to  have  been  sub¬ 
jugated  during  the  reign  of  Solomon. 
(1  Kings  ix.  19;  Cant.  iv.  8.)  It  is  generally 
mentioned  simply  as  the  northern  bound¬ 
ary  of  Judaea  (Deut.  i.  7;  xi.  24;  Josh.  i. 
4;  ix.  1);  but  Lebanon  proper  is  often 
spoken  of  with  admiration  as  a  fertile  land 
with  thick  forests  (Psa.  lxxii.  16;  Isa.  x.  24), 
charming  by  its  fresh  fragrance  (Cant.  iv. 
11),  its  wine  (Hos.  xiv.  7),  its  abundance 
of  water  (Cant.  iv.  15),  and  rich  in  game. 
(2  Kings  xiv.  9;  Isa.  xl.  16.)  Its  beauty 
evidently  made  a  deep  impression  on  the 
imagination  of  the  Israelites.  To  the  mind 
„  of  the  prophets,  it  presented  itself  as  a 
symbol  of  the  sublime  (Isa.  xxxvii.  24),  or 
the  firm  and  steady.  (Psa.  xxix.  6;  Hos.  xiv. 
5.)  They  praise  its  glory  (Isa.  xxxv.  2), 


Lectern,  or  Lecturn,  the  desk  from 
which,  in  a  church  or  cathedral,  the  Script¬ 
ure  lessons  are  read.  They  are  made  of 
wood  or  brass,  and  very  commonly  in  the 
form  of  an  eagle,  probably  on  account  of 
that  bird  being  the  symbol  of  St.  John. 
They  stand  at  the  west  end  of  the  choir, 
facing  the  congregation. 

Lectionary  denotes,  in  the  Roman 
Catholic  Church,  the  book  containing 
the  passages  of  Scripture  used  in  the 
mass.  It  is  now  sometimes  applied  to 
the  Table  of  Lessons  in  the  Prayer- 
Book. 

Lector,  an  officer  in  the  ancient  Church 
who  read  the  lessons  at  divine  service  and 
kept  the  sacred  books. 


VIEW  OF  LEBANON  FROM  THE  SEA. 


and  to  their  eyes  its  seasons  depict  the 
desolation  of  the  days  of  evil  (Isa.  xxxiii. 
9),  and  the  restoration  at  the  coming  of  the 
Messiah.  (Isa.  xxix.  17.)  In  the  oldest  times 
these  regions  were  inhabited  by  the  Hi- 
vites  and  the  Giblites.  (Josh.  xiii.  5,6;  Judg. 
iii.  3.)  Lebanon  belonged  to  Phoenicia; 
Anti-Lebanon,  to  Damascus.  In  the  fourth 
century  before  Christ  the  whole  country 
was  incorporated  with  the  kingdom  of  the 
Seleucidse,  and  later  on  it  ran  the  gauntlet 
through  the  Roman,  Saracen,  and  Turkish 
rule.  At  present,  Lebanon  is  inhabited  by 
Christians  (Maronites  and  Druses);  Anti- 
Lebanon,  by  Mohammedans.” — Arnold. 
See  Robinson:  Biblical  Researches  (1841); 
Porter:  Five  Years  in  Damascus  (1855). 

Lebbae'us.  See  Judas. 


Lectures.  See  Bampton;  Hulsean; 
Lowell,  etc. 

Lee,  Ann.  See  Shakers. 

Lee,  Jesse,  an  able  and  successful  Meth¬ 
odist  preacher;  b.  in  Prince  George 
County,  Va. ,  March  12,  1758;  d.  in  Balti¬ 
more,  Md.,  Sept.  12,  1816.  He  began  his 
labors  as  an  itinerant  minister  in  1783,  and 
after  spending  three  years  in  North  Caro¬ 
lina,  Virginia,  Maryland,  and  New  Jersey, 
he  was  sent  to  New  England.  He  formed 
the  first  Methodist  “class,”  numbering 
three  women,  at  Stratford,  Conn.,  Sept. 
26,  1787.  A  “class”  was  organized  at 
Boston,  Mass.,  July  13,  1792.  When  he 
left  New  England  in  1S00  there  were  fifty 
Methodist  preachers  and  six  thousand 


Lee 


(  524  ) 


Lei 


members.  From  1807-13  he  was  chaplain 
of  the  United  States  House  of  Representa¬ 
tives,  and  from  1814  until  his  death  chap¬ 
lain  of  the  United  States  Senate.  He  had 
remarkable  gifts  as  an  organizer,  and  well 
deserved  the  title  that  has  been  given  him 
as  “  the  apostle  of  Methodism  in  New  Eng¬ 
land.”  He  published  History  of  Methodism 
in  America  (Baltimore,  1807).  See  Life 
and  Times  of  Jesse  Lee,  by  Leroy  M.  Lee 
(Richmond,  Va. ,  1848). 

Lee,  Samuel,  D.  D.,  an  eminent  Oriental 
scholar;  b.  at  Longnor,  Shropshire,  Eng., 
May  14,  1783;  d.  at  Barley,  Somersetshire, 
Dec.  16,  1852.  His  early  education  was 
received  in  a  charity  school.  While  work¬ 
ing  at  his  trade  as  a  carpenter  he  studied 
the  languages,  and  without  the  aid  of  a 
teacher  became  proficient  in  a  large  num¬ 
ber.  In  1813  he  entered  Queen’s  College, 
Cambridge,  and  after  taking  orders  became 
(1819)  professor  of  Arabic  in  the  Univer¬ 
sity.  In  1831  he  was  appointed  Regius  pro¬ 
fessor  of  Hebrew,  and  at  the  time  of  his 
death  was  also  rector  of  Barley.  He  was 
the  author  of  a  Hebrew  Grammar  (1830) 
and  a  Hebrew ,  Chaldee ,  and  English  Lexicon 
(1S40),  besides  several  other  works.  He 
translated  the  Bible  into  Syriac,  Malay, 
Persian,  Hindustani,  Coptic,  and  Arabic, 
for  the  British  and  Foreign  Bible  Society. 

Legates,  the  name  given  ambassadors 
sent  by  the  pope  to  foreign  churches. 
They  are  of  three  kinds:  (1)  Legati  a  lat¬ 
ere ,  chosen  from  the  cardinals  and  clothed 
almost  with  pontifical  power;  (2)  Legati 
nati,  holding  their  office  by  hereditary 
right,  but  having  little  power;  (3)  Legati 
missi,  or  Nuncii  apostolici,  upon  whom 
were  bestowed  absolute  authority  in  the 
matter  for  which  they  were  employed. 

Legends  ( things  to  be  read ).  The  book 
once  used  in  Roman  churches,  containing 
the  lessons  to  be  read  at  divine  service,  was 
called  a  legend.  In  this  way  the  name  was 
given  to  the  lives  of  saints  and  martyrs, 
because  chapters  were  read  from  them  at 
stated  times.  A  large  portion  of  the  le¬ 
gends  that  found  a  place  in  the  Golden  Le¬ 
gend,  and  other  collections,  were  a  mass  of 
fiction.  Many  of  those  of  an  earlier  date, 
contained  in  the  Acta  Martyrum  and  Acta 
Sanctoru?n,  are  probably  authentic.  The 
Roman  Breviary  contains  legends  of  saints 
which  every  priest  has  to  peruse  daily. 
See  Bollandists. 

Legendary  Theory.  See  Mythical. 

Legion,  The  Theban,  according  to  the 
legend,  which  has  many  versions,  a  legion 


of  sixty-six  hundred  men,  called  the  “The¬ 
ban,”  was  sent  from  the  Orient  to  northern 
Italy  to  reinforce  the  army  of  Maximinian. 
Being  Christians  themselves,  they  refused 
to  obey  his  commands  to  persecute  the 
Christians  in  that  region.  Exasperated  at 
their  refusal,  he  had  the  whole  legion 
massacred. 

Legion,  The  Thundering  {I.egio  Fulmi- 
natrix ),  is  the  name  given  to  a  Roman 
legion  that,  surrounded  by  heathen  ene¬ 
mies  in  a  valley  among  the  Alps,  were  on 
the  point  of  dying  from  thirst,  when  a 
shower  of  rain  saved  them.  Eusebius  tells 
the  story,  and  ascribes  the  event  to  the  % 
miraculous  interference  of  Providence  in 
answer  to  the  prayers  of  the  Christian  sol¬ 
diers. 

Leibnitz,  Gottfried  Wilhelm  von,  one 
of  the  most  wonderful  scholars  that  ever 
lived;  b.  at  Leipzig,  July  3,  1646;  d.  at 
Hanover,  Nov.  14,  1716.  In  his  philoso¬ 
phy  he  put  forth  the  theory  of  monads ,  i.  e. , 
simple,  uncompounded  substances , without 
figure,  without  exterior,  without  divisibil¬ 
ity,  by  the  aggregation  of  which  all  bodies 
are  formed,  and  into  which  they  may  be 
again  resolved.  (Materialism.)  These 
monads  are  created  things,  indestructible, 
and  of  two  classes:  Those  destitute  of  con¬ 
sciousness,  but  possessing  an  internal  ac¬ 
tivity  which  he  calls  perception;  and  those 
possessing  consciousness,  which  are  souls. 
The  difference  between  the  higher  and 
lower  intelligences  depends  upon  the  de¬ 
gree  of  this  consciousness.  The  prime 
monad  is  God.  Now,  inasmuch  as  man 
consists  of  mind  and  body,  the  joint  action 
has  to  be  accounted  for.  Des  Cartes  taught 
that  it  exists  through  the  direct  assistance 
of  God.  Leibnitz,  on  the  other  hand,  held 
that  the  mind  and  body  are  distinct  ma¬ 
chines,  working  independently,  though 
simultaneously,  by  a  preestablished  har¬ 
mony ,  arranged  by  their  Creator.  He  illus¬ 
trated  this  by  two  timepieces,  arranged  the 
one  to  point  to  the  hour,  the  other  to  strike. 
And  so,  he  thought,  when  the  mind  deter¬ 
mines  to  act,  the  body,  by  a  harmony  pre¬ 
arranged  by  God,  sets  in  order  the  neces¬ 
sary  mechanism.  But  the  most  celebrated 
work  of  Leibnitz  is  his  Theodicea ,  publish¬ 
ed  in  1700.  In  this  he  brings  forward  his 
“optimism” — the  doctrine,  as  held  by  him, 
that  out  of  all  the  systems  which  presented 
themselves  to  the  infinite  intelligence  of 
God  as  possible,  he  selected  and  created 
in  the  existing  universe  that  which  is  the 
most  perfect,  both  morally  and  physically. 
The  existence  of  evil  is  not  incompatible 
with  the  general  perfection  of  the  divine 
idea,  but  is  a  necessary  consequence  of  the 


Lei 


(  525  ) 


Leo 


finiteness  of  created  beings.  In  the  balance 
.  of  good  and  evil  in  creation,  this  preponder¬ 
ance  is  infinitely  greater  on  the  former 
side,  and  will  be  seen  to  be  so  at  the  last. 
The  works  of  Leibnitz  fill  46  volumes,  but 
do  not  comprise  nearly  the  whole  of  his 
manuscripts. — Benham:  Diet,  of  Religion. 

Leighton,  Robert,  archbishop  of  Glas¬ 
gow,  b.  in  1611.  He  was  educated  in 
London  until  his  sixteenth  year,  and  after¬ 
ward  in  Edinburgh;  subsequently  he  spent 
some  years  in  France,  and  was  licensed  in 
1641  to  the  ministry,  with  the  charge  of  the 
parish  of  Newbattle,  near  Edinburgh.  His 
character  has  been  greatly  misrepresented, 
and  it  has  now  been  proved  that  he  was 
zealous  and  earnest  in  his  work,  striving 
always  to  promote  peace  and  unity  in  the 
Church,  and  refusingjto  take  part  more  than 
was  necessary  in  the  controversies  which 
engaged  most  men’s  thoughts.  This  was 
the  more  remarkable  as  his  father  was  one 
of  the  bitterest  fanatics  in  the  cause  of  Prot¬ 
estantism,  and  had  brought  up  his  son  in 
his  own  footsteps.  Robert  Leighton  re¬ 
mained  at  Newbattle  for  eleven  years;  but 
in  1652  was  summoned  to  London  to  de¬ 
fend  the  conduct  of  some  Scottish  ministers 
who  had  been  imprisoned  for  supporting 
the  Royalist  cause.  He  procured  their  re¬ 
lease,  and  returned  to  Scotland,  where  he 
was  appointed  principal  of  the  University 
of  Edinburgh.  When  Charles  II.  took 
steps  for  introducing  episcopacy  into  Scot¬ 
land,  he  nominated  Leighton  to  the  bishop¬ 
ric  of  Dumblane,  and  shortly  afterward  to 
the  archbishopric  of  Glasgow,  in  1671. 
But,  finding  that  his  opinions  were  more  in 
favor  of  moderation  than  those  of  other 
bishops,  who  looked  on  him  inconsequence 
with  suspicion,  he  resigned  his  see  in  1674; 
and  retired  to  Sussex,  to  the  house  of  his 
sister,  where  he  spent  the  last  ten  years  of 
his  life.  He  died  in  London  in  February, 
1684,  having  come  up  to  town,  at  the  re¬ 
quest  of  some  friends,  to  hold  a  discussion 
with  Lord  Perth  on  religious  matters,  but 
was  buried  in  a  chapel  at  Horsted-Keynes, 
his  sister’s  residence. 

The  writings  of  Leighton  are  among  the 
most  beautiful  in  English  theology.  Col¬ 
eridge’s  Aids  to  Reflection  consists  almost 
entirely  of  expansions  and  commentaries 
on  the  teaching  of  this  saintly  man.  Several 
editions  of  his  works  have  been  published. 
— Benham:  Diet,  of  Religion.  Selections 
from  the  writings  of  Leighton,  with  Life , 
were  published  by  W.  Blair,  D.  D.  (Lon¬ 
don,  1884). 

Leipzig  Disputation.  See  Eck;  Luther. 

Leipzig  Interim,  The,  was  issued  at  Leip¬ 


zig,  Dec.  22,  1548.  It  was  the  joint  pro¬ 
duction  of  Melanchthon,  Paul  Eber,  Bu- 
genhagen,  Hieronymus  Weller,  Antonius 
Lauterbach,  Georg  Major,  and  Joachim 
Camerarius.  It  made  such  concessions  to 
the  Roman  Catholics  with  respect  to  bap¬ 
tism,  penance,  mass,  etc.,  that  it  met  with 
great  opposition  from  the  Lutherans,  and 
was  revoked  in  1552. 

Lent  (from  the  Saxon  word  lencten ,  sig¬ 
nifying  “  spring  ”),  is  the  name  given  to  the 
forty  week-days  preceding  Easter.  Its  or¬ 
igin  was  of  very  early  date,  as  the  writings 
of  Irenaeus  and  Tertullian  prove.  At  first 
its  duration  was  very  short,  and  appears  to 
have  been  confined  to  the  forty  hours  be¬ 
tween  the  time  of  the  crucifixion  and  the 
resurrection.  Gradually  the  period  of  fast¬ 
ing  was  increased  until  it  became  forty 
days,  in  accord  with  the  fasts  of  Moses,  Eli¬ 
jah,  and  our  Lord.  The  character  and  ex¬ 
tent  of  the  fasting  varied,  but  there  was  al¬ 
most  a  universal  cessation  of  everything  of 
a  festal  nature,  and  the  strict  observance  of 
religious  duties.  Lent  is  observed  in  Epis¬ 
copal  churches,  but  the  observance  of  the 
fast  is  left  to  the  individual  discretion.  In 
the  Roman  Catholic  Church  it  retains  its 
ancient  features. 

Le'o,  “  the  name  of  thirteen  among  the 
popes  of  the  Roman  Catholic  Church,  of 
whom  the  following  call  for  particular  no¬ 
tice:  Leo  I.,  Surnamed  ‘  the  Great,’  who  is 
held  a  saint  of  the  Roman  Catholic  Church, 
and  is  one  of  the  most  eminent  of  the  Lat¬ 
in  fathers,  was  born  of  a  distinguished 
Etrurian  family  at  Rome,  about  the  end  of 
the  fourth  century.  Of  his  early  life  little 
is  known.  On  the  death  of  Sixtus  III.,  in 
440,  Leo  was  chosen  as  his  successor.  It 
is  in  his  pontificate  that  the  regular  series 
of  papal  letters  and  decretals  may  be  said 
to  commence.  Leo’s  letters,  addressed  to 
all  parts  of  the  Church,  exhibit  prodigious 
activity  and  zeal,  and  are  used  by  Roman 
controversialists  as  an  evidence  of  the  ex¬ 
tent  of  the  jurisdiction  of  the  Roman  see. 
In  a  council  held  at  Rome,  in  449,  he  set 
aside  the  proceedings  of  the  Council  of 
Ephesus,  which  had  pronounced  in  favor  of 
Eutyches  ( q .  v.),  summoned  a  new  council 
at  Chalcedon,  in  which  his  legates  presided, 
and  in  which  Leo’s  celebrated  ‘  dogmatical 
letter  ’  was  accepted  ‘  as  the  voice  of  Peter,’ 
and  adopted  as  the  authentic  exposition  of 
the  orthodox  doctrine  on  the  person  of 
Christ.  His  works,  the  most  important  of 
which  are  his  letters  and  sermons,  were 
first  printed  in  1479, and  afterward  by  Ques- 
nel  (2  vols.,  Paris,  1675);  but  a  much  more 
complete  and  trustworthy  edition  is  that  of 
Cacciari  (3  vols.  fol.,  Rome,  1753-55),  and 


Leo 


(  526  ) 


i^es 


of  the  brothers  Ballerini  (Venice,  1757). 
The  pontificate  of  Leo  III.  is  chiefly  notice¬ 
able  as  the  epoch  of  the  formal  establish¬ 
ment  of  the  Empire  of  the  West.  He  was 
a  native  of  Rome,  and  was  elected  pope  on 
the  death  of  Adrian  I. ,  in  795.  During  the 
greater  part  of  the  eighth  century  the 
popes,  through  the  practical  withdrawal  of 
the  eastern  emperors,  had  exercised  a  tem¬ 
poral  supremacy  in  Rome,  which  was  fully 
recognized  by  the  gift  of  Pepin,  and  placed 
under  the  protectorate  of  the  Frank  sov¬ 
ereigns,  who  received  the  title  of  patrician. 
The  pontificate  of  Leo,  however,  was  a 
troubled  one,  and  in  799  he  was  treated 
with  much  violence,  and  obliged  to  flee 
to  Spoleto,  whence  he  afterward  re¬ 
paired  to  Paderborn,  in  order  to  hold  a 
conference  with  Charlemagne.  On  his  re¬ 
turn  to  Rome  he  was  received  with  much 
honor  by  the  Romans,  and  the  chiefs  of  the 
conspiracy  against  him  were  sentenced  to 
banishment.  In  the  following  year  (800), 
Charlemagne,  having  come  to  Rome,  was 
solemnly  crowned  and  saluted  emperor  by 
the  pope,  and  the  temporal  sovereignty  of 
the  pope  over  the  Roman  city  and  State, 
under,  however,  the  suzerainty  of  the  em¬ 
peror,  was  formally  established.  In  804 
Leo  visited  Charlemagne  at  his  court  at 
Aix-la-Chapelle.  With  Charlemagne’s  suc¬ 
cessor,  Louis  le  Debonnaire,  Leo  was  em¬ 
broiled  in  a  dispute  about  the  right  of  sov¬ 
ereign  jurisdiction  in  Rome,  which  had  not 
been  brought  to  a  conclusion  when  Leo  died 
in  816.  Leo  XIII.,  the  present  head  of  the 
Roman  Catholic  Church,  was  elected  to  the 
pontifical  chair,  Feb.  20,  1878.  Descended 
from  an  old  patrician  family,  Gioacchino 
Pecci  was  b.  March  2,  1810,  at  Carpineto,  a 
village  in  central  Italy.  He  studied  at  the 
Collegio  Romano,  graduated  in  law  and  the¬ 
ology,  and,  becoming  a  favorite  with  pope 
Gregory  XVI. ,  was  named  by  him  a  prelate 
of  the  household.  As  delegate  succes¬ 
sively  at  Benevento,  Spoleto,  and  Perugia, 
he  displayed  great  energy  in  the  gov¬ 
ernment  of  these  provinces,  and  was  es¬ 
pecially  vigorous  and  successful  in  the 
work  of  suppressing  brigandage.  Though 
but  33  years  of  age,  he  was,  in  1843,  made 
archbishop  of  Dalmatia,  and  sent  to  Brus¬ 
sels  as  papal  nuncio.  In  1846  Gregory  se¬ 
lected  Pecci  for  the  dignity  of  cardinal,  but 
his  friendly  views  in  favor  of  the  young 
archbishop  were  frustrated  by  death,  and 
it  was  not  till  1853  that  Gregory’s  succes¬ 
sor,  Pius  IX.,  saw  fit  to  confer  the  cardi¬ 
nal’s  hat.  Cardinal  Pecci  was  no  favorite 
of  the  all-powerful  Cardinal  Antonelli,  and 
was  accordingly  not  prominent  in  papal 
councils.  But  in  1877  he  was  made  Cam- 
erlengo  (papal  finance  minister),  and  was 
chosen  to  be  the  successor  of  Pius  IX.  in 


the  pontificate  in  1878.” — Chambers:  Cyclo- 
piedia.  See  Life  of  Leo  XIII. ,  by  Bernard 
O’Reilly  (New  York,  1887). 

Leprosy.  “  There  is  reason  to  believe 
that  what  is  now  known  as  leprosy  is  not 
the  disease  to  which  the  name  is  given  in 
the  Bible.  In  the  present  day  ‘  leprosy  ’ 
stands  for  the  disease  that  is  also  called 
elephantiasis — the  swelling,  thickening,  and 
diminished  sensitiveness  of  the  skin,  sug¬ 
gesting  that  of  an  elephant.  This  disease 
is  of  gradual  approach  and  development. 
The  face  is  the  part  most  frequently  affect¬ 
ed.  In  severe  cases  the  throat  is  involved, 
and  the  voice  becomes  hoarse.  Beginning 
in  spots  and  blotches  on  the  skin,  the  dis¬ 
ease  works  its  way  into  the  flesh.  Some¬ 
times  nodules  like  pears  grow  out  on  the 
skin.  In  another  and  more  common  form 
of  the  disease  the  body  is  slowly  eaten 
away,  till  sometimes  almost  all  traces  of 
human  features  are  lost,  and  finger-joints, 
and  then  whole  limbs  decay  away.  It  is  a 
curious  fact  that  this  terrible  malady  is 
scarcely  known  to  attack  Jews.  The  lep¬ 
rosy  of  the  Bible  does  not  answer  the  de¬ 
scription  of  elephantiasis.  There  we  never 
read  of  the  destruction  of  features  and 
limbs.  Yet  the  description  of  the  disease 
in  Lev.  xiii.,  xiv.  is  minute  and  detailed.  It 
is  held  by  Sir  Risdon  Bennett  and  others, 
that  in  the  Bible  the  word  ‘  leprosy  ’  stands 
for  a  variety  of  skin  diseases.  Even 
houses  are  said  to  be  leprous  when  they 
are  mildewed.  Often  the  word  is  used  for 
the  ‘  itch,’  sometimes  perhaps  for  ‘  ring¬ 
worm,’  but  most  often  for  a  disease  called 
‘  psoriasis.’  This  is  a  cutaneous  disease, 
the  essential  characteristic  of  which  is  a 
rough  scaly  eruption  on  the  skin.  The 
scaly  patches  are  sometimes  of  a  pearly 
whiteness.  The  leper  is  then  ‘  white  as 
snow.’  Evidently  the  question  of  the  con¬ 
tagiousness  of  leprosy  is  affected  by  the 
fact  that  the  name  is  given  in  a  general 
sense.  Some  of  the  skin  diseases  are  con¬ 
tagious  —  others  not.”  —  Bagster:  Bible 
Helps. 

Leslie,  Charles,  famous  as  the  author 
of  A  Short  and  Easy  Method  with  the  Deists; 
b.  in  Ireland,  1650;  d.  at  Glaslough,  1722. 
He  took  orders  in  1680,  and  in  1687  became 
chancellor  of  the  cathedral  of  Connor.  An 
earnest  opponent  of  Roman  Catholicism, 
he  was  a  staunch  adherent  of  the  Stuarts, 
and,  having  declined  to  take  the  oath  at  the 
Revolution,  was  deprived  of  his  benefice  by 
William  and  Mary.  He  withdrew  to  Eng¬ 
land,  and  for  twenty  years  was  active  in 
writing  various  articles  in  favor  of  the 
nonjuring  cause.  After  the  failure  to  re¬ 
store  the  Stuart  dynasty  he  accompanied 


Les 


(  527  ) 


Lev 


his  patron  to  Italy,  but  soon  asked  permis¬ 
sion  to  return  to  his  native  country,  and 
died  the  following  year.  “  The  Theolog¬ 
ical  Works  of  Leslie  were  collected  and  pub¬ 
lished  by  himself  in  2  vols.,  folio,  in  1721: 
a  later  edition,  slightly  enlarged,  appeared 
at  Oxford  in  1832  (7  vols.,  8vo).  They 
handle  the  controverted  points  of  which 
they  treat  with  considerable  force  of  argu¬ 
ment  and  vigor  of  style.  He  had  the  some¬ 
what  rare  distinction  of  making  several 
converts  by  his  reasonings,  and  probably 
persons  might  still  be  found  who  are  pre¬ 
pared  to  concur  in  Dr.  Johnson’s  dictum 
that  “  Leslie  was  a  reasoner,  and  a  reason- 
er  who  was  not  to  be  reasoned  against.” 
Rut  the  questions  in  dispute  are  no  longer 
discussed  on  the  basis  which  seems  to  have 
been  pretty  unanimously  accepted  by  the 
orthodox  theologians  of  that  age.  This  is 
sufficiently  seen  when  the  promise  given 
in  the  title  of  his  best-known  work  is  con¬ 
trasted  with  the  actual  performance.  The 
book  professes  to  be  A  Short  and  Easy 
Method  with  the  Deists,  wherein  the  Certainty 
of  the  Christian  Religion  is  Demonstrated  by 
Infallible  Proof  from  Four  Rules ,  which  are 
Incompatible  to  any  Imposture  that  ever  yet 
has  been ,  or  that  can  possibly  be  (1697).  The 
four  rules  which,  according  to  Leslie,  have 
only  to  be  rigorously  applied  in  order  to 
establish  not  the  probability  merely,  but 
the  absolute  certainty  of  the  truth  of  Chris¬ 
tianity,  are  simply  these:  (1)  that  the  mat¬ 
ter  of  fact  be  such  as  that  men’s  outward 
senses,  their  eyes  and  ears,  may  be  judges 
of  it;  (2)  that  it  be  done  publicly,  in  the 
face  of  the  world;  (3)  that  not  only  public 
monuments  be  kept  up  in  memory  of  it, 
but  some  outward  actions  be  performed; 
(4)  that  such  monuments  and  such  actions 
or  observances  be  instituted,  and  do  com¬ 
mence  from,  the  time  that  the  matter  of  fact 
was  done.” — Ency.  Britannica. 

Lessing,  Gotthold  Ephraim,  b.  at 
Kamenz,  in  Upper  Lusatia,  Jan.  22,  1729; 
d.  at  Brunswick,  Feb.  15,1781.  He  was  the 
son  of  a  Lutheran  pastor,  first  educated  at 
the  school  of  his  native  town  of  Kamenz, 
then  at  Meisegen  in  Saxony,  and  from  1746- 
48  at  the  University  of  Leipzig.  He  was 
an  insatiable  and  omnivorous  reader  almost 
from  infancy,  mastering  the  Latin,  Greek, 
mathematics,  and  history  of  the  curriculum, 
and  reading  other  classics  in  his  spare 
hours.  He  was  intended  for  the  ministry, 
and  went  to  Leipzig  with  the  full  intention 
of  studying  theology;  but  there  was  no 
theologian  there  equal  to  the  position  of 
mastering  him ,  and  the  love  of  classics  and 
art  gave  him  a  strong  impetus  toward  the 
world,  from  which  in  his  youth  he  had  been 
quite  shut  out.  Consequently  he  devoted 


himself  to  a  literary  life,  and  especially  de¬ 
sired  to  purify  the  drama  by  writing  plays 
of  high  moral  tone.  His  time  was  spent, 
some  at  Berlin,  some  at  Breslau.  For  the 
last  eleven  years  of  his  life  he  was  keeper 
of  the  Wolfenbiittel  Library. 

Lessing  is  a  deeply  interesting  subject 
for  meditation  as  regards  his  theological 
position.  That  he  was  skeptical  is  clear, 
but  it  was  not  the  scoffing  skepticism  of 
Voltaire.  He  was  a  man  of  deep,  earnest 
religious  feeling,  who  questioned  evidence 
severely,  and  hated  folly  and  prevarication. 
Probably  he  was  unfortunate  in  the  theo¬ 
logians  with  whom  he  came  into  collision, 
and  was  impatient  and  weary  of  argumen¬ 
tation,  when  a  simple  faith  and  example  of 
holy  life  might  have  conquered  him.  He 
used  to  express  his  longing  to  see  the  Sav¬ 
iour’s  miracles,  that  he  might  adore  and 
believe,  but  declared  that  the  records  did 
not  suffice  to  teach  him  living  belief  in  the 
Son  of  God.  His  faith,  though  not  formm 
lated,  was  really  deeper  than  that  of  those 
who  merely  repeated  formulas;  it  was 
eager  to  spring  up,  and  bear  fruit  in  him, 
to  be  a  living,  and  not  a  dead  faith.  He 
was  catching  hold,  if  only  by  the  hem  of 
the  garment,  of  that  which  he  felt  to  be  di¬ 
vine.  And  therefore  his  influence  was 
probably  good  upon  his  countrymen,  as  he 
led  them  away  from  systems  and  theories, 
and  shewed  them  in  his  life  the  example  of 
a  true  searcher  after  wisdom  and  after  God. 
— Benham:  Did.  of  Religion. 

Le'vi  (joining),  the  third  son  of  Jacob 
and  Leah.  (Gen.  xxix.  34.)  With  Simeon 
he  avenged  the  wrongs  of  their  sister 
Dinah  (Gen.  xxxiv.  25-31),  and  in  so  doing 
incurred  the  curse  of  Jacob.  (Gen.  xlix. 
5-7.)  But  this  curse,  through  the  action 
of  his  descendants  in  the  matter  of  the 
golden  calf,  was  changed  into  a  blessing. 
(Ex.  xxxii.  26-29.)  Levi  had  three  sons, 
Gershon,  Kohath,  and  Merari.  He  died  in 
Egypt  at  the  age  of  137.  (Ex.  vi.  16.) 

Lev'irate  Marriage,  a  term  applied  to  an 
ancient  usage  of  the  Hebrews  (Gen. 
xxxviii. ),  and  reordained  by  Moses  (Deut. 
xxv.  5-10),  that,  in  case  a  husband  died 
without  leaving  male  issue,  compelled  his 
brother  to  marry  the  widow.  (Cf.  also  Matt, 
xxii.  24.) 

Levites,  “  the  descendants  of  Levi,  who 
were  singled  out  for  the  service  of  the 
sanctuary.  The  term  is  more  particularly 
employed  in  contradistinction  to  ‘  priests  ’ 
(q.  v.),  in  designating  all  those  members 
of  the  tribe  who  were  not  of  the  family  of 
Aaron.  It  was  their  office — for  which  no 
further  ordination  was  required  in  the  case 


Lev 


(  528  ) 


Lib 


of  the  individual — to  erect,  to  remove,  and 
to  carry  the  tabernacle  and  its  utensils 
during  the  sojourn  of  the  Israelites  in  the 
wilderness.  When  the  sanctuary  had  found 
a  fixed  abode,  they  acted  as  its  servants 
and  guardians,  and  had  to  assist  the  priests 
in  their  holy  functions  in  the  sanctuary, 
and  in  their  medical  capacity  among  the 
people.  The  vocal  and  instrumental  music 
in  the  temple  was  likewise  under  their 
care,  as  were  also  the  general  instruction 
of  the  people,  certain  judicial  and  admin¬ 
istrative  functions,  the  keeping  of  the  gen¬ 
ealogical  lists,  and  the  propagation  of  the 
Book  of  the  Law  among  the  community. 
In  order  to  enable  them  better  to  fulfill 
these  functions,  no  special  part  of  the  land 
was  allotted  to  them,  but  they  were  scat¬ 
tered —  in  accordance  with  Jacob’s  last 
words  (Gen.  xlix.  7) — in  Israel;  forty-eight 
Levitical  cities,  among  which  there  were 
also  certain  ‘cities  of  refuge,’  being  set 
aside  for  them  on  both  sides  of  the  Jordan; 
without,  however,  preventing  their  settling 
wherever  else  they  pleased.  Their  revenues 
consisted  of  the  annual  tithe  ( q .  v.),  and  of 
a  share  in  the  second  tithe,  due  every  third 
year,  and  in  the  sacrificial  repasts.  The 
length  of  their  service  varied  at  different 
times.  No  special  dress  was  prescribed 
for  them  until  the  time  of  Agrippa. 

“  While  in  the  desert  not  more  than 
8,580  serviceable  men  strong,  they  had, 
under  David,  reached  the  number  of  38,000 
men  fit  for  the  service,  24,000  of  whom  this 
king  selected,  and  divided  them  into  four 
classes  —  sacerdotal  assistants,  doorkeep¬ 
ers,  singers,  and  musicians,  and  judges  and 
officers.  A  very  small  number,  only,  re¬ 
turned  from  the  exile,  and  all  the  Mosaic 
ordinances  with  respect  to  their  cities, 
tithes,  share  in  sacrificial  repasts,  etc., 
were  virtually  abrogated  during  the  second 
temple.  Nothing  but  the  service  in  the 
temple,  in  which  they  were  assisted  by 
certain  menials  called  Nethinim,  was  left 
to  them.  It  may  be  presumed  that  they 
earned  their  livelihood  partly  like  the  rest 
of  the  community,  partly  as  teachers, 
scribes,  and  the  like.  Their  traveling- 
garb  consisted,  according  to  the  Talmud 
(Jebam.  122  a),  of  a  staff,  a  pouch,  and  a 
Book  of  the  Law.  Foreign  rulers  also 
granted  them  exemption  from  taxes.  This 
is  the  only  tribe  which  is  supposed  to  have 
kept  up  its  pure  lineage  to  this  day,  and 
certain,  albeit  small,  signs  of  distinction 
are  still  bestowed  upon  its  members,  more 
especially  in  the  case  of  the  presumed 
descendants  of  Aaron  (the  Kohanini).  But 
the  purity  of  lineage  is  more  than  question¬ 
able  in  many  instances.  ‘  Levites  ’  is  also 
the  name  given  to  certain  sacerdotal  assis¬ 
tants  in  the  Romish  Church.” — Chambers: 


Cyclopedia.  See  S.  I.  Curtiss:  The  Levitical 
Priests  ( 1877);  W.  Robertson  Smith:  'The 
Old  Testament  in  the  Jewish  Church  ( London 
and  New  York,  1881);  W.  H.  Green:  Moses 
and  the  Prophets  (New  York,  1881). 

Levit'icus.  See  Pentateuch. 

Lewis,  Tayler,  LL.  D.,  L.  H.  D.,  a 
brilliant  and  profound  American  scholar; 
b.  in  Northumberland,  Saratoga  County, 
N.  Y.,  March  27,  1802;  d.  in  Schenectady, 
N.  Y.,  May  11,  1877.  He  was  graduated 
at  Union  College  in  1820,  and  after 
studying  law,  practiced  his  profession  for 
a  time  at  Fort  Miller,  N.  Y.  In  1833  he 
became  principal  of  the  academy  at  Water¬ 
ford,  and  from  there  was  called  to  be  pro¬ 
fessor  of  Greek  and  Latin  in  the  University 
of  the  City  of  New  York  in  1838.  In  1849 
he  accepted  the  professorship  of  Greek  in 
Union  College,  and  afterward  of  Oriental 
languages  and  biblical  literature.  He  was 
a  prolific  writer  for  the  press,  and  publish¬ 
ed  several  volumes,  among  them,  The  Six 
Days  of  Creation  (1855);  Metrical  Version 
of  Ecclesiastes  and  Job  in  Schaff’s  Lange. 
The  Light  by  which  we  see  Light;  or ,  Nature 
and  the  Scriptures  (Vedder  Lectures,  1875). 

Liber  Sextus.  See  Canon  Law. 

Liberia,  a  negro  republic  on  the  west 
coast  of  Africa,  founded  by  the  American 
Colonization  Society  in  1820.  It  became 
independent  in  1847.  The  capital  is  Mon¬ 
rovia.  It  has  a  population  of  about  eighteen 
thousand  civilized  Africans,  most  of  whom 
came  from  the  United  States,  and  there  is 
a  native  population,  within  the  bounds  of 
the  republic,  of  a  million  or  more.  Mission 
work  was  begun  in  1821.  At  the  present 
time  there  are  upwards  of  1500  members 
connected  with  the  Methodist  Church, 
and  both  the  Episcopal  and  Presbyterian 
Churches  of  the  United  States  have  flour¬ 
ishing  missions.  Liberia  has  not  fulfilled 
the  hopes  of  its  early  founders,  but  it  has 
had  an  interesting  history. 

Liberius,  bishop  of  Rome,  352-366.  See 

Popes. 

Lib'ertines,  (1)  a  name  given  to  those 
Jews  who,  having  been  taken  captive 
during  the  wars  of  Pompey,  were  sold 
at  Rome  as  slaves,  but  soon  after  were 
emancipated  and  returned  to  Jerusalem, 
where  they  sustained  a  synagogue  of  their 
own.  The  word  is  used  only  once  in  the  New 
Testament.  (Acts  vi.  9.)  (2)  A  party  of 
loose  pantheistic-rationalists  which  arose 
in  the  Netherlands  during  the  Reformation. 

|  They  affirmed  that  nothing  was  bad  by 


Lib 


(  529  ) 


Lie 


itself  and  that  God  is  all,  and  all  is  God,  so 
that  the  natural  passions  are  but  the  voices 
of  the  spirit.  They  made  many  converts 
in  France,  and  they  endeavored  to  gain  a 
foothold  in  Geneva,  but  Calvin  met  their 
leader  Quintin,  in  a  public  disputation  at 
Paris  in  1534,  and  later  on  in  1545  publish¬ 
ed  a  pamphlet  that  uncovered  the  real 
character  of  the  sect.  (3)  The  name  given 
a  party  in  Geneva,  composed  mostly  of 
native  citizens,  who  rose  against  the  bishop 
and  the  Duke  of  Savoy,  and,  after  securing 
the  independence  of  the  city,  invited  Calvin 
to  introduce  the  Reformation,  but  who 
afterward  turned  against  him.  See  Cal¬ 
vin. 

Liberty,  Religious.  See  Toleration. 

Liber  Carolini.  See  Caroline  Books. 

License,  a  term  which  designates  the 
authority  to  preach,  given  by  a  regularly 
constituted  body,  such  as  a  presbytery,  a 
conference,  or  a  council.  The  licentiate  is 
examined  and  approved  as  to  his  theological 
qualifications, but  until  he  has  been  ordained 
has  no  authority  to  dispense  the  sacraments 
or  to  sit  as  a  member  of  an  ecclesiastical 
court.  The  word  “  license,”  in  the  Church 
of  England  and  the  American  Episcopal 
Church,  is  applied  to  the  permission  to 
preach,  given  by  a  bishop  to  a  deacon,  or  to 
read  sermons,  given  to  a  candidate. 

Lichfield,  Bishopric  of.  The  name 
“  Lichfield  ”  means  “  field  of  the  dead,” 
and  is  said  to  commemorate  the  slaughter 
of  a  number  of  Christian  converts  by  the 
Roman  soldiers  during  the  Diocletian  per¬ 
secution.  Lichfield,  though  not  without 
some  interruption,  has  been  the  seat  of  a 
bishopric  since  about  656.  It  was  the  great 
bishopric  of  Mercia,  from  which  many  sees 
afterward  sprang.  Hereford  was  divided 
from  it  in  676;  Lindsey  in  678.  Leicester 
and  Lichfield  were  reunited  in  705,  but 
parted  again  in  737:  Leicester  became 
merged  in  Dorchester  about  888,  which 
again  in  1072  became  the  See  of  Lincoln. 
Lichfield  for  a  while  became  joined  to 
Chester  (1075),  and  to  these  was  joined 
Coventry  (1102).  In  1541  Chester  was 
joined  to  the  province  of  York. 

St.  Chad,  bishop  669-672,  is  the  patron 
saint  of  Lichfield.  He  lived  at  Stowe, 
about  a  mile  from  the  present  cathedral, 
and  from  thence  ruled  over  his  enormous 
diocese.  A  church  had  been  built  at  Stowe 
by  his  predecessor,  Jarumnan.  Bede  tells 
us  that  St. Chad  was  buried  near  the  church 
of  St.  Mary,  the  first  in  Lichfield,  and  that 
his  remains  were  translated  to  the  new 
church  of  S'.  Peter;  this  must  have  been 


completed  before  735,  when  Bede  died. 
After  the  Conquest  it  was  replaced  by  a 
Norman  church,  which  was  swept  away 
after  about  a  century  and  gradually  the 
present  cathedral  was  built  on  its  site.  The 
oldest  part  (the  western  choir),  was  prob¬ 
ably  commenced  about  1200.  The  north 
and  south  transepts  followed, then  the  nave; 
then  the  west  front,  which  does  not  appear 
to  have  been  constructed  quite  continuous¬ 
ly  with  the  rest,  for  it  is  dated  1275;  after¬ 
ward  the  eastern  part  of  the  choir  was  taken 
in  hand,  destroying  the  work  done  at  the 
beginning  of  the  century.  The  present 
Lady-chapel  and  presbytery  were  erected 
and  completed  about  1325.  Walter  Langton, 
1296-1321,  did  most  of  this,  and  constructed 
a  splendid  shrine  for  the  relics  of  St.  Chad, 
as  well  as  building  an  episcopal  palace. 
Since  then  nothing  has  been  done  except  by 
way  of  restoring  and  improving  the  build¬ 
ing.  The  great  event  in  the  history  of 
Lichfield  Cathedral  was  the  siege  which  it 
sustained,  in  1643,  against  the  Parliament¬ 
ary  army,  headed  by  Lord  Brooke.  The 
cathedral  close  had  been  fortified  by  Bish¬ 
op  Langton  in  the  thirteenth  century,  and 
so  was  calculated  to  sustain  a  siege.  In¬ 
jured  by  the  cannon  shots,  the  central 
spire  fell  and  crushed  in  part  of  the  roof; 
the  cathedral  was  wrecked  by  the  victors, 
who  defaced  the  monuments,  hacked  down 
the  carved  woodwork,  shattered  the  stained 
glass,  and  destroyed  the  records  of  the  ca¬ 
thedral  and  of  the  city.  After  the  Resto¬ 
ration,  John  Hacket  was  made  bishop  of 
Lichfield  and  Coventry  (1661),  and  at  once 
began  the  repair  of  his  ruined  cathedral; 
the  great  spire  was  rebuilt  from  a  design 
by  Sir  Christopher  Wren,  and  in  1669  the 
building  was  reconsecrated.  In  the  latter 
part  of  the  eighteenth  century,  Wyatt 
made  some  destructive  alterations  which  it 
has  cost  much  to  undo.  In  i860,  Sir  Gil¬ 
bert  Scott  took  the  true  restoration  into  his 
hands,  and  in  the  spring  of  1884  the  com¬ 
pletion  was  signalized  by  a  great  ceremo¬ 
nial,  when  the  west  front  was  rededicated, 
in  the  presence  of  the  archbishop  of  Can¬ 
terbury  and  others. 

Lichfield  is  one  of  the  smaller  cathedrals 
of  England,  being  only  319  feet  in  length, 
but  it  is  one  of  the  most  beautiful.  Most  of 
the  old  manuscripts  belonging  to  the  cathe¬ 
dral  library  were  destroyed  at  the  time  of 
the  siege,  but  one  or  two  were  saved,  the 
chief  being  the  Gospels  of  St.  Chad  ;  it  con¬ 
tains  the  Gospels  of  St.  Matthew  and  St. 
Mark,  and  part  of  St.  Luke;  tradition  says 
that  Gildas  was  its  scribe,  and  the  Welsh 
notes  on  its  margin  bear  out  that  supposi¬ 
tion. 

The  cathedral  body  consists  of  the  dean, 
three  archdeacons,  four  canons  residen- 


Lid 


(  530  ) 


Lid 


LICHFIELD  CATHEDRAL. 


tiary,four  priest  vicars,  and  nineteen  preb¬ 
endaries.  The  income  of  the  diocese  is 
forty-two  thousand  pounds.  —  Benham: 

Did.  of  Religion. 

Liddon,  Henry  Parry,  D.  D.,  D.  C.  L. 
(both  Oxford,  1870),  Church  of  Eng¬ 
land;  b.  at  Stoneham,  Hants,  Aug.  20, 
1829;  was  graduated  at  Oxford,  1851;  or¬ 
dained  in  1852,  and  from  1852— 59  vice-princi¬ 


pal  of  the  theological  college  of  Cuddesdon; 
prebendary  of  Major  Pars  Altaris  in  Salis¬ 
bury  Cathedral,  1864-70;  Ireland,  profess¬ 
or  of  exegesis  of  Scripture,  1870-S2;  since 
1870  resident  canon  at  St.  Paul’s  Cathedral, 
London.  He  was  Bampton  lecturer  in 
1866,  and  his  reputation  as  a  great  preach¬ 
er  is  world-wide.  Among  his  publications 
are  his  well-known  Bampton  lectures  on 
The  D  ivinity  of our  Lord  and  Saviour,  Jesus 


(  53i  ) 


Lil 


Lig 


Christ  (1867,  many  editions),  and  several 
volumes  of  sermons. 

Lightfoot,  John,  an  eminent  Hebrew 
scholar;  b.  at  Stoke-upon-Trent,  1602;  d. 
at  Ely,  Dec.  6,  1675.  Educated  at  Cam¬ 
bridge,  he  became  minister  of  St.  Barthol¬ 
omew’s,  London,  1642,  and  sat  in  the  West¬ 
minster  Assembly  of  Divines.  He  was 
appointed  vice-chancellor  of  Cambridge 
University,  1655,  and,  having  conformed 
in  1662,  became  a  prebendary  of  Ely,  1675. 
His  fame  rests  upon  his  Horce  Hebraicce  et 
Talmudicce  (1659),  4  vols.  See  his  com¬ 
plete  works  (London,  1822-25),  13  vols. 

Lightfoot,  Joseph  Barber,  D.  D. ,  LL.  D. , 
bishop  of  Durham;  b.  at  Liverpool,  April 
13,  1828;  d.  at  Bishop’s  Auckland,  near 
Durham,  Dec.  21,  1889.  He  was  graduat¬ 
ed  at  Trinity  College,  Cambridge,  1851; 
fellow,  1852;  tutor,  1857;  select  preacher 
to  the  University,  1858;  Hulsean  professor 
of  divinity,  1861-75;  canon  of  St.  Paul’s, 
London,  1871-79;  Lady  Margaret  professor 
of  divinity  at  Cambridge,  1875;  bishop  of 
Durham,  1879.  Dr.  Lightfoot  was  one  of 
the  greatest  biblical  and  patristic  scholars  of 
this  century.  This  is  shown  in  his  commen¬ 
taries  on  Galatians,  Philippians,Colossians, 
and  Philemon,  and  the  Epistles  of  Clement, 
Ignatius,  and  Polycarp.  He  was  eminent 
alike  as  an  ecclesiastic, author, and  preacher. 

Lights,  Use  of,  in  Public  Worship,  “a 
practice  which  prevailed  in  the  Jewish 
(Exod.  xxxv.  31-39)  and  in  most  of  the 
ancient  religions,  and  which  is  retained 
both  in  the  Roman  and  in  the  Oriental 
churches.  The  use  of  lights  in  the  night 
services,  and  in  subterranean  churches, 
such  as  those  of  the  early  Christians  in  the 
catacombs,  is,  of  course,  easily  intelligible; 
but  the  practice,  as  bearing  also  a  symbol¬ 
ical  allusion  to  the  ‘  Light  of  the  world  ’ 
and  to  the  ‘  Light  of  faith  ’  was  not  con¬ 
fined  to  occasions  of  necessity,  but  appears 
to  have  been  from  an  early  time  an  accom¬ 
paniment  of  Christian  worship,  especially 
in  connection  with  the  sacraments  of  bap¬ 
tism  and  the  eucharist.  The  time  of  the 
service  in  which  lights  are  used  has  varied 
very  much  in  different  ages.  St.  Jerome 
speaks  of  it  only  during  the  reading  of  the 
gospel;  Amalarius,  from  the  beginning  of 
the  mass  till  the  end  of  the  gospel;  Isidore 
of  Seville,  from  the  gospel  to  the  end  of 
the  canon;  and  eventually  it  was  extended 
to  the  entire  time  of  the  mass.  In  other 
services,  also,  lights  have  been  used  from 
an  early  period.  Lighted  tapers  were 
placed  in  the  hand  of  the  newly-baptized, 
which  St.  Gregory  Nazianzen  interprets  as 
emblems  of  future  glory.  Indeed,  in  the 


Roman  Catholic  Church  the  most  profuse 
use  of  lights  is  reserved  for  the  services 
connected  with  that  sacrament.  The  ma¬ 
terial  used  for  lights  in  churches  is  either 
oil  or  wax,  the  latter,  in  penitential  time 
and  in  services  for  the  dead,  being  of  a  yel¬ 
low  color.  In  the  Anglican  Church,  can¬ 
dlesticks  and,  in  some  instances,  candles 
themselves,  are  retained  in  many  churches 
on  the  communion-table,  but  they  are  not 
lighted.  The  retention  of  them  is  greatly 
favored  by  the  ‘  High-Church  ’  party,  and 
much  disapproved  by  the  ‘  Low-Church  ’ 
or  ‘  Evangelical  ’  party.  In  the  Presbyte¬ 
rian  and  Independent  churches  of  Britain, 
America,  etc.,  the  symbolical  use  of  lights 
and  candlesticks  is  rejected  as  supersti¬ 
tious.” — Chambers:  Cyclopcedia. 

Liguori  ( le-gwo'ree ),  Alfonso  Maria  da,  a 
distinguished  Roman  Catholic  theologian 
and  writer,  and  founder  of  the  order  of  Li- 
guorians  or  Redemptorists ;  b.  near  Naples, 
Sept.  27,  1696;  d.  at  Nocera,  Aug.  1,  1787. 
His  works,  on  casuistry  especially,  have 
been  strongly  condemned  by  Protestant 
writers.  He  held  that  equivocation  was 
allowable  in  certain  cases,  and  might  even 
be  confirmed  by  an  oath.  His  Le  Glorie  di 
Maria  (The  Glory  of  Mary)  (Venice,  1784, 
Eng.  trans.,  N.  Y.,  1852)  exhibits  the  most 
intense  form  of  Mariolatry. 

Liguorians.  See  Redemptorists. 

Ligure,  one  of  the  stones  in  the  breast¬ 
plate  of  the  high-priest.  (Exod.  xxviii.  19.) 
It  is  very  difficult  to  identify,  but  the  opin¬ 
ion  has  found  favor  that  it  was  red  tour¬ 
maline  or  rubellite — sometimes  called  red 
sapphire. 

Lillie,  John,  D.  D.,  b.  at  Kelso,  Scotland, 
Dec.  16,  1812;  d.  at  Kingston,  N.  Y. ,  Feb. 
23,  1867.  He  was  graduated  at  the  Uni¬ 
versity  of  Edinburgh,  1831,  and  came  to 
this  country  in  1834.  He  was  pastor  of 
the  Reformed  Dutch  Church  at  Kingston, 
N.  Y.,  until  Aug.,  1841;  and  from  1843  to 
1848  had  charge  of  the  Broadway,  after¬ 
ward  Stanton  Street,  Dutch  Church,  New 
York  City.  From  1851  to  1857  he  was  en¬ 
gaged  upon  the  Revised  Version  of  the 
American  Bible  Union.  He  had  just 
entered  upon  his  duties  as  pastor  of  the 
Presbyterian  Church  of  Kingston,  N.  Y., 
when  he  died.  He  was  an  able  biblical 
scholar.  His  works  were:  Perpetuity  of  the 
Earth  (New  York,  1842);  Lectures  on  the 
Epistles  to  the  Thessalonians  (i860);  Trans¬ 
lation,  with  additions,  of  Auberlen  and 
Riggenbach  upon  Thessalonians  (in  the 
Lange  series,  1868),  also  posthumous  Lect¬ 
ures  on  the  First  and  Second  Epistles  of 


Lil 


(  532  ) 


Lit 


Peter ,  with  a  Biographical  Sketch ,  by  Dr. 
Schaff  and  James  Inglis  (1869). 

Lily.  The  Arabs  give  this  name  to  a  beau¬ 
tiful  flower  resembling  the  lily,  and  in  this 
general  sense  the  word  is  probably  used  in 
the  Bible.  The  only  true  lily  now  found 
in  Palestine  is  the  scarlet  martagon. 

Lincoln  Cathedral,  as  it  now  stands, 
dates  from  1450.  It  is  unrivaled  as  the 
earliest  purely  Gothic  building  in  Europe, 
and  combines  in  its  restorations  many 
varieties  of  style.  The  yearly  income  of 
the  see  is  ,£5,000. 

Linen.  The  Egyptian  linen,  owing  to  the 
-excellent  quality  of  the  flax,  was  equal  to 
the  best  now  made,  in  texture,  and  superior 
in  evenness.  It  was  this  material  from 
which  state  robes  were  made  in  which 
mummies  were  wrapped.  The  veil  of  the 
temple  and  the  curtain  for  its  entrance 
were  made  of  fine  linen  (Exod.  xxvi.  31, 
36),  and  it  was  worn  by  priests  and  royal 
personages.  (Ex.  xxviii.  6,  8,  15,  39;  xxxix. 
27;  1  Chron.  xv.  27.) 

Lingard,  John,  D.  D.,  Roman  Catholic 
historian;  b.  at  Winchester,  Feb.  5,  1771; 
d.  at  Hornby,  near  Lancaster,  July  13, 
1851.  Educated  at  the  English  College  at 
Douai,  in  France,  where  he  remained  until 
1793,  and  after  his  return  to  England  in 
1794  completed  his  theological  studies  at 
Crook  Hall,  near  Durham.  Ordained  priest 
in  1795,  he  was  appointed  director  of  the 
studies  at  Crook  Hall,  and  teacher  of  nat¬ 
ural  and  moral  philosophy.  After  the  col¬ 
lege  was  removed  to  Ushaw,  Durham,  in 
1808,  he  became  president  (1810),  but  the 
following  year  he  took  charge  of  a  small 
church  at  Hornby  that  he  might  have  more 
time  for  literary  work.  He  visited  Rome 
in  1817,  and  again  in  1821,  when  Pius  VII. 
made  him  Doctor  of  Divinity  and  Doctor 
of  Laws.  Leo  XII.  wished  to  make  him  a 
cardinal,  but  he  preferred  the  quiet  of  his 
literary  studies.  In  later  years  he  received 
a  pension  of  three  hundred  pounds  from 
the  Government.  His  chief  historical 
works  were:  The  Antiquities  of  the  Anglo- 
Saxon  Church  (1806),  and  his  History  of 
England.  Although  biased  in  favor  of  the 
Roman  Catholic  Church,  they  show  pro¬ 
found  knowledge  of  constitutional  history, 
and  great  research.  Lingard  published  a 
number  of  controversial  writings,  among 
them,  A  Catechism  on  the  Doctrines  of  the 
Catholic  Church ,  and  a  New  Version  of  the 
Four  Gospels.  See  his  life  in  sixth  edition 
of  his  history. 

Litany  (Gr.  litaneia ,  a  supplication),  “  a 


word,  the  specific  meaning  of  which  has 
varied  considerably  at  different  times,  but 
which  means,  in  general,  a  solemn  act  of 
supplication  addressed  with  the  object  of 
averting  the  divine  anger,  and  especially 
on  occasions  of  public  calamity.  Through 
all  the  varieties  of  form  which  litanies  have 
assumed,  one  characteristic  has  always 
been  maintained,  viz.,  that  the  prayer 
alternates  between  the  priest  or  other 
minister,  who  announces  the  object  of  each 
petition,  and  the  congregation,  who  reply 
in  a  common  supplicatory  form,  the  most 
usual  of  which  was  the  well-known  ‘  Kyrie 
eleison  !’  (Lord,  have  mercy!)  In  one  pro¬ 
cession,  which  Mabillon  describes,  this 
prayer,  alternating  with  ‘  Christe  eleison,’ 
was  repeated  300  times;  and  in  the  capit¬ 
ularies  of  Charlemagne,  it  is  ordered  that 
the  ‘  Kyrie  eleison  ’  shall  be  sung  by  the 
men,  the  women  answering  ‘  Christe  elei¬ 
son.’  From  the  fourth  century  downward 
the  use  of  litanies  was  general.  The  An¬ 
tiphonary  of  St.  Gregory  the  Great  contains 
several.  In  the  Roman  Catholic  Church 
three  litanies  are  especially  in  use — the 
‘  litany  of  the  saints  ’  (which  is  the  most 
ancient),  the  ‘  litany  of  the  name  of  Jesus,’ 
and  the  ‘  litany  of  Our  Lady  of  Loretto.’ 
Of  these,  the  first  alone  has  a  place  in  the 
public  service-books  of  the  Church,  on  the 
rogation  days,  in  the  ordination  service, 
the  service  for  the  consecration  of  churches, 
the  consecration  of  cemeteries,  and  many 
other  offices.  Although  called  by  the  name 
of  litany  of  the  saints,  the  opening  and 
closing  petitions,  and,  indeed,  the  greater 
part  of  the  litany,  consist  of  prayers 
addressed  directly  to  God;  and  the  prayers 
to  the  saints  are  not  for  their  help,  but  for 
their  intercession  on  behalf  of  the  worship¬ 
ers.  The  litany  of  Jesus  consists  of  a 
number  of  addresses  to  our  Lord  under 
his  various  relations  to  men,  in  connection 
with  the  several  details  of  his  passion,  and 
of  adjurations  of  him  through  the  memory 
of  what  he  has  done  and  suffered  for  the 
salvation  of  mankind.  The  date  of  this 
form  of  prayer  is  uncertain,  but  it  is  re¬ 
ferred,  with  much  probability,  to  the  time 
of  St.  Bernardino  of  Siena,  in  the  fifteenth 
century.  The  litany  of  Loretto  (see  Lo¬ 
retto)  resembles  both  the  above-named 
litanies  in  its  opening  addresses  to  the 
Holy  Trinity,  and  in  its  closing  petitions 
to  the  *  Lamb  of  God,  who  taketh  away  the 
sins  of  the  world;’  but  the  main  body  of 
petitions  are  addressed  to  the  Virgin  Mary 
under  various  titles,  some  taken  from  the 
Scriptures,  some  from  the  language  of  the 
fathers,  some  from  the  mystic  writers  of 
the  mediaeval  Church.  Neither  this  litany 
nor  that  of  Jesus  has  ever  formed  part  of 
any  of  the  ritual  or  liturgical  offices  of  the 


Lit 


(  533  ) 


Lit 


Catholic  Church,  but  there  can  be  no 
doubt  that  both  have  in  various  ways  re¬ 
ceived  the  sanction  of  the  highest  author¬ 
ities  of  the  Roman  Church. 

“  In  the  prayer-book  of  the  English 
Church  the  litany  is  retained;  but  although 
it  partakes  of  ancient  forms  it  differs  from 
that  of  the  Roman  Church,  and  contains  no 
invocation  of  the  Virgin  or  the  saints.  It 
is  divided  into  four  parts — invocations, 
deprecations,  intercessions,  and  supplica¬ 
tions,  in  which  are  preserved  the  old  form 
of  alternate  prayer  and  response.  It  is  no 
longer  a  distinct  service,  but,  when  used, 
forms  part  of  the  morning  prayer.” — 
Chambers:  Cyclopadia. 

Lithuania.  See  Russia. 

Liturgies,  the  science  of  worship.  See 
Worship. 

Liturgy  (Gr.  leiiourgia).  This  was  orig¬ 
inally  the  name  of  a  public  duty  or  office, 
which,  in  Athens,  the  richer  citizens  had  to 
discharge  at  their  own  cost.  It  consisted 
of  providing,  for  the  benefit  of  the  people 
generally,  some  form  of  public  amusement, 
consisting  usually  of  dancing  or  games. 
Leitourgia  thus  became  the  name  of  any 
service  or  functions  of  a  public  character, 
and  hence  in  the  Septuagint  it  is  used  of 
the  public  service  of  God,  of  divine  wor¬ 
ship  of  the  congregation.  In  ecclesiastical 
phraseology  it  was  originally  restricted 
specially  to  the  Eucharist,  as  being  the 
highest  of  public  offices;  but  has  now  ob¬ 
tained  a  wider  signification,  and  is  com¬ 
monly  applied  to  the  whole  form  of  public 
worship  of  the  congregation.  We  shall 
consider  the  subject,  therefore,  under  this 
twofold  division. 

It  seems  probable  that  some  liturgy  was 
drawn  up  by  the  apostles  at  the  very  be¬ 
ginning  of  the  Christian  Church,  for  the 
use  of  the  first  converts  to  Christianity, 
who,  as  we  read  in  the  Acts  of  the  Apos¬ 
tles,  continued  steadfastly  in  the  apostles’ 
doctrine,  and  in  breaking  of  bread — i.  e.,m 
partaking  of  the  Holy  Communion — and  in 
“  the  prayers.”  In  that  case  this  would 
be  the  original  liturgy  from  which  the 
succeeding  ones  were  derived.  Hence  in 
very  ancient  liturgies  the  bulk  of  the  ser¬ 
vice  is  identical,  and  the  variations,  com¬ 
paratively  speaking,  unimportant.  In  order 
to  classify  the  numerous  liturgies  that 
have  been  used  in  different  parts  of  the 
world,  it  will  be  well  to  divide  them  into 
five  principal  groups.  These  are  connected 
with  the  names  of  churches,  and  also  with 
the  names  of  certain  apostles,  and  they  are 
as  follows:  (i)  The  liturgy  of  St.  James, 
or  Jerusalem;  (2)  the  liturgy  of  St.  Mark, 


or  Alexandria  ;  (3)  the  liturgy  of  St. 
Thaddeus,  or  the  East;  (4)  the  liturgy  of 
St.  Peter,  or  Rome;  (5)  the  liturgy  of  St. 
John,  or  Ephesus.  The  Jerusalem  liturgy 
consists  of  three  divisions:  The  Clemen¬ 
tine,  Caesarean,  and  Antiochene  or  Hiero- 
solymitan  liturgies.  From  the  Caesarean 
liturgy,  which  is  connected  with  the  name 
of  St.  Basil,  came  the  liturgy  of  St.  Chrys¬ 
ostom  and  the  Armenian. 

The  many  branches  which  have  sprung 
from  these  norms  would  require  a  volume 
to  expound.  There  are  no  less  than  forty- 
three  existing,  all  Monophysite,  branching 
off  from  the  Hierosolymitan. 

The  third  group,  consisting  of  liturgies 
of  the  Far  East,  is  smaller  in  number: 
most  of  them  are  Nestorian.  That  of 
Malabar  or  St.  Thomas  belongs  to  this 
group. 

The  fourth  division  consists  of  only  one 
liturgy:  the  Roman. 

The  fifth  group,  viz.,  those  allied  to  the 
liturgy  of  Ephesus,  consists  of  two  divis¬ 
ions:  (1)  The  Mozarabic  and  (2)  the  Gal- 
lican. 

It  will  be  observed  that  four  of  the  five 
groups  are  Eastern;  and  the  remaining  one, 
the  Roman,  Western.  The  principal  dis¬ 
tinctions  between  the  Eastern  and  Western 
liturgies  are  as  follows:  The  Invocation 
of  the  Holy  Spirit,  before  the  words  of  con¬ 
secration,  which  is  in  the  Eastern,  is  absent 
in  the  Western.  There  are  Proper  Pref¬ 
aces  and  varying  collects,  epistles,  and 
gospels  for  Holy  Days  in  the  Western,  and 
not  in  the  Eastern,  with  the  exception  of 
the  liturgies  derived  from  Ephesus.  Later 
alterations  in  the  Roman  Mass,  such  as  the 
denial  of  the  cup  to  the  laity,  have  farther 
increased  the  differences  between  that  and 
the  Eastern  liturgies. 

Every  ancient  liturgy  consisted  of  two 
parts,  the  proanaphoral  and  the  anaphoral. 
(Anaphora.)  The  first  part  consisted  of  a 
prayer;  an  introit;  the  prayer  of  little 
entrance — that  is,  the  bringing  in  with 
much  ceremony  the  Book  of  the  Gospels; 
the  trisagion;  the  lessons  (in  some,  proph¬ 
ecy,  epistle,  and  gospel;  in  others  the  last 
two  only);  a  prayer.  At  this  point  the 
catechumens  were  dismissed  from  the 
Church.  Then  followed  a  further  prayer 
for  the  faithful;  the  great  entrance — i.  e., 
the  carrying  the  elements  to  the  altar;  the 
offertory;  the  kiss  of  peace;  the  creed. 
This  ended  the  first  or  proanaphoral  por¬ 
tion  of  the  service.  The  second,  or  anaph¬ 
oral  part,  began  with  the  Sursum  Corda 
and  preface;  the  canon,  consisting  of  pray¬ 
er  commemorative  of  our  Lord’s  life  and  of 
the  institution  of  the  eucharist;  the  obla¬ 
tion;  prayer  for  descent  of  the  Holy  Ghost, 
for  the  consecration  of  the  elements.  Then 


Lit 


(  534  ) 


Liv 


follows  intercession  for  quick  and  dead; 
the  Lord’s  Prayer;  the  “  Libera  nos”  or 
prayer  against  temptation  ;  adoration, 
“  Sancta  sanctis  ”  (Sancta  Sanctis);  con¬ 
fession  and  absolution;  the  communion, 
thanksgiving,  and  dismissal. 

We  have  next  to  consider  modern  Prot¬ 
estant  liturgies.  And,  first,  it  must  be 
noted  that  while  the  ancient  liturgies  make 
the  Lord’s  Supper  the  central  object  round 
which  all  other  parts 'of  the  service  are 
grouped,  the  Protestant  idea  is  rather  to 
group  all  round  the  sermon,  as  expressing 
the  conviction  that  teaching  is  the  main  ob¬ 
ject  of  assembling  together.  The  early 
liturgies  do  not  include  any  preaching,  nor 
are  there  any  forms  for  special  occasions. 

When  the  Reformation  came,  the  great 
leaders,  Luther,  Calvin,  Cranmer,  recog¬ 
nized  the  usefulness  of  a  form  of  prayer, 
and  each  country  that  accepted  the  Re¬ 
formed  doctrines  provided  its  own  liturgy. 
The  Continental  Reformers  left  more  open¬ 
ing  than  the  English  Church  did  for  the 
exercise  of  free  prayer,  to  be  suited  to 
special  circumstances.  So  did  the  Direc¬ 
tory  ( q .  v. )  of  the  Puritans  at  the  time  of 
the  Great  Rebellion.  The  bitter  feeling 
which  followed  that  event  led  to  a  breach 
so  wide,  that  for  awhile  liturgical  services 
were  eschewed  by  the  non-Episcopal  party, 
and  extemporaneous  prayers  were  substi¬ 
tuted.  Of  late  years,  however,  a  more 
catholic  feeling  has  prevailed.  In  the  Pres¬ 
byterian  Church  of  Scotland,  since  1858,  a 
change  has  been  going  on,  and  the  Book  of 
Common  Order  has  reached  a  fifth  edition. 
Many  churches,  belonging  to  the  chief 
Nonconformist  bodies,  accept  the  idea  of 
some  liturgical  form  to  be  used  of  free¬ 
will.  Thus  Mr.  Newman  Hall  uses  much 
of  the  Church  Service;  the  use  of  the 
Lord’s  Prayer  and  General  Thanksgiving 
is  becoming  very  common,  and  on  the  late 
occasion  of  the  Queen’s  jubilee  many  Non- 
conforming  churches  in  London  used  the 
collects  given  in  the  Prayer-Book. — Ben- 
ham:  Diet .  of  Religion.  “  In  the  United 
States,  except  in  the  Episcopalian,  Luther¬ 
an,  and  Dutch  Reformed  and  Moravian 
churches,  liturgical  prayer  has  been  almost 
whollv  disused ;  but  from  the  middle  of  the 
present  century,  a  marked  tendency  has 
developed  itself  in  favor  of  increased  dig¬ 
nity  and  variety  in  Presbyterian  (and  Con¬ 
gregational)  public  worship.  In  1855  Dr. 
Baird  published  anonymously  his  Eutuxia , 
or  the  Presbyterian  liturgies.  The  Pres¬ 
byterian  Book  of  Common  Prayer ,  by  Pro¬ 
fessor  Shields,  of  Princeton,  is  merely  a 
republication  of  the  Anglican  Prayer-Book, 
with  the  exceptions  offered  by  the  Presby¬ 
terians  at  the  Savoy  Conference.  The 
litany  and  the  ancient  prayers  are  freely,  but 


judiciously  altered,  and  many  excellent  new 
prayers  are  added.  In  1857  the  German 
Reformed  Church  issued  a  new  Order  of 
Worship ,  which  is  based  upon  a  careful 
study  of  the  liturgies  of  the  ancient  Church 
and  the  Reformation  period,  and  resembles 
in  many  respects  the  Anglican  liturgy.  Its 
use  is  left  optional  with  the  ministers  and 
congregations.  The  Dutch  Reformed 
Church  follows  the  old  Palatinate  liturgy. 
The  Lutherans  in  America  use  partly  the 
German  Lutheran  Agenda,  or  new  church 
books  based  upon  them.  The  Moravians 
have  a  very  rich  evangelical  liturgy  in 
German  and  English,  with  responses  and 
congregational  singing.” — S.  M.  Hopkitis, 
D.  D.  See  his  art.  on  Liturgy  in  Schaff- 
Herzog:  Ency. ,  vol.  ii.,  pp.  1324-1329. 

Livingston,  John  Henry,  D.  D.,  “the 
father  of  the  Reformed  Dutch  Church  in 
America;”  b.  at  Poughkeepsie,  N.  Y. ,  May 
30,  1746;  d.  in  New  Brunswick,  N.  J.,  Jan. 
20,  1825.  Graduating  at  Yale  College  in 
1762,  he  began  the  study  of  law,  but  after 
his  conversion  decided  to  study  for  the 
ministry.  He  sailed  for  Holland  in  1766, 
and  studied  theology  at  Utrecht.  He  was 
licensed  by  the  Classis  of  Amsterdam  in 
1769,  and  received  the  degree  of  doctor  of 
divinity  the  following  year.  In  the  autumn 
of  1770  he  entered  upon  the  duties  of  second 
English  preacher  in  the  Reformed  Dutch 
Church  in  New  York.  In  the  troubled 
days  of  the  Revolution  he  was  driven  from 
the  city,  and  settled  at  Kingston,  1776; 
Albany,  Nov.  1776-79;  Livingston  Manor, 
1 779-Si;  Poughkeepsie,  1781-83.  After 
the  close  of  the  war  he  returned  to  the 
city,  and  from  this  time  on  exerted  a  great 
influence  in  reorganizing  and  uniting  the 
broken  and  distracted  church.  In  1784  he 
was  appointed  by  the  general  synod  pro¬ 
fessor  of  didactic  and  polemic  theology. 
In  1810  he  was  elected  president  of  Queen’s 
(now  Rutger’s)  College,  and  at  the  same 
time  was  asked  to  open  a  theological  school 
at  New  Brunswick.  Here  he  remained 
until  his  death.  “  By  his  education,  his 
learning,  his  piety,  and  his  dignity,  he  won 
the  respect  of  both  parties  in  the  church; 
and  under  his  skillful  management  ‘  the 
Conferentic  ’  and  ‘  Coelus  ’  were  united 
(1771);  and  thus  the  credit  of  forming  the 
independent  organization  of  the  Reformed 
Dutch  Church  in  America  must  be  given 
to  him.  It  was  he,  also,  who  principally 
shaped  the  constitution  of  this  church,  and 
prepared  its  first  psalm  and  hymn  book 
(1787).”  See  Gunn’s  Memoirs,  edited  by 
T.  W.  Chambers  (New  York,  1856); 
Sprague:  Annals,  vol.  ix. 

Livingstone  ( liv-ing-ston ),  David,  '‘Afri- 


Liv 


(  535  ) 


Loc 


can  traveler  and  missionary,  was  a  native  of 
Scotland,  and  was  b.  at  Blantyre,  in  Lanark¬ 
shire,  in  rhe  year  1817.  At  the  age  of  ten  he 
became  a  ‘  piecer’  inacotton  factory, and  for 
many  years  was  engaged  in  hard  work  as 
an  operative.  An  evening  school  furnished 
him  with  the  opportunity  of  acquiring 
some  knowledge  of  Latin  and  Greek,  and 
finally,  after  attending  a  course  of  medi¬ 
cine  at  Glasgow  University,  and  the  theo¬ 
logical  lectures  of  the  late  Dr.  Wardlaw, 
professor  of  theology  to  the  Scotch  Inde¬ 
pendents,  he  offered  himself  to  the  London 
Missionary  Society,  by  whom  he  was  or¬ 
dained  as  a  medical  missionary  in  1840.  In 
the  summer  of  that  year  he  landed  at  Port 
Natal  in  South  Africa.  Circumstances 
made  him  acquainted  with  the  Rev.  Robert 
Moffat,  himself  a  distinguished  mission¬ 
ary,  and  whose  daughter  he  subsequently 
married.  For  sixteen  years  Livingstone 
proved  himself  a  faithful  and  zealous  ser¬ 
vant  of  the  London  Missionary  Society. 
The  two  most  important  results  achieved 
by  him  in  this  period  were  the  discovery 
of  Lake  Ngami  (Aug.  1,  1849),  and  his 
crossing  the  continent  of  south  Africa, 
from  the  Zambezi  (or  Leeambye),  to  the 
Congo,  and  thence  to  Loando,  the  capital 
of  Angola,  which  took  him  about  eighteen 
months  (from  Jan.,  1853,  to  June,  1854). 
In  September  of  the  same  year  he  left 
Loando  on  his  return  across  the  continent, 
reached  Linzanti  (in  lat.  180  17'  S.,  and 
long.  230  50'  E.),  the  capital  of  the  great 
Makololo  tribe,  and  from  thence  proceeded 
along  the  banks  of  the  Leeambye  to  Quili- 
mane  on  the  Indian  Ocean,  which  he 
reached  May  20,  1856.  He  then  took  ship 
for  England.  In  1857  Livingstone  pub¬ 
lished  his  Missionary  Travels  and  Research¬ 
es  in  South  Africa ,  a  work  of  great  interest 
and  value.  Returning  in  1858  as  British 
counsul  at  Quilimane,  he  spent  several 
years  in  further  exploring  the  Zambezi,  in 
ascending  the  Shire,  and  discovering  Lake 
Shirwa  and  Lake  Nyassa — the  Maravi  of 
the  old  maps.  A  narrative  of  these  discov¬ 
eries  was  published  during  a  visit  he  paid 
to  England  in  1864-65.  In  the  meantime, 
lakes  Tanganyika,  Victoria  Nyanza,  and 
Albert  Nyanza  had  been  discovered  by 
Burton,  Speke,  and  Baker,  but  the  true 
source  of  the  Nile  was  still  a  problem. 
With  a  view  to  its  solution,  Livingstone,  in 
1866,  entered  the  interior,  and  nothing  was 
heard  of  him  for  two  years.  The  commu¬ 
nications  received  from  him  afterward  de¬ 
scribe  his  discovery  of  the  great  water  sys¬ 
tem  of  the  Chambeze  in  the  elevated  region 
to  the  south  of  Tanganyika.  It  flows  first 
west,  and  then  turns  northward,  forming  a 
succession  of  lakes,  lying  to  the  west  of 
the  Tanganyika.  To  determine  its  course 


after  it  leaves  these,  whether  it  joins  the 
Nile  or  turns  westward  and  forms  the  Con¬ 
go,  was  the  grand  task  which  Livingstone 
seemed  resolved  to  accomplish  or  perish. 
He  was  much  baffled  by  inundations,  the 
hostility  of  the  slave-dealers,  and  by  the 
want  of  supplies,  which  were  habitually  de¬ 
layed  and  plundered  by  those  who  con¬ 
veyed  them.  When  nothing  certain  had 
been  heard  of  him  for  some  time,  Mr.  Stan¬ 
ley,  of  the  New  York  Herald,  boldly  pushed 
his  way  from  Zanzibar  to  Ujiji,  where,  in 
1871,  he  found  the  traveler  in  great  desti¬ 
tution.  On  parting  with  Mr.  Stanley,  Liv¬ 
ingstone  started  on  a  fresh  exploration  of 
the  river  system  of  the  Chambeze  or  Lua- 
laba,  convinced  that  it  would  turn  out  to 
be  the  head-waters  of  the  Nile.  In  May, 
1873,  however,  he  died  at  Ilala,  beyond 
Lake  Bemba.  His  body  was  brought  home 
in  April,  1874,  and  interred  in  Westminster 
Abbey.  His  Last  Journals  were  preserved, 
and  published  in  Dec.,  1874.” — Chambers: 
Cyclopcedia. 

“  Amid  all  the  vicissitudes  of  his  career, 
Livingstone  remained  faithful  to  his  mis¬ 
sionary  character.  His  warmth  and  purity 
of  heart,  his  intense  devotion  to  his  Master, 
and  the  African  people  for  his  Master’s 
sake,  his  patience,  endurance,  trustfulness, 
and  prayerfulness,  his  love  of  science,  his 
wide  humanity,  his  intense  charity,  have 
given  to  his  name  and  memory  an  undying 
fragrance.  After  his  death,  church  after 
church  hastened  to  send  missionaries  to 
Africa;  and  it  would  take  a  long  space, 
even  to  enumerate  all  the  agencies  that  are 
at  work  there.  His  death,  that  seemed  the 
death-blow  to  his  plans,  gave  a  new  im¬ 
pulse  to  the  cause  of  African  evangelization 
and  civilization,  which  bids  fair,  with  God’s 
help,  to  accomplish  great  results.” — W.  G. 
Blaikie  in  Schaff-Herzog:  Ency .  See  his 
Personal  Life  of  David  Livingstone . 

Local  Preachers,  in  the  Methodist  Church, 
are  laymen  who  are  licensed  to  preach  by 
the  quarterly  conferences.  They  are  ame¬ 
nable  to  these  bodies,  and  are  required  an¬ 
nually  to  make  a  report,  and  have  their 
licenses  renewed.  After  four  years  of  con¬ 
tinuous  service  they  may  be  elected  to  the 
office  of  local  deacon,  and  at  the  close  of 
four  more  years  of  service  to  the  office  of 
local  elder.  They  are  not  appointed  by  the 
bishops,  but  labor  under  the  direction  of 
the  traveling  preachers  and  presiding  el¬ 
ders. 

Locke,  John,  “  was  b.  at  Wrington,  near 
Bristol,  on  Aug.  29,  1632.  His  father  was 
steward  to  Col.  Popham,  and  served  under 
him  as  captain  in  the  Parliamentary  army 
during  the  civil  war.  Locke  was  sent  for 


Loc 


(  536  ) 


Loc 


his  education  to  Westminster  school,  where 
he  continued  till  1651,  when  he  was  elected 
a  student  of  Christ  Church,  Oxford.  There 
he  went  through  the  usual  studies,  but 
seemed  to  prefer  Bacon  and  Des  Cartes  to 
Aristotle.  His  tendency  was  toward  ex¬ 
perimental  philosophy,  and  he  chose  med¬ 
icine  for  his  profession.  In  1664  he  went 
to  Berlin  as  secretary  to  the  British  envoy, 
but  soon  returned  to  his  studies  at  Oxford. 
In  1666  he  made  the  acquaintance  of  Lord 
Ashley,  afterward  Earl  of  Shaftesbury,  and 
on  his  invitation  went  to  live  at  his  house. 
In  1672,  when  Shaftesbury  became  Lord 
Chancellor,  Locke  was  appointed  Secretary 
of  Presentations,  a  post  which  he  afterward 
exchanged  for  that  of  Secretary  to  the 
Board  of  Trade.  He  was  employed  to 
draw  up  a  constitution  for  the  American 
province  of  Carolina,  but  his  articles  on 
religion  were  deemed  too  liberal,  and  the 
clergy  got  a  clause  inserted,  giving  the 
favor  of  the  State  exclusively  to  the  Estab¬ 
lished  Church.  In  1675  he  took  up  his 
residence  at  Montpellier  for  the  benefit  of 
his  health.  He  had  all  his  life  an  asthmatic 
tendency,  which  at  that  time  threatened  to 
pass  into  consumption.  At  Montpellier, 
he  formed  the  acquaintance  of  the  Earl  of 
Pembroke,  to  whom  his  Essay  is  dedicated. 
In  1679  he  rejoined  the  Earl  of  Shaftesbury 
in  England;  but  in  1682  the  Earl  fled  to 
Holland  to  avoid  a  prosecution  for  high 
treason.  Locke  bore  him  company,  and  so 
far  shared  with  him  the  hostility  of  the 
government  of  James  as  to  have  his  name 
erased,  by  royal  mandate,  from  the  list  of 
students  of  Christ  Church.  Even  in  Hol¬ 
land  he  was  demanded  of  the  States-General 
by  the  English  Envoy;  but  he  contrived  to 
conceal  himself  till  the  English  court  ceased 
to  trouble  itself  on  his  account.  In  1687 
his  Essay  on  the  Understanding ,  begun 
seventeen  years  before,  was  finished;  and 
an  abridgment  of  it  was  published  in  French 
(1688)  by  his  friend,  Le  Clerc,  in  his  Bib- 
liotheques,  in  which  Locke  had  published 
two  years  before  his  Method  of  a  Common¬ 
place  Book.  In  1689  appeared  (also  in  Hol¬ 
land)  his  first  letter  on  Toleration.  But  in 
1688,  the  year  of  the  revolution,  he  came 
back  to  England  in  the  fleet  that  conveyed 
the  Princess  of  Orange.  He  soon  obtained 
from  the  new  Government  the  situation  of 
Commissioner  of  Appeals,  worth  £,100  a 
year.  He  took  a  lively  interest  in  the 
cause  of  toleration,  and  in  maintaining  the 
principles  of  the  revolution.  In  1690  his 
Essay  on  the  Understanding  was  published, 
and  met  with  a  rapid  and  extensive  celeb¬ 
rity;  and  also  a  second  letter  on  Toleration , 
and  his  well-known  Treatises  on  Govern¬ 
ment.  In  1691  he  was  engaged  upon  the  mo¬ 
mentous  question  of  the  restoration  of  the 


coinage,  and  published  various  tracts  on  the 
subject.  In  1692  he  brought  out  a  third  letter 
on  Toleration ,  which,  as  well  as  the  second, 
was  a  reply  to  the  attacks  made  on  the  first. 
In  1693  was  published  his  work  un  Educa¬ 
tion.  In  1695  King  William  appointed  him  a 
Commissioner  of  Trade  and  Plantations. 
In  the  same  year  he  published  his  treatise 
on  The  Reasonableness  of  Christianity,  which 
was  written  to  promote  William’s  favorite 
scheme  of  a  comprehension  of  all  the  Chris¬ 
tian  sects  in  one  national  church.  He  main¬ 
tained  a  controversy  in  defense  of  this  book: 
he  had  another  controversy  in  defense  of 
the  Essay  on  the  Understanding ,  against 
Stillingfleet,  the  bishop  of  Worcester.  His 
feeble  health  now  compelled  him  to  resign 
his  office  of  Commissioner  of  Plantations, 
and  to  quit  London;  and  he  spent  the  re¬ 
mainder  of  his  life  at  Oates,  in  Essex,  at 
the  seat  of  Sir  Francis  Masham.  His  last 
years  were  very  much  occupied  with  the 
study  of  the  Scriptures,  on  which  he  wrote 
several  dissertations,  which,  with  his  little 
work,  entitled  On  the  Conduct  of  the  Under¬ 
standing ,  were  published  after  his  death. 
He  died  Oct.  28,  1704. 

“  Great  as  were  Locke’s  services  to  his 
country,  and  to  the  cause  of  civil  and  re¬ 
ligious  liberty,  his  fame  rests  on  the  Essay 
on  the  Understanding ,  which  marks  an 
epoch  in  the  history  of  philosophy.  His 
purpose  was  to  inquire  into  the  powers  of 
the  human  understanding,  with  a  view  to 
find  out  what  things  it  was  fitted  to  grapple 
with,  and  where  it  must  fail,  so  as  to  make 
the  mind  of  man  ‘  more  cautious  in  med¬ 
dling  with  things  exceeding  its  comprehen¬ 
sion,  and  disposed  to  stop  when  it  is  at  the 
utmost  extent  of  its  tether.’  This  purpose 
led  him  to  that  thorough  investigation  of 
the  constitution  of  the  human  mind,  result¬ 
ing  in  the  most  numerous  and  important 
contributions  ever  made  by  one  man  to  our 
knowledge  on  this  subject.  He  institutes 
a  preliminary  inquiry,  in  the  subject  of  the 
first  book,  as  to  the  existence  of  innate 
ideas,  theoretical  and  practical,  on  which 
the  philosophical  world  has  been  so  much 
divided.  Locke  argues  against  the  existence 
of  these  supposed  innate  conceptions  or 
intuitions  of  the  mind  with  a  force  and 
cogency  that  appear  irresistible.  Having 
thus  repudiated  the  instinctive  sources  of 
our  knowledge  or  ideas,  he  is  bound  to 
show  how  we  come  by  them  in  the  course 
of  our  experience.  Our  experience  being 
twofold,  external  and  internal,  we  have  two 
classes  of  ideas — those  of  sensation,  and 
those  of  reflection.  He  has,  therefore,  to 
trace  all  the  recognized  conceptions  of  the 
mind  to  one  or  other  of  these  sources. 
Many  of  our  notions  are  obviously  derived 
from  experience,  as  colors,  sounds,  etc.; 


Loc 


(  537  ) 


Loh 


but  some  have  been  disputed,  more  espe¬ 
cially  such  as  space,  time,  infinity,  power, 
substance,  cause,  mere  good  and  evil;  and 
Lock  discusses  these  at  length,  by  way  of 
tracing  them  to  the  same  origin.  This  is 
the  subject  of  book  second,  entitled  ‘  Of 
Ideas.’  Book  third  is  on  language  consid¬ 
ered  as  an  instrument  of  truth,  and  con¬ 
tains  much  valuable  material.  The  fourth 
book  is  on  the  nature,  limits,  and  reality 
of  our  knowledge,  including  the  nature  of 
demonstrative  truth ,  the  existence  of  a  God , 
the  provinces  of  faith  and  reason,  and  the 
nature  of  error.” — Chambers:  Cyclopedia. 
See  H.  R.  Fox  Bourne:  Life  of  Locke 
(London,  1876),  2  vols. 

Locust.  In  appearance  the  Syrian  lo- 
,  cust  looks  very  much  like  the  grasshopper. 
They  move  in  immense  swarms  and  are 
extremely  voracious.  Wherever  they  alight 
they  consume  every  particle  of  grass  and 
leaf.  In  some  places  they  are  gathered 
and  eaten  as  food.  They  are  one  of  the 
greatest  scourges  of  the  East,  and  the 
Bible  gives  ten  different  Hebrew  names 
for  them,  which  are  rendered  “  grasshop¬ 
per,”  “  palmer  worm,”  “  butte,”  etc. 
These  may  designate  different  species. 

Logos.  This  Greek  word,  derived  from 
the  perf.  of  lego ,  “  to  speak,”  means  literal¬ 
ly  “  a  word,”  and  is  used  in  that  sense  in 
Matt.  viii.  8-16,  etc.  In  1  John  iii.  18  it  is 
opposed  to  deed  and  truth.  Other  mean¬ 
ings  are  Commands  or  Precepts  (Matt.  vii. 
24),  Prophecies  (Luke  iii.  4;  John  ii.  22), 
Promises  (Rom.  ix.  6;  Heb.  vii.  28), 
Threats  (Heb.  iv.  12),  Arguments  (Acts  ii. 
49),  Reports  or  Rumors.  (Matt,  xxviii.  15.) 
In  a  higher  sense  it  is  used  for  the  Word  of 
God,  whether  expressed  by  the  Law  or  in 
the  Gospel.  (Matt.  xiii.  19,  etc.,  etc.)  In 
a  heathen  sense  it  was  used  constantly  for 
the  Reason,  but  it  is  only  used  once  in  that 
sense  in  the  New  Testament,  and  then  it  is 
by  a  heathen  speaker.  (Acts,  xviii.  14.) 
But  the  highest  theological  sense  which  the 
word  bears  is  that  in  which  it  is  applied  to 
the  second  Person  of  the  Holy  Trinity. 
The  word  is  traceable  to  Philo  (y.  v. ),  the 
Alexandrian  Jew,  whose  speculations  aim¬ 
ed  at  reconciling  the  teaching  of  Plato  with 
that  of  the  Jewish  prophets.  He  saw  that 
there  was  One  who  was  spoken  of  in  the 
Old  Testament  under  the  name  of  “  the 
Word  and  the  Voice  of  God,”  and  that  he 
was  the  Revealer  of  God’s  attributes  and 
will  to  mankind.  The  Personality  of  this 
Logos  became  more  and  more  distinct  in  the 
later  writings  of  the  Old  Testament.  Philo, 
therefore,  identified  this  existence  with 
Plato’s  doctrine  of  the  Divine  Nous ,  or 
“  Mind,”  though  he  hesitated  to  assert  a 


distinct  Personality.  His  doctrine  was 
taken  up  by  the  Christian  Alexandrians, 
and  the  Gnostics  adopted  it  in  a  confused 
and  tentative  manner.  In  consequence 
some  cried  out  that  they  were  endangering 
the  doctrine  of  the  Unity  of  God;  the  Jew¬ 
ish  sects  of  Gnostics  replied  that  the  Christ 
was  a  demigod  or  superior  angel,  half  hu¬ 
man,  half  divine.  Then  St.  John  taught 
how  the  teaching  of  the  past  was  in  unison 
with  the  Gospel,  how  the  Word  was  in  the 
beginning  with  God  and  was  God,  was  the 
Light  of  men,  shining  in  darkness  and  not 
absorbed  by  it;  and  in  the  fulness  of  time 
was  made  Flesh — a  distinct  Personality, 
very  God,  yet  not  the  less  very  man.  It 
was  for  this  that  St.  John  was  named  the 
Theologos ,  translated  in  our  authorized  ver¬ 
sion  “  the  Divine  ”  (i.  e.,  Theologian).  The 
teaching  thus  set  forth  became  the  basis  of 
the  teaching  of  the  great  Alexandrian  di¬ 
vines.  Justin  Martyr,  first  of  Patristic 
philosophers,  dwells  earnestly  upon  the 
prehistoric  Logos,  the  Divine  Reason , 
spoken  of  not  only  by  prophets,  but  by 
wise  heathen  such  as  Socrates,  distinct  from 
the  God  whom  Moses  knew,  yet  not  sepa¬ 
rable  from  Him.  This  doctrine  was  the  es¬ 
sential  doctrine  which  united  the  Church 
together  until  it  was  formulated  in  the 
phrases  of  the  Nicene  Creed. — Benham: 
Diet,  of  Religion. 

Lohe,  Johann  Konrad  Wilhelm,  a  re¬ 
markable  German  pastor,  preacher,  and 
organizer  of  Christian  work;  b.  in  Furth, 
near  Nurnberg,  Feb.  21,  1808  ;  d.  Jan.  2, 
1872,  at  Neudettelsau.  He  was  educated  at 
the  University  of  Erlangen;  and  became 
vicar  of  Kirchenlamitz  in  1831.  His  fervent 
preaching  attracted  wide  attention,  but  did 
not  meet  the  approval  of  his  ecclesiastical 
superiors.  In  1837  he  was  made  pastor  in 
Neudettelsau,  “  an  inconsiderable  and  un¬ 
attractive  place.”  He  was  eminently  suc¬ 
cessful  in  his  work  here,  and  the  place 
became  noted  for  its  religious  life  and  ac¬ 
tivities.  Not  far  from  1840  he  interested 
himself  in  the  condition  of  his  countrymen 
in  the  United  States.  He  aided  in  the 
founding  of  the  Missouri  synod,  and  the 
reorganization  of  the  Iowa  synod.  Through 
his  efforts  two  spacious  buildings  were 
erected  for  the  training  of  ministers  who 
should  labor  among  Germans  in  foreign 
countries.  In  1849  he  founded  the  Lu¬ 
theran  Society  of  Home  Missions,  and  in 
1853  an  institution  of  deaconesses.  A 
building  was  erected  to  meet  the  needs  of 
this  institution,  and,  within  a  few  years, 
an  asylum  for  idiots,  a  Magdalen  asy¬ 
lum,  and  hospitals  for  men  and  women 
were  opened.  In  addition  to  these  labors 
this  remarkable  man  found  time  to  prepare 


Lol 


(  538  ) 


Lor 


several  volumes  for  the  press.  As  a  preach¬ 
er  he  was  one  of  the  greatest  Germany  has 
known  in  the  present  century. 

Lollards,  a  name  given  to  the  followers 
of  Wycliffe,  though  the  term  had  been  pre¬ 
viously  applied  to  societies  in  Germany. 
Some  think  that  the  name,  as  meaning 
“  idle  babbler,”  was  used  as  a  term  of  de¬ 
rision;  others  derive  it  from  the  same  root 
as  “  lullaby,”  referring  to  their  fondness 
for  singing.  The  first  itinerant  preach¬ 
ers  sent  out  by  Wycliffe  from  Oxford  were 
successful  in  making  many  converts.  With 
the  Peasants’  Revolt,  under  Wat  Tyler,  in 
1381,  there  came  a  strong  reaction  against 
religious  as  well  as  social  reforms.  The 
crown  supported  Archbishop  Courtney  in 
his  condemnation  of  Wycliffe’s  doctrine  of 
the  sacraments  in  1382,  and  in  silencing 
the  great  Reformer  and  his  chief  disciples. 
The  followers  of  Wycliffe  were  to  be  found 
in  large  numbers  among  the  people,  and 
the  entire  movement  became  involved  with 
political  issues.  After  the  death  ofWycliffe 
Lollardism  represented  a  general  spirit  of 
revolt.  During  the  absence  of  Richard  II. 
in  Ireland,  in  1394,  a  petition  was  presented 
to  Parliament  by  the  Lollards,  in  which 
they  denounced  the  wealth  and  pride  of 
the  clergy,  and  protested  against  special 
prayers  for  the  dead,  pilgrimages,  auric¬ 
ular  confession,  etc.  The  king  considered 
the  petition  of  such  a  nature  that,  upon  his 
return  home,  he  demanded  that  the  Lol¬ 
lard  leaders  should  take  an  oath  abjuring 
their  opinions.  Archbishop  Arundel,  who 
succeeded  Courtney,  used  his  influence, 
by  which,  in  1401,  a  clause  was  inserted  in 
the  statute  for  the  year  declaring  the  Lol¬ 
lards  to  be  heretics.  Under  this  statute 
John  Badby  suffered  martyrdom  at  Smith- 
field  in  1410.  While  the  persecution  of  the 
Lollards  was  continued  with  great  vigor, 
after  the  death  of  the  Earl  of  Salisbury, 
they  found  a  leader  in  Sir  John  Oldcastle. 
The  hope  of  gaining  Henry  V.  to  espouse 
their  cause  failed,  and  a  conspiracy  was 
formed  to  take  his  life.  This  plot  was  dis¬ 
covered,  and  thirty-seven  of  those  engaged 
in  it  were  seized  and  executed.  Four 
years  later  Oldcastle  was  captured  and 
put  to  death.  In  1414  a  statute  was^assed 
by  which  the  Lollards  became  amenable  to 
the  common  law.  These  severe  measures 
did  not  entirely  destroy  them,  for  as  late 
as  1431  efforts  were  put  forth  to  hinder 
their  rising.  From  this  time  on  they  were 
but  slightly  persecuted,  and,  as  a  political 
influence,  were  lost  in  the  struggles  be¬ 
tween  the  rival  houses  of  York  and  Lancas¬ 
ter.  It  is  difficult  to  determine  in  all  re¬ 
spects  what  were  the  tenets  of  Lollardism, 
but  in  the  mass  of  conflicting  opinion  they 


held  firm  to  faith  in  the  authority  of  the 
Bible  as  the  source  of  religious  truth. 
Lollardism  was  widely  propagated  in  Bo¬ 
hemia  by  the  Oxford  teachers,  who  fled 
thither  under  the  persecution  of  Courtney. 
The  principal  writers  against  the  Lollards 
were  Thomas  Netter,  of  Walden,  and  Reg¬ 
nal  Pecock. 

Lombard,  Peter,  one  of  the  most  fa¬ 
mous  of  the  schoolmen;  b.  in  the  early 
part  of  the  twelfth  century,  in  Novara, 
Lombardy;  d.  in  Paris,  July  20,  1160.  He 
studied  at  Bologna  and  Rheims,  through 
the  aid  of  Bernard  of  Clairvaux,  and  then 
at  Paris,  under  Abelard.  After  a  distin¬ 
guished  career  as  teacher  of  theology  he 
was  appointed  bishop  of  Paris  the  year 
before  his  death.  His  great  work  is  The 
Four  Books  of  Sentences ,  from  which  he 
was  called  Magister  Sententiarnm  (master 
of  sentences).  The  first  treats  of  God;  the 
second  of  created  things;  the  third  of  the 
incarnation,  redemption,  and  the  virtues 
of  human  character;  and  the  fourth  of  the 
sacraments  and  eschatological  subjects. 
His  great  authority  is  Augustine. 

Lord’s  Day,  “  the  oldest  and  best  desig¬ 
nation  of  the  Christian  Sabbath  first 
used  by  St.  John.  (Rev.  i.  10.)  See  Sab¬ 
bath;  Sunday. 

Lord’s  Supper,  sometimes  called  the  Eu¬ 
charist,  sometimes  the  Holy  Communion, 
was  solemnly  instituted  by  our  Lord  on  the 
night  before  his  passion.  The  importance 
of  the  ordinance  is  emphasized  by  the  ap¬ 
pearance  of  its  history  in  four  books  of  the 
New  Testament.  It  was  at  first  celebrated 
daily  by  the  disciples  in  connection  with  a 
simple  social  meal,  called  the  agape ,  or 
Feast  of  Love,  and  then  it  was  for  a  long 
period  observed  every  Lord’s  Day,  but 
only  within  the  circle  of  the  Church.  Im¬ 
mediately  after  the  conclusion  of  the  homi¬ 
letic  or  missionary  services,  in  which  the 
public  participated,  the  promiscuous  as¬ 
sembly  was  dismissed  (the  word  ?nissa, 
thus  used,  giving  its  name  afterward  to 
the  sacrament;  Ger.  Messe ,  Eng.  Mass),  and 
the  elements,  common  bread  and  wine 
mingled  with  water,  were  consecrated  by 
the  presiding  official  and  then  distributed 
by  the  deacons  to  the  congregation,  and 
also  to  the  sick  and  the  prisoners  who  were 
prevented  from  being  present.  An  elab¬ 
orate  sacramental  liturgy,  comprising  suit¬ 
able  prayers,  hymns,  doxologies,  and  re¬ 
sponses,  which  became  the  basis  of  all  sub¬ 
sequent  formularies  of  its  kind,  developed 
at  an  early  day  around  the  solemn  rite, 
and  it  has  been  commonly  regarded 
throughout  the  Christian  Church,  as  the 


Lor 


(  539  ) 


Lor 


highest  and  most  holy  part  of  divine  wor¬ 
ship. 

It  is  the  unanimous  testimony  of  histo¬ 
rians  that  from  the  beginning  this  sacrament 
was  viewed  as  an  august  mystery,  to  which 
was  attached  profound  doctrinal  signifi¬ 
cance  and  the  highest  spiritual  efficacy. 
With  the  visible  elements,  it  was  believed, 
were  mystically  connected  the  Body  and 
Blood  of  the  Lord.  Those  who  in  faith 
partook  of  this  Supper,  enjoyed  essential 
communion  with  Christ.  They  partook  of 
“  a  spiritual  food  indispensable  to  eternal 
life.  ”  The  first  Christian  theologians  were 
not  given  to  sharp  distinctions  between  the 
outward  sign  and  the  invisible  substance 
which  it  represents.  “  The  real  and  the 
symbolical  were  so  blended,”  says  Hagen- 
bach,  “  that  the  symbol  did  not  supplant 
the  fact,  nor  did  the  fact  dislodge  the  sym¬ 
bol.”  Yet  they  distinguish  the  two  things 
constituting  the  Supper  as  terrena  et  ccelesti. 
In  some  places  they  speak  distinctly  of 
signs,  and  the  Alexandrians  are  designated 
as  spiritualistic;  then  again  they  “  speak 
openly  of  a  real  participation  in  the  body 
and  blood  of  Christ,”  while  not  a  single  pas¬ 
sage  in  the  fathers  asserts  the  elements  to 
be  merely  signs  or  symbols. 

Of  the  doctrine  of  a  total  change  of  the 
elements  into  the  body  and  blood  of  Christ 
not  a  trace  is  found  in  the  Ante-Nicene 
Church.  Later,  many  of  the  fathers  fre¬ 
quently  use  terms  which  seem  to  involve 
the  doctrine  of  a  real  change;  and  a  dispo¬ 
sition  toward  that  theory  is  apparent,  yet 
according  to  Baur  these  are  “  only  an  ob¬ 
scure  and  exaggerated  identification  of  fig¬ 
ure  and  fact.”  The  same  teachers  use  also 
representations  which  exclude  a  change. 
The  idea  of  a  sacrifice  came  now  likewise 
to  be  connected  with  the  Sacrament,  at  first 
only  in  the  sense  of  a  celebration  of  the 
one  sacrifice  of  Christ,  but  gradually  in  the 
sense  of  an  unbloody  but  actual  repetition 
of  that  sacrifice.  The  ascription  of  a  priest¬ 
ly  character  to  the  clerical  office  contrib¬ 
uted  largely  to  the  development  of  this  no¬ 
tion.  As  late  as  the  ninth  century  a  treatise, 
maintaining  in  earnest  a  complete  change  of 
the  elements,  called  forth  an  extensive  and 
violent  controversy,  although  it  doubtless 
only  set  forth  in  definite  statements  what 
was  then  the  popular  belief.  Two  centu¬ 
ries  later,  the  denial  of  the  change  of  sub¬ 
stance  led  to  the  condemnation  of  Berengar 
by  several  synods,  and  in  a.  d.  1215,  at  the 
Fourth  Lateran  Council,  the  doctrine  of 
Transubstantiation  was  pronounced  an  ar¬ 
ticle  of  faith  by  Pope  Innocent  III. 

The  Reformers  with  one  voice  repudi¬ 
ated  both  the  doctrine  of  transubstantia¬ 
tion  and  that  of  the  Sacrifice  of  the  Mass, 
as  Wycliffe  had  done  before.  When,  how¬ 


ever,  they  came  to  formulate  the  positive 
elements  of  the  doctrine  for  the  Evangel¬ 
ical  Church,  so  wide  a  difference  emerged 
that  the  unity  of  Protestantism  was  shat¬ 
tered  upon  this  rock.  Luther  was,  at  first, 
predisposed  to  a  symbolical  and  purely 
subjective  interpretation  ;  but  he  felt 
bound  by  the  clear  word  of  Scripture  to 
accept  the  doctrine  that,  along  with  the 
elements  there  are  present,  and  received 
sacramentally  and  supernaturally,  the  glo¬ 
rified  Body  and  Blood  of  the  Lord  Jesus 
Christ,  which  believers  partake  of  to  their 
spiritual  strength,  unbelievers  to  their 
judgment.  Exception  to  this  view,  he  held, 
could  only  be  taken  on  grounds  of  reason; 
and  if  reason  may  rule  supremely  on  this 
doctrine,  “  you  open  the  way  for  it  to 
sweep  away  every  doctrine.” 

Zwingli  maintained  the  purely  symbol¬ 
ical,  commemorative,  and  subjective  char¬ 
acter  of  the  Supper,  and  on  this  account 
Luther  declined  church  -  fellowship  with 
him.  Calvin’s  position  was  mediating  be¬ 
tween  the  theories  of  Luther  and  Zwingli. 
He  also  taught,  clearly,  a  Real  Presence, 
but  one  not  mediated  through  the  bread 
and  wine.  “  The  believer,  by  means  of 
faith,  partakes  in  the  Sacrament  only  spir¬ 
itually,  but  yet  really,  of  the  body  and 
blood  of  the  Lord,  through  a  power  issu¬ 
ing  from  the  glorified  body  of  Christ, 
whereas  the  unbeliever  receives  only  bread 
and  wine.”  This  view  superseded  the 
Zwinglian  in  the  Confessions  of  Switzer¬ 
land,  and  passed  into  all  the  Reformed 
Creeds  of  the  Continent  and  of  Great  Brit¬ 
ain,  including  the  XXXIX.  Articles.  The 
dogma  developed  by  Luther  has  ever  re¬ 
mained  the  distinguishing  feature  of  the 
Lutheran  system.  It  has  also  been  held 
by  many  in  the  Church  of  England,  and 
by  Episcopalians  in  this  country.  The  sac¬ 
erdotal  idea  of  the  ministry  prevalent  in 
the  latter  communion  has  favored  both 
the  doctrine  of  a  change  of  substance  and 
that  of  a  sacrifice,  errors  from  which  the 
Lutherans  seem  to  have  escaped  by  their 
New  Testament  conception  of  the  minis¬ 
terial  office. 

While  all  the  Reformed  Confessions  of 
the  sixteenth  century  contained  the  Cal- 
vinistic  view  of  the  Lord’s  Supper,  the 
current  teaching  and  popular  belief  in  all 
but  Lutheran  and  Episcopal  churches  has 
long  been  that  of  Zwinglianism.  The  Sup¬ 
per  is  wont  to  be  celebrated  as  a  solemn 
spiritual  exercise,  recalling  the  atoning 
death  of  our  Lord,  and  indicating  the  union 
of  his  followers.  A  reaction  in  favor  of 
higher  views  has  of  late  appeared,  espe¬ 
cially  among  Presbyterians.  See  Van 
Dyke:  Presbyterian  Quarterly;  Lit.  Dorner: 
System  of  Christian  Doctrine;  Schmid: 


Lor 


(  540  ) 


Low 


Doctrinal  Theology  of  the  Ev.  Lutheran 
Church’,  Pusey:  The  Doctrine  of  the  Real 
Presence;  Armstrong:  Sacraments  of  the 
New  Testament.  E.  J.  Wolf. 

Loretto,  or,  properly,  Loreto,  a  city  a 
short  distance  south  of  Ancona,  in  Italy, 
famous  as  the  resting-place  of  the  Holy 
House,  believed  by  Roman  Catholics  to  be 
the  house  in  which  the  Virgin  lived  at 
Nazareth.  It  is  about  31  x  32  feet,  has  one 
door  and  one  window,  and  is  built  of  a  dark 
reddish  stone.  It  stands  in  the  church  of 
the  Santa  Casa.  The  legend  is,  that  when 
the  Holy  Land  was  taken  by  the  infidels 
the  house  was  miraculously  transported  in 
1291  to  a  hill  near  Fiume.  In  1294  it  was 
again  removed  to  Recanati,and  from  there 
to  a  spot  near  where  it  now  stands.  The 
last  removal  was  caused  by  the  quarrel  of 
two  brothers,  who  owned  the  land,  as  to 
who  should  possess  it.  It  is  said  that  the 
Virgin  appeared  to  a  hermit  of  Recanati, 
and  announced  that  it  was  her  house.  Pil¬ 
grims  still  flock  to  see  it. 

Lot.  “  The  custom  of  deciding  doubtful 
questions  by  lot  is  one  of  great  extent  and 
high  antiquity,  recommending  itself  as  a 
sort  of  appeal  to  the  Almighty,. secure  from 
all  influence  of  passion  or  bias,  and  is  a 
sort  of  divination  employed  even  by  the 
gods  themselves.  (Horn.  II.  xxii.  209;  Cic. 
de  Div.  i.  34;  ii.  41.)  Among  the  Jews 
also,  the  use  of  lots,  with  a  religious  inten¬ 
tion,  direct  or  indirect,  prevailed  exten¬ 
sively.  The  religious  estimate  of  them 
may  be  gathered  from  Prov.  xvi.  33.  The 
following  historical  or  ritual  instances  are 
— (1)  Choice  of  men  for  an  invading  force 
(Judg.  i.  1;  xx.  10).  (2)  Partition  fa)  of  the 

soil  of  Palestine  among  the  tribes  (Num. 
xxvi.  55;  Josh,  xviii.  10;  Acts  xiii.  19). 

(b)  Of  Jerusalem;  i.  e.,  probably  its  spoil 

or  captives  among  captors  (Obad.  11);  of 
the  land  itself  in  a  similar  way  (1  Macc.  iii. 
36).  (c)  Apportionment  of  possessions,  or 

spoil,  or  of  prisoners,  to  foreigners  or  cap- 
tors  (Joel  iii.  3;  Nah.  iii.  10;  Matt,  xxvii. 
35)*  (3)  ( a )  Settlement  of  doubtful  ques¬ 
tions  (Prov.  xvi.  33;  xviii.  18).  (b)  A 

mode  of  divination  among  heathens  by 
means  of  arrows,  two  inscribed,  and  one 
without  mark  (Hos.  iv.  12;  Ezek.  xxi.  21). 

(c)  Detection  of  a  criminal  (Josh.  vii.  14, 

18).  (d)  Appointment  of  persons  to  offices 

or  duties,  as  above  in  Achan’s  case.  (^) 
Selection  of  the  scape-goat  on  the  Day  of 
Atonement  (Lev.  xvi.  8,  10).  (4)  The  use 

of  words  heard  or  passages  chosen  at  ran¬ 
dom  from  Scripture.” — Smith:  Did.  of  the 
Bible . 

Lotze  (Jot' seh),  Hermann  Rudolf,  b.  at 


Bautzen,  May  21,  1817;  d.  at  Berlin,  July  1, 
1881.  He  was  graduated  at  Leipzig  Univer¬ 
sity  .where,  in  1 843,  he  was  appointed  profes¬ 
sor  of  mental  philosophy,  and  to  the  same 
position  the  following  year  at  Gottingen, 
and  to  Berlin  in  the  year  he  died.  Lotze  was 
one  of  the  best  equipped  and  most  efficient 
leaders  against  modern  materialism. 
Among  the  most  important  of  his  works  is 
his  Microcosmos :  Thoughts  bearing  upon 
Nat .  Phil,  and  the  Hist,  of  the  Human  Race , 
3  vols.  (1856-64). 

Louis  IX.  (called  St.  Louis ),  b.  1215;  d. 
1270;  the  son  and  successor  of  Louis  VIII. 
He  was  king  of  France  from  1226  to  1270. 
A  man  of  deep  religious  convictions,  he  led 
an  austere  life  of  piety,  and  took  a  prom¬ 
inent  part  in  the  Seventh  Crusade.  De¬ 
feated  and  taken  prisoner  in  1256,  he  was 
compelled  to  pay  a  heavy  ransom.  In  1270 
he  headed  another  expedition  against  the 
infidels  and  gained  possession  of  Carthage; 
but  died  of  pestilence  while  preparing  to 
besiege  Tunis.  He  vindicated  the  liber¬ 
ties  and  privileges  of  the  Gallican  Church, 
and  established  wholesome  regulations  that 
did  much  to  promote  the  happiness  of  his 
people.  He  was  canonized  by  Pope  Boni¬ 
face  VIII.,  in  1297. 

Love.  “  This  term  signifies  one  of  the 
constituent  principles  of  our  nature,  and  in 
the  perfect  exercise  of  it  is  comprehended 
the  whole  of  our  duty  to  God  and  to  our 
fellow-creatures.  (Matt.  xxii.  37-40;  Rom. 
xiii.  8,  10;  Gal.  v.  14;  James  ii.  8.)  Hence  it 
evidently  comprehends  all  holiness  of  heart 
and  life.  The  highest  and  most  glorious 
display  of  the  divine  character  which  has 
ever  been  made  to  man  is  the  love  of  God 
in  Jesus  Christ  (Rom.  v.  8),  and  the  great 
principle  and  fruit  of  both  faith  and  obe¬ 
dience  consists  in  the  possession  and  exer¬ 
cise  of  love.  (John  xiii.  34,  35.)” — Schaff: 
Bible  Did. 

Love-Feasts.  See  Agape. 

Low-Church  is  the  name  given  the  party 
in  the  Church  of  England  and  the  Episco¬ 
pal  Church  of  the  United  States,  who  hold 
to  the  views  of  the  English  Reformers  re¬ 
garding  the  sacraments,  church  govern¬ 
ment,  and  ecclesiastical  ritual.  It  is  op¬ 
posed  to  what  are  known  as  ‘  ‘High-Church” 
ritualistic  practices,  such  as  elevating  the 
host,  the  use  of  candles,  and  facing  the  east 
in  prayer. 

Lowder,  Charles  Fuge,  whose  ministe¬ 
rial  work  among  the  London  poor  endeared 
him  to  multitudes,  was  b.  at  Bath,  June  22, 
1820;  d.  at  Zell-am-See,  Austria,  Sept.  9, 


Low 


(  54i  ) 


Luk 


1880.  He  was  educated  at  Oxford,  and 
ordained  in  1843.  He  came  to  London  in 
1851  as  curate  at  St.  Barnabas.  In  1856  he 
was  chosen  as  leader  of  the  mission  to  St. 
George’s-in-the-East,  and  in  1866  he  be¬ 
came  vicar  of  St.  Peter’s,  London  Docks, 
where  he  labored  until  his  death.  The 
story  of  his  self-denying  services  among 
the  poorest  and  most  degraded  classes  in 
London  is  one  of  tender  interest.  He  was 
a  ritualist  of  an  advanced  type,  but  no  one 
could  doubt  the  consecration  of  heart  that 
led  him  to  devote  his  life  to  the  spiritual 
help  of  multitudes  whom  he  reclaimed 
from  the  ways  of  sin.  See  Charles  Lowder: 
A  Biography  (Lond.,  1882). 

Lowell,  John,  founder  of  the  Lowell  In¬ 
stitute;  b.  in  Boston,  May  11,  1799;  d.  at 
Bombay,  India,  March  4,  1836.  He  was  a 
student  at  Harvard  College  for  two  years, 
but  ill-health  interfered  with  his  plans,  and 
most  of  his  life  was  spent  in  travel.  He 
left  $250,000  for  the  maintenance,  in  Bos¬ 
ton,  of  annual  courses  of  free  lectures  upon 
religion,  science,  literature,  and  the  arts. 

Low  Mass,  in  the  Roman  Church,  is  one 
performed  by  a  single  priest  with  a  server. 

Low-Sunday,  the  first  Sunday  after  East¬ 
er.  It  received  the  name  from  the  fact  that 
a  part  of  the  services  of  Easter  were  re¬ 
peated,  and  it  was  therefore  a  feast  of  a 
lower  degree  than  Easter. 

Lowth,  Robert,  b.  at  Winchester,  Nov. 
27,  1710;  d.  at  Fulham,  Nov.  3,  1787.  Ed¬ 
ucated  at  Winchester  and  Oxford,  he  be¬ 
came  archdeacon  of  Winchester,  1750,  and 
successively  bishop  of  St.  David’s  (1766), 
of  Oxford  (1766),  and  of  London  (1777). 
The  works  upon  which  his  fame  rests  are 
his  lectures  on  the  Poetry  of  the  Hebrews 
and  the  Translation  of  the  Prophet  Isaiah. 

Loyola  ( loi-o'-la ).  See  Ignatius  Loyola. 

Lucian,  a  famous  satirist,  was  a  native 
of  Samosata,  in  Syria,  and  lived  about  120- 
200.  He  was  a  teacher  of  rhetoric.  As 
an  author  he  is  known  by  his  Peregrinus 
Proteus ,  in  which  the  hero  is  represented 
as  having  at  one  time  been  a  Christian. 
Though  the  criticism  of  this  character 
“  has  run  through  the  whole  scale  of  pos¬ 
sible  judgment,  from  the  Tridentine  Coun¬ 
cil,  which  put  the  book  on  its  Index  as  the 
work  of  a  satanic  fiend,  to  Mr.  Kestner, 
who  believed  he  had  discovered  a  secret 
Christian  in  the  author,  the  chapter, 
when  allowed  to  speak  for  itself,  is  neither 
more  nor  less  than  a  simple  historical  tes¬ 
timony  to  a  simple  historical  fact,  repre¬ 


senting  the  Christians,  not  as  impostors, 
or  criminals,  or  revolutionists,  but  as 
blindly  believing  enthusiasts,  ready  to 
make  any  sacrifice  for  the  weal  of  their 
community:  that  is,  just  such  as  they  at 
that  moment  appeared  to  the  eyes  of  the 
indifferent.” — Harnack  in  Schaff- Herzog: 
Ency.  ,vol.  ii. ,  p.  1358.  Complete  Eng.trans. 
of  Lucian  by  Dryden(London,i7ii),4  vols. ; 
J.  M.  Cotterill:  Peregrinus  Proteus  (Edin¬ 
burgh,  1879). 

Lucifer  ( light-bringer ),  a  term  used  by 
Isaiah  to  designate  the  king  of  Babylon. 
(Isa.  xiv.  12.)  The  title  was  given  by 
Tertullian  and  others  to  Satan,  and  it  is 
now  applied  to  him  with  little  thought  of 
the  original  significance  of  the  word. 

Luciferians,  the  followers  of  Lucifer, 
who  was  bishop  of  Cagliari,  in  Sardinia, 
in  the  fourth  century.  Lucifer  was  an 
ardent  champion  of  the  Confession  of 
Nicaea,  and  at  the  condemnation  of  Atha¬ 
nasius  (355),  suffered  banishment.  At  the 
accession  of  Julian  he  returned  to  his  see, 
and  demanded  that  all  bishops  who  had 
not  openly  opposed  the  Arians  should  be 
deposed  and  excommunicated,  and  their 
ecclesiastical  acts  declared  null  and  void. 
His  views  found  adherents,  and  led  to  a 
schism,  the  Luciferians  considering  them¬ 
selves  the  true  and  pure  Church.  They 
disappeared  in  about  half  a  century. 

Luke,  The  Gospel  of.  “ Its  author. — The 
author  of  this  Gospel,  whose  full  name  was 
Lucanus,  is,  by  the  unanimous  voice  of 
tradition,  identified  with  ‘  the  beloved  phy¬ 
sician  ’  and  ‘  fellow-laborer’  of  Paul,  men¬ 
tioned  in  Col.  iv.  14;  2  Tim.  iv.  11;  and 
Philem.  24.  He  was  by  birth  a  Greek  (Col. 
iv.  11  et  seq.),  a  native  of  Antioch  in  Syria, 
and  probably  a  Jewish  proselyte  before  he 
became  a  convert,  possibly  under  the 
preaching  of  Paul,  to  the  faith  of  Christ. 
He  appears  to  have  joined  Paul  on  the 
second  journey  of  the  apostle  to  Troas, 
and  to  have  been  frequently  afterward  in 
his  company.  (Acts  xvi.  10;  xx.  5;  xxi.  18; 
xxiv.  23;  xxvii.  1-28.)  Of  his  history  after 
the  death  of  Paul  we  know  nothing;  only 
tradition  says  that  he  died  a  martyr,  and 
Jerome,  that  his  body  was  buried  in  Con¬ 
stantinople.  A  dubious  ecclesiastical  tra¬ 
dition  says  he  was  a  painter,  as  well  as  a 
physician,  and  even  ascribes  certain  pict¬ 
ures  to  his  pencil.  On  this  account  he  is 
the  patron  saint  of  artists,  and  is  usually 
represented  in  Christian  art  with  an  ox  ly¬ 
ing  near  him,  and  sometimes  with  painting 
materials,  or  in  the  act  of  painting  the  Vir¬ 
gin  with  the  Child.  Some  expositors  affect 
to  see  the  artist,  as  they  do  the  physician, 


Lul 


(  542  ) 


Lut 


in  certain  graphic  touches  of  his  narra¬ 
tive. 

“  Genuineness. — In  addition  to  the  un¬ 
questioning  testimony  of  antiquity,  one 
point  is  of  special  interest.  The  heretic 
Marcion,  who  wrote  about  A.  D.  138,  found 
the  Gospel  in  general  use,  adopted  it,  and 
mutilated  it  to  suit  his  own  purpose.  The 
Pauline  spirit  of  the  work  speaks  for  its 
authorship.  It  is  evidently  written  by  the 
author  of  the  ‘Acts.’  lrenaeus,  Origen, 
and  Tertullian  bear  witness  to  it. 

“  Date . — Luke’s  Gospel  can  be  proved  to 
have  been  in  use  and  familiarly  known 
about  120  A.  D. ,  and  to  have  been  written 
prior  to  the  year  63  A.  D. ,  since  it  is  at  that 
date  that  the  Acts,  which  continues  the 
Gospel  narrative  by  the  same  author, 
closes.  It  is  not  known  where  it  was  writ¬ 
ten,  though  the  Acts  was  probably  written 
at  Rome. 

“  Aim. — Luke’s  Gospel  is  written,  in  the 
first  instance,  to  confirm  the  faith  of  Theoph- 
ilus,  a  native,  it  is  thought,  of  Italy,  and 
probably  of  Rome,  and  a  man  of  some  so¬ 
cial  position,  in  whose  spiritual  edification 
and  Christian  steadfastness,  as  in  all  like¬ 
lihood  a  convert  of  his  own,  he  took  espe¬ 
cial  interest;  and  its  aim  is  to  represent 
the  Gospel  of  Christ  as  destined  to  bless 
all  mankind,  and  Jesus  as  the  Saviour  at 
once  of  Jew  and  Gentile.  The  literary  style 
is  better  than  that  of  the  other  Gospels,  as 
befits  the  writing  of  an  educated,  profes¬ 
sional  man.  This  Gospel  and  the  Acts  of 
the  Apostles  approach  more  nearly  to  the 
‘  classic’  Greek  than  the  other  New  Testa¬ 
ment  narratives. 

‘  ‘  Matter ,  arrangement ,  and  general  char¬ 
acter. — To  this  Gospel  we  owe  much  of 
what  is  contained  in  chaps,  i.-iii. ;  v.  1-11; 
vii.  36-50;  ix.  51-56;  xv.  11-32;  xviii.  15; 
and  xxiv.,  etc.  The  arrangement  is  only 
partially  chronological,  certain  facts  and 
discourses  being  grouped  more  according 
to  the  matter  than  the  order  of  time.  It  is 
the  most  complete  of  all  the  Gospels.” — 
Bagster:  Bible  Helps.  See  Commentaries  of 
Alford,  Meyer,  Godet,  Van  Oosterzee,  in 
Lange  series,  Abbott,  etc. 

Lullus,  Raymundus,  called  “  the  en¬ 
lightened  doctor,”  was  b.  about  1235  at 
Palma,  Majorica;  d.  near  Bugia,  N.  Africa, 
1315.  Of  noble  birth  and  educated  at  the 
court  of  Aragon,  while  yet  a  young  man 
he  passed  through  spiritual  experiences 
that  led  him,  after  making  provision  for  his 
family,  to  give  up  his  wealth  and  become 
a  hermit.  Visited  with  new  visions,  the 
conversion  of  the  Saracens  and  heathen 
became  the  supreme  purpose  of  his  life. 
He  thought  to  accomplish  this  by  the  con¬ 
struction  of  a  universal  science  that  would 


present  an  irresistible  argument  in  favor 
of  Christianity.  To  this  end  he  endeavored 
to  establish  schools  where  missionaries 
might  become  proficient  in  Oriental  lore. 
From  popes  and  kings,  whose  aid  he  so¬ 
licited,  he  gained  but  little  encouragement. 
With  undaunted  courage  he  learned  Arabic 
and  made  three  missionary  tours  among 
the  Saracens.  On  the  last  tour,  while  in 
Bugia,  he  preached  openly  against  Islam. 
He  was  stoned  by  the  enraged  Mohamme¬ 
dans,  who  left  him  dying  on  the  seashore. 
In  this  condition  he  was  found  by  a  Chris¬ 
tian  sea-captain,  who  took  him  on  board 
his  vessel,  but  he  expired  soon  after.  In 
the  Roman  Catholic  Church  the  Jesuits  ac¬ 
cused  him  of  heresy,  and  some  of  his  books 
were  forbidden  by  Gregory  XI.,  but  the 
Franciscans  and  others  have  earnestly  de¬ 
fended  him.  His  writings  are  numerous. 
See  Neander:  Church  History. 

Luthardt,  Christoph  Ernst,  Ph.  D., 
D.  D.  (Erlangen,  1854  and  1856),  orthodox 
Lutheran  theologian;  b.  at  Maroldsweisach, 
Bavaria,  March  22,  1823;  studied  at  Er¬ 
langen  and  Berlin,  1841-45;  teacher  from 
1841  to  1854  at  Munich  and  Erlangen;  pro¬ 
fessor  extraordinary  at  Marburg,  1854-56; 
and  since  1856  professor  of  systematic  the¬ 
ology  and  New  Testament  exegesis  at 
Leipzig.  He  has  won  a  great  reputation 
as  a  pulpit  orator  and  university  lecturer. 
Several  of  his  works  have  been  translated 
into  English:  St.  John's  Gospel  Described  and 
Explained  according  to  its  Peculiar  Character 
(Edinburgh,  1878,  3  vols.);  The  Fundamen¬ 
tal  Truths  of  Christianity  (1865,  3d  ed., 
1873);  Dhe  Saving  7'ruths  of  Christianity 
(1868);  The  Moral  Truths  of  Christianity 
(1873);  St.  Johity  the  Author  of  the  Fourth 
Gospel  (1875,  2d  ed.,  1885). 

Luther,  Martin.  The  ovation  to  the 
memory  of  Martin  Luther,  on  the  400th 
anniversary  of  his  birth,  surpassed  in  ex¬ 
tent  and  enthusiasm  everything  that  has  in 
any  age  been  rendered  to  the  memory  of 
a  mortal  man.  All  denominations,  all 
classes,  all  institutions,  throughout  every 
countrv  in  the  world  into  which  the  bless¬ 
ings  of  the  Reformation  have  penetrated, 
united  spontaneously  in  celebrating  his 
personal  merits  and  his  illustrious  services 
to  religion  and  progress,  and  raised  him 
to  a  pedestal  of  fame  which  stands  without 
a  rival,  and  which  can  never  perish.  It 
was  the  grateful  tribute  of  the  modern 
world  to  him  who  is,  humanly  speaking, 
acknowledged  as  its  creator. 

“  No  man,”  says  Prof.  Schaff,  “  has 
been  so  much  honored;  no  man,  save  the 
apostles,  deserves  so  much  to  be  held  in 
grateful  remembrance  as  Martin  Luther.” 


Lut 


(  543  ) 


Lut 


Although  the  founder  of  Protestantism, 
his  transcendent  personality  and  his  public 
career  have  extorted  from  the  most  famous 
Roman  Catholic  historians  the  highest  rec¬ 
ognition.  Dollinger,  while  repudiating 
papal  infallibility,  never  showed  any  sym¬ 
pathy  for  Luther’s  teachings,  yet  he  says: 
“  It  was  Luther’s  supreme  intellectual 
ability  and  wonderful  versatility  that  made 

him  the  man  of  his  age . He  has 

given  more  to  his  nation  than  any  one  man 
has  ever  done:  language,  popular  educa¬ 
tion,  Bible,  sacred  song;  and  all  that  his 
opponents  could  say  against  him  and 
alongside  of  him  seemed  insipid,  weak, 
and  colorless,  compared  with  his  overmas¬ 
tering  eloquence . Even  those 

Germans  who  heartily  abhor  him  as  the 
great  heretic  and  betrayer  of  religion,  can¬ 
not  help  speaking  his  words  and  thinking 
his  thoughts.”  With  such  panegyrics  pro¬ 
ceeding  from  minds  ecclesiastically  biased 
against  him,  it  is  not  likely  that  the  seem¬ 
ingly  extravagant  admiration  of  those  in 
closer  fellowship  with  his  spirit  can  over¬ 
estimate  his  work. 

He  was  born  at  Eisleben,  Saxony,  Nov. 
io,  1483,  of  humble  parentage,  and  re¬ 
ceived  a  strictly  religious  training,  which 
left  “  upon  his  mind  an  indelible  impres¬ 
sion  of  moral  earnestness  and  honesty.” 
At  school  he  manifested  “  a  keen  power 
of  intellect,  and  was,  above  all,  gifted  for 
eloquence.”  Intended  by  his  father  for  the 
law,  he  entered  the  university  at  Erfurt, 
and  in  1505  he  took  the  Master’s  degree. 
But,  seized  with  terrible  religious  fears, 
and  not  knowing  the  gospel,  he  suddenly 
formed  the  resolution  of  becoming  a  monk, 
and  was  that  year  received  into  the  Au¬ 
gustine  convent  at  Erfurt,  and  in  1507 
ordained  priest.  Rome  never  had  a  more 
sincere  or  a  more  zealous  devotee  than  he 
who  was  destined  to  shatter  its  mighty 
system.  The  intensity  of  his  devotion 
became  the  inspiration  of  his  career.  Ap¬ 
plying  himself  vigorously  to  all  the  pious 
exercises  and  penitential  observances  pre¬ 
scribed  as  means  to  salvation,  his  mind 
grew  more  and  more  alarmed,  his  con¬ 
science  was  overwhelmed  by  the  greatness 
of  his  sins  before  God,  and  his  soul  was 
brought  to  the  verge  of  despair.  A  brother 
monk  pointed  him  to  the  article  in  the 
Creed  on  forgiveness,  but  it  was  especially 
his  absorbing  study  of  the  Scriptures  that 
brought  him  to  experience  the  gratuitous 
saving  grace  of  God.  His  discovery,  the 
heart  of  the  gospel,  that,  by  a  simple  act  of 
faith  in  the  divine  mercy,  a  sinner  is  justi¬ 
fied,  was  the  beginning  of  the  Reformation. 
It  sprang  living  from  his  heart. 

Although  his  own  experience  was  the 
epitome  and  the  prophecy  of  the  pending 


revolution,  and  although  it  gave  him  a 
richer  knowledge  of  the  gospel  and  a  clearer 
insight  into  the  prevailing  corruption, 
nothing  was  farther  from  his  thoughts  than 
the  idea  of  becoming  a  Reformer,  or  of 
breaking  with  the  Church.  He  was  not 
even  conscious  as  yet  of  entertaining  any 
beliefs  not  in  accord  with  the  traditional  sys¬ 
tem,  nor  had  he  any  anticipation  of  the  ir¬ 
reconcilable  conflict  between  the  Holy 
Papacy  and  the  Holy  Scriptures.  It  was 
in  the  confessional  that  he  learned  of  the 
ruin  of  souls  through  the  traffic  in  indul¬ 
gences,  and  he  then,  Oct.  31,  1517,  posted 
his  Ninety-five  Theses  on  the  door  of  the 
Castle  Church,  hoping  to  direct  the  atten¬ 
tion  of  theologians  to  the  great  evil,  and  by 
public  discussion  to  save  the  honor  of  the 
Church. 

At  ordinary  times  this  act  would  have 
attracted  no  special  attention,  but  such  was 
the  universal  state  of  mind  that  it  kindled 
a  conflagration  which  spread  with  the 
rapidity  of  lightning  from  Wittenberg  to 
the  frontiers  of  Europe.  No  one  could 
have  been  more  astounded  than  Luther  at 
the  instantaneous  and  tremendous  commo¬ 
tion  which  followed,  and  he  found  himself 
suddenly  at  the  head  of  a  colossal  move¬ 
ment  against  the  spiritual  authority  which 
had  held  supreme  sway  for  ages,  a  move¬ 
ment  which  no  power  on  earth  could  now 
stay  and  which,  by  the  irresistible  logic  of 
events,  he  was  charged  under  God  to  direct 
and  control.  Dazed  at  first  by  the  extreme 
audacity  of  a  solitary  monk,  princes, 
knights,  and  scholars  soon,  as  by  intuition, 
recognized  him  as  the  man  for  the  crisis 
and  sprang  to  his  defense.  The  prestige 
of  the  papacy,  and  the  universal  awe  which 
accorded  divine  honors  to  the  Holy  Father, 
rendered  his  burning  of  the  Bull  of  Excom¬ 
munication  an  act  of  haughty  defiance,  and 
this  closed  against  him  forever  the  gates 
of  the  Church  of  Rome. 

When  political  considerations  restrained 
the  Emperor  from  executing  the  ban,  he 
was  summoned  before  the  Imperial  Diet  at 
Worms  in  April,  1521,  whither  he  journey¬ 
ed  as  into  the  jaws  of  death,  defying  the 
devil  and  concerned  only  for  the  victory  of 
the  truth.  His  appearance  there,  one  man 
against  an  empire,  is  the  most  splendid 
scene  in  history.  The  august  assembly 
was  thunderstruck  by  his  point-blank  re¬ 
fusal  to  surrender  his  convictions  or  his 
conscience  to  any  power  on  earth,  and  with 
the  imperishable  words,  “  Hier  stehe  ich , 
ich  kann  nicht  cinders ;  Gott  helf  mir , 
Amen,"  he  sounded  the  death-knell  of  ec¬ 
clesiastical  and  political  tyranny. 

The  friendly  confinement  to  which  he 
was  for  a  period  subjected  showed  that  the 
revolution  was  advancing  independently  of 


Lut 


(  544  ) 


Lut 


him,  'yet  also  that  his  steady  hand  was 
necessary  to  its  control,  lest  the  forces  by 
which  it  was  irresistibly  impelled  would 
dash  it  upon  the  rocks.  And  of  all  the  in¬ 
comparable  services  of  the  Reformer,  his 
highest  claim  to  our  gratitude  is  probably 
that  conservatism  which,  where  all  the  ele¬ 
ments  of  society  were  stirred  to  their 
deepest  depths,  and  men’s  minds  were 
rocking  to  and  fro  like  trees  swept  by  the 
tempest,  was  able  to  assert  the  principles 
of  order  and  moderation.  Breaking  loose 
from  the  traditions  of  ages  and  from  the 
hoary  authority  of  the  papacy,  he  stood 
like  a  granite  peak  against  the  fury  and 
frenzy  sure  to  attend  every  great  social 
revolution.  Hence  his  work  endures,  while 
that  of  all  previous  and  of  many  later  Re¬ 
formers  became  engulfed  in  its  own  fanat¬ 
icism. 

Maintaining  the  conflict  with  error  to 
the  right  as  well  as  to  the  left,  his  one 
aim  was  the  upholding  of  God’s  truth,  and 
in  his  single-eyed  zeal  for  this  he  could 
neither  temporize  nor  compromise  with 
anyone  for  any  supposed  advantage.  He 
smote  Carlstadt  and  his  prophets  just  as 
he  did  the  pope  and  his  cardinals.  He 
drew  the  sword  upon  his  polished  friend 
Erasmus  with  his  Pelagian  tenets,  and 
upon  the  pleading  Zwingli  with  his  “  Sac- 
ramentarian  ”  rationalism.  He  hurled  his 
invectives  against  princes  and  kings  who 
championed  false  doctrine,  and  even  re¬ 
proached  his  beloved  and  inseparable  coad¬ 
jutor,  Melanchthon,  for  his  skillful  temper¬ 
ing  of  words  in  his  earnest  endeavors  to 
unite  the  different  Protestant  churches. 
Profoundly  conscious  of  the  intrinsic  unity 
of  Christians,  and  deprecating  with  infinite 
sorrow  the  breach  of  outward  union,  he 
could  not  believe  that  God  approved  the 
sacrifice  of  any  feature  of  the  gospel  for 
any  end  whatsoever. 

Vehement  in  speech  and  immovable  in  his 
positions,  he  was,  nevertheless,  of  a  con¬ 
ciliatory  spirit,  and  he  is  never  chargeable 
with  impure,  selfish  or  ambitious  motives. 
Never  did  mortal  care  less  for  the  praise 
or  the  abuse  of  men.  “  From  the  begin¬ 
ning  to  the  end  it  is  the  consciousness  of  a 
vocation  revealed  to  him  from  above, 
which  determines  him  to  work  and  to 
struggle;  and  into  the  carrying  out  of  that 
vocation  he  threw  his  whole  being.” 

In  the  general  upheaval  he  was  confront¬ 
ed  by  every  issue  that  involves  the  welfare 
of  mankind.  His  advice  was  sought  as 
that  of  the  oracle  of  his  times,  and  the 
principles  which  he  inculcated  on  every 
question,  whether  civil  or  religious,  social, 
educational,  or  moral,  were  so  fraught  with 
eternal  wisdom  that  the  vast  progress  of 
nearly  four  centuries  in  these  respective 


spheres  is  little  more  than  the  development 
and  the  triumph  of  his  ideas.  There  seem¬ 
ed  to  be  no  limit  to  his  creative  energy. 
The  elements  of  power  which  enabled  him, 
under  God,  to  accomplish  results  which 
others  had  in  past  ages  vainly  striven  to 
effect,  lay,  on  the  one  hand,  in  Luther’s  as¬ 
tounding  versatility  of  natural  gifts;  on  the 
other,  in  his  mighty  experience  alike  of  the 
soul  -  destroying  character  of  prevailing 
error,  and  of  the  absolute  freeness  of  sal¬ 
vation  offered  in  the  gospel. 

His  thorough  mastery  of  scholastic  the¬ 
ology  gave  him  a  deep  insight  into  the  true 
character  of  the  rank  corruption  in  the 
Church.  His  familiarity  with  the  Script¬ 
ures  revealed  to  him  the  drastic  and  infal¬ 
lible  remedy.  His  matchless  power  as  a 
preacher,  and  his  clear  exhibition  of  the 
plan  of  salvation,  held  the  nation  like  a 
spell.  His  sympathy  with  the  masses,  his 
talent  for  counsel  and  comfort,  his  buoy¬ 
ancy  of  spirit,  notwithstanding  great  suf¬ 
ferings,  trying  perplexities,  and  the  unin- 
termittent  perils  of  his  life,  his  personal 
intercourse  with  students  and  with 
strangers  who  flocked  to  him  in  multitudes, 
gave  to  him  an  influence  before  which  paled 
the  authority  of  the  pope.  By  his  poetic 
and  musical  compositions  he  provided  the 
people  in  church  and  home  with  those  aids 
and  vehicles  of  worship  which  prove  often 
more  helpful  to  spirituality  than  the  most 
effective  preaching.  By  his  inimitable 
translation  of  the  Scriptures  into  the  ver¬ 
nacular  and  idiom  of  the  nation  he  placed 
the  divine  power  of  the  Reformation  at 
every  fireside,  and  by  his  remarkably 
spiritual  and  practical  expositions,  his  un¬ 
remitted  literary  activity  and  vast  corre¬ 
spondence  with  all  classes,  his  principles 
became  the  common  property  of  the  age. 
The  Erlangen  Edition  of  his  works  com¬ 
prises  67  German  and  33  Latin  volumes. 

To  these  features  may  yet  be  added  the 
general  belief  that  he  was  a  man  sent  from 
God  for  the  salvation  of  the  Church,  and 
his  own  conviction  of  being  a  chosen  instru¬ 
ment  for  this  purpose,  a  conviction  which 
not  only  inspired  him  with  indomitable 
courage,  but  kept  him  disentangled  from 
all  movements  not  founded  upon  the  clear 
Word  of  God,  and  from  all  accommodation 
to  superficial  tendencies  and  popular 
clamors;  and  finally  the  saving  common- 
sense  and  practical  turn  which,  declining 
to  be  occupied  with  visionary  theories, 
sought  in  all  things  for  substantial  and  en¬ 
during  results. 

His  stormy  career  was  intermitted  and 
sustained  by  a  charming  Christian  home, 
in  which  the  affectionate  husband  and  fa¬ 
ther,  the  lover  of  music  and  song,  shared 
with  his  household  and  friends  a  heart  full 


Lut 


(  545  ) 


Lut 


of  childlike  simplicity,  of  innocent  humor, 
and  of  a  joyful  faith. 

Excommunicated  by  the  pope,  and  de¬ 
clared  an  outlaw  by  the  Edict  of  Worms, 
his  enemies  all  the  time  openly  and  secret¬ 
ly  plotting  his  destruction,  the  Reformer, 
thanks  to  the  Providence  that  shielded  him, 
never  was  molested,  nor  suffered  even  the 
slightest  injury.  His  predecessors,  almost 
to  a  man,  were  burned  at  the  stake,  while 
he  lived  triumphantly  till  his  work  was 
finished,  and  finally  passed  away  peacefully 
in  the  circle  of  his  friends,  with  loud  thanks¬ 
giving  to  God,  Feb.  17,  1546. 

Six  editions  of  his  collected  works  have 
appeared,  those  of  Walch  and  the  Erlangen 
Edition  holding  the  highest  rank.  By  the 
munificence  of  the  Prussian  government 
an  imperial  edition  is  now  passing  through 
the  press. 

The  best  Lives  of  Luther  in  the  English 
language  are  the  translation  from  Kostlin’s 
standard  work,  and  the  two  8vo.  volumes 
of  Peter  Bayne.  E.  J.  Wolf. 

Lutheran  Church,  The  Evangelical,  in 
Europe.  The  indestructibility  of  the 
Christian  Church  does  not  shield  her 
against  all  phases  or  stages  of  corruption. 
The  current  of  her  progress  renders  her 
liable,  in  the  nature  of  things,  to  absorb  in 
a  measure  the  very  errors  and  impurities 
which  it  is  her  mission  to  destroy.  Ele¬ 
ments  of  corruption,  accordingly,  in  the 
course  of  ages,  penetrated  her  bosom  and 
vitiated  her  blood.  It  was  especially  the 
central  doctrine  of  the  gospel — the  gratui¬ 
tous  offer  of  mercy  to  all  men — that  became 
gradually  obscured,  and  the  pagan  idea  of 
salvation  through  personal  endeavor,  pen¬ 
ance,  and  self-righteousness  was  substi¬ 
tuted  for  salvation  by  grace.  The  state  of 
religion  and  morals  throughout  Christen¬ 
dom,  in  the  fourteenth  and  fifteenth  cen¬ 
turies,  had  sunk  into  fearful  degeneracy. 
While  the  Church  was  still  the  Church, 
“  the  whole  head  was  sick  and  the  whole 
heart  faint.”  Enlightened  minds  recog¬ 
nized  the  magnitude  of  the  abuses  that  had 
invaded  her,  and  the  cry  for  a  thorough 
reformation  in  head  and  members  came 
from  every  quarter. 

By  an  extraordinary  concurrence  of  cir¬ 
cumstances  with  the  appearance  of  Martin 
Luther,  a  man  singularly  endowed  and 
providentially  trained  for  the  task,  the 
crisis  was  reached  in  the  sixteenth  century, 
and  a  reformation  was  begun  in  earnest. 
Salvation  by  faith  alone,  and  the  sole  and 
supreme  authority  of  the  Scriptures,  be¬ 
came  the  battle-cry  of  the  revolution,  and 
these  two  ideas  made  it  invincible.  Rome 
employed  all  its  spiritual  and  political 
resources  to  resist  the  work  of  purifica¬ 


tion,  and  the  result  was  the  renunciation 
of  its  jurisdiction  by  nearly  all  the  peoples 
of  the  Germanic  race  and  the  entire  Scandi¬ 
navian  population,  and  the  establishment 
of  a  regenerated  and  reformed  Church,  a 
Church  having  neither  pope  nor  priest 
within  its  domain,  but  lacking  not  a  single 
note  of  the  true  Church  of  Christ,  and 
which,  by  the  logic  of  history,  came  ta 
be  known  as  the  Evangelical  Lutheran 
Church. 

The  reformers,  in  Holland,  England,  and! 
everywhere,  were  at  first  called  Lutherans, 
but  while  all  agreed  with  Luther  in  oppos¬ 
ing  the  tenets  and  the  authority  of  Rome, 
the  Reformation,  from  various  causes, 
took  on  a  different  form  in  different  coun¬ 
tries,  and  the  Lutheran  Church  thus  came 
to  be  distinguished  from  the  Episcopal, 
the  Reformed,  the  Presbyterian,  and  other 
communions.  In  contrast  with  the  radical 
principles  and  iconoclasm  of  Zwingli,  Cal¬ 
vin,  and  Knox,  the  Lutheran  Reformation 
maintained  a  conservative  character,  pre¬ 
serving  from  the  past,  in  accordance  with 
the  law  of  historic  continuity  and  develop¬ 
ment,  whatever  in  doctrine  or  worship  was 
not  in  conflict  with  Apostolic  Christianity. 

Acknowledging  the  three  oecumenical 
symbols,  the  representatives  of  the  Luther¬ 
an  Church  submitted  a  summary  of  their 
faith  before  the  imperial  Diet  at  Augs¬ 
burg  in  1530,  a  confession  which  concludes 
with  the  avowal  that  “  in  doctrine  and 
ceremonials  among  us  there  is  nothing  re¬ 
ceived  contrary  to  Scripture  or  the  Church 
Universal;”  and  which,  from  its  first  pro¬ 
mulgation,  has  been  recognized  as  the 
standard  of  pure  and  original  Protestant¬ 
ism,  as  it,  in  fact,  struck  the  keynote  to 
the  other  Evangelical  Confessions,  the 
substance  of  it,  and  often  its  language,  be¬ 
ing  incorporated  in  them. 

The  Augsburg  Confession  has  ever  re¬ 
mained  the  fundamental  and  universally- 
accepted  standard  of  Lutheranism.  Lu¬ 
ther’s  Larger  and  Smaller  Catechisms  have 
also  obtained  confessional  authority,  and  SO' 
have  Melanchthon’s  Apology  of  the  Augs¬ 
burg  Confession,  the  Smalcald  Articles, 
and  the  Formula  of  Concord. 

Doctrinally  the  Lutheran  Church  is  dis¬ 
tinguished  from  other  Protestant  churches 
by  the  emphasis  it  places  on  justification 
by  faith  alone.  That  is  the  centre  of  all  its 
theology  and  teaching  relative  to  the  sub¬ 
jective  side  of  redemption,  while  Christ  is 
the  immovable  centre  of  its  objective 
truths,  the  sun  and  source  of  all  light  and 
life.  Other  systems  begin  with  the  Bible, 
with  the  decrees,  with  the  Church;  Luther¬ 
anism  begins  with  Christ.  Another  dis¬ 
tinctive  feature  is  the  doctrine  of  sacra¬ 
mental  grace:  Baptism  being  viewed  as  the 


Lut 


(  546  ) 


Lut 


initiative  of  a  new  life,  and  the  Eucharist 
as  the  communion  of  Christ’s  body  and 
blood,  partaken  of  by  believers  to  the 
strengthening  of  their  faith,  by  unbelievers 
to  their  judgment.  On  the  doctrine  of 
Christ’s  Person,  Lutheran  theology  has  also 
advanced  beyond  that  of  other  churches, 
and  has  developed  peculiar  views  on  the  com- 
municatio  idiom atum  (q.  v. ).  The  doctrines  of 
election  and  predestination  do  not  hold  the 
prominence  which  they  do  in  the  Calvinistic 
system,  nor  are  they  carried  out  with  the 
same  logical  rigor,  but  there  is  no  Armin- 
ianism.  Great  stress  is  laid  on  the  uni¬ 
versal  priesthood  of  believers;  the  sover¬ 
eignty  of  the  congregation  is  recognized, 
and  the  ministry  is  an  office  instituted  by 
Christ  for  the  preaching  of  the  gospel  and 
the  dispensing  of  the  sacraments.  The 
parity  of  all  its  incumbents  is  maintained, 
and  all  sacerdotalism  and  hierarchism  are 
repudiated.  No  special  polity  is  held  to 
have  scriptural  authority,  and  practical 
necessity  constrained  the  Reformers  to 
allow  State  jurisdiction  over  the  churches, 
though  they  were  not  blind  to  the  unhappy 
consequences  which  were  sure  to  follow. 
In  Sweden,  Norway,  and  Denmark  the 
episcopate  is  retained  to  the  present. 

The  crowning  attribute  of  Lutheranism 
has  been  not  in  the  sphere  of  organization, 
but  in  that  of  theology.  The  maintenance 
of  pure  doctrine  has  been  its  chief  raison 
cTitre.  As  a  Church,  it  has  won  the  title 
of  “  The  Church  of  Theologians.”  Her 
scholars  were  the  principal  teachers  of 
Christendom  in  the  sixteenth  century,  and 
they  have,  within  the  present  century,  re¬ 
stored  the  glories  of  the  best  age  of  Chris¬ 
tian  learning.  Alike  her  literature,  her 
universities,  and  her  systems  of  popular 
education,  have  attracted  the  admiration 
of  Christendom.  There  are  no  illiterates 
in  countries  in  which  the  Lutheran  is  the 
State  Church. 

The  Lutheran  Church  is  liturgical,  and 
the  development  of  its  cultus  bears  its 
general  stamp  of  conservatism.  Its  foun¬ 
dation  was  laid  by  Luther’s  Formula  Missce 
(1523),  and  his  German  Mass  (1526).  It 
was  his  aim  to  preserve  all  the  truly  evan¬ 
gelical  elements  of  the  Catholic  Church, 
discarding  whatever  was  unevangelical,  or 
impure  in  doctrine,  and  to  reproduce  them 
in  the  vernacular,  insisting  upon  the  par¬ 
ticipation  of  the  congregation.  The  most 
prominent  place  is  given  to  preaching. 
While  there  is  no  authoritative  uniform 
service  for  all  countries,  the  chief  Sunday 
service  embraces,  in  what  are  recognized 
as  pure  Lutheran  liturgies,  a  hymn  or 
psalm,  followed  by  the  Kyrie ,  Gloria  in 
Fxcelsis,  a  collect,  epistle  and  gospel,  with 
an  intervening  hymn  or  chant,  the  creed, 


and  after  the  sermon  a  prayer,  closing  with 
the  Lord’s  Prayer,  a  hymn,  and  the  bene¬ 
diction. 

The  mighty  revolutions  in  thought  and 
in  society  which  have  passed  over  Europe 
in  the  last  three  hundred  years  have  left 
their  impress  upon  the  Lutheran  Church, 
but  she  continues  to  be  the  dominant  Prot¬ 
estant  power  of  continental  Europe.  In 
Norway,  Sweden,  Denmark,  and  many  of 
the  German  States  she  is  the  established 
national  Church.  In  Prussia,  an  edict  from 
the  throne  in  1817  united  the  Lutheran  and 
Reformed  churches  into  one  national  body, 
under  the  title  of  “The  Evangelical 
Church,”  and  some  of  the  smaller  states 
also  adopted  this  course.  Including  the 
Lutheran  membership  of  these  united 
churches,  the  estimated  total  numerical 
strength  of  the  Lutheran  Church  in  Europe 
is  45,000,000  souls.  Of  these,  18,000,000 
are  credited  to  Prussia,  1,500,000  to  Ba¬ 
varia,  3,300,000  to  Saxony,  1,425,000  to 
Wiirtemburg,  2,200,000  to  Denmark,  4,750,- 
000  to  Sweden,  1,900,000  to  Norway, 
1,600,000  to  Austro-Hungary ,  5,100,000  to 
Finland  and  the  Baltic  provinces,  and  the 
rest  to  the  smaller  German  countries,  to 
France,  Holland,  and  Great  Britain. 

English  works  of  reference  are:  Schmid: 
Doctrinal  Theology  of  the  Lutheran  Church , 
translated  by  Hay  and  Jacobs;  Krauth: 
Conservative  Reformation',  Jacobs:  The 
Book  of  Concord ;  the  great  church  histor¬ 
ians,  especially  Gieseler,  Kurtz,  and  Schaff, 
and  extended  articles  in  Johnson’s  Cyclo- 
pcedia ,  and  McClintock  and  Strong’s  Ency, 

E.  J.  Wolf. 

Lutheran  Church,  The  Evangelical,  in 
the  United  States.  The  Lutheran 
communion  holds  the  fourth  rank  in  num¬ 
bers  among  the  Evangelical  churches.  Its 
growth  has  of  late  been  phenomenal,  the 
increase  resulting  both  from  the  ordinary 
conditions  of  religious  progress,  and  from 
the  large  influx  of  Lutherans  from  the  Old 
World.  Its  congregations  are  scattered  over 
every  portion  of  the  Union,  but  they  are 
most  numerous  in  the  Middle,  Western, 
and  Northwestern  States. 

For  a  long  period  this  Church  advanced 
slowly,  and  with  irregular  pace,  in  this 
country.  Obstacles  of  appalling  magni¬ 
tude  blocked  the  path  of  its  development. 
The  first  to  cast  off  the  yoke  of  the  papacy, 
the  Lutherans  might  have  preceded  all  oth¬ 
ers  in  planting  the  standard  of  Protestant¬ 
ism  and  freedom  on  these  shores,  but  lor 
the  fact  that  Lutheran  Germany  had,  in  the 
sixteenth  and  seventeenth  centuries,  no 
commercial  equipments,  and  could  under¬ 
take  no  colonial  enterprise.  Lutherans 
formed,  however,  an  element  in  one  of  the 


(  547  ) 


Lut 


Lut 


first  permanent  settlements.  They  came 
from  Holland  along  with  the  first  Dutch 
eolony,  which  in  1623  founded  New  Am¬ 
sterdam  on  Manhattan  Island.  How  early 
they  took  steps  to  celebrate  public  worship, 
according  to  the  order  of  their  Church, 
cannot  be  definitely  ascertained,  but  this 
movement  was  peremptorily  and  persist¬ 
ently  resisted  by  the  ecclesiastical  and  po¬ 
litical  authorities.  And  the  first  picture  of 
Lutherans  in  America  is  that  of  a  noble 
band  suffering  persecution,  the  first  Prot¬ 
estants  on  the  continent  to  have  the  honor 
of  suffering  solely  for  their  religious  opin¬ 
ions. 

The  opposition  to  Lutheran  worship 
was  for  a  time  not  so  inexorable  as  to  pre¬ 
vent  assemblies  in  private  dwellings,  where 
a  layman  might  conduct  services  after  the 
Lutheran  form,  but  Lutheran  parents  were 
forced  to  have  their  children  baptized  by 
the  Reformed  ministers,  who  required  of 
sponsors  a  profession  of  faith  which  com¬ 
promised  a  Lutheran  conscience.  More 
rigorous  measures  followed  when  the  con¬ 
gregation  petitioned  Governor  Stuyvesant 
for  the  privilege  of  having  public  worship, 
and  calling  a  pastor.  Strenuous  opposition 
by  the  Reformed  clergy  determined  the 
Governor  to  refuse  this  permission  “  for 
the  reason  that  he  was  bound  by  his  oath 
to  tolerate  openly  no  other  religion  than 
the  Reformed.” 

The  Lutherans  appealed  to  the  West 
India  Company  and  the  Home  Government. 
The  Reformed  made  a  counter-appeal  to 
the  Classis  of  Amsterdam,  urging  the  dan¬ 
gerous  consequences  of  making  such  a  con¬ 
cession.  Bigotry  prevailed.  Instructions, 
bearing  date  February  26,  1654,  came  from 
Holland,  “  to  encourage  no  other  doctrine 
in  New  Netherlands  than  the  true  Re¬ 
formed.”  The  Governor  and  his  intolerant 
clergy  now  proceeded  to  crush  the  Luther¬ 
ans.  Even  the  holding  of  conventicles 
was  forbidden,  under  a  fine  of  one  hun¬ 
dred  Flemish  pounds  for  every  violation 
of  the  prohibitory  ordinance;  and  a  pen¬ 
alty  of  twenty-five  pounds  was  imposed 
on  every  person  guilty  of  meeting  in  pri¬ 
vate  dwellings  for  worship. 

Another  appeal  to  the  civil  authorities 
of  Holland  elicited  a  more  favorable  re¬ 
sponse,  the  pledge  of  a  more  liberal  policy, 
and  the  promise  of  a  Lutheran  pastor,  but 
this  moderation  only  exasperated  the  Re¬ 
formed  pastors,  who  once  more  renewed 
their  “  importunities  with  their  friends  in 
the  Classis  of  Amsterdam,  to  save  them 
from  so  terrible  an  evil  as  the  establish¬ 
ment  of  a  Lutheran  Church  in  the  pious 
colony  of  New  Netherlands.”  When  in 
June,  1657,  the  promised  pastor  arrived, 
Rev.  John  Ernest  Goetwater,  the  first  Lu¬ 


theran  minister  on  the  banks  of  the  Hud¬ 
son.  there  being  a  congregation  at  Bevers- 
wycke  (Albany),  and  one  at  New  Amster¬ 
dam,  he  was  immediately  cited  before  the 
authorities,  forbidden  to  exercise  his  office, 
and  in  a  few  months  forcibly  sent  back  to 
Holland.  The  Lutheran  faith  remained  irre¬ 
pressible,  notwithstanding  these  outrages, 
and  a  more  liberal  policy  was  enjoined 
upon  the  local  government.  In  1660  they 
are  found  “  promoting  a  subscription  for  a 
clergyman  of  their  own,”  and  at  the  time 
of  the  English  Conquest  they  had  an  or¬ 
ganized  existence.  Their  first  pastor  was 
Rev.  Jacobus  Fabricius,  sent  to  them,  in 
1668,  by  the  Lutheran  Consistory  of  Am¬ 
sterdam.  He  was  an  unfortunate  selection, 
and  after  a  brief  pastorate  he  was  suc¬ 
ceeded  by  Rev.  Bernardus  Antonius  Aren- 
sius,  who  remained  in  charge  probably 
until  about  the  close  of  the  century.  Wor¬ 
ship  was  for  a  long  while  conducted  in 
Dutch  and  English,  although  in  course  of 
time  there  were  considerable  accessions  of 
Germans  and  French.  In  1715  four  small 
congregations  existed  in  the  province  of 
New  York,  having  altogether  “  about  one 
hundred  constant  communicants.” 

Long  before  this  a  heroic  band  had 
planted  the  standard  of  Sweden  and  of  Lu¬ 
theranism  on  the  banks  of  the  Delaware,  not 
far  below  the  present  limits  of  Philadelphia. 
Their  history  forms  a  radiant  picture  in 
the  earliest  colonial  period.  This  settle¬ 
ment  was  the  fruit  of  a  project  originally 
conceived  by  the  illustrious  Lutheran  king 
and  martyr,  Gustavus  Adolphus.  The 
first  body  of  colonists  arrived  in  1638,  ac¬ 
companied  by  a  pastor,  Rev.  Reorus  Tor- 
killus,  who  was  the  first  Lutheran  clergy¬ 
man  on  the  western  continent.  Land  was 
immediately  purchased  from  the  Indians, 
and  one  of  the  first  structures  erected  after 
the  fort  was  a  church,  which  was,  in  fact, 
enclosed  by  the  same  walls.  This  was  the 
first  Evangelical  Lutheran  church  on  these 
shores.  Three  vessels  brought  over  a  sec¬ 
ond  company  of  emigrants  with  a  govern¬ 
ment  chaplain,  in  1642,  and  these  were 
shortly  succeeded  by  other  ships  carrying 
additional  people,  each  accession  bringing 
additional  clergymen.  The  primary  object 
of  *his  enterprise  was  the  planting  of  the 
Christian  religion  among  the  wild  inhab¬ 
itants  of  the  country.  It  was  a  missionary 
movement,  contemplating  the  evangeliza¬ 
tion  of  the  heathen  by  colonizing  among 
them  a  Christian  people.  And  the  Luther¬ 
ans  have  the  distinction  of  being  the  first 
Protestants  who  settled  in  the  American 
wilderness  impelled  by  this  inspiring  cause, 
as  they  share  the  glory  of  being  among  the 
first  Protestant  missionaries  to  labor 
among  the  Indians.  Simultaneously  with 


Lut 


( 548 ) 


Lut 


the  work  of  Eliot  in  Roxbury,  Campanius 
unfolded  successfully  to  the  rude  aborig¬ 
ines  along  the  Delaware  the  elementary 
truths  of  the  Gospel,  and  his  translation  of 
Luther's  Small  Catechism  into  the  Dela¬ 
ware  language  was  the  first  literary  under¬ 
taking  of  the  kind,  although,  through  an 
unfortunate  delay  in  printing,  it  was  not 
published  until  some  years  after  Eliot’s 
New  Testament  in  the  Mohegan  dialect. 
These  Swedish  Lutherans  were  also  un¬ 
doubtedly  the  first  to  advance  here  the 
principle  of  religious  tolerance,  the  in¬ 
structions  of  the  home  government,  giv¬ 
en  at  Stockholm,  Aug.  15,  1642,  charg¬ 
ing  them  not  to  disturb  the  Holland  col¬ 
onists  “  in  the  exercise  of  the  Reformed 
religion.” 

Its  conquest  by  the  Dutch  of  New  Am¬ 
sterdam  in  1655  was  almost  a  death-blow 
to  this  Lutheran  colony.  The  Swedish 
governor  and  two  of  the  pastors  were 
expelled  from  the  country.  A  large 
amount  of  property  was  confiscated,  the 
principal  men  and  families  were  removed, 
and  intercourse  with  the  mother-country 
was  entirely  cut  off,  leaving  the  little  con¬ 
gregations  on  the  Delaware  in  absolute 
isolation.  A  period  of  severe  trials  and 
spiritual  destitution  ensued.  The  Dutch 
had,  indeed,  in  the  terms  of  capitulation, 
guaranteed  to  them  the  liberty  of  “  adher¬ 
ing  to  their  own  Augsburg  Confession,” 
but  the  continued  and  marked  partiality 
ivhich  the  Indians  showed  for  their  old 
friends  aroused  the  suspicion  of  their  con¬ 
querors,  and,  under  the  most  unjust  impu¬ 
tation  of  secret  plottings,  they  a  second 
time  transported  beyond  the  colony  some 
of  its  worthiest  subjects. 

The  preservation  of  the  Lutheran  Church 
under  these  circumstances  may  be  set  down 
among  remarkable  providences.  For  years 
but  a  single  clergyman  served  the  whole 
district,  extending  his  labors  alike  to 
Swedes  and  Dutch,  to  Lutherans  and  Cal¬ 
vinists.  At  times  the  people  were  left  en¬ 
tirely  without  pastoral  oversight,  as  they 
became,  also,  inevitably  destitute  of  those 
manuals  of  devotion  which  nurture  spir¬ 
itual  life  at  the  hearthstone.  Yet  their 
Christian  faith  and  their  devotion  to  the 
Lutheran  cultus  survived  the  extremity  of 
their  trial.  Their  churches  were  not 
closed.  The  people  assembled  on  the 
Lord’s  Day,  sang  the  Songs  of  Zion,  fol¬ 
lowed  the  prayers  of  a  layman,  heard 
him  read  to  them  the  Epistle  and  Gospel 
for  the  da)',  and  frequently,  also,  a  sermon 
from  the  publication  of  some  distinguish¬ 
ed  preacher.  They  made  every  exertion 
to  open  communication  with  the  mother- 
country,  in  order  to  secure  clergymen, 
Bibles, and  other  spiritual  hand-books,  only 


to  experience  again  and  again  the  bitterest 
disappointment. 

They  opposed  the  coming  of  William 
Penn,  in  1682,  since  they  were  really  and 
justly  the  owners  of  the  soil.  Yet  they 
received  his  people  with  Christian  hospi¬ 
tality,  and  delighted  the  famous  Quaker, 
especially  by  their  kindly  offices  for  him 
with  the  Indians.  He  praised  their  abun¬ 
dance  of  children,  and  their  habits  of  so¬ 
briety  and  industry,  and  appreciated  their 
services  in  the  General  Assembly  of  the 
Province,  and  the  Governor’s  Council. 
Although,  by  his  principles,  hostile  to  a 
regular  ministry,  he  interested  himself 
deeply  in  procuring  clergymen  for  them, 
applying  for  this  purpose,  though  fruit¬ 
lessly,  to  the  Swedish  ambassador  at  Lon¬ 
don. 

Their  distress  reached  at  last,  in  a  prov¬ 
idential  manner,  the  knowledge  of  Swe¬ 
den,  and  awakened  a  profound  sympathy, 
which  resulted  in  despatching  to  their 
relief  three  clergymen.  These  arrived  in 
the  summer  of  1697.  Along  with  the 
charge  of  their  numerous  flocks,  they  la¬ 
bored  unweariedly  among  the  surrounding 
Indians.  Before  the  close  of  the  century 
they  rejoiced  over  the  completion  at  Chris¬ 
tina  (Wilmington)  and  Wicacoa  (Philadel¬ 
phia)  of  two  large,  costly,  and  beautiful 
churches,  structures  which  for  along  time 
excited  the  wonder  and  the  admiration  of 
their  English  neighbors. 

Cultured  and  consecrated,  preaching  the 
doctrines  of  grace,  and  animated  by  en¬ 
lightened  zeal  and  the  spirit  of  progress, 
the  labors  of  these  men  soon  commended 
them  to  other  nationalities.  Not  only 
Hollanders,  but  also  many  English,  Scotch, 
Irish,  and  German  families  became  identi¬ 
fied  with  their  congregations.  They  and 
their  successors  preached  likewise  in  the 
churches  of  their  English  neighbors,  and 
for  considerable  periods  kept  alive  some 
of  the  Episcopal  congregations  of  Penn¬ 
sylvania.  The  English  residents  in  every 
quarter  entreated  their  services,  as  “  oth¬ 
erwise  their  children  would  become  un¬ 
christened  heathen,  or  Quakers,  and  their 
churches  would  be  changed  into  stables 
alongside  of  Quaker  meeting-houses.” 

The  most  important  and  permanent  re¬ 
sults  of  the  devotion  and  wisdom  of  the 
Swedish  ministers  was  the  founding  and 
nursing  of  German  churches  at  a  number 
of  points,  which  became  powerful  centres 
of  Lutheranism,  and  to  whose  influence 
the  Church  is  under  immeasurable  obli¬ 
gations  for  its  present  strength  and  stand¬ 
ing. 

The  stock  which  has  chiefly  built  up  the 
Lutheran  Church  in  this  country,  the  Ger¬ 
man,  was  the  last  to  come.  The  German 


Lut 


(  549  ) 


Lut 


Governments  being  incapable  of  undertak¬ 
ing  any  colonial  projects,  the  few  of  their 
subjects  that  wandered  to  the  New  World 
in  the  seventeenth  century  had  to  seek  a 
home  among  the  communities  which  other 
nations  had  planted  here.  They  were  spo¬ 
radic  pioneers,  scattered  over  a  wide  extent 
of  country,  and  not  being  followed  by  re- 
enforcements,  they  were  gradually  ab¬ 
sorbed  among  the  Dutch,  Swedes,  and 
English.  They  contributed  little  to  the 
establishment  of  the  Lutheran  Church. 
There  is  no  record  of  a  German  Lutheran 
Church  or  pastor  until  the  eighteenth  cen¬ 
tury.  The  first  German  Lutheran  congre¬ 
gation  was  that  of  Falckner’s  Swamp  (New 
Hanover),  Montgomery  County,  Penn.  Its 
first  pastor  was  Rev.  Justus  Falckner,  who 
was  the  first  Lutheran  minister  ordained  in 
this  country,  the  ceremony  being  adminis¬ 
tered  by  three  Swedish  ministers  in  the 
church  at  Wicacoa,  November  24,  1703. 

About  this  period  a  considerable  tide 
of  Lutheran  emigration  from  Germany  set 
into  this  country.  It  consisted  largely  of 
fugitives  from  the  Palatinate,  which  had 
been  desolated  by  Louis  XIV.  They  were 
the  first  Lutherans  whom  religious  perse¬ 
cution  drove  to  this  asylum.  Their  distress 
•excited  the  sympathy  of  Queen  Anne,  who 
not  only  extended  to  them  a  Christian  hos¬ 
pitality  in  England,  but  munificently  pro¬ 
vided  for  them  free  transportation  to  the 
New  World,  with  subsistence  on  the  way, 
and  princely  domains  for  their  occupation, 
-and  “  for  the  maintenance  of  a  Lutheran 
minister  and  his  successors  forever.”  One 
colony  was  accompanied  by  a  clergyman, 
the  Rev.  Joshua  von  Kocherthal.  The  land 
allotted  them  lay  on  both  sides  of  the  Hud¬ 
son,  in  the  vicinity  of  Newburg. 

Their  lot  here  became  one  of  inde¬ 
scribable  hardships.  The  agents  of  the 
Government  subjected  them  to  cruel  extor¬ 
tions  which  rendered  development  impos¬ 
sible,  and  left  them  without  relief,  or  even 
hope.  The  majority  abandoned  the  lands 
which  their  toil  had  redeemed  from  the 
wild,  and  amid  terrible  sufferings  moved 
northward  into  the  Schoharie  region,  where 
a  large  and  fertile  tract  had  been  ceded  to 
them  by  certain  Mohawk  Indians.  Living 
here  without  a  civil  ruler,  and  on  terms  of 
amity  with  the  red  men,  they  grew  into  a 
happy  and  prosperous  community.  A 
clergyman  visited  them  only  once  or  twice 
a  year,  but  they  assembled  on  Sundays, 
edifying  one  another  through  praise  and 
prayer,  and  the  reading  of  God’s  Word. 
Both  under  pretense  of  law,  and  in  open 
violation  of  it,  their  white  neighbors  in¬ 
flicted  on  them  a  series  of  outrages  and 
robberies  which  dismembered  this  second 
settlement,  and,  fleeing  from  the  inhuman¬ 


ity  of  civilization,  they  plunged  once  more 
into  the  depths  of  the  wilderness. 

Making  their  way  through  frightful 
ordeals,  they  followed  the  Susquehanna 
into  the  heart  of  Pennsylvania,  finding  at 
last  a  place  of  rest  and  safety  in  the  Tulpe- 
hocken  region,  near  the  present  city  of 
Reading,  in  the  free  and  fruitful  province 
of  William  Penn,  which,  after  the  outrages 
suffered  by  the  Palatines  in  New  York, 
remained  for  years  the  land  of  promise  for 
the  Germans. 

Even  before  this,  Pennsylvania  swarm¬ 
ed  with  Germans,  the  majority  of  whom 
were  Lutherans.  Their  multitude  created 
alarm  among  the  English  settlers,  and  with 
the  Government.  The  story  of  the  Saxon 
conquest  of  Britain  might  repeat  itself  in 
the  peaceful  domain  of  the  Quaker.  The 
rash  attempt  to  prohibit  immigration  dealt 
a  serious  blow  to  the  prosperity  of  the  col¬ 
ony,  and  a  year  sufficed  to  abolish  the 
enactment,  while  public  testimony  was 
borne  to  the  invaluable  benefits  which  the 
infant  colony  derived  from  these  “op¬ 
pressed  Protestants  from  the  Palatinate, 
and  other  German  countries.” 

By  a  variety  of  circumstances  this  ele¬ 
ment  was  soon  scattered  broadcast  through¬ 
out  the  land,  occupying  fertile  agricultural 
districts  in  Maryland,  Virginia,  and  North 
Carolina,  as  well  as  in  New  York  and  Penn¬ 
sylvania,  but  having  no  ministrations  of 
the  sanctuary. 

One  of  the  most  interesting  and  clearly 
defined  colonies  of  Lutherans,  founded  dur¬ 
ing  the  colonial  period,  was  that  of  the 
Salzburgers,  who  were  settled  in  the  in¬ 
terior  of  Georgia  just  a  year  after  the  occu¬ 
pation  of  the  province  under  General  Ogle¬ 
thorpe.  They  had  been  driven  from  their 
native  land  by  the  remorseless  persecu¬ 
tions  of  the  Archbishops  of  Salzburg. 
Their  tragic  fate  touched  the  heart  of 
Europe,  and  all  Protestant  countries  threw 
open  their  gates  to  the  wandering  exiles. 
Through  the  interest  of  the  “Society  for 
the  Propagation  of  Christian  Knowledge,” 
and  by  the  aid  of  Parliament,  a  company 
of  ninety-one  souls,  attended  by  two  pas¬ 
tors,  were  provided  with  free  passage 
across  the  Atlantic,  and  assigned  to  a  dis¬ 
trict  about  thirty  miles  from  Savannah. 
They  landed  at  Charleston  in  1734.  Acces¬ 
sions  came  from  time  to  time,  enlarging 
the  settlement  and  strengthening  its  spirit¬ 
ual  condition. 

As  soon  as  they  had  taken  possession  of 
the  wilderness  they  erected  a  church,  es¬ 
tablished  a  school,  founded  an  orphan  asy¬ 
lum,  and  in  many  other  ways  attested  the 
exalted  character  and  power  of  their  faith. 
This  noble  spiritual  colony  showed  what 
might  have  resulted,  could  the  numerous 


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German  Lutheran  communities  of  the 
other  provinces  have  enjoyed  from  the 
beginning  the  services  of  religious  teach¬ 
ers,  or  received  pecuniary  aid  in  building 
houses  of  worship.  But  they,  as  a  rule, 
remained  absolutely  destitute  of  pastoral 
care;  and  their  straitened  circumstances, 
the  uncertainty  of  their  situation,  the  con¬ 
test  with  wild  beasts,  with  savages  and 
brutal  oppressors,  doomed  life  to  a  desper¬ 
ate  struggle  for  existence.  With  many  of 
them  the  vitality  of  their  faith  endured 
nobly  the  severity  of  their  trials.  Piety 
glowed  at  the  fireside,  and  there  were  ear¬ 
nest  yearnings  for  the  means  of  grace,  but 
the  establishment  of  churches  was  impos¬ 
sible.  There  was  abundance  of  Lutheran 
material,  but  there  were  no  builders. 
There  was  no  Mission  Board  to  look  after 
the  unfolded  flocks.  There  was  not  even 
a  bond  of  strong  sympathy  drawing  them 
to  each  other.  They  had  left  different 
states  of  the  fatherland  in  one  of  the  gloom¬ 
iest  periods  of  national  distraction;  and  tra¬ 
ditional  animosities  kept  them  asunder  in 
their  new  surroundings. 

Among  the  thousands  of  Lutherans  dis¬ 
persed  between  the  upper  Hudson  and  the 
Savannah,  there  were  laboring,  about  the 
year  1735,  eight  ordained  clergymen.  Two 
of  these  ministered  to  the  Salzburgers  in 
Georgia;  two  served  the  Swedish  congre¬ 
gations  around  Philadelphia;  one  cared 
for  some  six  congregations  in  New  York 
and  three  in  New  Jersey,  preaching  Dutch, 
German,  and  English;  one  presided  over 
a  little  colony  on  the  Rappahannock;  an¬ 
other  was  the  spiritual  shepherd  of  a  com¬ 
munity  in  South  Carolina,  while  in  the 
large  province  of  Pennsylvania,  with  a 
Lutheran  population  of  sixty  thousand,  a 
solitary  clergyman  was  exercising  his 
office.  Between  these  few  isolated  labor¬ 
ers  intervened  immense  distances,  with  no 
roads  connecting  the  different  localities, 
no  possible  means  of  travel  save  on  horse¬ 
back,  and  no  protection  against  the  savage, 
ever  lying  in  ambush  for  the  white  intrud¬ 
er.  Long  before  this  period,  the  Puritans  of 
Neiv  England  had  an  average  of  more  than 
two  ministers  to  a  congregation,  all  of 
them  men  of  culture,  who  had  either  from 
devotion  to  convictions  been  led  into  vol¬ 
untary  exile,  or  had  received  a  liberal 
training  at  Harvard.  Besides,  their  com¬ 
munities  were  homogeneous,  of  a  single 
nationality,  and  composed  of  the  chosen 
element  of  England.  The  Dutch,  the  Eng¬ 
lish,  and  the  Scotch  had,  prior  to  this,  ex¬ 
tended  a  large  measure  of  support  to  the 
missionaries  and  congregations  of  their  re¬ 
spective  Churches  in  the  colonies;  whereas 
not  a  single  German  government,  nor  a 
single  ecclesiastical  organization  of  that 


country,  is  known  to  have  supplied  either 
temporal  or  spiritual  aid  and  comfort  to  its 
destitute  emigrants.  With  the  former, 
therefore,  the  requisites  for  flourishing  and 
powerful  churches  were  at  hand.  With 
the  Lutherans  they  were  wanting. 

As  far  as  in  them  lay  there  was  cooper¬ 
ation  between  the  sporadic  Lutheran  be¬ 
ginnings.  With  almost  superhuman  labors 
and  hardships,  ministers  traveled  from 
one  field  to  another,  most  of  them  required 
by  turns  to  preach  in  Dutch,  German,  Swe¬ 
dish,  and  English.  But  vigorous  congre¬ 
gations  cannot  be  built  up  by  irregular  ser¬ 
vices  at  long  intervals.  A  church  life  is 
impossible  without  constant  pastoral  over¬ 
sight  and  the  administration  of  the  ordi¬ 
nances.  The  most  melancholy  destitution 
prevailed.  Numberless  families  grew  up 
without  baptism  and  religious  instruction. 
Many  experienced  a  sad  declension  in  spir¬ 
itual  life.  The  knowledge  of  God  faded 
gradually  from  their  minds.  Others,  in¬ 
deed,  came  through  their  trials  and  spirit¬ 
ual  privations  to  the  highest  appreciation 
of  religious  faith.  They  kept  alive  the 
flame  of  devotion,  but  the  very  fervor  of 
their  piety  exposed  them  to  great  spiritual 
dangers.  Sects,  fanatics,  impostors,  and 
wretched  vagabonds  abounded,  especially 
in  Pennsylvania,  and  they  made  terrible 
havoc  of  the  Lutheran  sheep  scattered 
through  the  wilderness.  In  some  cases, 
crowning  a  long  series  of  calamities,  wily 
scoundrels  intruded  where  disorder  and 
confusion  already  prevailed,  and  brought 
congregations  to  the  verge  of  extinction. 
Thus,  for  more  than  a  century,  Lutherans 
in  considerable  numbers  were  found  in  the 
colonies,  and  isolated  congregations  were 
established;  yet,  properly  speaking,  this 
mass  did  not  constitute  a  Lutheran  Church. 
There  were  no  institutions,  no  bond  of 
union,  no  organism.  The  Church  was 
formless,  chaotic,  and  withal  a  prey  to  ad¬ 
verse  and  destructive  influences. 

But  the  earnest  prayers  to  God  for  pas¬ 
tors  did  not  remain  unanswered.  The  im¬ 
ploring  letters  to  Holland  and  Germany 
for  spiritual  guides,  school-teachers,  books 
and  pecuniary  aid  toward  the  maintenance 
of  churches  and  schools,  though  long  un¬ 
availing,  elicited  at  last  a  gracious  re¬ 
sponse.  Through  the  offices  of  the  Luther¬ 
an  chaplain  at  the  English  court  the  con¬ 
dition  of  the  Lutherans  in  America  was 
brought  to  the  attention  of  Dr.  G.  A. 
Francke,  at  Halle,  who  stood  at  the  time 
at  the  head  of  the  Pietistic  movement.  A 
wide-spread  sympathy  was  excited,  which 
took  the  form  of  generous  contributions, 
and,  what  was  needed  most  of  all,  led  to 
the  selection  of  a  clergyman,  possessed  of 
the  requisite  qualifications,  to  proceed  to 


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America  and  take  personal  oversight  of  the 
destitute  congregations  in  Pennsylvania. 

This  man  was  Henry  Melchior  Muhlen¬ 
berg.  He  combined  the  highest  qualities 
of  pastor,  preacher,  and  leader,  and  seems 
to  have  been  specially  endowed  by  the 
Holy  Ghost  for  the  peculiar  and  moment¬ 
ous  task  which  providence  devolved 
upon  him.  He  arrived  in  1 742.  His  com¬ 
ing  marks  an  epoch  in  the  Lutheran  Church. 
His  herculean  and  far-seeing  labors  con¬ 
stitute  the  era  of  her  firm  establishment 
and  organic  life.  His  immortal  services 
have  won  for  him  the  title  of  “  Patriarch 
of  the  American  Lutheran  Church.”  His 
career  began  with  three  congregations  in 
and  near  Philadelphia.  Indefatigable  in 
preaching,  teaching  school,  catechising, 
and  house-to-house  visitation,  and  with 
equal  solicitude  caring  for  the  individual 
soul  and  the  general  interest,  a  boundless 
parish,  extending  over  half  a  dozen  prov¬ 
inces,  soon  claimed  his  pastoral  attention, 
and  attested  the  spiritual  power  of  his  min¬ 
istrations.  For  several  years  he  was  ab¬ 
solutely  alone,  finding  the  few  German 
ministers  who  were  located  in  New  York 
not  disposed  to  cooperate  with  him.  Three 
laborers  were  sent  to  his  assistance,  from 
Halle,  in  1745.  Another  one  came  in  1748. 

During  the  same  year  the  Swedish  pas¬ 
tors  and  churches  united  with  the  Ger¬ 
mans  in  a  synodical  organization,  the 
Ministerium  of  Pennsylvania,  which  bound 
all  its  members  to  order,  discipline,  and 
soundness  of  doctrine,  and  developed 
efficient  cooperation  for  the  advancement 
of  the  Church  in  general.  These  min¬ 
isters,  with  a  number  of  others  from 
Germany,  who,  up  to  the  outbreak  of  the 
Revolution,  continued  to  reenforce  them, 
were  a  remarkable  body  of  men.  Animated 
by  apostolic  zeal,  possessed  of  university 
training,  endowed  with  preeminent  practical 
gifts,  they  do  not  suffer  in  comparison  with 
the  noblest  group  of  Puritan  Fathers. 
They  made  a  deep  impression  upon  their 
contemporaries.  Their  missionary  wcrk 
branched  out  rapidly,  westward,  north¬ 
ward  and  southward.  Their  enlightened 
and  self-devoted  labors  were  followed  by 
extraordinary  success.  Multitudes  of  va¬ 
rious  nationalities  flocked  to  their  preach¬ 
ing.  A  general  awakening  was  witnessed 
through  all  the  region  surrounding  their 
activities.  Remote  centres  were  occupied, 
new  congregations  were  organized,  schools 
multiplied,  church  buildings  erected; 
Zion’s,  of  Philadelphia,  dedicated  in  1769, 
being  for  many  years  regarded  the  finest 
house  of  worship  in  America.  A  high 
standard  of  spirituality  was  maintained, 
and  the  effectualness  of  the  gospel  was  re¬ 
flected  in  the  Christian  lives  of  a  devout 


people.  In  1768  the  Ministerium  embraced 
twenty-four  clergymen.  A  steady  increase 
of  ministers  and  members  was  kept  up  for 
years.  “  The  comparative  numerical 
strength  of  the  Church,  the  purity  of 
its  spirit,  and  the  fidelity  of  its  discipline 
held  out  a  most  promising  future.” 

This  prospect  was  not  realized.  An  un¬ 
happy  blight  overtook  this  living  bloom. 
The  eight  years  of  civil  war,  preceded  by 
the  devastations  of  the  long  conflict  be¬ 
tween  the  French  and  English,  and  suc¬ 
ceeded  by  the  political  convulsions  which 
continued  down  to  the  inauguration  of 
Washington,  the  financial  distress,  the  re¬ 
ligious  indifference,  the  defection  from 
orthodoxy,  and  the  rampant  infidelity, 
which  in  their  combined  influence  wrought 
fearful  havoc  among  all  religious  commu¬ 
nities,  completely  paralyzed  the  Lutheran 
Church. 

The  beginnings  that  had  been  made  in 
educational  institutions  were  swept  away 
by  the  Revolution,  which  also  terminated 
the  importation  of  German  clergymen,  and 
secularized  some  of  the  most  gifted  men 
who  had  stood  in  the  pulpit.  Thus  the 
force  of  ministers  became  again  wholly  in¬ 
adequate  to  the  needs  of  the  work. 

The  most  serious  obstacle  to  the  ad¬ 
vancement  of  the  Church  was  the  stubborn 
opposition  at  this  period  to  the  introduc¬ 
tion  of  the  English  language.  This  was 
essentially  a  blow  at  her  life.  The  division 
caused  by  it  in  many  congregations,  the 
loss  of  multitudes  of  the  most  progressive 
elements  from  the  Lutheran  fold,  the  re¬ 
striction  of  Lutheran  influence  to  the  Ger¬ 
man  portion  of  the  public,  the  invincible 
obstruction  it  offered  to  the  establishment 
of  schools  of  learning  and  the  training  of 
ministers,  placed  the  Lutheran  Church  at 
such  a  disadvantage,  in  comparison  with 
other  communions,  and  entailed  upon  her 
such  ruinous  calamities,  that,  to  this  day, 
she  has  not  fully  recovered  from  the  con¬ 
sequences  of  this  policy. 

In  spite  of  these  overwhelming  trials, 
the  Church  retained  her  vitality.  Her  bor¬ 
ders  were  extended.  Able  and  faithful 
men  labored  with  marked  success  in  vari¬ 
ous  localities.  Those  on  the  frontier  cared 
for  the  feeble  congregations  around  them, 
and  made  extensive  missionary  tours  into 
remote  districts.  The  growth  of  the 
Church  kept  pace  with  the  growth  of  the 
country,  and  the  expansion  of  the  popula¬ 
tion.  The  seventy-five  ministers  and  three 
hundred  congregations  at  the  beginning  of 
the  century  increased  in  two  decades  to 
one  hundred  and  sixty-four  ministers,  four 
hundred  and  seventy-five  congregations, 
with  a  membership  of  forty-five  thousand. 
But  on  account  of  the  dearth  of  ministers 


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one  hundred  of  the  congregations  were 
pastorless.  Four  new  synods  were  or¬ 
ganized — that  of  New  York  in  1785;  the 
Ohio,  and  that  of  North  Carolina  in  1803; 
and  that  of  Maryland  and  Virginia  in  1820. 

An  effort  to  form  a  joint  body,  composed 
of  delegates  from  each  of  these  synods, 
was  made  in  1820.  A  General  Synod  was 
organized.  Several  of  the  bodies  stood 
aloof.  The  Pennsylvania  Ministerium, 
the  mother-synod,  which  still  embraced 
more  than  half  the  strength  of  the  Church, 
and  had  taken  the  initiative  in  the  move¬ 
ment,  withdrew  before  the  second  conven¬ 
tion,  chiefly  on  account  of  the  fears  which 
had  arisen  in  its  congregations,  lest  such 
a  body  might  become  an  instrument  of 
tyranny.  Other  synods  soon  came  into 
existence,  and,  excepting  that  of  Tennes¬ 
see,  united  one  by  one  with  the  general 
body. 

Though  feeble  in  numbers  this  union, 
by  bringing  the  congregations  into  closer 
fellowship,  by  forming  a  rallying  cen¬ 
tre,  and  by  adopting  measures  of  cooper¬ 
ation,  gave  a  powerful  impulse  to  the  ad¬ 
vancement  of  the  Church,  affecting  very 
favorably  the  development  even  of  those 
synods  that  declined  to  join  it.  It  marks 
another  era,  from  which  date  the  establish¬ 
ment  of  literary  and  theological  institu¬ 
tions,  the  organization  of  missionary  and 
education  societies,  the  inauguration  of  a 
church  literature,  the  multiplication  of  the 
ministry,  and  the  formation  of  additional 
synods,  especially  in  the  West.  A  new  life 
was  pulsating  through  the  entire  commun¬ 
ion,  giving  momentum  and  homogeneity 
to  every  form  of  Christian  enterprise,  and 
causing  general  prosperity  and  expansion. 

The  progress  of  the  General  Synod 
reached  its  climax  in  i860.  Forty  years 
had  witnessed  its  growth  to  a  body  which 
embraced  twenty-seven  synods,  spread 
over  almost  the  entire  territory  of  the 
Union,  all  the  synods,  in  fact,  which  com¬ 
prised  the  native  Lutheran  population,  ex¬ 
cepting  the  Joint  Ohio  and  Tennessee,  and 
aggregated  864  ministers  and  164,000 com¬ 
municants,  about  two-thirds  of  the  Luther¬ 
ans  in  the  country. 

In  the  meantime  anew  Lutheran  element 
came  from  abroad,  which  has  since  grown 
to  immense  proportions,  and  become  a 
powerful  factor  in  the  development  of  the 
American  Lutheran  Church.  In  1839,  a 
considerable  colony  of  Saxons,  including 
ministers,  school-teachers,  lawyers,  and 
physicians,  settled  in  the  neighborhood  of 
St.  Louis.  They  adhered  rigidly  to  the 
Lutheran  faith,  and  were  marked  by  an  ar¬ 
dent,  pietistic  spirituality,  the  rationalism 
and  unionism  into  which  the  German  state 
churches  had  fallen  being  the  sole  cause  of 


their  self-expatriation.  In  the  depths  of 
their  poverty  and  other  hardships,  they  at 
once  founded  a  seminary  of  a  high  order  for 
the  training  of  ministers.  Others  of  like 
faith  and  spirit  followed  from  Germany, 
and  by  means  of  extraordinary  zeal,  the 
thorough  instruction  of  youth  and  signal 
executive  capacity,  they  soon  formed  a 
number  of  flourishing  centres  in  the  West 
and  Northwest,  and  in  course  of  time  they 
have  spread  over  the  entire  country.  In 
1847  they  organized  the  Synod  of  Missouri. 
They  are  generally  known  under  the  title 
of  “Missourians.”  They  united  with  other 
German  synods  in  1S72  in  the  formation  of 
the  Synodical  Conference,  which  now  em¬ 
braces  more  than  one-third  of  the  Lutheran 
communion,  and  maintains  a  number  of 
colleges,  theological  seminaries,  orphan¬ 
ages  and  hospitals,  with  a  parish  school 
attached  to  every  congregation,  and  has 
nearly  one  thousand  candidates  for  the 
ministry  in  different  stages  of  preparation. 

The  immense  Scandinavian  emigration  of 
the  last  forty  years  has  furnished  a  large 
source  of  increase  to  the  Church,  especially 
in  the  Northwest,  developing  extraordinary 
missionary  operations,  liberal  institutions, 
and  a  blooming  church  life,  with  great  ac¬ 
tivity  in  every  sphere  of  Christian  enter¬ 
prise.  The  Swedes,  numbering  80,000 
communicants,  stand  in  connection  with  a 
general  body.  The  Norwegians,  number¬ 
ing  150,000,  and  the  Danes,  remain  inde¬ 
pendent,  as  do  likewise  the  large  German 
Synod  of  Iowa  and  the  old  Joint-Synod  of 
Ohio,  and  several  smaller  associations. 

On  the  outbreak  of  the  civil  war  all  the 
synods  south  of  the  Potomac  sundered 
their  connection  with  the  General  Synod. 
Although  resuming  fraternal  relations  with 
the  latter  body,  they  have  not  renewed  or¬ 
ganic  fellowship.  They  united,  in  1S86, 
with  two  other  synods  in  that  section  in  the 
organization  of  the  United  Synod  in  the 
South. 

A  more  serious  disruption  was  experi¬ 
enced  by  the  General  Synod  in  1866,  when 
the  large  Synod  of  Pennsylvania,  that  of 
New  York,  and  that  of  Pittsburg,  dis¬ 
solved  their  connection.  This  was  essen¬ 
tially  the  result  of  doctrinal  divergence, 
although  brought  about  by  a  parliamentary 
ruling.  The  General  Synod  was  organized 
at  a  period  of  great  doctrinal  laxity,  and 
was  designed  to  be  comprehensive.  It 
heartily  opened  its  doors  to  those  who  held 
but  loosely  to  the  teachings  of  the  stand¬ 
ards,  and  were  strangers  to  the  genius  of 
the  Church,  as  well  as  to  those  who  adhered 
firmly  to  both.  Two  elements  were  thus 
received  into  its  bosom,  which  must  inevi¬ 
tably  come  into  antagonism.  Along  with 
a  strong  reaction  in  favor  of  positive 


Lut 


(  553  ) 


Lut 


Lutheranism  in  doctrine  and  worship, 
arose  the  contest  for  supremacy  in  the 
body.  The  crisis  arrived  in  1864,  when  the 
Franckean  Synod  of  New  York,  which 
stood  charged  with  serious  defection  from 
Lutheran  doctrine,  was  received  into  the 
General  Synod.  The  minority  protested. 
The  Pennsylvania  delegation,  in  accord¬ 
ance  with  standing  instructions,  withdrew 
to  report  to  their  body.  Violent  contro¬ 
versies  followed.  At  the  next  convention, 
in  Fort  Wayne,  1866,  the  representatives 
of  this  body  were  excluded  from  the  or¬ 
ganization  by  the  chair  ruling  that  the 
Synod  must  be  considered  “in  a  state  of 
practical  withdrawal.”  The  delegation 
viewed  this  as  a  denial  of  their  constitu¬ 
tional  rights,  and  took  leave.  At  its  next 
convention  their  Synod  formally  severed 
its  relations  to  the  General  Synod.  The 
Synod  of  New  York,  and  that  of  Pittsburgh 
followed,  each  at  the  cost  of  a  schism  in  its 
own  constituency.  A  number  of  other 
synods  pursued  the  same  course.  The 
General  Synod  was  reduced  to  one-half  of 
its  numerical  strength,  but  retaining  all  the 
institutions  which  it  had  directly  or  indi¬ 
rectly  controlled  before  the  rupture,  and, 
gaining  in  harmony  and  homogeneity,  it 
was  able  to  maintain  a  relative  prosperity, 
so  that  in  twenty  years  it  has  almost 
doubled  its  communicants,  and  added  sixty 
per  cent,  to  its  clergy,  and  forty  per  cent, 
to  its  congregations. 

With  the  disruption  of  the  General 
Synod,  the  prospect  of  an  organization 
uniting  the  entire  Church  seemed  to  be  dis¬ 
pelled.  And  yet  the  hope  of  bringing  about 
such  an  organization  on  an  unequivocal 
basis  of  distinctive  and  historic  Lutheran¬ 
ism  was  largely  instrumental  in  determin¬ 
ing  that  disruption.  The  last  twenty  years 
had  witnessed  a  powerful  movement  in  the 
Church  to  renew  her  connection  with  the 
past,  and  to  return  to  the  doctrines  and 
cultus  which  had  characterized  Lutheran¬ 
ism  in  its  purest  days  in  Europe,  and  which 
had  marked  the  Church  when  first  planted 
in  this  country.  The  large  communities 
of  Germans  and  Scandinavians  which  had 
sprung  up  in  the  West  were  strongly  in 
sympathy  with  this  movement.  A  number 
of  the  ablest  men  in  the  Synods  that  had 
seceded  were  its  champions,  and  the  same 
leaven  was  at  work,  even  in  Synods  that 
adhered  to  the  General  Synod.  The 
churches  in  the  South  had  also  felt  the  im¬ 
petus  toward  a  more  decided  Lutheran 
orthodoxy,  while  one  of  the  Synods  of  that 
section,  and  one  in  the  North  had  always 
maintained  their  isolation  because  of  the 
alleged  unsoundness  of  the  General  Syruod. 

The  time  appeared  ripe,  therefore,  for 
the  unification  of  the  Church  in  one  body, 


on  a  strictly  confessional  basis.  A  good 
understanding  had  grown  up  among  all  the 
bodies  whose  adherence  to  the  Augsburg 
Confession  was  pronounced  and  unquali¬ 
fied.  It  was  an  inspiring  prospect,  a  con¬ 
summation  devoutly  wished  for  by  many 
hearts.  The  Pennsylvania  Synod  once 
more  took  the  lead,  and  issued  an  address 
“  to  Evangelical  Lutheran  Synods,  Minis¬ 
ters,  and  Congregations  in  the  United 
States  and  Canadas,  which  confess  the 
Unaltered  Augsburg  Confession,  inviting 
them  to  unite  in  a  convention  for  the  pur¬ 
pose  of  forming  a  union  of  Lutheran 
Synods.”  In  answer  to  this  address,  rep¬ 
resentatives  of  all  the  synods,  excepting 
those  in  the  South  and  those  comprised  in 
the  General  Synod,  assembled  in  Reading 
in  1866,  and  proceeded  to  organize  the  Gen¬ 
eral  Council.  Some  of  the  largest  synods, 
which  participated  in  the  preliminary  con¬ 
vention,  declined  afterward  to  enter  this 
union,  and  several  in  a  few  years  withdrew 
from  it.  The  former  regarded  an  organic 
union  premature,  and  proposed  a  series  of 
free  conferences,  with  a  view  to  reaching 
a  perfect  understanding  on  all  doctrinal 
and  practical  points.  The  course  of  the 
latter  was  determined  by  the  failure  of  the 
General  Council  to  adopt  an  extreme  posi¬ 
tion  on  “  the  four  points  ”  of  Millenarian- 
ism,  Secret  Societies  and  Pulpit  and  Altar 
fellowship  with  non-Lutherans. 

Thus  the  Lutheran  Church,  which  en¬ 
joys  the  honor  of  never  having  begotten 
sects,  finds  itself,  from  various  providen¬ 
tial  causes,  divided  into  four  general 
bodies,  besides  several  large  synods  dis¬ 
connected  from  all  others.  The  diversity 
of  nationality  and  language,  and  the  differ¬ 
ences  of  historic  development  in  Europe 
and  this  country,  have  naturally,  if  not 
necessarily,  produced  these  divisions, 
which  are  generally  regarded  as  only  tem¬ 
porary,  since  the  common  faith  to  which 
nearly  all  rigidly  adhere,  is  destined  ulti¬ 
mately  to  triumph  over  all  obstacles  to 
union  when  one  language,  a  common  en¬ 
vironment,  and  a  fuller  mutual  acquaint¬ 
ance  shall  have  removed  some  of  the 
present  causes  of  separation. 

All  the  bodies,  except  the  General  Syn¬ 
od,  receive  officially  and  unqualifiedly  the 
whole  of  the  Symbols  of  the  Evangelical 
Lutheran  Church.  The  latter  body,  al¬ 
though  in  no  way  denying  any  doctrine 
contained  in  the  other  standards,  contents 
itself  with  the  acknowledgment  of  the 
Augsburg  Confession,  the  symbol  that  has 
in  every  country  been  recognized  as  the 
synonym  of  Lutheranism.  The  General 
Synod  is  further  distinguished  from  nearly 
all  others  by  its  free  affiliation  with  other 
Christian  denominations,  in  the  form  of 


Lut 


(  554  ) 


Lut 


pulpit  and  altar  fellowship,  and  coopera¬ 
tion  in  general  church  enterprises. 

Deeply  as  all  deplore  these  unhappy 
divisions  in  the  same  household  of  faith, 
they  serve  to  stimulate  the  respective  or¬ 
ganizations  to  a  noble  rivalry,  especially 
in  the  sphere  of  Home  Missions,  which, 
by  the  increasing  myriads  of  foreigners 
from  Lutheran  lands,  has  been  made  the 
special  task  and  sphere  of  the  Lutheran 
Church  ;  and  which,  by  her  capacity  to 
preach  the  gospel  in  every  needed  tongue, 
and  her  extraordinary  success,  stamps  upon 
her  a  Pentecostal  character.  The  whole 
communion,  which  numbered  in  1823  but 
175  ministers  and  45,000  communicants; 
in  1845,  520  ministers  and  145,000  com¬ 
municants,  reports  at  the  close  of  1889  a 
total  of  4,514  ministers,  7,804  congrega¬ 
tions,  and  1,099,708  communicants;  and  a 
careful  survey  allots  to  the  Lutheran 
household  a  population  of  not  less  than 
7,000,000  who  look  to  her  for  whatever 
of  spiritual  ministrations  they  receive. 

Twenty-five  per  cent,  of  the  clergy  are 
doing  mission  work,  many  of  them  adding 
these  labors  to  their  regular  pastoral  du¬ 
ties.  Besides  the  stated  preaching  of  the 
gospel,  universal  attention  is  paid  to 
thorough  catechisation  by  the  pastors. 
Luther’s  Small  Catechism  holds  a  place 
next  to  the  Bible.  And  the  spiritual  power 
and  steady  growth  of  the  Church  is  in  a 
large  measure  tobe  ascribed  to  the  thorough 
grounding  of  youth  in  the  doctrines  of 
salvation.  Successful  Sunday-school  work 
is  a  prominent  feature  of  Lutheranism,  es¬ 
pecially  in  the  English  and  Scandinavian 
Churches.  Parish  schools  giving  daily  re¬ 
ligious  instruction  are  maintained  by  near¬ 
ly  all  German  congregations,  and  by  many 
of  the  Swedish  and  Norwegian. 

Vigorous  foreign  missionary  enterprises 
are  maintained  by  the  General  Synod  and 
the  General  Council,  in  India  and  on  the 
African  coast.  The  contributions  of  others 
are  mainly  sent  to  European  societies, 
while  their  capacity  for  missionary  endeav¬ 
or  is  almost  wholly  absorbed  by  the  vast 
work  of  supplying  with  the  ordinances 
their  kinsmen  scattered  over  this  country. 

The  care  of  the  orphan  has  held  a  warm 
place  in  the  heart  of  the  Church,  and  some 
fifty  eleemosynary  institutions  illustrate 
the  sympathy  which  the  Lutheran  faith  be¬ 
gets  for  the  fatherless  and  the  suffering. 

In  cultus  the  Lutheran  Church  of  this 
country,  as  in  Europe,  is  moderately  litur¬ 
gical.  Each  congregation  enjoys  entire 
liberty  in  the  ordering  of  its  worship. 
Uniformity  is  not  prescribed ,  though  gener¬ 
ally  held  to  be  highly  desirable.  As  an 
expression  of  this  feeling,  and  with  a  view 
also  of  contributing  somewhat  to  a  closer 


relation  between  the  different  bodies  of 
English-speaking  Lutherans,  a  joint  com¬ 
mittee,  representing  respectively  the  Gen¬ 
eral  Council,  the  General  Synod,  and  the 
United  Synod  in  the  South,  united  lately 
in  the  preparation  of  a  Common  Service, 
based  upon  the  pure  Lutheran  liturgies  of 
the  sixteenth  century,  publishing  the  full 
historic  Lutheran  order  of  worship,  but 
leaving  it  to  the  discretion  of  congregations 
to  use  whatever  serves  to  edification,  the 
principle  of  uniformity  being  satisfied  with 
the  use  of  the  principal  parts  in  their  order. 
The  result  of  the  Joint  Committee’s  work 
was  adopted  by  each  of  the  general  bodies 
with  entire  unanimity,  and  will  doubtless 
come  gradually  into  general  use. 

The  literature  of  the  Lutheran  Church 
universities,  and  her  systems  of  education, 
in  Europe,  have  won  the  admiration  of  the 
world.  Her  earlier  ministry  in  this  coun¬ 
try  was  a  group  of  scholars,  and  popular 
education  was  fostered  from  the  first.  But 
various  insurmountable  obstacles  retarded 
for  a  long  time  the  establishment  of  higher 
institutions.  In  the  last  half-century  there 
has  been  also  in  this  direction  astound¬ 
ing  progress.  The  latest  statistics  show 
twenty-four  Theological  Seminaries,  twen¬ 
ty-five  Colleges,  and  about  fifty  Academies 
and  Female  Seminaries. 

Of  periodical  church  publications,  there 
are  not  less  than  one  hundred  and  fifty,  of 
which  about  one-third  appear  in  the  Eng¬ 
lish  language,  about  the  same  proportion 
in  German,  while  the  rest  are  divided  be¬ 
tween  Norwegian,  Swedish,  Danish,  Ice¬ 
landic,  Finnish,  and  French.  Flourishing 
publication  houses  are  established  in  Phil¬ 
adelphia,  St.  Louis,  Chicago,  and  else¬ 
where. 

A  denominational  literature  in  perma¬ 
nent  form  is  yet  in  its  beginnings,  yet  some 
very  solid  volumes,  illustrating  the  char¬ 
acter  and  teachings  of  the  Church,  have 
been  issued,  foremost  among  which 
are:  Krauth:  Conservative  Reformation ; 
Sprecher:  Groundwork  of  Lutheran  Theol¬ 
ogy  ;  Jacobs:  Book  of  Concord ;  the  transla¬ 
tion  of  Schmid’s  Dogmatik  ;  The  Holman 
Lectures  on  the  Augsburg  Confession  ;  Wal- 
ther:  Kirche  und  Amt ,  Evangelien-Postille 
und  Epistel-Postille  ;  and  Seiss:  Sermons  on 
the  Epistles  and  Gospels  of  the  Church  Year. 

Lutheranism  has  nowhere  held  to  any 
specific  form  of  church  government  as  di¬ 
vinely  prescribed,  but  it  has  always  recog¬ 
nized  as  scriptural  the  parity  of  ministers 
and  the  congregation  as  the  source  of  ec¬ 
clesiastical  power.  The  government  that 
has  generally  prevailed  in  the  United  States 
is  4.  blending  of  Congregational  with  Pres¬ 
byterian  features.  Three  judicatories 
usually  obtain:  the  council,  cr  vestry. 


Luz 


(  555  ) 


Lyt 


which  administers  the  affairs  of  the  indi¬ 
vidual  congregation;  the  district  synod,  to 
which  congregations  have  delegated  certain 
powers,  and  which  are  composed  of  the 
ministers  residing  in  a  certain  district  and 
a  lay  representative  from  each  congrega¬ 
tion;  and  the  general  body  constituted  of 
an  equal  number  of  clergy  and  laity  repre¬ 
senting,  according  to  a  fixed  ratio,  the  dif¬ 
ferent  synods,  charged  with  the  general 
ecclesiastical  and  educational  interests,  and 
giving  authoritative  decisions  on  cate¬ 
chisms,  hymnals,  and  liturgies. 

The  year  books  of  1889  give  the  follow¬ 
ing  statistical  summary: 


District 

Synods. 

Minis¬ 

ters. 

Church¬ 

es. 

Com¬ 

muni¬ 

cants. 

Synodical  Conference . 

3 

1286 

1811 

366,761 

General  Council . 

10 

1192 

2053 

306,871 

General  Synod . . . 

23 

979 

1437 

i5I»4°4 

United  Synod . 

8 

201 

385 

36,000 

Independent  Synods . 

IS 

1305 

2700 

250,000 

Without  Synodical  Conn . 

83 

IOO 

17,000 

Thirty-eight  of  the  synods  are  either 
wholly  English,  or  English  and  German, 
twelve  are  exclusively  German,  and  ten  are 
Scandinavian,  embracing  respectively  the 
Swedish,  Norwegian,  Danish,  Icelandic, 
Finnish,  and  Lettic  elements. 

Literattire. — Hallesche  Nachrichten  (new 
edition,  Allentown,  Penn. ,  and  Halle,  1881, 
English  edition,  Reading,  1882),  Lutheran 
Quarterly ,  Lutheran  Church  Review ,  Evan¬ 
gelical  Review ;  Mann:  Henry  Melchior 
Muhlenburg  (1887);  Schaeffer:  Early 
History  of  the  Lutheran  Church  (1857); 
Schmucker:  American  Luth.  Church  (5th 
ed.,  1857);  Bernheim:  German  Settle??ient, 
etc.,  in  the  Carolinas  (1872);  Strobel:  The 
Salzburgers  and  their  Descendants  (1855); 
Hazelius:  Histoiy  of  the  American  Lutheran 
Church  (1846);  Lintner:  Early  History  of 
the  Lutheran  Church  in  the  State  of  New 
York;  Morris:  Fifty  Years  in  the  Lutheran 
Rlinistry  (1878);  Ac  re  li  us:  History  of  New 
Sweden  (translated  by  Reynolds);  Sprague: 
Annals  of  the  American  Pulpit  ;  Nicum: 
Geschichte  des  Neza  York  Ministeriums 
(1885);  Proceedings  'of  the  Lutheran  Diets 
(187S,  1879);  Wolf:  The  Lutherans  in  Azner- 
ica  (third  edition,  1890). 

E.  J.  Wolf. 

Luz,  a  Canaanite  city  near  the  site  of 
Bethel.  (Gen.  xxviii.  19.)  After  one  of  the 
citizens  had  betrayed  it  to  Israel,  he  went 
into  “  the  land  of  the  Hittites,”  and  built  a 
city  of  the  same  name.  (Judg.  i.  23,  26.) 

Lycao'nia,  a  province  in  the  south  of 
Asia  Minor.  It  consists  of  an  elevated 
plateau  surrounded  by  lofty  mountains. 


It  was  visited  several  times  by  St.  Paul. 
(Acts  xiv.  1-23;  xvii.  1-6;  xvii.  23;  xix.  1.) 

Ly'cia,  a  province  in  the  southwestern 
part  of  Asia  Minor,  opposite  the  island  of 
Rhodes.  Its  two  chief  cities,  Patara  and 
Myra,  were  visited  by  Paul.  (Acts  xxi.  1; 
xxvii.  5.)  Interesting  specimens  of  coins 
and  ancient  architecture  have  been  found 
in  the  ruins  of  these  once  prosperous 
towns. 

Lyd'da,  now  Ludd,  nine  miles  from  Jaffa 
on  the  northern  road  from  that  place  to 
Jerusalem.  Here  St.  Peter  healed  the 
paralytic  yEneas.  (Acts  ix.  33.)  It  was  the 
seat  of  a  bishopric.  According  to  tradition, 
St.  George,  England’s  patron  saint,  was 
born  and  buried  here.  A  church  was  built 
here  in  his  honor,  the  ruins  of  which  still 
remain. 

Lyon,  Mary,  founder  of  Mount  Holyoke 
Female  Seminary  and  College;  b.  in  Buck- 
land,  Mass.,  Feb.  28,  1797;  d.  at  South 
Hadley,  Mass.,  March  5,  1849.  From  1824 
to  1834  she  taught  in  a  ladies’  seminary, 
first  at  Derry,  N.  H.,and  then  at  Ipswich. 
In  the  face  of  many  discouragements  she 
planned  the  establishment  of  a  female  sem¬ 
inary  of  a  high  order  and  a  distinctively 
Christian  character.  It  was  a  part  of  the 
plan  that  the  expenses  of  the  school  should 
be  reduced  by  the  cooperative  services  of 
the  pupils.  The  corner-stone  of  the  first 
building  at  South  Hadley  was  laid  in  the 
autumn  of  1836.  From  its  opening  the 
school  prospered  wonderfully  under  the 
enthusiastic  leadership  of  this  noble  and 
large-minded  Christian  woman,  whose  in¬ 
fluence  left  a  deep  impression  on  the  minds 
of  the  hundreds  of  pupils  who  were  brought 
under  her  influence.  See  her  Life ,  by  Ed¬ 
ward  Hitchcock  (revised  ed.,  N.  Y. ,  1858). 

Lysa'nias.  See  Abilene. 

Lys'tra,  a  city  of  Lycaonia  visited  twice 
by  Paul.  (Acts  xiv.;  xvi.)  It  is  supposed 
to  have  been  the  birthplace  of  Timothy. 
(2  Tim.  iii.  11.) 

Lyte,  Henry  Francis,  b.  at  Kelso,  Ire¬ 
land,  June  1,  1793;  d.  at  Nice,  Nov.  20, 
1847.  He  was  educated  at  Trinity  College, 
Dublin,  and  ordained  in  1815.  In  1823  he 
became  curate  at  Lower  Brixham,  Devon, 
where  he  remained  until  his  death.  He 
was  an  earnest  and  devoted  minister,  but 
his  fame  rests  upon  his  gifts  as  a  hymn- 
writer.  His  best-known  hymn  is  “  Abide 
with  me,  fast  falls  the  eventide."  This  was 
composed  on  the  last  Sunday  evening  that 
he  spent  at  Brixham,  before  starting  on 


Lyt  (  556  )  Mac 


the  journey  for  his  health  to  Nice,  where 
he  died.  See  Duffield:  English  Hymns , 
p.  8  (New  York,  1886). 

Lyttleton,  George,  Lord,  b.  at  Hagley, 
Worcestershire,  1709;  d.  there,  1773. 
Educated  at  Eton  and  Oxford;  lord  com¬ 
missioner  of  the  treasury,  1744;  member 
of  the  privy  council,  1754;  chancellor  of 
the  exchequer,  1756.  The  chief  work  upon 
which  his  fame  rests  is  his  Observations  on 
the  Conversion  and  Apostleship  of  St.  Paul 
(1747).  It  is  based  upon  the  proposition 
that  “  the  conversion  and  apostleship  of 
St.  Paul  alone  is  of  itself  a  demonstration 
sufficient  to  prove  the  truth  of  Christian¬ 
ity.”  Johnson  says.it  is  “  a  treatise  to 
which  infidelity  has  never  been  able  to  fab¬ 
ricate  a  specious  answer.” 

M. 

Mabillon  ( mabeyon '),  Jean,  b.  at  St. 

Pierremont,  in  the  diocese  of  Rheims,  Nov. 

23,  1632;  d.  in  Paris,  Dec.  27,  1707.  He 

was  a  Benedictine  monk,  and  entered  the 

congregation  of  St.  Maur  in  1653.  In  1664 

he  became  the  assistant  of  D’Achery  in 

the  abbey  of  St.  Germain-des-Pres,  at 

Paris.  His  labors  as  a  scholar  bore  fruit 

in  an  edition  of  the  works  of  St.  Bernard, 

published  in  1666.  Two  years  later  the 

first  volume  of  The  Acta  Sanctorum  Or- 

dinis  St.  Benedicti  appeared,  in  which  he 

gave  a  learned  dissertation  on  the  doctrine 

and  discipline  of  the  order,  extending  over 

the  first  five  centuries  of  its  history.  He 

wrote  several  controversial  works,  which 

were  standard  in  their  day,  and  defended 

the  use  of  unleavened  bread  at  the  com- 

/ 

munion.  In  his  Traitt  des  Etudes  Monas- 
tiques  (1691)  he  contends  that  study  and 
learning  are  a  necessary  element  of  monas¬ 
tic  life. 

McAll  Mission  in  Paris.  The  founder  of 
this  remarkable  mission,  the  Rev.  R.  W. 
McAll,  was  formerly  a  Congregational 
minister  in  England.  While  making,  for 
the  first  time,  a  brief  visit  to  Paris  in  the 
summer  of  1871,  he  distributed,  with  the 
aid  of  his  wife,  a  few  tracts  in  that  part  of 
the  city  occupied  by  working  -  people. 
Struck  with  the  interest  shown  by  those 
they  met  in  spiritual  matters,  they  were 
led  to  make  arrangements  that  resulted  in 
the  opening  of  a  mission  station  in  Janu¬ 
ary,  1872.  From  that  time  the  work  has 
developed  in  a  remarkable  way.  The  num¬ 
ber  of  stations  opened  in  Paris  and  other 
places  in  1889  was  120.  Mr.  McAll  has 
been  generously  aided  by  many  friends. 

Macarians,  a  sect  of  the  Monothelites. 


They  received  their  name  from  their  lead¬ 
er,  Macarius,  bishop  of  Antioch,  who  de¬ 
fended  his  views  in  the  Second  Council  of 
Constantinople  (680). 

Macarius,  bishop  of  Jerusalem  in  1312. 
His  piety  and  zeal  are  mentioned  by  The- 
odoret  and  others.  Arius  refers  to  him  as 
one  of  his  opponents,  and  it  was  during 
his  episcopate  that  St.  Helena  is  said  to 
have  discovered  the  cross.  Constantine 
in  326  commissioned  him  to  erect  a  basilica 
on  the  site  of  the  Holy  Sepulchre. 

Macarius  of  Alexandria,  a  famous  her¬ 
mit-priest  of  the  fifth  century.  Five  thou¬ 
sand  monks  are  said  to  have  been  trained 
by  him  in  the  Nitrian  desert.  He  is  the 
reputed  author  of  the  Rules  of  the  Monks , 
in  thirty  chapters,  and  suffered  severe  per¬ 
secutions  from  the  Arians. 

MacArthur,  Robert  Stuart,  D.  D. 
(University  of  Rochester,  N.  Y.,  1880), 
Baptist;  b.  at  Dalesville,  Quebec,  Can., 
Aug.  31,  1841;  he  was  graduated  at  the 
University  of  Rochester,  N.  Y.,  1867,  and 
at  the  Rochester  Theological  Seminary, 
N.  Y. ,  1870;  and  since  June  of  that  year 
has  been  pastor  of  Calvary  Baptist  Church, 
New  York  City.  He  is  the  author  of  Cal¬ 
vary  Pulpit:  Christ ,  and  Him  Crucified 
(New  York,  1889). 

Macbride,  John  David,  D.  C.  L. ,  an 
eminent  Orientalist;  b.  in  Norfolk,  Eng., 
1788;  d.  at  Oxford,  Jan.  24,  1868.  He  be¬ 
came  principal  in  1813  of  Magdalen  Hall, 
Oxford,  and  professor  of  Arabic  in  the 
University.  He  prepared  several  volumes 
of  biblical  exposition,  and  was  the  au¬ 
thor  of  a  Diatessaron,  which  for  many 
years  was  a  university  text-book  at  Ox¬ 
ford. 

Mac'cabees,  “  a  word  of  uncertain  mean¬ 
ing  and  origin.  The  founder  of  the  Macca- 
bean  dynasty,  Mattathias  (Asamonaios, 
Chashmonaj),apriest(not,  asgenerally  sup¬ 
posed,  a  high-priest,  nor  even  of  the  family 
of  high-priests),  was  the  first  who  made  a 
stand  against  the  persecutions  of  the  Jew¬ 
ish  nation  and  creed  by  Antiochus  Epiph- 
anes.  At  the  beginning  of  the  troubles, 
he  had  retired,  together  with  his  five  sons, 
Jochanan  (Gaddes — Kaddish),  Simon  (Tassi 
— Mathes),  Jehudah  (Makkabi),  Eleazar 
(Avaran  —  Syr.  Chavin),  Jonathan  (Ap- 
phus),  to  Modiin,  a  small  place  between 
Jerusalem  and  Joppa,  to  mourn  in  solitude 
over  the  desolation  of  the  holy  city  and  the 
desecration  of  the  temple.  But  the  Syrians 
pursued  him  thither.  He  being  a  person 
of  importance,  Apelles,  a  Syrian  captain, 


Mac 


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McC 


endeavored  to  induce  him,  by  tempting 
promises,  to  relinquish  his  faith,  and  to 
embrace  the  Greek  religion.  He  answered 
by  slaying  with  his  own  hand  the  first 
renegade  Jew  who  approached  the  altar  of 
idolatry.  This  gave  the  sign  to  a  sudden 
outbreak.  His  sons,  together  with  a  hand¬ 
ful  of  faithful  men,  rose  against  the  nation¬ 
al  foe,  destroyed  all  traces  of  heathen  wor¬ 
ship  already  established  in  Modiin  and  its 
neighborhood,  and  fled  into  the  wilderness 
of  Judah.  Their  number  soon  increased; 
and  not  long  after,  they  were  able  to  make 
descents  into  the  adjacent  villages  and 
cities,  where  they  circumcised  the  children, 
and  restored  everywhere  the  ancient  relig¬ 
ion  of  Jehovah.  At  the  death  of  Matta- 
thias  (166  b.  c.  ),  which  took  place  a  few 
years  after  the  outbreak,  Judah  Makkabi 
(166-161  b.  c.)  took  command  of  the  pa¬ 
triots,  and  repulsed  the  enemy,  notwith¬ 
standing  his  superior  force,  at  Mizpah 
(6,000  against  70,000),  Bethsur  (10,000 
against  65,000),  and  other  places,  recon¬ 
quered  Jerusalem,  purified  the  temple 
(feast  of  reconsecration — Chanuka),  and  re¬ 
inaugurated  the  holy  service  (164  b.  c.). 
Having  further  concluded  an  alliance  with 
the  Romans,  he  fell  in  a  battle  against 
Bacchides  (161  B.  c.).  His  brother  Jona¬ 
than,  who  succeeded  him  in  the  leadership, 
renewed  the  Roman  alliance,  and,  taking 
advantage  of  certain  disputes  about  the 
Syrian  throne,  rendered  vacant  by  the 
death  of  Antiochus,  acquired  the  dignity  of 
high-priest.  But  Tryphon,  the  guardian 
of  the  young  prince,  Antiochus  Theos,  fear¬ 
ing  his  influence,  invited  him  to  Ptolemais, 
and  had  him  there  treacherously  executed. 
Simon,  the  second  brother,  was  elected  by 
the  Jewish  commonwealth  to  assume  the 
reins  of  the  national  government,  and  was 
formally  recognized  both  by  Demetrius, 
Tryphon’s  antagonist,  and  by  the  Romans 
as  ‘  chief  and  ruler  of  the  Jews.’  He  com¬ 
pletely  reestablished  the  independence  of 
the  nation,  and  the  year  after  his  succes¬ 
sion  (141  b.  c.)  was  made  the  starting-point 
of  a  new  era.  The  almost  absolute  power 
in  his  hands  he  used  with  wise  moderation; 
justice  and  righteousness  flourished  in  his 
days,  and  ‘  Judah  prospered  as  of  old.’ 
But  not  long  (7  years)  after  his  accession 
to  the  supremacy,  he  was  foully  murdered 
(136  b.  c. )  by  his  own  son-in-law,  Ptolemy, 
who  vainly  hoped  to  succeed  him.  For 
the  subsequent  history  of  this  family,  see 
Jews;  Hyrcanus,  and  Herod.  The  feast 
of  the  Maccabees — i.e. ,  both  of  the  sons  of 
Mattathias,  and  of  the  seven  martyr  chil¬ 
dren  (2  Macc.  vii.) — is  found  in  the  Roman 
martyrology  under  the  date  of  Aug  1.” — 
Chambers:  Cyclopcedia.  See  Histories  of 
Israel  by  Ewald  and  Stanley. 


Maccabees,  Books  of.  See  Apocrypha. 

McCheyne,  Robert  Murray,  a  devoted 
Scotch  pastor  and  evangelist;  b.  at  Edin¬ 
burgh,  May  21,  1813;  d.  at  Dundee,  March 
25,  1843.  He  early  gained  a  reputation 
for  literary  ability  and  scholarship.  After 
graduating  from  the  Divinity  Hall  of  the 
University  of  Edinburgh,  he  was  pastor  of 
the  Established  Church  at  Larbert  for  near¬ 
ly  two  years,  when  he  was  called  (1836)  to 
St.  Peter’s  Church,  Dundee,  where  he  re¬ 
mained  until  his  death.  In  1838,  suffering 
from  ill-health,  he  undertook,  with  friends, 
a  mission  of  inquiry  among  the  Jews  in 
Palestine  and  on  the  Continent,  which  re¬ 
sulted  in  a  great  increase  of  general  inter¬ 
est  in  the  subject.  Returning  home,  he 
found  his  church  enjoying  a  remarkable 
revival  under  the  labors  of  William  Burns, 
afterward  missionary  to  China.  This  work 
continued  in  great  power  until  the  close  of 
McCheyne’s  life,  and  he  was  able  to  make 
visits  to  Ireland  and  different  places  in 
Scotland,  that  were  followed  by  many  con¬ 
versions.  His  Memoir  and  Remains,  pre¬ 
pared  by  his  friend,  Andrew  Bonar,  have 
had  a  wide  circulation,  and  been  the  means 
of  much  good. 

McClintock,  John,  D.  D.,  LL.  D.,  an  em¬ 
inent  Methodist  preacher,  educator,  and 
writer;  b.  in  Philadelphia,  Oct.  27,  1814;  d. 
at  Madison,  N.  J.,  March  4,  1870.  He  was 
graduated  at  the  University  of  Pennsylva¬ 
nia  in  1835,  and  thenconnected  himself  with 
the  Philadelphia  Conference  of  the  M.  E. 
Church.  He  was  professor  at  Dickinson 
College,  1836-48.  From  1848-56  he  edited 
the  Methodist  Quarterly  Review;  pastor  of 
St.  Paul’s  Church,  New  York  City,  1857 — 
60 ;  pastor,  1860-64,  of  the  American 
Chapel  in  Paris.  On  his  return  to  this 
country  in  1864  he  was  recalled  to  St. 
Paul’s,  but  resigned  at  the  close  of  the 
year  on  account  of  ill-health.  In  1867  he 
was  elected  president  of  the  Drew  The¬ 
ological  Seminary,  where  he  remained  un¬ 
til  his  death.  Dr.  McClintock  was  eminent 
as  a  scholar,  and  as  early  as  1853,  in  con¬ 
nection  with  Dr.  Strong,  began  the  com¬ 
pilation  of  the  great  Cyclopcedia  of  Biblical, 
Theological  and  Ecclesiastical  Literature , 
which  was  the  most  prominent  literary 
work  with  which  his  name  is  connected. 
See  Life  and  Letters  of  Rev.  John  McClin¬ 
tock,  by  Rev.  George  R.  Crooks,  D.  D. 
(N.  Y.  1876). 

McCook,  Henry  Christopher,  D.  D. 
(Lafayette  College,  Easton,  Pa.,  1880), 
Presbyterian;  b.  at  New  Lisbon,  O.,  July 
3,  1837;  was  graduated  at  Jefferson  Col¬ 
lege,  Canonsburg,  Pa.,  1859,  an<^  at  fhe 


McC 


(  558  ) 


Mac 


Western  Theological  Seminary,  Alleghe¬ 
ny,  Pa.,  1861.  Since  1870  has  been  pas¬ 
tor  of  the  Tabernacle  Presbyterian  Church, 
Philadelphia.  He  has  gained  a  wide 
recognition  as  a  student  of  natural  sci¬ 
ence,  and  has  published  many  interest¬ 
ing  papers  on  the  habits  of  American  ants 
and  spiders.  He  is  the  author  of:  The 
Last  Year  of  Christ' s  Ministry  (1871);  The 
Women  Friends  of  Jesus  (1885);  The  Gospel 
,in  Nature ,  and  other  works. 

McCosh,  James,  S.  T.  D.  (Brown  Uni¬ 
versity,  1868);  LL.  D.  (Harvard  Univer¬ 
sity,  186S),  Presbyterian;  b.  at  Carskeoch, 
Banks  of  the  Doon,  Ayrshire,  Scotland, 
April  1,  1 81 1.  He  was  educated  at  the 
Universities  of  Glasgow  (1824-29)  and 
Edinburgh  (1829-34),  and  was  ordained 
minister  at  Arbroath,  Scotland,  in  1835. 
From  1839  to  1851  he  was  pastor  at  Brech¬ 
in,  when  he  was  appointed  professor  of 
logic  and  metaphysics  in  Queen’s  College, 
Belfast,  Ireland.  In  1868  he  became  pres¬ 
ident  of  the  College  of  New  Jersey,  at 
Princeton.  During  his  connection  with 
this  institution  for  twenty  years,  its  re¬ 
sources  were  greatly  increased.  Dr.  Mc¬ 
Cosh  has  been  a  prolific  writer.  Among 
his  works  are:  The  Method  of  the  Divuie 
Gover7iment}  Physical  and  Moral  (1856); 
The  Laws  of  Discursive  Thought ,  being 
a  Treatise  on  Formal  Logic  (1869);  The 
Scottish  Philosophy ,  etc.  (1874)  ;  The 
Emotions  (1880),  completed  in  1886;  the 
“  Philosophical  Series  ”  Gospel  Sermons 
(1888)  ;  First  and  Fundamental  Truths 
(1889). 

McCrie,  Thomas,  D.D.,  a  Scottish  divine 
and  historian;  b.  at  Dunse,  1772;  d.  at 
Edinburgh,  Aug.  5,  1835.  Educated  at  the 
University  of  Edinburgh,  he  was  ordained 
minister  of  an  Anti-Burgher  Church  in  that 
city  in  1796.  After  a  pastorate  of  ten  years, 
this  relation  was  severed  on  account  of  a 
difference  which  had  arisen  on  some  civil 
subjects,  and  he  united  with  a  few  other 
ministers  in  forming  what  was  called  “  The 
Constitutional  Presbytery.”  His  great 
work  was  the  Life  of  John  Knox,  which  at 
once  took  rank  as  a  masterpiece  in  bio¬ 
graphical  literature.  His  contributions  to 
the  ecclesiastical  history  of  Scotland  were 
numerous  and  valuable. 

Macedonia,  the  country  between  Thrace 
on  the  east,  and  Illyria  on  the  west.  Here 
Christianity  was  first  received.  It  was 
probably  visited  three  times  by  Paul,  who 
founded  the  churches  at  Thessalonica  and 
Philippi.  (Acts  xvi.  10-xvii.  15;  xx.  1-6; 

1  Tim.  i.  3.)  It  is  famous  as  the  kingdom 
of  Philip  and  Alexander  the  Great. 


Macedonius,  the  reputed  founder  of  the 
Macedonian  sect  of  heretics,  was  raised  to 
the  bishopric  of  Constantinople,  A.  D.  342, 
by  the  Arians,  in  opposition  to  Paul,  whom 
the  Athanasian  party  had  canonically 
elected.  A  great  disturbance  was  caused 
in  the  city  by  the  quarrels  of  the  rival 
bishops,  and  a  party  of  soldiers  was  sent 
by  Constantius  to  restore  order;  but  the 
excited  mob  set  fire  to  the  house  of  Her- 
mogenes,  the  commander,  dragged  him 
forth,  and  killed  him.  The  rivalry  lasted 
for  nine  years,  during  which  time  Paul  and 
Macedonius  were  in  alternate  possession  of 
the  see;  but  in  a.  d.  351  it  was  terminated 
by  the  murder  of  Paul  in  Armenia.  Freed 
from  his  rival,  Macedonius  began  to  act 
with  great  violence  to  all  who  opposed 
him,  fining,  banishing,  branding,  and  even 
putting  to  death.  The  emperor’s  displeas¬ 
ure,  aroused  by  these  proceedings,  was  in¬ 
creased  by  his  removing,  without  permis¬ 
sion,  the  body  of  Constantine  the  Great 
from  the  church  where  it  had  been  buried 
to  a  newer  one.  The  removal  led  to  serious 
riots  in  the  city,  and  Macedonius  was  de¬ 
prived  of  his  bishopric  on  charges  of  mis¬ 
conduct.  He  then  joined  the  Semi-Arians, 
and  gave  his  name  to  a  new  sect  which 
sprang  out  of  these,  though  his  share  in 
its  foundation  is  uncertain.  He  died  soon 
after.  The  Macedonians  allowed  the  Di¬ 
vinity  of  the  Son,  but  denied  that  of 
the  Holy  Ghost.  They  were  not  agreed 
among  themselves  whether  the  Holy  Ghost 
was  a  creature  or  an  influence.  The  spread 
of  Macedonianism  led  to  the  meeting  of  the 
Council  of  Constantinople,  A.  d.  381,  at 
which  the  heresy  was  condemned,  and  the 
Nicene  Creed  brought  to  its  present  form 
by  the  addition  of  the  clauses  following 
“  I  believe  in  the  Holy  Ghost  ”  (except  the 
“  Filioque  ”  clause).  —  Benham:  Diet,  of 

Religio7i. 

Mach'pelah,  the  spot  containing  the 
wooded  field,  at  Hebron, in  the  end  of  which 
was  the  cave  which  Abraham  purchased 
from  the  Bene-Heth,  and  which  became 
the  burial-place  of  Sarah, Abraham  himself, 
Isaac,  Rebekah,  Leah,  and  Jacob.  Its  po¬ 
sition  is — with  one  exception  uniformly — 
specified  as  “  facing  Mamre.”  (Gen.  xxiii. 
17,  19;  xxv.  9;  xlix.  30;  1.  13.)  The  cave 
is  surrounded  by  a  wall  a  hundred  and 
ninety-four  feet  long  and  fifty-eight  feet 
high.  The  blocks  with  which  it  is  built 
are  very  large.  Within  the  enclosure  is  a 
Mohammedan  mosque,  from  which  stran¬ 
gers  are  rigidly  excluded.  In  1862,  by 
special  permission  of  the  Sultan,  the  Prince 
of  Wales,  accompanied  by  Dean  Stanley, 
was  admitted,  and  since  that  time  a  few 
other  distinguished  persons  have  been  al- 


Mcl 


(  559  ) 


Mad 


lowed  to  enter  the  mosque.  The  cave  it¬ 
self,  according  to  tradition,  has  not  been 
entered  in  600  years.  The  Moslems  be¬ 
lieve  that  any  one  attempting  to  do  so 
would  be  struck  dead. 

Mcllvaine,  Charles  Pettit,  D.  D.,  a 
distinguished  bishop  of  the  Protestant 
Episcopal  Church;  b.  in  Burlington,  N.  J., 
June  18,  1799;  d.  at  Florence,  Italy,  March 
14,  1873.  He  was  graduated  at  Princeton, 
1816,  and  was  minister  of  Christ  Church, 
Georgetown,  D.  C.,  1820-25;  chaplain  of 
West  Point  Military  Academy,  1825-27; 
pastor  St.  Ann’s  Church,  Brooklyn,  N.  Y., 
1827-32;  bishop  of  the  diocese  of  Ohio, 
1832-73.  Bishop  Mcllvaine  was  a  man  of 
commanding  presence,  an  eloquent  preach¬ 
er,  successful  as  an  administrator,  devoted 
to  the  service  of  Christ,  and  beloved  in  all 
the  relations  of  life.  Among  his  published 
works  are:  Evidences  of  Christianity  (1831); 
The  Truth  and  Life  (1854)  ;  Preaching 
Christ  Crucified  (1863).  See  Memorials  of 
Mcllvaine ,  by  Canon  Carus,  Winchester, 
Eng.  (N.  Y.,  1882). 

McKendree,  William,  bishop  of  the 
Methodist  Episcopal  Church;  b.  in  King 
William  County,  Va. ,  July  6,  1757;  d.  near 
Nashville,  Tenn.,  March  5,  1835.  He  was 
a  soldier  in  the  Revolution.  After  his  con¬ 
version  in  1787,  he  united  with  the  Metho¬ 
dist  Church  and  became  an  itinerant  preach¬ 
er  in  the  following  year.  He  was  promoted 
to  positions  of  influence,  and  elected  bishop 
in  1808.  He  had  much  to  do  in  laying  the 
foundations  of  Methodism  in  the  West,  and 
was  greatly  esteemed  for  his  ability,  and 
beloved  for  his  noble  and  saintly  character. 

Mackenzie,  Charles  Frederick,  a  mis¬ 
sionary  of  the  Church  of  England;  b.  at 
Portmore,  Peeblesshire,  April  10,  1825;  d. 
Jan.  31,  1862,  of  fever,  in  Africa.  He  was 
graduated  with  honor  at  Cambridge,  and  in 
1855  went,  with  Bishop  Colenso,  to  Natal, 
as  archdeacon  of  Pieter-Maritzburg.  He 
returned  to  England  in  1859,  and  did  much 
to  arouse  interest  in  the  work  of  missions 
in  Africa.  In  1861  he  was  consecrated  the 
first  bi-shop  of  the  Universities’  Mission  to 
Africa,  his  diocese  covering  territory  bor¬ 
dering  on  Lake  Nyanza.  His  early  death 
was  the  occasion  of  great  sorrow.  See 
Memoir  of  Bishop  Mackenzie ,  by  Dean 
Goodwin  (Cambridge,  1864). 

MacKnight,  James,  D.  D.,  an  eminent 
Scotch  divine;  b.  at  Irvine,  Argyleshire, 
Sept.  17,  1721;  d.  at  Edinburgh,  Jan.  13, 
1800.  He  studied  at  Glasgow  and  Leyden, 
and  in  1753  became  pastor  of  Maybole,  Ayr¬ 
shire;  Jedburgh,  1769-72;  Edinburgh,  1772 


until  his  death.  He  was  an  able  scholar  and 
faithful  minister.  His  principal  works  are 
a  Harmony  of  the  Gospels ,  which  has  passed 
through  many  editions;  The  Trtith  of  Gos¬ 
pel  History ,  and  A  New  Translation  of  the 
Apostolical  Epistles ,  with  a  Commentary  and 
Notes. 

Macleod  ( mak-lowd ),  Norman,  D.  D.,  a 
distinguished  minister  of  the  Church  of 
Scotland, and  the  first  editor  of  Good  Words , 
was  b.  at  Campbelton,  Argyleshire,  June  3, 
1812;  d.  at  Glasgow,  June  16,  1872.  He 
studied  theology  at  Edinburgh  under  Dr. 
Chalmers,  and  after  a  ministry  of  thirteen 
years,  first  at  London  and  then  at  Dalketh, 
he  was  called,  in  1851,  to  take  charge  of 
the  Barony  parish  in  Glasgow.  In  this 
prominent  position  heexertedawide-spread 
influence.  He  organized  and  guided  the 
activities  of  his  parish  with  great  ability, 
and  at  the  same  time  accomplished  a  large 
amount  of  literary  work.  In  addition  to 
his  labors  as  the  editor  of  Good  Words,  he 
wrote:  The  Earnest  Student ;  The  Old  lieu¬ 
tenant  and  his  Son  ;  The  Gold  Thread ;  Char¬ 
acter  Sketches',  The  Starling;  Eastward: 
Peeps  at  the  Far  East,  and  the  exquisite 
story  of  Wee  Davie.  He  was  a  trusted 
friend  of  the  queen,  and  for  many  years 
her  chaplain  for  Scotland.  From  1864  until 
the  year  of  his  death  he  was  chairman  of 
the  committee  on  missions  in  his  church, 
and  visited  India  in  the  interests  of  this 
work.  Few  men  in  his  generation  were 
more  widely  known  and  beloved.  See  Me¬ 
moir  of  Nor?Jian  Macleod,  D.  D . ,  by  his 
brother,  the  Rev.  Donald  Macleod. 

McTyeire,  Holland  Nimmons,  D.  D., 
bishop  of  the  M.  E.  Church,  South;  b.  in 
Barnwell  County,  S.  C.,  July  28,  1824;  d. 
at  Nashville,  Tenn.,  Feb.  15,  1889.  He 
was  graduated  at  Randolph-Macon  College, 
Va.,  1844;  in  the  pastorate  until  1851, 
when  he  was  elected  editor  of  the  New 
Orleans  Christian  Advocate,  and  of  the 
Nashville  Christian  Advocate  in  1858.  In 
1866  he  was  elected  to  the  episcopate,  and 
in  1872  was  made  president  of  the  board  of 
trustees  of  Vanderbilt  University.  He  is 
the  author  of:  Duties  of  Christian  Masters, 
a  prize  essay  (Nashville,  1851);  Catechism 
on  Church  Government  (1869);  Catechism  on 
Bible  History  (1869);  Manual  of  Discipline 
(1870);  History  of  Methodisi?i  (1884). 

Madagascar.  Christian  missions  were 
established  in  Madagascar  in  1818  by 
Messrs.  Jones  and  Bevan,  of  the  London 
Missionary  Society.  Radama,  who  was 
king  at  the  time,  gave  them  every  encour¬ 
agement.  At  his  death,  in  1828,  this  con¬ 
dition  of  affairs  changed,  upon  the  crown- 


Mad 


(  56o  ) 


Mak 


ing  of  one  of  his  wives,  who  compelled  the 
missionaries  to  leave  the  country.  The 
last  missionary  left  in  1836,  and  from  this 
time  until  1857  the  native  Christians  suf¬ 
fered  the  most  cruel  persecutions  ;  but 
they  were  loyal  to  Christ,  even  unto 
death.  Some  were  sold  into  slavery,  oth¬ 
ers  were  killed  while  kneeling  in  prayer, 
or,  bound  hand  and  foot,  were  thrown 
from  a  high  precipice.  In  the  last  perse¬ 
cution,  in  1857,  two  hundred  were  executed. 
The  number  of  Christians  increased,  in 
spite  of  this  opposition.  Radama  II.,  who 
succeeded  the  queen,  favored  Christians, 
and  the  missionaries  again  visited  the 
country.  The  London  Society  in  1882  had 
71,585  communicants  connected  with  their 
churches.  In  1867  the  Friends  established 
a  mission,  with  which,  in  1881,  3,250  mem¬ 
bers,  and  26,000  Christians  were  connected. 
The  Norwegian  Missionary  Society  in  1880 
had  1,200  communicants  in  its  missions. 

Madonna,  an  Italian  word  signifying 
“  my  lady.”  It  corresponds  to  the  Eng¬ 
lish  “  madam,”  but  is  especially  applied 
to  the  Virgin  Mary,  and  to  her  pictures 
and  statues. 

Magarita,  a  name  sometimes  given  in 
tho  Middle  Ages  to  apostates  from  the 
Christian  faith,  especially  those  who  be¬ 
came  Mohammedans. 

Mag'dala  ( toxver ),  the  town  from  whence 
Mary  Magdalene  came,  was  probably  the 
place  now  known  as  el-Mejdel,  on  the  west 
shore  of  the  Lake  of  Galilee.  The  word 
“  Magdala  ”  occurs  only  once  in  the  textus 
receptus  of  the  New  Testament.  (Matt.  xv. 
39-) 

Magdalen,  Order  of.  During  the  lat¬ 
ter  part  of  the  Middle  Ages  several  asso¬ 
ciations  of  women,  under  the  patronage  of 
St.  Mary  Magdalene,  sprang  up  in  differ¬ 
ent  parts  of  Europe,  having  for  their  pur¬ 
pose  the  conversion  of  prostitutes.  As 
early  as  the  middle  of  the  thirteenth  cen¬ 
tury,  the  popes,  Gregory  IX.  and  Innocent 
IV.,  confirmed  such  female  associations 
in  Germany.  Similar  institutions  were 
founded  at  Marseilles  (1272);  at  Naples 
(1324);  at  Paris  (1492);  in  Rome  (1520), 
etc.  The  associations  were  divided  into 
three  classes:  (1)  The  order  of  St.  Mary 
Magdalene,  in  which  the  members  lived 
under  a  vow  and  severe  rules;  (2)  the 
order  of  St.  Martha,  in  which  the  mem¬ 
bers  made  no  vow,  and  were  permitted  to 
return  to  the  world,  and  marry;  (3)  the 
order  of  St.  Lazarus,  in  which  the  mem¬ 
bers  were  kept  by  force,  to  redeem  them 
from  vice. 


Magi,  the  priestly  caste  of  the  moun¬ 
tain  regions  of  Armenia,  who  gave  their 
name  to  a  branch  of  the  Parsees  ( q .  v.). 
According  to  the  ancients,  the  Magi  were 
of  three  classes:  The  first  devoted  them¬ 
selves  to  the  study  of  nature,  the  second 
professed  to  cure  diseases  by  means  of 
charms  and  incantations,  and  the  third 
were  the  invokers  of  spirits.  The  wise 
men  who  came  from  the  East  to  worship 
Christ  at  his  nativity  were  Magi,  and  are 
said  by  tradition  to  have  been  descendants 
of  Abraham. — Benham:  Diet,  of  Religion. 

Magnificat,  thesongof  the  Virgin  Mary, 
so  called  from  the  opening  words  of  the 
Vulgate:  Magnificat  anima  mea  Dominion , 
“My  soul  magnifies  the  Lord.”  (Luke  i. 
46.)  It  was  prescribed  in  the  rules  of 
Csesarius  of  Arles  about  506,  and  its  use  is 
retained  in  the  services  of  Reformed 
churches. 

Ma  gog.  See  Gog  and  Magog. 

Mahana'im  ( two  camps ),  a  town  named 
by  Jacob  (Gen.  xxxii.  1,  2),  given  to  the 
Levites  (Josh.  xiii.  26,  30;  xxi.  38;  1  Chron. 
vi.  80),  and  located  in  the  territory  of  Gad, 
near  the  river  Jabbok.  Here  Ish-bosheth 
dwelt  (2  Sam.  ii.  8,  12),  and  David  found 
refuge  in  his  flight  from  Absalom  (xvii.  24, 
27;  1  Kings  ii.  8).  The  place  has  not  yet 
been  identified  with  certainty. 

Mahomet.  See  Mohammed. 

Maimonides  (mi-mon' -e-dez),  Moses,  one 
of  the  most  celebrated  of  Jewish  rabbis;  b. 
at  Cordova,  March  30,  1135;  d.  1204.  His 
learning  and  ability  were  so  great  the  say¬ 
ing  became  common — “  From  Moses  to 
Moses  no  one  has  arisen  like  Moses.”  He 
was  the  first  to  arrange  in  order  the  Jewish 
traditions,  and  the  discussions  that  had 
arisen  from  them.  His  great  works  are  a 
Commentary  on  the  Mishna  and  the  Mishna 
Thora.  His  views  aroused  a  great  conflict 
of  opinions,  but  in  time  the  fame  of  Mai¬ 
monides  became  preeminent.  Portions  of 
his  works  have  been  translated  into  Eng¬ 
lish. 

Makemie,  Francis,  the  founder  of  the 
Presbyterian  Church  in  the  United  States; 
b.  near  Rathmelton,  Donegal  County,  Ire¬ 
land  (date  unknown) ;  d.  in  Accomac 
County,  Va. ,  1708.  He  was  licensed  to 
preach  in  1681,  and  first  went  to  Barbadoes, 
and  then  to  Maryland,  where  he  organized 
the  first  Presbyterian  Church  in  the  United 
States  at  Snow  Hill.  He  made  evangelistic 
tours  through  Virginia  and  South  Carolina, 
and  in  1704  visited  England,  and  secured 


Mai 


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Mai 


John  Hampton  and  George  Macnish  as 
missionary  helpers.  While  in  London,  he 
published:  A  Plain  and  Loving  Persuasion 
to  the  Inhabitants  of  Virginia  and  Maryland 
for  Promoting  Towns  and  Cohabitation .  In 
1707,  while  preaching  in  the  neighborhood 
of  New  York,  he  was  seized  at  Newtown, 
L.  I.,  by  order  of  Lord  Cornbury,  and  put 
in  prison  for  preaching  without  a  proper 
license.  Upon  his  acquittal  he  was  com¬ 
pelled  to  pay  the  cost  of  his  trial  (eighty 
pounds).  Besides  a  Catechism  (now  lost), 
he  published  An  Answer  to  George  Keith's 
Libel  on  the  Catechism ,  published  by  F. 
Makemie  (Boston,  1692).  See  Sprague: 
Annals ,  vol.  iii. ;  and  Gillett:  History  of  the 
Presbyt eria n  Chu rch . 

Malachi.  “  Of  the  author  of  this  book 
nothing  is  known,  and  as  the  name,  which 
means  Messenger  of  Jehovah,  does  not  oc¬ 
cur  anywhere  else  in  the  Old  Testament, 
it  has  been  regarded  and  accepted  in  some 
versions  of  the  Bible,  and  by  several  crit¬ 
ics,  as  an  appellative  or  official  title  of,  as 
is  surmised,  Ezra,  Nehemiah,  or  some 
other  person.  Whether  Malachi  be  tne 
name  of  a  real  person  or  not,  his  prophe¬ 
cies  refer  tp  abuses  which  did  not  begin  to 
make  their  appearance  till  fifty  years  after 
the  restoration  of  the  temple;  and  it  must 
have  been  some  considerable  time  after 
that  before  they  assumed  the  dimensions 
in  which  the  prophet  here  denounces  them. 
These  abuses  appear  to  have  come  to  a 
head  in  the  interval  between  the  first  and 
second  visits  of  Nehemiah  to  Jerusalem, 
and  it  is  probable,  from  his  description  of 
the  people  agreeing  with  that  of  Neh.  xiii. 
6  sec/.,  that  it  was  on  the  occasion  of  this 
second  visit  that  this  ‘  last  of  the  prophets.’ 
uttered  his  warning  words,  about  420  b.  c. 
The  last  of  the  prophets,  indeed;  for  not 
only  do  we  miss  the  old  prophetic  fire,  but 
ail  impression  is  given  as  if  the  prophetic 
office  were  ended.  He  sums  up  all  he  has 
to  say  by  referring  his  hearers  back  to  the 
law  of  the  Lord,  as  that  to  which  all  the 
prophets  before  him  had  borne  witness,  and 
finishes  by  a  prediction  of  the  time,  now 
not  far  off, when  the  first  of  his  line — Elijah 
— should  revive  and  usher  in  the  judgment 
which  is  to  precede  the  final  redemption 
and  the  reconciliation  of  ‘  the  fathers  to  the 
children  and  the  children  to  the  fathers.’ 

“  Divisions  of  the  book. — The  prophecy  is 
one,  but  the  sections  are  three: — (a)  chaps. 
1.  6— ii.  9;  (b)  chap.  ii.  10-16;  and  (r)  chaps, 
u.  17-iv.,  the  whole  preceded  by  an  Intro¬ 
duction,  chap.  i.  1-5. 

Contents. — The  Introduction  reminds 
the  people  of  the  special  regard  the  Lord  has 
for  them,  {a)  Chap.  i.  6-14  rebukes  the 
priests  for  their  profanation  of  the  Lord’s 


name,  their  pollution  of  his  altar,  and  their 
hireling  spirit,  in  consideration  of  which 
God  threatens  to  cast  then}  off  and  accept 
the  homage  of  the  Gentiles.  Chap.  ii.  1-9 
rebukes  the  priests  for  their  want  of  rev¬ 
erence  of  God’s  name  and  regard  for  his 
law.  ( b )  Chap.  ii.  10-16  rebukes  both 
priest  and  people  for  their  intermarriages 
with  the  idolatrous  aliens.  ( c )  Chaps,  ii. 
17-iv.,  while  rebuking  the  people  for  their 
skeptical  morality  and  their  scoffing  spirit, 
reassert  the  certain  approach  of  God’s 
judgment,  with  the  promise  to  all  who  obey 
his  voice  and  wait  for  his  salvation.” — Bag- 
ster:  Bible  Helps.  See  Pusey:  Com.  on  Mi¬ 
nor  Prophets,  vol.  ii. ;  Packard  in  American 
series  of  Lange  (1875). 

Malachy,  St.,  the  first  Irish  saint  canon¬ 
ized  by  the  pope;  b.  1095;  d.  1148.  He 
was  efficient  in  bringing  the  Irish  Church 
under  the  authority  of  Rome,  and  in  1134 
became  archbishop  of  Armagh.  He  died 
at  Clairvaux  in  the  arms  of  his  intimate 
friend,  St.  Bernard,  who  wrote  his  funeral 
panegyric.  He  was  long  the  reputed  au¬ 
thor  of  the  so-called  Prophecies  of  Si.  Mal¬ 
achy  Concerning  the  Popes,  but  the  forgery 
was  uncovered  by  the  Jesuit,  Menestrier 
(1686). 

Malakanes,  a  sect  which  originated  in 
southern  Russia  about  the  middle  of  the 
last  century.  Contrary  to  the  rule  of  the 
Eastern  Church,  they  take  milk  on  fast- 
days,  and  the  name  by  which  they  are  gen¬ 
erally  known  is  a  term  of  reproach,  from 
the  word  Malkado,  “  milk.”  They  prefer 
to  be  called  Gospelmen.  They  accept  the 
Bible  as  the  Word  of  God,  and  hold  ortho¬ 
dox  views  of  theology.  The  worship  of 
saints  and  images  is  forbidden,  and  they 
enjoin  a  strict  observance  of  the  Lord’s  day. 
They  believe  in  the  millennium,  and  in  1833 
many  of  them  were  misled  by  the  announce¬ 
ment  of  a  fanatic,  named  Belioreff,  that' 
within  thirty  months  Christ  would  appear. 
Belioreff  prophesied  that,  like  Elijah,  he 
should  ascend  to  heaven.  Multitudes  gath¬ 
ered  at  the  appointed  time,  only  to  witness, 
the  discomfiture  of  the  crazy  fanatic,  who 
was  seized  by  the  police.  To  avoid  perse¬ 
cution,  many  of  the  sect  emigrated  to 
Georgia,  Asia.  See  Blunt:  Dictionary  of 
Sects. 

Malan {malon'),  Cesar  Henri  Abraham, 
b.  at  Geneva,  Switzerland,  July  7,  1787;  d. 
there,  May  18,  1864.  He  studied  theology 
in  his  native  city,  and  was  ordained  in  1810. 
The  beginning  of  a  distinct  spiritual  ex¬ 
perience  in  1817  led  him  to  disobey  the  or¬ 
ders,  that  had  been  given  by  the  association 
of  ministers  with  which  he  was  connected, 


Mai 


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Man 


and  who  were  in  sympathy  with  rational¬ 
istic  views,  that  debatable  doctrines  should 
not  be  preached.  The  pulpits  of  Geneva 
were  closed  against  him,  but  he  gathered 
a  little  company  of  adherents,  who  first 
worshiped  in  his  own  house,  and  after¬ 
ward  in  a  small  chapel  which  he  built. 
After  1830  he  made  long  evangelistic  tours 
in  parts  of  Switzerland,  Germany,  France, 
the  Netherlands,  and  Scotland,  in  which 
his  labors  were  greatly  blessed.  He  wrote 
many  works  of  a  religious  character,  one 
of  the  best  known  being  Chants  de  Sion,  a 
collection  of  hymns  often  reprinted.  His 
Life  was  written  by  one  of  his  sons  (1868). 

Malay  Archipelago,  or  Indian  Archi¬ 
pelago.  Besides  the  native  religions,  which 
hold  to  a  rude  sort  of  nature-worship,  Mo¬ 
hammedanism  and  Buddhism  have  many 
adherents.  Early  in  the  seventeenth  cen¬ 
tury  these  islands  came  under  the  control 
of  the  Dutch,  who  still  hold  them.  Almost 
coercive  attempts  were  early  made  by  them 
to  secure  converts  to  the  Reformed  faith. 
All  were  received  who  could  prove  that 
they  knew  the  Lord’s  Prayer  and  the  Ten 
Commandments.  This  kind  of  perfunctory 
confession  did  little  good,  and  in  time  the 
Dutch  authorities  were  inclined  to  favor 
Mohammedanism.  In  Java,  with  a  popula¬ 
tion  of  18,000,000,  there  are  only  about 
4,000  converts.  The  Minahassa  Mission  on 
Celebes  since  1826  has  prosecuted  a  work 
that  has  gathered  80,000  of  the  natives  in 
200  congregations.  In  Borneo  the  Rhen¬ 
ish  Society  began  work  in  1859.  Seven  of 
the  missionaries  were  killed.  There  are 
now  over  500  converts  on  the  island.  The 
Society  for  the  Propagation  of  the  Gospel 
has  a  mission  in  the  northwest  part  of  the 
island,  with  some  1 ,500  native  and  Chinese 
converts.  On  Sumatra  the'  Rhenish  So¬ 
ciety  has  a  flourishing  work,  with  some 
5,000  native  converts. 

Malcom,  Howard,  D.  D.,  b.  in  Phila¬ 
delphia,  Jan.  19,  1799;  d.  there,  March  25, 
1879.  He  was  graduated  at  Dickinson 
College,  Penn.,  and  Princeton  Seminary. 
After  laboring  as  a  pastor  of  Baptist 
churches  in  Hudson,  N.  Y.,  Boston,  and 
Philadelphia,  he  was  president  of  George¬ 
town  (Ky.)  College,  1840-49,  and  of  Lew- 
isburg  (Penn.)  University,  1851-57,  when 
he  retired,  and  devoted  himself  to  literary 
pursuits.  He  was  one  of  the  founders  of 
the  American  Tract  Society,  and  of  the 
American  Sunday-school  Union.  Among 
other  books,  he  edited  a  Dictionary  of  the 
Bible  (1826,  new  ed.,  1851),  of  which  more 
than  130,000  have  been  sold;  The  Extent 
and  Efficacy  of  the  Atonement  (1829);  Trav¬ 
els,  in  Southeastern  Asia,  2  vols.  (10th  ed., 


Phila.,  1837);  and  Theological  Index  (  Phila. , 
1870). 

Malebranche,  Nicolas,  a  famous  French 
philosopher,  and  one  of  the  most  prom¬ 
inent  of  the  disciples  of  Cartesius;  b.  in 
Paris,  Aug.  6,  1638;  d.  there,  Oct.  13,  1715. 
The  principal  exposition  of  his  views  is 
found  in  his  first  work,  De  la  Recherche  de 
la  Verite'  (Paris,  1674).  “  He  adopted  the 

absolute  distinction  which  Cartesius  made 
between  spirit  and  matter,  soul  and  body. 
But  the  relation  between  these  two  oppo¬ 
sites,  which  Cartesius  left  unexplained,  or 
only  vaguely  explained  by  postulating  a 
perpetual  divine  mediation  between  them, 
Malebranche  made  the  subject  of  his  deep¬ 
est  meditation  ;  and,  hence,  resulted  his 
peculiar  doctrine:  That  events  taking  place 
in  the  one  sphere  occasioned  God  to  effect 
corresponding  readjustments  in  the  other, 
so  that  nothing  could  be  truly  understood 
unless  ‘  seen  in  God.’  ” — Schaff-Herzog: 
Ency.  ,vol.  ii. ,  p.  1392.  Among  other  works, 
he  wrote  De  la  Nature  et  la  Grace,  which 
developed  a  system  of  mystic  idealism  that 
was  opposed  by  Bossuet,  Arnauld,  and 
others.  His  life  was  marked  by  great 
piety  and  devotion. 

Mammon  (Matt.  vi.  24;  Luke  xvi.  9),  a 
word  which  often  occurs  in  the  Chaldee 
Targums  of  Onkelos  and  later  writers,  and 
in  the  Syriac  Version,  and  which  signifies 
“  riches.”  It  is  used  in  St.  Matthew  as  a 
personification  of  riches. 

Mam're,  a  place  near  Hebron,  so-called 
from  an  Amorite  chief.  (Gen.  xiv.  13,  24.) 
It  was  also  the  name  of  the  plain  and 
grove  where  Abraham  entertained  three 
angels  (Gen.  xiii.  18;  xviii.  1),  near  Mach- 
pelah.  (Gen.  xxiii.  17,  19.)  The  Palestine 
Exploration  Fund  locates  Mamre  at  Ballot  et 
Selta,  the  “  oak  of  rest.”  The  tree  is  called 
Abraham’s  Oak. 

Manas'seh,  son  and  successor  of  Heze- 
kiah,  king  of  Judah.  He  ascended  the 
throne  at  the  age  of  twelve  years  (b.  c. 
696).  His  reign  in  its  early  period  was 
marked  by  deeds  of  impiety  and  cruelty 
(2  Kings  xxi.),  and  his  influence  sided  with 
the  party  that  carried  their  opposition  to 
the  worship  of  Jehovah  to  such  an  extent 
that  it  was  not  permitted  in  Judah.  He 
supported  the  Babylonian  viceroy  in  his 
revolt  against  Assyria,  and  was  finally 
taken  captive  by  the  Assyrian  king,  and 
carried  to  Babylon  as  a  prisoner.  Under 
the  discipline  of  trial,  he  sought  in  repent¬ 
ance  the  favor  of  God.  His  prayer  was 
answered,  and  after  his  release  and  return 
to  Jerusalem,  he  cleansed  the  city  of  idol- 


Man 


(  563  ) 


Man 


atry,  and  restored  the  worship  of  Jehovah. 
{2  Chron.  xxxiii.  1-20.) 

Manasseh,  Prayer  of.  See  Apoc¬ 
rypha. 

Manasseh,  Tribe  of.  See  Tribes  of 
Israel. 

Mandaeans.  See  Mend.eans. 

Mandrake,  a  member  of  the  potato  fam¬ 
ily  {man drag-ora  officinalis ).  It  is  a  stem¬ 
less  plant,  with  leaves  nearly  as  long,  but 
not  as  wide,  as  the  common  garden  rhu¬ 
barb.  The  rich  purple  blossoms,  which 
appear  early,  are  followed  about  wheat- 
harvest  by  yellow,  pulpy  fruit  of  the  size 
of  a  large  plum.  The  odor  is  enjoyed  by 
the  natives  (Cant.  vii.  13),  but  is  usually 
very  disagreeable  to  foreigners.  Among 
other  superstitions  connected  with  this 
plant,  the  Orientals,  as  in  Rachel’s  time, 
believe  that  conception  is  insured  by  eating 
the  fruit.  (Gen.  xxx.  14-16.) 

Mandyas,  an  ecclesiastical  vestment 
worn  by  Greek  monks,  and  sometimes  by 
bishops.  It  resembles  the  cope,  and  reaches 
almost  to  the  feet. 

Manetho,  a  celebrated  Egyptian  historian 
and  priest,  who  flourished  in  the  third 
century  b.  c.  Only  fragments  of  his  works 
have  been  preserved  in  Josephus,  Julius 
Africanus,  and  Eusebius.  Manetho’s  list 
of  dynasties,  covering  some  thirty-five  hun¬ 
dred  years,  was  at  one  time  disputed  by 
Egyptologists,  but  recent  discoveries  have 
confirmed  their  correctness. 

Mani,  the  founder  of  Manichaeism, 
sprang  from  a  distinguished  Persian  fam¬ 
ily,  which  settled  at  Ctesiphon,  in  Baby¬ 
lonia,  and  was  b.  at  Mardinu  in  215  A.  D.  His 
father,  about  the  time  of  the  birth  of  his 
son,  retired  from  public  life,  and  connected 
himself  with  the  Mughtasilahs,  or  Baptiz- 
ers,  a  religious  sect  which  then  flourished 
on  the  Lower  Tigris,  and  were  the  fore¬ 
runners  of  the  Manichaeans.  Mani  was 
educated  among  this  sect,  but  separated 
from  them  in  his  thirteenth  year,  and  then 
adopted  the  ascetic  rules,  which  he  after¬ 
ward  prescribed  for  the  Perfect  among  his 
followers.  His  system  was  completed  in 
his  twenty-fourth  year,  and  four  years 
later  he  proclaimed  himself  as  the  founder 
of  anew  religion.  (See  Manichaeans.)  Mani 
did  not  gain  the  favor  of  the  king,  and  for 
many  years  he  labored  outside  the  Persian 
Empire.  He  returned  for  a  little  time  to 
Persia,  but  was  again  and  again  exiled, 
and  in  276  was  seized  and  crucified. 


Manichae'ans,  “a  religious  sect,  founded 
by  Mani,  which,  although  it  utterly  dis¬ 
claimed  being  denominated  Christian,  yet 
was  reckoned  among  the  heretical  bodies 
of  the  Church.  It  was  intended  to  blend 
the  chief  dogmas  of  Parseeism,  or  rather 
Magism,  as  reformed  by  Zoroaster,  with  a 
certain  number  of  Buddhistic  views,  under 
the  outward  garb  of  biblical,  more  especial¬ 
ly  New  Testament,  history,  which,  ex¬ 
plained  allegorically  and  symbolically ,  was 
made  to  represent  an  entire  new  religious 
system,  and  one  entirely  at  variance  with 
Christianity  and  its  fundamental  teachings. 
The  Manichaeans  assumed,  above  all,  two 
chief  principles,  whence  had  sprung  all 
visible  and  invisible  creation,  and  which — 
totally  antagonistic  in  their  natures — were 
respectively  styled  the  Light,  the  Good,  or 
God,  and  the  Darkness,  the  Bad,  Matter, 
or  Archon.  They  each  inhabited  a  region 
akin  to  their  natures,  and  excluding  each 
other  to  such  a  degree  that  the  region  of 
darkness  and  its  leader  never  knew  of  the 
existence  of  that  of  the  light.  Twelve 
aeons — corresponding  to  the  twelve  signs 
of  the  zodiac  and  the  twelve  stages  of  the 
world — had  sprung  (emanated)  from  the 
primeval  light;  while  ‘darkness,’  filled  with 
the  eternal  fire,  which  burned  but  shone 
not,  was  peopled  by  ‘  demons,’  who  were 
constantly  fighting  among  themselves.  In 
one  of  these  contests,  pressing  toward  the 
outer  edge,  as  it  were,  of  their  region, 
they  became  aware  of  the  neighboring  re¬ 
gion,  and  forthwith  united,  attacked  it,  and 
succeeded  in  carrying  the  ray  of  light,  that 
was  sent  against  them  at  the  head  of  the 
hosts  of  light,  and  which  was  the  embodi¬ 
ment  of  the  ideal  or  primeval  man  (Christ), 
captive.  A  stronger  aeon,  however  (the 
Holy  Ghost),  hurried  to  the  rescue,  and 
redeemed  the  greater  and  better  part  of  the 
captive  light  (Jesus  impatibilis).  The 
smaller  and  fainter  portion,  however  (Jesus 
passibilis),  remained  in  the  hands  of  the 
powers  of  darkness,  and  out  of  this  they 
formed, after  the  ideal  of  The  Man  of  Light , 
mortal  man.  But  even  the  small  fraction 
of  light  left  in  him  (broken  in  two  souls) 
would  have  prevailed  against  them,  had 
they  not  found  means  to  further  divide 
and  subdivide  it  by  the  propagation  of  this 
man  (Eve — sin).  Not  yet  satisfied,  they 
still  more  dimmed  it  by  burying  it  under 
dark  ‘  forms  of  belief  and  faith,  such  as  pa¬ 
ganism  and  Judaism.’  Once  more,  how¬ 
ever,  the  original  light  came  to  save  the 
light  buried  in  man,  in  the  person  of 
Christ,  descending  from  the  sun, with  which 
he  is  one.  The  demons  succeeded,  how¬ 
ever,  in  cutting  his  career  of  salvation 
short  by  seducing  man  to  crucify  him.  His 
sufferings  and  death  were  naturally  only 


Man 


(  564  ) 


Man 


fictitious,  since  he  could  not  in  reality  die; 
he  only  allowed  himself  to  become  an 
example  of  endurance  and  passive  pain  for 
his  own,  the  souls  of  light.  Since,  how¬ 
ever,  even  his  immediate  adherents,  the 
apostles,  were  not  strong  enough  to  suffer 
as  he  had  bid  them,  he  promised  them  a 
paraclete,  who  should  complete  his  own 
work.  This  paraclete  was  Mani,  who  sur¬ 
rounded  himself,  like  Christ,  with  twelve 
apostles,  and  sent  them  into  the  world  to 
teach  and  to  preach  his  doctrine  of  salva¬ 
tion.  The  end  of  the  ‘  world  ’  will  be  fire, 
in  which  the  region  of  darkness  will  be 
consumed  and  utterly  annihilated.  To  at¬ 
tain  to  the  region  of  eternal  light,  it  is  nec¬ 
essary  that  passion,  or  rather  the  body, 
should  be  utterly  subdued;  hence  rigor¬ 
ous  abstinence  from  all  sensual  pleasures, 
asceticism,  in  fact,  to  the  utmost  degree, 
is  to  be  exercised.  The  believers  are  di¬ 
vided  into  two  classes,  the  elect  and  the 
auditors.  The  elect  have  to  adhere  to  the 
Signaculum,  Oris,  Manus,  and  Sinus,  that 
is,  they  have  to  take  the  oath  of  abstinence 
from  evil  and  profane  speech  (including 
‘  religious  terms  such  as  Christians  use 
respecting  the  Godhead  and  religion  ’), 
further,  from  flesh,  eggs,  milk,  fish,  wine, 
and  all  intoxicating  drinks  (cf.  Manu:  Instit. 
vv.  51,  52,  53:  ‘  He  who  makes  the  flesh 
of  an  animal  his  food  ....  not  a  mortal 
exists  more  sinful  ....  he  who  .... 
desires  to  enlarge  his  own  flesh  with  the 
flesh  of  another  creature,’  etc.);  further, 
from  the  possession  of  riches,  or,  indeed, 
any  property  whatsoever;  from  hurting 
any  being  —  animal  or  vegetable;  from 
heeding  their* own  family,  or  showing  any 
pity  to  him  who  is  not  of  the  Manichaean 
creed;  and  finally,  from  breaking  their 
chastity  by  marriage  or  otherwise.  The 
auditors  were  comparatively  free  to  par¬ 
take  of  the  good  things  of  this  world,  but 
they  had  to  provide  for  the  subsistence  of 
the  elect,  and  their  highest  aim  also  was  the 
attainment  of  the  state  of  their  superior 
brethren.  In  this  Manichaean  Avorship, 
the  visible  representatives  of  the  light 
(sun  and  moon)  were  re\7ered,  but  only 
as  representatives  of  the  ideal,  of  the 
good  or  supreme  God.  Neither  altar  nor 
sacrifice  Avas  to  be  found  in  their  places 
of  religious  assemblies,  nor  did  they  erect 
sumptuous  temples.  Fasts,  prayers,  occa¬ 
sional  readings  in  the  supposed  Avritings  of 
Mani,  chiefly  a  certain  Fundamental  Epistle, 
Avere  all  their  outer  worship.  The  Old 
Testament  they  rejected  unconditionally: 
of  the  New  Testament  they  retained  cer¬ 
tain  portions,  revised  and  redacted  by  the 
paraclete.  (August,  c.  Faust,  book  xviii. ; 
cf.  book  ix.)  Sunday,  as  the  day  on  Avhich 
the  ATisible  universe  Avas  to  be  consumed. 


the  day  consecrated  to  the  sun,  Avas  kept 
as  a  great  festival;  and  the  most  solemn 
day  in  their  year  was  the  anniversary  of 
the  death  of  Mani.  Baptism  and  the  Lord’s 
Supper  were  celebrated  as  mysteries  of  the 
elect.  Of  this  mode  of  celebration,  hoAv- 
ever,  Ave  know  next  to  nothing;  even 
Augustine,  who  for  about  nine  years  be¬ 
longed  to  the  sect,  and  who  is  our  chief 
authority  on  this  subject,  confesses  his  ig¬ 
norance  of  it.  As  to  the  general  morality 
of  the  Manichaeans,  Ave  are  equally  left  to 
conjecture ;  but  their  doctrine  certainly  ap¬ 
pears  to  have  had  a  tendency,  chiefly  in  the 
case  of  the  uneducated,  to  lead  to  a  sensual 
fanaticism  hurtful  to  a  pure  mode  of  life. 

“  The  outward  history  of  the  sect  is  one 
of  almost  continuous  persecution.  Diocle¬ 
tian,  as  early  as  296  A.  d.,  issued  rigorous 
laws  against  them,  Avhich  Avere  reiterated 
by  Valentinian,  Theodosius  I.,  and  succes¬ 
sive  monarchs.  Notwithstanding  this, 
they  gained  numerous  adherents;  and  very 
many  mediaeval  sects,  as  the  Priscillians, 
Katharenes,  Josephinians,  etc.,  Avere  sus¬ 
pected  to  be  secretly  Manichaeans.  Italy, 
the  south  of  France,  Spain,  and  even  Ger¬ 
many,  were  the  successive  seats  of  this 
sect,  which  did  not  disappear  entirely  until 
the  time  of  the  Reformation.” — Chambers: 
Cyclopcedia . 

Manichaeism.  See  ManicH/EANS. 

Maniple,  a  linen  scarf  or  handkerchief 
Avorn  about  the  left  arm  by  Roman  Cath¬ 
olic  priests.  As  a  sacred  vestment  it  is 
not  knoAvn  until  the  eighth  or  ninth  cen¬ 
tury.  It  symbolizes  the  fruit  of  good 
Avorks,  Avhich  are  Avon  only  by  faithful  and 
incessant  labors. 

Man'na,  a  substance  miraculously  fur¬ 
nished  to  the  children  of  Israel  on  their 
journey  through  the  Avilderness.  It  Avas 
called  the  bread  from  heaven,  and  its  charac¬ 
ter  and  history  are  given  in  Exod.  xvi.  For 
forty  years  betAveen  3,000,000  and  4,000,- 
000  of  people  were  supplied  Avith  this  food. 
It  ceased  at  Gilgal,  Avhen  for  the  first  time 
they  celebrated  the  Passover  in  the  Land 
of  Promise.  The  manna  noAV  used  in  med¬ 
icine  is  from  the  juice  of  the  ash  ( ornus ), 
and  comes  from  southern  Europe.  It  has 
no  connection  Avith  the  manna  of  the  Avil¬ 
derness,  and  the  same  is  true  of  the  manna 
gathered  by  the  Arabs,  which  exudes 
from  the  tAvigs  of  the  tamarisk  in  the  des¬ 
erts  of  Sinai,  and  drops  upon  the  ground. 

Manning,  Henry  Edward,  Roman  Cath¬ 
olic  cardinal;  b.  at  Totteridge,  Hertford¬ 
shire,  Eng.,  July  15,  180S.  He  Avas  edu¬ 
cated  at  Balliol  College,  Oxford,  Avhere  he 


Man 


( 565 ) 


Map 


acted,  for  a  time,  as  a  select  preacher  to 
the  university.  In  1834  he  became  rector 
of  Lavington  and  Graffham,  Sussex,  and 
married.  He  was  active  in  the  “  Oxford 
movement,”  and  in  1851  resigned  his  pre¬ 
ferments.  The  same  year  he  entered  the 
Roman  Catholic  Church  (his  wife  having 
previously  died),  and,  after  studying  the¬ 
ology  at  Rome,  he  received  the  degree  of 
D.  D.  in  1854.  Returning  to  England,  he 
became  very  active  in  laying  Roman  Cath¬ 
olic  foundations.  He  was  a  member  of 
the  Vatican  Council  (1869-70),  and  was 
appointed  cardinal  by  Pius  IX.  in  1877. 
Among  his  published  works  are  :  The 
Ground  of  Faith  (1852);  The  Temporal 
Power  of  the  Vicar  of  Jesus  Christ  (1862); 
True  Story  of  the  Vatican  Council  (1877); 
The  Catholic  Church  and  Modern  Society 
<1880). 

Manning,  James,  first  president  of  Brown 
University;  b.  in  Elizabethtown,  N.  J. ;  d. 
at  Providence,  R.  I.,  July  24,  1791.  He 
was  educated  at  the  College  of  New  Jersey, 
Princeton.  After  his  graduation  (1762), 
in  the  following  year  he  went  to  Rhode 
Island  and  started  a  seminary  under  the 
direction  of  the  Baptists.  In  1764  it  was 
chartered  as  the  Rhode  Island  College. 
Dr.  Manning  was  chosen  as  president,  and 
at  the  same  time  he  was  pastor  of  the  Bap¬ 
tist  church  at  Warren,  and  then  at  Prov¬ 
idence.  In  1786  he  was  a  member  of  Con¬ 
gress.  See  Lives  of  the  Leaders  of  the 
Church  Universal  (pp.  608-614),  by  H.  M. 
Maccracken. 

Manse,  the  Scottish  name  for  parsonage. 
Where  the  church  is  unendowed,  the 
manse  is  owned  and  maintained  by  the 
Church,  but  in  the  Established  Church  it 
is  built  and  maintained  by  law,  and  belongs 
to  the  heritors. 

Mansel,  Henry  Longueville,  Dean  of 
St.  Paul’s;  b.  Oct.  6,  1820,  at  Cosgrove, 
Northamptonshire,  Eng.;  d.  in  London, 
July  13,  1871.  He  was  graduated  at  Oxford 
University,  where  he  gained  the  highest 
honors.  In  1855  he  became  Reader  in 
Moral  and  Metaphysical  Philosophy  at 
Magdalen  College;  Bampton  Lecturer  in 
1858;  Waynflete  Professor  of  Logic  in 
1859;  and  Regius  Professor  of  Ecclesiastical 
History  in  1866.  Two  years  later  he  suc¬ 
ceeded  Dr.  Milman  as  Dean  of  St.  Paul’s, 
London.  The  publication  of  Dr.  Man- 
sel’s  Bampton  Lectures,  entitled  Limits  of 
Religious  Thought ,  marks  an  epoch  in  the 
history  of  English  theology.  It  was  an 
eager  reiteration  of  the  views  of  Sir  Will¬ 
iam  Hamilton,  whose  works  Mansel  had 
already  edited,  and  maintained  that  man’s 


intellect,  being  finite,  cannot  know  absolute 
truth,  but  must  depend  upon  a  revelation 
which  comes  from  without,  and  which  is 
regulative  and  practical.  This  view  was 
immediately  assailed  by  Professor  Mau¬ 
rice  in  a  series  of  letters,  which  he  pub¬ 
lished  under  the  title  of  What  is  Revelation  ? 
Mansel  replied  with  much  acrimony,  and  a 
very  bitter  controversy  began  and  spread 
among  other  writers.  Maurice  contended 
that  Mansel,  by  divorcing  Reason  from 
Faith  destroyed  the  life  of  both;  that  God 
does  reveal,  not  regulative  truths,  but  his 
very  self  to  man.  Certainly  the  doctrine 
known  in  modern  days  as  Agnosticism  is 
professedly  an  acceptance  of  Mansel’s  chal¬ 
lenge.  He  said:  “  You  cannot  know  God. 
All  you  can  do  is  to  believe  what  is  told 
you  on  miraculous  evidence.”  The  retort 
was,  “  That  evidence  is  not  such  as  con¬ 
vinces  us,  and  we  therefore  reject  it,  and 
all  belief  with  it.”  But  the  belief  that  God 
does  speak  directly  to  the  conscience,  and 
that  by  appeals  to  that  conscience  Christ 
brought  conviction,  was  a  living  faith  ages 
before  Sir  W.  Hamilton  was  born,  and  will 
outlive  all  such  theories. 

Mansel  was  a  brilliant  logician,  and  was 
also  known  at  Oxford  as  a  clever  satirist 
and  wit.  A  satire  of  his  in  the  manner  of 
Aristophanes  against  the  Pantheism  of  the 
Neologian  writers  had  a  wonderful  success, 
and  quotations  from  it  were  on  every  one’s 
tongue.  His  history  of  the  Gnostic  heresies 
was  edited  by  Bishop  Lightfoot,  and  there 
is  a  Life  of  him,  by  Lord  Carnarvon. — Ben- 
ham:  Diet,  of  Religion. 

Manton,  Thomas,  a  distinguished  Non¬ 
conformist;  b.  in  Somersetshire,  1620;  d. 
in  London,  Oct.  18,  1677.  He  was  educated 
at  Oxford,  and  was  first  settled  at  Stoke 
Newington,  near  London.  He  was  one  of 
Cromwell’s  chaplains,  and  preached  fre¬ 
quently  before  the  Parliament.  Favoring 
the  Restoration  he  became  one  of  Charles 
II. ’s  chaplains,  and  took  part  in  the  Savoy 
Conference.  In  1662  he  was  deprived  of  his 
living,  by  the  Act  of  Uniformity.  He  was 
an  able  preacher  and  theologian.  Among 
his  best-known  works  are  expositions  of 
James,  Jude,  the  Lord’s  Prayer,  and  Isaiah 
liii. ,  and  CXC.  Sermons  on  the  cxix.  Psalm. 
A  reprinted  edition  of  his  Works ,  by  Rev. 
J.  C.  Ryle,  was  published  in  1870-75,  22 
vols. 

Manuscripts.  See  Bible,  pp.  103-106. 

Maori.  See  New  Zealand. 

Mappa,aname  which  designates  the  linen 
cloth  with  which  the  communion-tame,  and 
afterward  the  altar,  was  covered.  Linen 


Mar 


(  566  ) 


Mar 


was  always  used  as  the  material  for  making 
the  mappa  because  the  body  of  Christ  was 
wrapped  in  a  linen  cloth. 

Ma'rah  ( bitterness ),  a  place  in  the  wilder¬ 
ness  of  Shur,  three  days’  journey  from  the 
point  where  the  Israelites  crossed  the  Red 
Sea.  (Num.  xxxiii.  8,  9.)  Here  was  the 
spring  of  bitter  water  made  sweet  by  the 
casting  in  of  a  tree  which  the  Lord  showed 
Moses.  (Ex.  xv.  23,  24.)  Robinson  and 
others  think  it  probable  that  the  spring  at 
Ain  Hawarak ,  forty-seven  miles  distant 
from  Ayun  Mousa,  is  identical  with  Marah, 
as  the  worst  water  in  the  district  is  found 
here.  It  is  certain  that  the  spring  was  in 
this  neighborhood. 

Maranath'a,  an  Aramaic  expression,  sig¬ 
nifying,  “  Our  Lord  cometh,”  used  by 
Paul  in  1  Cor.  xvi.  22. 

Marburg,  Conference  of.  Luther  and 
Zwingli,  as  the  leaders  respectively  of  the 
German  and  Swiss  Reformation,  were  op¬ 
posed  to  each  other  regarding  the  doctrine 
of  the  Lord’s  Supper.  This  contention 
was  the  source  of  deep  anxiety,  and  Philip 
of  Hesse  was  especially  active  in  seeking 
to  bring  about  a  reconciliation.  He  orig¬ 
inated  the  conference,  which  opened  its 
sessions  at  Marburg,  Oct.  2,  1529.  Luther 
and  Zwingli,  with  their  leading  adherents, 
were  present,  but  after  discussions  lasting 
for  three  days,  no  agreement  was  arrived 
at  on  the  contested  points  of  doctrine.  Fif¬ 
teen  articles  referring  to  the  general  prin¬ 
ciples  of  Protestantism  in  opposition  to 
Romanism  were  drawn  up,  and  subscribed 
to  by  all  present.  These  articles  were 
afterward  made  the  basis  of  the  Confessio 
A  ugustana. 

Marcellians  and  Marcellinists,  two  he¬ 
retical  sects  that  flourished  from  the  latter 
part  of  the  second  century.  The  first-men¬ 
tioned  were  the  followers  of  Marcellus  of 
Ancyra  ( q .  z/. ),  and  the  second  of  Marcel- 
lina,  a  pupil  of  Carpocrates,  whose  system 
of  Gnosticism  she  taught  with  success  at 
Rome  while  Anicetus  was  bishop. 

Marcellus,  the  name  of  two  popes.  See 
Popes. 

Marcellus,  the  name  of  five  martyrs  re¬ 
corded  by  the  martyrologies,  besides  Mar¬ 
cellus  I.,  Bishop  of  Rome  (307-309). 

Marcellus,  bishop  of  Ancyra,  in  Galatia, 
was  an  earnest  advocate  of  the  homoousian 
doctrine  at  the  Council  of  Nicaea  (325).  He 
prepared  a  work,  De  Subjections  Domini 
Christi ,  written  against  the  Arians,  which 


brought  the  charge  of  Sabellianism  against 
him,  and  he  was  deposed  by  the  Council  of 
Constantinople  (336).  He  resumed  his  see 
after  the  death  of  Constantine  the  Great, 
but  was  again  deposed,  and  sought  refuge 
in  the  West,  and  was  recognized  as  ortho¬ 
dox  by  Julius,  bishop  of  Rome.  When  the 
Arians  were  in  power  he  was  condemned 
with  Athanasius,  by  the  Synods  of  Arles 
(353),  and  Milan  (355).  His  Sabellian  views 
made  a  breach  between  himself  and  Atha¬ 
nasius,  and  from  this  time  he  lived  in  re¬ 
tirement.  The  Marcellians  of  Ancyra  sent 
a  confession  to  Athanasius,  which  he  ac¬ 
cepted  as  satisfactory. 

Marcion,  the  founder  of  the  Marcionite 
heresy,  was  the  son  of  the  bishop  of  Sino¬ 
pe  in  Pontus,  and  flourished  in  the  latter 
half  of  the  second  century.  Being  excom¬ 
municated  by  his  father,  it  has  been  said, 
for  immorality,  but,  more  probably,  for 
heretical  views,  he  went  to  Rome;  but  the 
Church  there  refused  to  receive  him,  and 
he  attached  himself  to  the  heretic  Cerdo. 
Tertullian  states  that  he  afterward  re¬ 
pented  of  his  errors,  and  obtained  a  prom¬ 
ise  of  readmission  to  the  Church,  on  con¬ 
dition  that  he  reclaimed  all  whom  he  had 
led  astray;  but  that  death  overtook  him 
while  endeavoring  to  fulfill  this  condition. 
But  in  this  story  Tertullian  probably  con¬ 
founds  Marcion  with  his  master,  Cerdo. 

There  is  some  difficulty  in  arriving  at 
Marcion’s  real  opinions,  but  they  appear 
to  have  been  substantially  as  follows:  He 
taught  that  there  were  two  eternal  princi¬ 
ples,  the  Father  of  Jesus  Christ,  and  the 
Creator,  or  Demiurge.  The  latter  was  by 
nature  evil,  and  created  the  world,  and 
was  the  author  of  the  Law,  and  the  God 
of  the  Jews;  the  former  was  the  author  of 
the  Gospel,  and  sent  his  Son,  Jesus  Christ, 
to  deliver  mankind  from  the  dominion  of 
the  Demiurge.  Holding  that  the  body,  the 
creation  of  the  Demiurge,  was  necessarily 
evil,  he  denied  the  truth  of  our  Lord’s  in¬ 
carnation,  maintaining  that  Christ’s  body 
was  a  phantasm  only,  like  the  bodies  as¬ 
sumed  by  angels  when  they  appeared  to 
men.  This  opinion  he  supported  by  refer¬ 
ence  to  such  texts  as,  “  He  took  on  him 
the  form  of  a  servant,”  i.  e.,  he  taught  the 
appearance ,  as  against  the  reality.  Hence, 
also,  he  denied  the  resurrection  of  the 
body,  though  he  seems  to  have  allowed  a 
judgment  to  come. 

For  the  same  reason,  that  it  came  from 
the  evil  principle,  he  rejected  the  Old  Tes¬ 
tament  entirely,  and  published  a  book  of 
“  Antitheses,”  in  which  he  contrasted  the 
precepts  of  the  Law  and  the  Gospel. 

The  New  Testament,  in  principle,  he 
received,  but  it  was  altered  and  mutilated 


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to  suit  his  particular  views,  and  reduced 
to  two  divisions:  (1)  The  Gospel,  which 
was  a  compilation  founded  mainly  on  St. 
Luke’s;  and  (2)  the  Epistles,  ten  in  num¬ 
ber.  He  defended  these  emendations  on 
the  ground  that  the  original  text  had 
become  corrupt,  a  statement  which  appear¬ 
ed  the  more  plausible  from  the  number  of 
spurious  gospels,  etc.,  then  in  circulation. 

The  Marcionites  became  very  numerous, 
as  is  evident  from  the  number  of  works 
written  against  them,  as  well  as  from  the 
direct  testimony  of  Justin.  Constantine  in 
326  issued  an  edict  against  these  and  other 
heretics,  and  Theodoret,  bishop  of  Cyrus, 
tells  us  that  he  converted  ten  thousand  of 
them.  Their  doctrine  of  the  evil  nature  of 
the  body  led  them  to  practice  fasting  and 
self-denial,  and  even  to  go  so  far  as  to  ex¬ 
clude  married  persons  from  the  sacra¬ 
ments,  denying  salvation  to  all  but  the 
unmarried.  Some  of  them  appear  to  have 
undergone  martyrdom  for  their  religion. 
— Benham:  Diet,  of  Religion. 

Marcus  Aurelius,  Roman  emperor,  161- 
1S0;  b.  in  Rome  April  26,  121;  d.  of  the 
plague  at  his  camp  in  Pannonia.  He  was 
remarkable  as  a  legislator,  administrator, 
soldier  and  scholar:  “  indeed,  he  was  the 
philosopher  on  the  throne.  His  standpoint 
was  that  of  an  eclectic  stoicism — a  kind  of 
moral  rationalism  enlivened  by  a  deep 
faith  in  an  all-pervading  and  all-governing 
reason.  His  works — a  Dialogue,  twelve 
books  of  Meditations,  Letters,  etc. ,  written 
in  Greek — represent  him  as  a  pious  and 
substantial  character,  equally  averse  to  the 
vulgar  and  to  the  hollow,  and  intent  upon 
avoiding  silliness  in  religion,  and  sophistry 
in  philosophy.” — Harnack.  It  is  difficult 
to  decide  his  relations  to  Christianity. 
Ther»is  no  doubt  that  local  persecutions 
of  the  Christians  occurred  in  his  reign,  but 
it  would  appear  that  they  were  not  insti¬ 
gated  by  the  government,  which  evidently 
sought  to  enforce  the  laws  of  Hadrian  and 
Trajan.  See  P.  B.  Watson:  M.  Aurelius 
(New  York,  1884);  best  trans.  of  his  Medi¬ 
tations.  by  Geo.  Long  (1863);  F.  W.  Far¬ 
rar:  Seekers  after  God  (New  York,  new  ed., 
1877). 

Marcus  Eremita,  an  Egyptian  monk  who 
lived  in  the  desert  of  Scetis,  and  is  said  to 
have  died  in  410,  more  than  a  hundred  years 
old.  He  was  a  contemporary  of  Chrysos¬ 
tom  and  the  younger  Macarinus,  with 
whom  the  wonderful  stories  told  of  his  life 
are  sometimes  confused.  Nine  treatises 
bearing  his  name  have  come  down  to  us. 
The  internal  evidence  is  strong  that  he 
wrote  them,  although  Bellarminand  others 
have  tried  to  prove  that  they  are  fabrica¬ 


tions  of  some  modern  heretic.  They  treat 
on  the  Spiritual  Law,  Justification,  Peni¬ 
tence,  Baptism,  etc.  They  were  published 
in  Latin  and  Greek;  best  ed.,  Migne  (book 
65).  Marcus  is  commemorated  by  the 
Greek  Church,  March  25. 

Marcus  Eugenicus,  archbishop  of  Ephe¬ 
sus,  and  one  of  the  representatives  of  the 
Greek  Church  at  the  Council  of  Ferrara- 
Florence  (1438).  He  was  unyielding  in  his 
opposition  to  the  papal  pretensions,  and 
stood  alone,  finally,  in  refusing  to  sign  the 
formula  of  concord.  When  summoned  be¬ 
fore  a  papal  court,  presided  over  by  the 
pope,  he  opened  the  discussion  of  the  sub¬ 
ject  without  attempting  to  defend  himself. 
He  continued  to  work  against  the  union 
after  returning  to  his  diocese,  and  on  his 
death-bed  took  the  oath  of  Gennadius, 
afterward  patriarch  of  Constantinople,  that 
he  would  oppose  this  scheme  to  the  last. 
See  Ferrara-Florence,  Council  of. 

Margaret’s  Day,  St.,  Feb.  21,  and 
July  20. 

Margarita  (margaritum,  a  pearl),  the 
name  given  in  the  Greek  Church  to  the 
vessel  in  which  the  consecrated  host  is 
preserved.  The  portions  of  the  host  which 
the  priest  carried  to  the  sick  were  called 
margaritce. 

Marheineke,  Philip-Konrad,  Lutheran 
theologian;  b.  at  Hildesheim,  May  1,  1780; 
d.  at  Berlin,  May  31,  1846.  Educated  at 
Gottingen  he  became  repetent  there  in  1804, 
and  the  following  year  professor  of  the¬ 
ology  and  second  university  preacher  at 
Erlangen.  In  1S11  he  accepted  a  professor¬ 
ship  at  Berlin  where  he  remained  until  his 
death.  He  became  the  leader  of  the  so- 
called  “  right  wing  ”  of  the  Hegelian  party, 
who  contended  that  Hegelianism  can  be 
reconciled  with  positive  Christianity. 
Among  his  published  works  are  a  History 
of  the  German  Reformation  extending  to 
the  year  1555;  a  System  of  Theology  ( Dog - 
tnatik).  A  part  of  his  theological  lectures 
were  published  in  4  vols.  (Berlin,  1S47-49). 
A  sketch  of  his  life  is  given  in  vol.  i. 

Marianists  (Knights  of  the  Holy  Virgin), 
the  name  of  an  order  of  knights,  composed 
of  noblemen,  which  was  formed  at  Bologna 
about  1233.  It  had  for  its  special  purpose 
the  protection  of  widows  and  orphans,  in 
the  times  of  violence  and  insecurity  caused 
by  the  conflicts  between  the  Guelfs  and  the 
Ghibellines.  The  members  were  allowed 
to  marry  and  hold  property.  Command- 
eries  were  founded  at  Modena,  Mantua, 
and  other  cities  in  Northern  Italy,  but  the 


Mar 


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Mar 


order  disappeared  at  the  close  of  the  six¬ 
teenth  century,  and  in  1589  Sixtus  V.  trans¬ 
ferred  its  property  to  the  college  of  Man- 

talto. 

Marinus  is  the  name  of  two  popes.  See 

Popes. 


Mariolatry.  Of  the  worship  of  the 
mother  of  our  Lord  there  is  no  trace  either 
in  the  Scriptures  or  in  the  first  three  or 
four  centuries.  In  the  earliest  Church 
hymns  there  is  no  hint  of  it.  Daniel’s 
Thesaurus ,  a  collection  of  Greek  hymns 
dating  from  the  third  century  to  the 
twelfth,  only  has  two,  and  these  are  con¬ 
fessedly  of  late  date.  In  the  festival  of 
the  Greek  Church  commemorating  the 
Epiphany  of  Christ  as  God  at  his  baptism, 
there  is,  of  course,  no  connection  with  the 
history  of  the  Virgin;  it  was  through  that 
of  the  Nativity  that  error  first  began  to 
creep  in.  When  the  Council  of  Ephesus 
had  truly  decided  that  Christ  is  not  divided, 
and  therefore  that  the  Virgin  might  be 
called  Theotokos ,  opportunity  was  given  for 
abuse  of  the  truth,  and  one  title  after  an¬ 
other  began  to  be  lavished  upon  her: 
“Surpassingly  holy,”  “All  holy,”  “Lady,” 
“  Queen.”  It  was,  in  fact,  overlooked 
that  the  glory  of  the  incarnation  lay  in  its 
wonderful  condescension,  and  that  the 
glory  of  all  connected  with  Christ  lay  sole¬ 
ly  and  exclusively  in  what  he  is.  The 
evangelist  had  declared  as  much  when  he 
pointedly  traced  the  genealogy  of  the  Di¬ 
vine  Redeemer  through  Rahab,  and 
through  “  her  who  had  been  the  wife  of 
Uriah.” 

Another  source  of  the  worship  of  Mary 
is  to  be  found  in  the  growth  of  monasti- 
cism;  the  adoration  of  the  Mother  of  God 
became  absorbed  in  that  of  the  “  Ever  Vir¬ 
gin.”  Christendom  came  to  regard  its  pat¬ 
tern  life,  not  as  found  in  the  home  of  Naz¬ 
areth,  in  holy  wedded  love  and  parental 
care,  but  in  the  solitary  life  of  the  wilder¬ 
ness.  Thus  the  early  Latin  hymns  which 
sang  her  praise  dwelt  on  her  virginity,  that 
was  “  the  birth  which  became  God.”  Still, 
it  must  be  remembered  that  not  one  of  the 
Ambrosian  hymns  is  addressed  to  her. 
Scripture  failing  to  furnish  material  for 
adoration,  fancy  supplied  its  place,  and  in¬ 
vented  the  stories  of  her  Immaculate  Con¬ 
ception  and  of  her  Assumption,  and  out  of 
these  was  created  a  new  worship — the 
worship  of  a  great  goddess,  unknown  to 
Scripture  or  to  history.  Figures  were 
made  of  her,  decked  in  vulgar  gold  and 
tawdry  finery, and  before  them  were  poured 
out  prayers  as  to  one  comprising  in  herself 
all  that  was  beneficent  in  man,  all  that  was 
tender  and  pure  in  woman,  all  that  is  gra- 


cious  in  God.  As  a  consequence  it  fol¬ 
lowed  that  God  was  robbed  of  his  true 
glory.  The  compassion  and  infinite  ten¬ 
derness  which  the  Gospels  reveal  in  Christ 
were  taken  from  him,  and  he  was  only 
thought  of  as  a  stern  and  avenging  Judge. 
The  love  of  the  Father  was  forgotten  in 
that  of  the  mother;  the  consolations  of  the 
Comforter,  in  those  of  “  our  Lady  of  Pity,” 
“  our  Lady  of  Good  Help,”  “  our  Lady  of 
Sorrows.”  The  Persons  of  the  Holy  Trin¬ 
ity  were  placed  in  some  distant  heaven 
where  they  took  little  concern  of  the  af¬ 
fairs  of  earth,  where  they  were  worshipped 
indeed  with  formal  worship;  but  the  heart¬ 
felt  worship  of  friend  speaking  to  friend 
was  kept  for  the  mighty  mother  whose  in¬ 
tercession  was  all-powerful,  whose  help 
was  always  ready.  Thus  the  rise  and  de¬ 
velopment  of  Mariolatry  were  simulta¬ 
neous  with  an  obscuration  of  the  true  love 
of  God  in  Christ,  and  especially  of  that 
truly  human  nature  in  the  Saviour  which 
the  human  heart  craves  for,  and  which  is 
the  true  preservative  against  errors  of  this 
kind.  Benham:  Diet,  of  Religion. 

Mark,  also  known  as  John  Mark — John 
being  the  Hebrew  name,  and  Mark  his 
Latin  surname.  (Acts  xii.  12,  25.)  He  was 
a  native  of  Jerusalem,  and  the  home  of 
Mary,  his  mother,  was  a  resort  to  the  fol¬ 
lowers  of  Jesus.  (Acts  xii.  12.)  He  was 
probably  a  convert  of  Peter,  who  calls  him 
“  his  son.”  (1  Peter  v.  13.)  He  accom¬ 
panied  Paul  and  his  cousin  Barnabas  (Col. 
iv.  10),  on  their  missionary  tour  as  far  as 
Perga  in  Pamphylia.  (Actsxiii.  5,  13.)  His 
leaving  them  at  this  place  was  the  cause 
of  “sharp  contention”  between  them. 
(Acts  xv.  36-40.)  Ten  years  later  Paul 
and  Mark  were  together  in  Rome.  (Col.  iv. 
10;  Philemon  24.)  He  was  with  Peter 
when  he  wrote  his  first  epistle  (1  Pet.  v. 
13),  and  with  Timothy  at  a  probably  later 
date.  (2  Tim.  iv.  11.)  Some  commentators 
(Olshausen,  Lange,  and  others)  think  it 
probable  that  John  Mark  was  the  nameless 
young  man  who  followed  Christ  on  the 
night  of  his  betrayal.  (Mark  xiv.  51,  52.) 

Mark,  The  Gospel  by.  “  All  ancient  testi¬ 
mony  makes  Mark  the  author  of  a  cer¬ 
tain  Gospel,  and  that  this  is  the  Gospel 
which  has  come  down  to  us,  there  is  not 
the  least  historical  ground  for  doubting. 
Owing  to  the  very  few  sections  peculiar  to 
Mark,  evidence  from  patristic  quotation  is 
somewhat  difficult  to  produce.  Justin  Mar¬ 
tyr,  however,  quotes  chaps,  ix.  44,  46,  48; 
xii.  30,  and  iii.  17;  and  Irenaeus  cites  both 
the  opening  and  closing  words  (iii.;  x.  6). 
An  important  testimony  in  any  case,  but 
doubly  so  from  the  doubt  that  has  been 


Mar 


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Mar 


cast  on  the  closing  verses  (xvi.  9-19).  With 
the  exception  of  these  few  verses,  the  gen¬ 
uineness  of  the  Gospel  is  placed  above  the 
reach  of  reasonable  doubt.” — Smith.  “  Al¬ 
though  written  in  Greek  the  Gospel  was 
designed  for  Roman  readers,  and  is  espe¬ 
cially  adapted  to  their  minds,  so  easily  im¬ 
pressed  by  exhibitions  of  energy  and  power. 
It  exhibits  Christ  as  the  spiritual  Con¬ 
queror  and  Wonder-worker,  the  Lion  of  the 
tribe  of  Judah,  filling  the  people  with 
amazement  and  fear.  Mark  introduces 
several  Latin  terms;  he  even  substitutes 
Roman  money  for  Greek  (xii.  41),  which 
Luke  does  not,  and  notices  that  Simon  of 
Cyrene  was  the  father  of  Alexander  and 
Rufus  (xv.  21),  who  probably  were  Chris¬ 
tians  at  Rome.  (Rom.  xvi.  13.)  It  is  there¬ 
fore  most  likely  that  the  Gospel  was  writ¬ 
ten  in  that  city.  The  great  similarity 
between  the  Gospel  of  Mark  and  that  of 
Matthew  has  led  some  to  consider  the 
former  a  mere  abridgment  of  the  latter, 
but  without  sufficient  reason.  It  occupies 
an  independent  position  as  the  connecting- 
link  between  Matthew  and  Luke.  Peter  and 
Paul,  the  Jewish  and  the  Gentile  Chris¬ 
tians.” — Schaff:  Bible  Diet. 

Mark’s  Day,  St.,  the  25th  of  April.  In 
the  Roman  Church  it  is  celebrated  by  a 
solemn  supplicatory  procession  ( Litania 
major),  and  in  churches  of  which  St.  Mark 
is  patron  the  priests  wear  blue  at  mass  on 
that  day. 

Marlorat,  Augustin,  b.  at  Bar-le-Duc,  in 
Lorraine,  1506;  hanged  at  Rouen,  Oct  31, 
1562.  He  was  educated  in  an  Augustinian 
convent,  which  order  he  entered  in  1524, 
and  became  prior  in  1533  of  a  monastery 
at  Bourges.  He  won  a  wide  reputation  as 
a  scholar  and  preacher,  but  his  sympathy 
with  the  Reformation  compelled  him  to  flee 
to  Geneva.  In  1559  he  was  appointed 
preacher  to  the  Reformed  congregation  in 
Paris,  and  in  the  following  year  to  that  of 
Rouen.  After  the  massacre  of  Vassy 
(March  1,  1562)  the  Protestants  took  pos¬ 
session  of  the  city,  and  established  the 
Government  in  accord  with  their  faith.  The 
city  was  recaptured  by  the  Roman  Cath¬ 
olics  (Oct.  26,  1562),  and  Marlorat  was  con¬ 
demned,  and  executed  in  front  of  his  own 
church.  He  wrote  commentaries  on  Gen¬ 
esis,  the  Psalms,  Isaiah,  and  the  New 
Testament,  parts  of  which  have  been  trans¬ 
lated  into  English. 

Maronites,  a  community  of  Syrian 
Christians  whose  headquarters  is  in  Mount 
Lebanon.  They  say  that  they  derive  their 
name  from  a  monk  named  Maro,  who  col¬ 
lected  a  number  of  followers  in  the  fifth 


century,  and  placed  them  in  a  monastery 
on  the  Orontes,  which  he  named  after  him¬ 
self.  In  the  seventh  century  this  sect  was 
obliged,  in  consequence  of  opposition  by 
the  Greek  Church,  to  take  refuge  in  Leb¬ 
anon,  and  so  this  name  was  taken  by  the 
whole  population  of  the  mountains.  In 
many  respects  their  ritual  resembled  that 
of  the  Greek  Church,  and  all  through  the 
Middle  Ages  they  preserved  their  individ¬ 
uality  and  independence.  But  during  the 
Crusades  they  established  some  sort  of  re¬ 
lations  with  the  Latin  Church,  and  in  the 
time  of  Gregory  XIII.  they  formally  joined 
the  Roman  Communion,  and  consented  to 
be  under  the  government  of  the  pope. 
But,  even  so,  they  obtained  certain  rights 
of  their  own,  such  as  communion  in  both 
kinds,  the  marriage  of  their  clergy,  and  the 
mass  in  their  own  vernacular.  Pope  Greg¬ 
ory  founded  a  monastery  on  the  Quirinal 
Mount  at  Rome,  and  attached  to  it  a  college 
for  the  sole  use  of  the  Maronites.  Youths 
are  educated  there  by  the  Jesuits,  and  then 
sent  to  their  own  country.  They  have 
their  patriarch,  archbishop,  bishops,  and 
about  150  curates;  but  the  population  is  so 
oppressed  by  the  Turks  that  all  the  clergy 
are  obliged  to  work  for  their  living.  They 
now  say  mass  in  Latin,  with  the  exception 
of  the  Gospel,  which  is  read  in  Arabic,  the 
common  language  of  the  people.  Their 
population  is  now  about  200,000.  Every 
man  is  armed,  and  their  army  was  in  great 
perfection  at  one  time.  In  i860,  however, 
they  were  attacked  by  the  Druses  (y.  v. ), 
a  tribe  living  near  them,  and  although  far 
superior  in  point  of  numbers  to  their  in¬ 
vaders,  their  capital  was  destroyed  and  the 
inhabitants  massacred.  They  are  a  fine- 
looking  people,  and  very  hospitable,  es¬ 
pecially  toward  Europeans.  —  Benham: 
Diet,  of  Religion. 

Marot,  Clement,  a  religious  poet:  b.  at 
Cahors  about  1497;  d.  at  Turin  in  1544. 
He  lived  at  the  court  of  Francis  I.,  and 
was  a  favorite  of  Margaret,  Queen  of 
Navarre,  but  fell  into  disgrace  and  fled  first 
to  Geneva,  where  he  became  friendly  with 
Calvin,  and  finally  settled  in  Turin.  In 
1538  he  made  a  translation  of  some  of  the 
Psalms  in  French  verse  which  became  very 
popular,  even  at  court,  and  were  sung  there. 
The  first  edition  (1541)  contained  only  thirty 
Psalms,  the  second  (1543)  contained  as 
many  more,  with  a  preface  by  Calvin. 
This  edition  was  condemned  by  the  Sor- 
bonne.  The  style  of  poetry  which  he  in¬ 
troduced  is  called,  after  his  name,  Maro- 
tique. 

Marriage.  When  Christ  came  on  earth, 
marriage  had  come  to  be  regarded  among 


Mar 


(  57°  ) 


Mar 


lews  and  Gentiles  as  merely  a  civil  con¬ 
tract  ;  and  in  consequence  divorce  was 
easily  to  be  procured.  Christ  taught  the 
sacredness  of  the  marriage  bond;  and  for¬ 
bade  divorce,  except  on  the  ground  of 
adultery.  Henceforth,  all  marriages  were 
considered,  like  that  of  our  first  parents, 
Adam  and  Eve,  as  sanctioned  by  God  him¬ 
self.  St.  Paul  compares  the  marriage  bond 
to  the  union  between  Christ  and  his  Church ; 
and  in  all  ages  of  the  Church,  matrimony 
has  been  regarded  as  a  sacred  rite  per¬ 
formed  in  the  sight  of  God.  Thus  St. 
Ignatius  writes,  “  It  becomes  those  who 
marry,  and  those  that  are  given  in  mar¬ 
riage,  to  take  this  yoke  upon  them  with  the 
consent  or  the  direction  of  the  Church,  that 
their  marriage  may  be  according  to  the 
will  of  God,  and  not  their  own  lusts.” 
Tertullian  says,  “  How  shall  I  sufficiently 
set  forth  the  happiness  of  the  marriage 
which  the  Church  brings  about  by  her  pro¬ 
curement,  which  the  eucharist  confirms, 
which  angels  report  when  done,  and  the 
Father  ratifies  ?”  In  such  passages  we  have 
recorded  the  commencement  of  that  ecclesi¬ 
astical  control  in  domestic  affairs  which  the 
Church  early  began  to  exercise.  But  in 
the  reign  of  Constantine,  when  religious 
fervor  began  to  cool  and  discipline  to  grow 
lax,  some  Christians  were  married  by  the 
civil  power,  without  any  religious  cere¬ 
mony:  and  as  this  practice  in  after  ages 
showed  a  tendency  to  increase,  laws  were 
passed  both  in  the  East  (a.  d.  900)  and 
West  (a.  d.  800),  ordaining  that  marriages 
be  contracted  as  religious  ceremonies  with 
the  blessing  of  the  Church,  and  that  a  re¬ 
ception  of  the  Holy  Eucharist  was  to  follow 
the  marriage  rite.  This  law,  though  fre¬ 
quently  ignored,  as  far  as  the  eucharist 
was  concerned,  continued  in  force  in  Eng¬ 
land  under  the  Commonwealth,  when  mar¬ 
riage  was  declared  by  the  State  to  be  merely 
a  civil  contract.  At  the  Restoration,  the 
religious  character  of  the  marriage  rite  was 
again  recognized  by  the  civil  law;  and  the 
present  Rubric,  advising  a  celebration  of 
the  Holy  Communion,  was  added  to  the 
marriage  service  in  the  Book  of  Common 
Prayer.  A  change  in  the  English  law  of 
marriage  was  made  by  the  Act  6  and  7 
Will.  IV.  c.  85,  whereby  marriages  might 
be  performed  in  three  ways,  viz.:  either  in 
the  parish  church;  or  in  some  registered 
place  of  worship;  or  in  the  registrar’s  office, 
without  any  religious  ceremony. 

Marriage  Laws . — In  all  civilized  coun¬ 
tries  laws  have  been  passed  regulating 
marriage.  These  laws  have  differed  in 
different  countries  and  at  different  times, 
but  their  object  has  been  identical,  viz.,  to 
prevent  incest,  and  to  guard  against  injury 
either  to  the  community  at  large  or  to  in¬ 


dividuals.  The  Jewish  code  is  contained  in 
Leviticus  xviii. 

The  Roman  code,  as  regards  marriage, 
was  nearly  identical  with  the  Levitical 
law. 

Second  marriages  were  regarded  as  in¬ 
valid  by  the  Novatianist  and  Montanist 
heresies  ;  but  the  Church  in  the  eighth 
canon  of  the  Council  of  Nicaea  condemned 
the  Novatian  opinion.  Marriages  between 
Christians  and  unbelievers  were  forbidden 
by  the  early  Church,  which  refused  to  sol¬ 
emnize  such  marriages,  though  it  did  not 
dispute  their  validity;  resort  had,  in  such 
cases,  to  be  made  to  the  civil  power. — 
Benham:  Diet,  of  Religion. 

Questions  relating  to  the  laws  regulat¬ 
ing  marriage  in  the  different  States  are  in¬ 
teresting  the  attention  of  many  in  this 
country,  especially  as  they  refer  to  the 
great  evil  of  divorce.  Space  will  not  allow 
here  the  discussion  of  these  questions,  but 
we  commend  to  the  reader  the  following 
words  of  the  Rev.  Dr.  S.  W.  Dike: 

“  Far  down  at  the  root  of  the  divorce 
question,  and  all  the  many  urgent  things 
to  be  done  for  it,  is  the  need  of  awakening 
the  slumbering  consciousness  of  the  fam¬ 
ily  to  the  necessity  of  a  better  home  life, 
better  religious  instruction,  and  better 
ways  of  making  its  power  felt  than  we  have 
yet  known  or  used.  Everything  else  has 
become  more  vigorous,  more  highly  de¬ 
veloped,  better  studied  and  better  treated. 
The  active  churches,  Sunday  -  schools, 
prayer  -  meetings  of  to-day  are  as  unlike 
1  those  of  a  half-century  ago  as  our  steam- 
engines  are  unlike  their  prototypes.  The 
family  and  the  home  have  probably  been 
carried  along  somewhat  in  the  general 
movement.  It  could  scarcely  be  otherwise. 
We  do  not  want  to  go  back  to  the  past,  but 
1  we  do  need  to  bring  the  home  up  to  its 
possibilities.  We  need  to  see  what  con¬ 
centrated  study  and  prayer  and  reorgan¬ 
ization  and  invention  can  do  for  it.  Help 
to  self-help  needs  in  our  treatment  of  the 
family  to  take  the  place  of  the  mistaken 
charity  that  has  done  too  much  for  the 
home,  regardless  of  its  own  need  of  a 
more  self-respecting  treatment.  Give  the 
American  home  a  fair  field,  reasonable 
protection,  and  awaken  it  to  its  work,  and 
it  will  show  its  vitality.”  See  Divorce. 

Marriage  Among  the  Hebrews.  The  re¬ 
lation  of  husband  and  wife  among  the  He¬ 
brews  “  was  regarded  as  especially  sacred, 
and  not  to  be  lightly  dissolved  ;  but  when 
dissolved,  the  dissolution  was  to  be  final. 
The  right  of  divorce  would  appear  to  have 
belonged  exclusively  to  the  husband,  and 
to  make  the  act  legal  three  steps  were  nec¬ 
essary  ;  First,  he  must  have  a  bill  of  di- 


Mar 


(  57i  ) 


Mar 


vorcement  drawn  up;  secondly,  he  must 
put  it  into  his  wife’s  hand;  thirdly,  he  must 
send  her  away.  (Deut.  xxiv.  1-4.)  A  wife 
could  contract  no  engagement, or  even  vow, 
independently  of  her  husband,  unless  after 
divorce  or  his  decease  (Num.  xxx.  6-15), 
and  she  had  no  power  to  separate  herself 
from  him.  Marriage  was  forbidden  among 
relatives  (Lev.  xviii.),  as  also  with  the  de¬ 
scendants  of  the  seven  nations  that  orig¬ 
inally  occupied  the  land  of  Canaan.  (Deut. 
vii.  1-6.)  It  was  a  free  act,  and  could  not 
be  consummated  without  the  bride’s  con¬ 
sent.  By  a  law  known  as  the  Levirate  law 
(from  the  Latin  levir ,  a  brother-in-law),  if 
a  husband  died  without  issue,  his  brother 
was  required  to  take  his  widow  to  wife, 
that  he  might  raise  up  seed  to  him.  (Deut. 
xxv.  5-10.) 

Marrow  Controversy.  See  Scotland, 
Church  of. 

Marsden,  Samuel,  the  “  Apostle  of  New 
Zealand;”  b.  in  England,  1764;  d.  in  Aus¬ 
tralia,  May  12,  1838.  Of  humble  parentage, 
he  was  a  tradesman  at  Leeds  when  he  united 
with  the  Church  of  England,  and  studied 
at  Cambridge.  In  1794  he  went  out  as 
chaplain  of  the  penal  colony  at  Paramatta, 
Australia.  He  here  established  a  farm, 
and  sought  to  train  the  convicts  in  habits 
of  industry.  In  1800  he  visited  England,  < 
and  tried  to  secure  missionaries  to  go  to 
the  Maoris  in  New  Zealand.  The  Church 
Missionary  Society  did  nothing,  but  two 
laymen,  William  Hall  and  John  King,  ac¬ 
companied  him  on  his  return.  After  his 
arrival  in  Australia  he  purchased  a  small 
vessel  at  his  own  expense,  and  sailed  to 
New  Zealand,  and  founded  a  mission. 
While  residing  in  Australia  he  visited 
the  island  often,  and  did  a  great  work 
in  Christianizing  and  civilizing  the  peo¬ 
ple. 

Marshall,  Stephen,  an  active  participant 
in  the  Smectymnuan  Controversy  (see  Ed¬ 
mund  Calamy),  and  a  prominent  member 
of  the  Westminster  Assembly.  The  date 
of  his  birth  is  unknown.  Educated  at  Cam¬ 
bridge,  he  was  minister  first  at  Wethers¬ 
field,  and  then  at  Finchingfield  in  Essex, 
where  he  was  silenced  for  nonconformity. 
He  was  an  eloquent  preacher.  At  his  death 
he  was  buried  in  Westminster  Abbey,  but 
after  the  Restoration  his  remains  were 
shamefully  disturbed.  His  principal  pub¬ 
lications  are:  Reformation  and  Desolation 
(1641);  Sacred  Panegyricks  (1644);  Of  the 
Baptizing  of  Infants  (1644);  A  Defence 
of  Infant  Baptism  (1646). 

Mars’  Hill,  so  called  because  Mars  was 


judged  upon  it.  It  was  situated  norlh- 
west  of  the  Acropolis,  and  is  commonly 
known  as  the  Areopagus.  Here  Paul  de¬ 
livered  his  memorable  address.  (Acts  xvii. 
22-31.) 

Marshman,  Joshua,  one  of  the  pioneer 
and  most  distinguished  Baptist  mission¬ 
aries  to  India;  b.  at  Westbury  Leigh,  Wilt¬ 
shire,  Eng.,  April  20,  1768;  d.  in  Seram- 
pore,  India,  Dec.  5,  1837.  He  followed 
the  occupation  of  his  father,  as  a  weaver, 
until  his  twenty-sixth  year.  By  untiring 
effort  he  had  meanwhile  gained  an  educa¬ 
tion  that  then  enabled  him  to  teach  a  school 
at  Bristol,  where  he  found  time  to  acquire 
a  knowledge  of  the  Hebrew  and  Syriac  lan¬ 
guages.  Through  the  influence  of  Dr. 
Ryland  he  joined  the  Baptist  Church,  and 
in  1799,  with  Mr.  Ward  and  two  others, 
sailed  for  India.  They  were  not  permitted 
to  land  at  Calcutta,  and  went  on  to  Seram- 
pore,  where  in  connection  with  William 
Carey  they  began  the  work  that  in  time 
was  so  abundantly  prospered.  In  1800 
Mr.  and  Mrs.  Marshman  opened  two  board¬ 
ing-schools,  which  gave  them  a  large  in¬ 
come  which  they  used  in  support  of  their 
mission  work.  In  connection  with  Carey 
and  Ward  he  laid  the  foundation  in  1818, of 
a  college  for  the  “  instruction  of  Asiatic, 
Christian,  and  other  youth,  in  Eastern 
literature,  and  European  science.”  He  did 
much  in  the  way  of  newspaper  publication, 
and  after  fifteen  years  of  labor  published 
in  1822  a  Chinese  version  of  the  New 
Testament.  He  visited  England  in  1826. 
The  Baptist  Missionary  Society  sought  to 
secure  control  of  the  Serampore  Mission  in 
a  way  that  seemed  to  him  and  his  associates 
unjust.  This  controversy  embittered  his 
last  years.  After  the  death  of  Carey  in 
1834  his  health  gave  way,  and  he  never  re¬ 
covered  strength.  One  of  his  daughters, 
the  wife  of  Gen.  Havelock,  a  noble  Chris¬ 
tian  woman,  died  in  1882.  See  J.  C.  Marsh¬ 
man:  Life  and  Times  of  Carey,  Marshman, 
and  Ward  (London,  2  vols.,  1859). 

Martin  is  the  name  of  five  popes.  See 
Popes. 

Martin  Marprelate  Controversy,  The, 
grew  out  of  an  attack  which  was  made  upon 
the  prelacy  of  the  English  Church  in  a 
series  of  seven  tracts  which  appeared  be¬ 
tween  November,  1588  and  July,  1589. 
They  were  printed  secretly  under  the 
pseudonyme  of  Martin  Marprelate,  Gentle¬ 
man.  They  were  written  in  a  vein  of  keen 
wit  and  satire,  and  had  a  large  circulation. 
Great  opposition  was  aroused  to  the  ex¬ 
treme  views  of  independency  which  they 
defended.  Dr.  Dexter  thinks  the  tracts 


Mar 


(  572  .) 


Mar 


were  written  by  Henry  Borrowe  and  pub¬ 
lished  by  John  Penry.  See  his  Congrega¬ 
tionalism  as  seen  in  its  Literature ,  Lect.  iii. , 
pp.  131-202. 

Martin  of  Braga,  or  Dumia,  a  learned 
monk;  b.  at  Pannonia  about  510.  Having 
met  some  Spanish  pilgrims  while  visiting 
Palestine,  he  went  to  northwestern  Spain 
in  551  as  a  missionary.  The  country  was 
then  inhabited  by  half  Arian,  half  pagan 
Sueves.  Martin  founded  the  monastery  of 
Dumia  of  which  he  was  first  abbot  and  then 
bishop.  He  was  made  archbishop  of  Braga 
by  Theodomir  (559-570).  His  principal 
work  is  a  collection  of  canons  of  Greek  and 
Spanish  synods,  published  by  Mansi  and 
others,  but  he  wrote  also  on  canon  law  and 
ethics,  and  some  of  his  letters  and  verses 
are  still  extant. 

Martin  of  Tours,  St.,  b.  at  Sabaria,  in 
Pannonia,  319;  d.  at  Cande,  in  Gaul,  400. 
His  parents  were  Pagans,  and  in  early  life 
he  entered  the  army.  Having  become  a 
Christian,  after  a  few  years  of  military  ser¬ 
vice  in  Gaul,  he  was  ordained  a  deacon  by 
*  Hilary  of  Poitiers.  His  zeal  against  the 
Arians  aroused  persecution,  and  he  found 
refuge  in  the  life  of  a  monk  on  the  island 
of  Gallinaria,  near  Genoa.  In  360  he  re¬ 
turned  to  Gaul  and  settled  near  Poitiers, 
where  he  founded  the  earliest  monastery  in 
that  region.  Elected  bishop  of  Tours  in 
375,  he  performed  his  duties  with  great 
energy,  at  the  same  time  living  as  a  monk 
and  founding  on  the  banks  of  the  Loire, 
the  famous  monastery  of  Marmontier.  His 
influence  was  great  in  destroying  paganism 
and  he  became  the  patron  saint  of  France, 
Mayence,  and  Wiirzburg.  The  day  of  his 
death  (Nov.  11)  is  celebrated  in  France, 
Germany,  and  Scandinavia.  No  less  than 
two  hundred  and  six  miracles  are  said  to 
have  been  wrought  by  this  saint  after  his 
death.  His  life  was  written  by  Sulpicius 
Severus  and  others. 

Martin,  Sarah,  philanthropist,  b.  near 
Great  Yarmouth,  June,  1791.  Her  life 
was  spent  in  this  town,  where  she  died  in 
1843.  She  was  by  trade  a  dressmaker, 
but  she  early  became  interested  in  work 
among  the  pauper  and  criminal  classes  of 
Yarmouth.  In  1819  she  began  to  visit  the 
jail,  and  soon  after  devoted  an  entire  day  in 
each  week  to  this  labor.  She  held  services 
on  Sunday,  and  at  first  read  printed  ser¬ 
mons,  then  for  some  time  those  of  her  own 
composing,  and  finally  spoke  extemporane¬ 
ously.  She  found  work  for  the  prisoners, 
and  aided  them  after  their  discharge.  In 
1826  she  fell  heir  to  ten  pounds  yearly,  and 
from  this  date  she  devoted  her  entire  time 


tc  her  philanthropic  labors.  She  was  in 
sore  straits  often  from  poverty,  but  her 
unselfish  life  gained  such  general  recogni¬ 
tion  that  in  1841  the  corporation  of  Yar¬ 
mouth  voted  her  an  annuity  of  twelve 
pounds.  See  the  Edinburgh  Review  for 
April,  1847  (pp.  320-340). 

Martinalia.  See  Martinmas. 

Martinmas,  Festival  of,  celebrated 
Nov.  11,  in  honor  of  St.  Martin  of  Tours. 
It  is  called  Martinalia  in  Germany.  In 
England  and  Scotland  the  winter’s  provis¬ 
ions  were  in  olden  days  cured  and  stored 
up  at  that  time  of  the  year,  and  were  hence 
called  a  mart. 

Martyn,  Henry,  a  missionary  hero;  b. 
at  Truro,  England,  Feb.  18,  1781;  d.  at 
Tocat,  Asiatic  Turkey,  Oct.  16,  1812. 
While  a  student  at  Cambridge  he  gained 
the  highest  honors  in  scholarship,  but  it 
was  not  until  after  his  election  as  fellow  of 
St.  John’s  College  that  he  became  deeply 
interested  in  spiritual  things,  and  decided 
to  become  a  missionary.  In  1805  he  sailed 
for  India  as  a  chaplain  of  the  East  India 
Company.  His  work  in  India  was  accom¬ 
plished  within  a  little  more  than  four  years, 
and  was  confined  to  the  military  stations 
of  Dinapore  and  Cawnpore,  but  his  labors 
were  so  abundant  that  besides  his  work 
among  the  soldiers  and  English  residents, 
he  preached  to  the  natives,  and  prepared 
translations  for  their  use.  In  1808  he  com¬ 
pleted  an  excellent  Hindostanee  version  of 
the  New  Testament.  While  engaged  in 
preparing  a  Persian  version  of  the  New 
Testament  his  health,  already  impaired, 
gave  way,  and  he  decided  to  return  to  Eng¬ 
land.  He  reached  Shiraz  in  Persia,  and 
with  returning  strength  remained  there 
until  he  had  completed  his  revision  of  the 
Persian  New  Testament,  and  also  a  version 
of  the  Psalms  in  the  same  language.  While 
here  his  learning  and  skill  in  disputing  with 
Mohammedan  scholars  attracted  wide  at¬ 
tention.  Wishing  to  present  the  king  of 
Persia  with  a  copy  of  his  New  Testament, 
he  went  to  Tebriz  to  secure  a  letter  of  in¬ 
troduction  from  the  British  Minister,  Sir 
Gore  Ouseley.  He  was  very  ill  on  this 
journey,  and  the  Testament  was  left  with 
Sir  Gore,  who  afterward  gave  it  to  the 
king.  Martyn  now  hastened  to  reach  Con¬ 
stantinople,  fifteen  hundred  miles  away, 
but  the  long  journey  proved  too  much  for 
the  frail  body  worn  by  fever  ague.  He 
died  at  Tocat,  where  his  last  resting-place 
in  the  Armenian  cemetery  is  marked  by  a 
monument  raised  by  an  English  resident 
of  Bagdad.  See  C.  D.  Bell:  Life  of  Henry 
Martyn  (New  York,  1881). 


Mar 


(  573  ) 


Mas 


Martyr.  This  is  the  Greek  word  for  “  a 
witness.”  In  this  sense  it  is  used  in  Matt, 
xviii.  16;  Mark  xiv.  63,  etc.  As  persecu¬ 
tion  even  unto  death  became  the  lot  of 
so  many  of  the  followers  of  Christ,  the 
word  in  its  common  signification  came  to 
mean  one  who  suffered  death  by  reason  of 
his  witness  or  testimony  to  the  truth.  The 
names  of  the  martyrs,  or  “  confessors,”  as 
they  were  often  called,  were  kept  in  re¬ 
membrance  by  commemorations,  which 
frequently  took  place  at  their  tombs,  and 
by  sermons  which  recalled  their  constancy 
and  faithfulness. 

Martyrs,  The  Forty,  a  title  given  in  the 
martyrologies  to  the  forty  soldiers  at  Se- 
baste,  in  Armenia,  who  in  320,  by  command 
of  the  general,  Lysias,  were  stripped  naked 
and  compelled  to  remain  on  a  frozen  pond 
through  an  entire  night,  because  of  their 
refusal  to  sacrifice  to  the  heathen  deities. 
Dying  from  the  exposure,  their  bodies 
were  burned,  and  the  ashes  strewn  on  the 
waters. 

Mary  ( Greek  form  of  the  Hebrew  Miriam), 

(1)  the  mother  of  our  Lord.  After  the  in¬ 
cidents  connected  with  the  infancy  of  Jesus, 
Mary  is  mentioned  but  four  times:  ( a ) 
At  the  marriage  of  Cana  (John  ii.);  ( b )  in 
the  attempt  to  speak  to  Jesus  while  he  was 
teaching  (Matt.  xii.  46;  Mark  iii.  21,31; 
Luke  viii.  19);  (e)  at  the  crucifixion  (John 
xix.  26);  (cf)  during  the  days  following  the 
ascension.  (Acts  i.  14.)  “  In  all  the  epis¬ 
tles  her  name  never  once  occurs.  Plainly, 
Scripture  negatives  the  superhuman  pow¬ 
ers  which  Rome  assigns  her.  In  the  ten 
recorded  appearances  of  the  risen  Saviour 
in  the  forty  days,  not  one  was  specially  to 
Mary.  John  doubtless  cherished  her  with 
the  tender  love  which  he  preeminently 
could  give,  and  she  most  needed.  It  is  re¬ 
markable  how,  with  prescient  caution,  she 
never  is  put  forward  during  Christ’s  min¬ 
istry,  or  after  his  departure.  Meek  (John 
ii.  5)  and  humble,  making  her  model  the 
holy  women  of  old  (Luke  i.  46),  yielding 
herself  in  implicit  faith  up  to  the  Divine 
will,  though  ignorant  how  it  was  to  be  ac¬ 
complished  (ver.  38),  energetic  (ver  39), 
thankful  (ver.  48),  and  piously  reflective 
(ii.  19,  51),  though  not  faultless,  she  was 
the  most  tender  and  lovable  of  women, 
yet  a  woman  still.” — Fausset.  See  Mari- 
olatry. 

(2)  Mary  Magdalene,  or  Mary  of  Mag- 
dala.  (Luke  viii.  2.)  There  is  no  foundation 
for  the  very  common  mistake  which  iden¬ 
tifies  her  with  the  unchaste  woman  who 
anointed  Christ’s  feet  in  the  house  of  Si¬ 
mon.  (Luke  vii.  37,  38.)  The  reading  of 
Luke  vii.  and  viii.  proves  that  two  entirely 


different  persons  are  described.  After 
being  relieved  of  the  demoniacal  posses¬ 
sion,  she  showed  the  most  unwavering 
attachment  to  her  deliverer.  She  was  at 
the  crucifixion  (John  xix.  25)  and  burial 
(Mark  xv.  47);  prepared  spices,  and  came 
to  embalm  his  body  (Mark  xvi.  1);  went 
first  to  the  sepulchre  after  the  resurrec¬ 
tion,  and  was  the  first  to  whom  the  risen 
Redeemer  appeared.  (Mark  xvi.  9;  John 
xx.  11-18.) 

(3)  The  sister  of  Lazarus  and  Martha. 
Besides  the  incidents  in  John  xi. ,  her  name 
occurs  only  in  John  xii.  3,  and  Luke  x.  39, 
42. 

(4)  The  wife  of  Clopas.  (John  xix.  25.) 

(5)  The  mother  of  John  Mark.  (Acts 
xii.  12.) 

(6)  A  Christian  woman  in  Rome,  to 
whom  Paul  sent  his  salutation.  (Rom.  xvi. 
6.) 

Mason,  Francis,  Baptist  missionary;  b. 
in  York,  Eng.,  April  2,  1799;  d.  *n  Ran¬ 
goon,  Burmah,  March  3,  1874.  Emigrat¬ 
ing  to  the  United  States  in  1818,  he  worked 
at  his  trade  as  a  shoemaker  in  Missouri 
until  1824.  He  then  came  to  Massachu¬ 
setts,  and  after  his  marriage  and  conver¬ 
sion  he  studied  at  the  Newton  Theological 
Seminary,  and  in  1830  was  sent  as  a  mis¬ 
sionary  to  Burmah  by  the  Baptist  Mission¬ 
ary  Union.  Succeeding  Dr.  Boardman  in 
the  work  among  the  Karens,  he  edited  for 
a  long  time  the  Morning  Star ,  a  monthly 
publication  in  the  native  language,  and 
translated  a  number  of  books  for  the  use 
of  the  Karens.  He  wrote  a  Life  of  Kho- 
Thah-Byu ,  the  Karen  Apostle',  Burmah:  Its 
People  and  Natural  Productions ,  and  an 
autobiography,  The  Story  of  a  Working 
Man's  Life ,  with  Sketches  of  Travel  (1870). 

Mason,  John  Mitchell,  D.  D.,  an  emi¬ 
nent  divine  and  pulpit  orator;  b.  in  New 
York  City,  March  19,  1770;  d.  there,  Dec. 
26,  1829.  After  graduating  at  Columbia 
College  (1789)  he  completed  his  theologi¬ 
cal  studies  at  Edinburgh  in  1791.  The  fol¬ 
lowing  year  he  was  licensed  to  preach,  and 
after  a  few  months  accepted  the  pastorate 
of  the  Associate  Reformed  Church  in  New 
York,  of  which  his  father  had  been  the 
minister  previous  to  his  death.  Visiting 
Great  Britain  in  1801,  by  request  of  the 
synod,  to  seek  additional  ministers,  he  be¬ 
came  interested  in  a  plan  for  a  theological 
seminary,  which  he  organized  in  connec¬ 
tion  with  his  pastoral  labors.  In  1807  he 
became  the  editor  and  principal  contributor 
to  The  Christian's  Magazine.  In  1811  he 
was  appointed  provost  of  Columbia  Col¬ 
lege,  and  in  1821  he  was  called  to  the  pres¬ 
idency  of  Dickinson  College.  Three 


Mas 


(  574  ) 


Mas 


years  later,  broken  in  health,  he  returned 
to  New  York,  where  the  remainder  of  his 
life  was  spent  in  retirement.  Dr.  Mason 
was  of  noble  physique  and  remarkable 
gifts  as  a  pulpit  orator.  Eminently  suc¬ 
cessful  as  a  teacher,  he  was  active  in  lay¬ 
ing  the  foundations  of  the  work  of  semi¬ 
nary  instruction  in  this  country;  advocating 
the  cause  of  foreign  missions  and  organiz¬ 
ing  the  American  Bible  Society. 

Mason,  Lowell,  b.  in  Medfield,  Mass., 
Jan.  S,  1792:  d.  in  Orange,  N.  J.,  Aug.  11, 
1872.  He  began  his  career  as  a  public 
teacher  of  music  in  Savannah,  Ga.  In 
1827  he  removed  to  Boston,  and  from  there 
visited  every  section  of  New  England,  and 
aroused  great  interest  in  the  study  of  sa¬ 
cred  music.  He  did  much  to  increase  the 
demand  for  congregational  singing,  and 
was  very  efficient  in  the  organization  of 
choirs.  He  was  an  earnest  Christian,  and 
did  a  noble  work  in  improving  and  devel¬ 
oping  the  church  and  Sunday-school  music 
of  his  time. 

Mas'orah.  See  Masorites. 

Masorites,  or  Masoretes,  the  name 
given  to  the  Rabbis  who  made  it  their 
special  work  to  correct  the  faults  which 
'had  crept  into  the  text  of  the  Old  Testa¬ 
ment  during  the  Babylonish  captivity,  and 
to  prevent,  for  the  future,  its  being  cor¬ 
rupted  by  any  alteration.  The  name  is  de¬ 
rived  from  Masora ,  i.  e.,  “tradition,”  or 
from  Massorah ,  “  to  bind.”  They  first 
separated  the  apocryphal  from  the  canon¬ 
ical  books;  and  divided  the  latter  into 
twenty-two  books,  being  the  number  of 
letters  in  the  Hebrew  alphabet;  they  then 
divided  each  book  into  sections  and  verses. 
They  counted  all  the  words  and  letters  of 
each  section;  and  because  there  were  words 
which  were  to  be  read  otherwise  than  they 
were  written,  and  which  contained  more  or 
less  letters  than  those  that  were  to  be  pro¬ 
nounced,  they  made  marginal  notes,  called 
Cetib ,  the  manner  of  writing,  and  A'eri,  the 
manner  of  reading.  They  observed,  like¬ 
wise,  the  anomaly  or  irregularity  of  sev¬ 
eral  words,  as  to  the  vowels  or  accents. 
It  is  said  that  they  were  the  inventors  of 
those  points  which  serve  instead  of  vowels. 
There  is  a  great  difference  of  opinion  as  to 
what  time  the  Masorah  was  written,  but  it 
was  probably  not  all  accomplished  in  one 
century;  but  was  finished  in  the  tenth  or 
eleventh  century.  There  were  several  edi¬ 
tions,  varying  considerably , but  the  received 
and  authoritative  text  is  that  of  Jacob  ben- 
Chajim  ibn  Adonijah,  who  carefully  sifted 
and  arranged  the  previous  works  on  the 
subject.  It  was  published  in  1524.  A 


very  interesting  account  of  the  Masoretic 
writings  has  been  published  by  Dr.  Gins- 
burg. — Benham:  Diet .  of  Religion. 

Mass  (Lat.  Missa),  “  the  name  given  in 
the  Roman  Catholic  Church  to  the  eucha- 
ristic  service  which  in  that  Church,  as  well 
as  in  theGreekand  otherOrientalChurches, 
is  held  to  be  the  sacrifice  of  the  new  law, 
a  real  though  unbloody  offering,  in  which 
Christ  is  the  victim,  in  substance  the  same 
with  the  sacrifice  of  the  cross,  and  institut¬ 
ed  as  a  commemoration  of  that  sacrifice ,  and 
as  a  means  of  applying  its  merits,  through 
all  ages,  for  the  sanctification  of  men. 
The  mass  is  now,  in  general,  denominated, 
according  to  the  solemnity  of  the  accom¬ 
panying  ceremonial,  a  4  low’  mass,’  a 
‘  chanted  mass,’  or  a  ‘  high  mass.’  In  the 
first  a  single  priest  simply  reads  the  ser¬ 
vice,  attended  by  one  or  more  acolytes  or 
clerks.  The  second  form  differs  only  in 
this,  that  the  service  is  chanted  instead  of 
being  read  by  the  priest.  In  the  high 
mass,  the  service  is  chanted  in  part  by  the 
priest,  in  part  by  the  deacon  and  subdea¬ 
con,  by  whom,  as  well  as  by  several  minis¬ 
ters  of  inferior  rank,  the  priest  is  assisted. 
In  all  these,  however,  the  service,  as  re¬ 
gards  the  form  of  prayer,  is  the  same.  It 
consists  of  (1)  an  introductory  prayer  com¬ 
posed  of  Psalm  xli.,  together  w’ith  the 
‘  general  confession  ;’  (2)  the  introit,  which 
is  followed  by  the  thrice-repeated  petition, 

‘  Lord,  have  mercy,’  ‘  Christ  have  mercy,’ 
and  the  hymn,  ‘Glory  to  God  on  High;’ 
(3)  the  collect,  or  public  and  joint  prayers 
of  priest  and  people,  followed  by  a  lesson 
either  from  the  Epistles  or  some  book  of 
the  Old  Testament,  and  by  the  ‘  gradual  ’ 
{q.  v. );  (4)  the  gospel,  which  is  commonly 
followed  by  the  Nicene  creed;  (5)  the  of¬ 
fertory  ( q .  v.),  after  the  reading  of  which 
comes  the  preparatory  offering  of  the  bread 
and  wine,  and  the  washing  of  the  priest’s 
hands  in  token  of  purity  of  heart,  and  the 
‘  secret,’  a  prayer  read  in  a  low  voice  by 
the  priest;  (6)  the  preface,  concluding 
with  the  trisagion  or  ‘  thrice  holy  ’ — at 
which  point,  by  the  primitive  use,  the  cat¬ 
echumens  and  penitents  retired  from  the 
church;  (7)  the  ‘canon,’  which  is  always 
the  same,  and  which  contains  all  the  pray¬ 
ers  connected  with  the  consecration,  the 
elevation,  the  breaking,  and  the  commun¬ 
ion  of  the  host  and  of  the  chalice,  as  also 
the  commemorations  both  of  the  living  and 
of  the  dead;  (8)  the  ‘  communion,’ which 
is  a  short  scriptural  prayer,  usually  appro¬ 
priate  to  the  particular  festival;  (9)  the 
‘  post-communion,’  which,  like  the  collect, 
was  a  joint  prayer  of  priest  and  people, 
and  is  read  or  sung  aloud;  (10)  the  dis¬ 
missal  with  the  benediction,  and  finally, 


Mas 


(  575  ) 


Mas 


the  first  chapter  of  St.  John’s  gospel. 
Great  part  of  the  above  prayers  are  fixed, 
and  form  what  is  called  the  ‘  ordo  ’  or  ‘  or¬ 
dinary  ’  of  the  mass.  The  rest,  which  is 
called  the  ‘proper  of  the  mass,’  differs  for 
different  occasions;  some  masses  being  ‘of 
the  season,’  as  of  lent,  advent,  passion- 
tide,  ‘  quarter-time,’  etc. ;  others,  of  ‘  mys¬ 
teries,’  as  of  the  nativity,  the  circumcision, 
the  resurrection;  others  again,  of  saints, 
as  of  an  apostle,  a  martyr,  or  a  confessor; 
others  again,  ‘  votive,’  as  ‘  of  the  passion,’ 
‘of  the  dead,’  ‘for  peace,’  etc.  In  all 
these  various  classes,  as  well  as  in  the  in¬ 
dividual  masses  under  each,  the  ‘  proper’ 
portions  of  the  mass  differ  according  to 
the  occasion,  and  in  some  of  them  certain 
portions  of  the  ‘  ordinary,’  as  the  ‘  Glory 
to  God  on  High,’  the  ‘  gradual,’  or  the 
‘  Nicene  creed  ’  are  omitted.  On  one  day 
in  the  year,  Good  Friday,  is  celebrated 
what  is  called  the  ‘  mass  of  the  presancti¬ 
fied,'  in  which  no  consecration  takes  place, 
but  in  which  the  priest  communicates  of 
the  host  which  was  consecrated  on  the  pre¬ 
ceding  day.  This  usage  is  found  also  in 
the  Greek  Church,  not  alone  on  Good 
Friday, but  on  everyday  during  the  lent,  ex¬ 
cept  Saturday  and  Sunday.  In  the  cele¬ 
bration  of  mass  the  priest  wears  peculiar 
vestments,  five  in  number — two  of  linen, 
called  ‘  amice,’  and  ‘  alb  ’;  and  three  of  silk 
or  precious  stuffs,  called  ‘  maniple,’  ‘  stole  ’ 
and  ‘  chasuble,’  the  alb  being  girt  with  a 
cincture  of  flaxen  or  silken  cord.  The 
color  of  these  vestments  varies  with  the 
occasion,  five  colors  being  employed  on 
different  occasions — white,  red,  green, 
purple  or  violet,  and  black,  and  they  are 
often  richly  embroidered  with  silk  or 
thread  of  the  precious  metals,  and  occa¬ 
sionally  with  precious  stones.  The  priest 
is  required  to  celebrate  the  mass  fasting, 
and,  unless  by  special  dispensation,  is  only 
permitted  to  offer  it  once  in  the  day,  except 
on  Christmas  day,  when  three  masses  may 
be  celebrated. 

“  In  the  Greek  and  Oriental  Churches  the 
eucharistic  service,  called  in  Greek  theia 
leitourgia  (the  divine  liturgy),  differs  in  the 
order  of  its  parts,  in  the  wording  of  most 
of  its  prayers,  and  in  its  accompanying  cer¬ 
emonial  from  the  mass  of  the  Latin 
Church  (see  Liturgy);  but  the  only  differ¬ 
ences  which  have  any  importance  as  bear¬ 
ing  upon  doctrine  are  their  use  of  leavened 
bread  instead  of  unleavened;  their  more 
frequent  celebration  of  the  ‘  mass  of  the 
presanctified,'  to  which  reference  has  al¬ 
ready  been  made;  the  Latin  use  of  private 
masses  in  which  the  priest  alone  communi¬ 
cates;  and,  in  general,  the  much  more  fre¬ 
quent  celebration  of  the  mass  in  the  Latin 
Church,  The  sacred  vestments,  too.  of 


the  Greek  and  Eastern  rites  differ  notably 
from  those  of  the  Latin;  and  in  some  of 
the  former— as,  for  example,  the  Armenian 
— a  veil  is  drawn  before  the  altar  during 
that  part  of  the  service  in  which  the  con¬ 
secration  takes  place,  which  is  only  with¬ 
drawn  at  the  time  of  the  communion.  The 
service  sometimes  used  on  shipboard,  and 
improperly  called  missa  sicca  (dry  mass), 
consists  simply  of  the  reading  of  the  pray¬ 
ers  of  the  mass,  but  without  any  consecra¬ 
tion  of  the  elements.  It  was  resorted  to 
with  a  view  to  avoiding  the  danger  of 
spilling  the  sacred  elements,  owing  to  the 
unsteady  motion  of  the  ship.  It  is  some¬ 
times  also  called  missa  nautica  (ship  mass).” 
— Chambers:  Cyclopcedia. 

Massalians.  See  Messalians. 

Massillon  ( mas-sil-lon ),  Jean  Baptiste, 
“one  of  the  most  distinguished  of  pulpit  or¬ 
ators,  was  b.  at  Hieres,  in  France,  June  24, 
1663;  d.  at  Clermont,  Sept.  18,  1742.  His 
father,  a  notary,  designed  the  boy  for  his 
own  profession;  and  it  was  only  after  re¬ 
peated  and  persistent  efforts  that  Massillon 
obtained  his  father’s  permission  to  enter 
the  congregation  of  the  oratory  in  1681. 
It  was  while  he  was  engaged  in  teaching 
theology  in  one  of  the  houses  of  the  con¬ 
gregation  in  the  diocese  of  Meaux  that  he 
made  his  first  essay  in  the  pulpit  at  Vienne. 
His  funeral  oration  on  M.Villars,  the  arch¬ 
bishop  of  Vienne,  was  eminently  success¬ 
ful,  and  led  to  his  being  called  by  the  su¬ 
periors  of  the  oratory  to  Paris,  where  he 
first  had  the  opportunity  of  hearing  Bour- 
daloue,  whose  style  and  manner,  without 
being  exactly  taken  by  Massillon  as  a 
model,  had  great  influence  in  forming  the 
taste  of  the  young  aspirant.  Like  Bourda- 
loue,  he  avoided  the  declamatory  manner 
and  theatrical  action  then  popular  in  the 
French  pulpit;  but  the  earnest  impressive¬ 
ness  of  his  look  and  voice  more  than  sup¬ 
plied  the  vigor  and  energy  which  other 
speakers  sought  from  these  adventitious 
aids.  His  course  of  ecclesiastical  confer¬ 
ences,  delivered  in  the  seminary  of  St. 
Magloire,  established  his  reputation.  The 
criticism  of  Louis  XIV. ,  after  his  advent 
course  at  Versailles,  that  ‘  when  he  heard 
other  great  preachers  he  felt  satisfied  with 
them,  but  when  he  heard  Massillon  he  felt 
dissatisfied  with  himself,’  well  expresses 
the  characteristics  of  the  eloquence  of  this 
great  orator,  who,  more  than  any  of  his 
contemporaries,  was  able  to  lay  bare  the 
secret  springs  of  human  action,  and  to  use 
the  feelings  and  the  passions  of  his  audi¬ 
ence  as  arms  against  themselves.  He  was 
again  appointed  to  preach  the  Lent  at  Ver¬ 
sailles  in  1704;  but  although  the  king  was 


Mas 


(  576  ) 


Mat 


again  equally  warm  in  his  admiration  of 
the  preacher,  Massillon  was  never  after¬ 
ward  invited  to  preach  in  the  presence  of 
this  monarch;  yet  his  funeral  oration  on 
the  Prince  de  Conti,  in  1709,  was  one  of 
the  greatest  triumphs  of  his  oratory.  Soon 
after  the  death  of  Louis  XIV.,  Massillon, 
in  1717,  was  named  bishop  of  Clermont, 
and  in  the  same  year  was  appointed  to 
preach  before  the  young  king,  Louis  XV., 
for  which  occasion  he  composed  his  cele¬ 
brated  petit  creme  — a  series  of  ten  sermons. 
It  was  not  till  1719  that  he  was  consecrated 
bishop  of  Clermont,  in  which  year  also  he 
was  elected  a  member  of  the  Academy;  and 
in  1723  he  preached  the  funeral  oration  of 
the  Duchess  of  Orleans,  his  last  public  dis¬ 
course  in  Paris.  From  this  time  he  lived 
almost  entirely  for  his  diocese,  where  his 
charity,  gentleness,  and  amiable  disposition 
gained  him  the  affections  of  all.  His  works, 
consisting  mainly  of  sermons  and  other 
similar  compositions,  were  collected  in  12 
vols. ,  by  his  nephew,  and  published  in 
1745-46.”  —  Chambers  :  Cyclopedia.  For 
translations  of  his  sermons,  see  Dodd:  Ser¬ 
mons  on  the  Duties  of  the  Great  (London, 
1776);  Sermons ,  with  a  Life ,  by  D’Alembert 
(London,  1837). 

Massora.  See  Masorites. 

Mass-Priests  were,  in  early  times,  sec¬ 
ular  priests,  as  distinguished  from  regular: 
afterward  they  were  priests  who,  by  spe¬ 
cial  appointment,  said  masses  in  chapels  or 
at  particular  altars  for  the  souls  of  the 
wealthy  donors  who  had  endowed  them. 

Matamoros,  Manuel,  a  Spanish  Protes¬ 
tant, whose  life  and  sufferings  aroused  great 
interest  in  many  countries;  b.  Oct.  8,  1835, 
at  Lepe,  in  the  Province  of  Huelva;  d.  at 
Lausanne,  July  31,  1866.  At  the  wish  of 
his  father,  who  was  a  captain  in  the  Spanish 
artillery,  he  entered  the  military  school  at 
Toledo.  Upon  the  death  of  his  father  he 
left  the  school  and  lived  with  his  mother  at 
Malaga.  While  visiting  Gibraltar  he  ac¬ 
cidentally  attended  a  Protestant  service,  and 
heard  a  sermon  by  Ruet,  who  had  been 
converted  under  the  preaching  of  Sanctis, 
in  Turin,  and  afterward  banished  from 
Spain  for  preaching  the  gospel  in  Barce¬ 
lona.  Convinced  of  his  spiritual  need, 
Matamoros  commenced  the  study  of  the 
New  Testament.  He  renounced  all  alle¬ 
giance  to  the  Roman  Church.  Through  the 
aid  of  a  Protestant  society  in  Paris  he  be¬ 
gan  to  labor  in  Granada,  Seville  and  Bar¬ 
celona  (i860).  At  Granada  he  became  ac¬ 
quainted  with  Alhama,  a  hat-maker,  who 
had  been  converted  by  an  American  tract. 
This  Christian  preacher  was  thrown  into 


prison,  and  when  letters  were  found  on  his 
person  from  Matamoros  and  three  other 
converts,  they  were  also  arrested  and  im¬ 
prisoned.  Matamoros,  while  in  confine¬ 
ment  for  two  years,  contracted  the  disease 
that  caused  his  death.  Through  the  efforts 
of  the  Evangelical  Alliance  he  was  re¬ 
leased,  and  banished  from  the  country  for 
nine  years.  He  visited  England  and  met 
with  a  cordial  reception,  and  from  there 
went  to  Lausanne,  where  he  attended  the 
theological  seminary.  Through  the  liber¬ 
ality  of  an  American  lady,  he  established 
a  school  at  Pau,  in  southern  France,  while 
visiting  there  for  his  health.  He  died  at 
Lausanne  a  few  days  before  the  time  set 
for  his  ordination.  His  loyalty  to  Christ, 
noble  character,  and  earnest  devotion  to 
the  work  of  evangelizing  his  native  country 
will  long  be  remembered. 

Mater  Dolorosa  ( the  mourning  mother ), 
a  name  given  to  certain  pictures  of  the 
Virgin,  which  represent  her  alone,  without 
the  child,  and  weeping.  See  Mrs.  Jame¬ 
son:  Legends  of  the  Madonna. 

Materialism.  As  the  word  implies,  Ma¬ 
terialism  deals  merely  with  matter,  with 
that  which  we  can  appreciate  with  our 
senses.  According  to  it,  nothing  at  all 
exists  but  matter — there  is  no  such  thing 
as  a  separate  spiritual  existence.  There 
is  no  God,  and  no  spirit  in  man  which  can 
hold  communion  with  him;  none  is  re¬ 
quired,  since  God  is  non-existent.  Mate¬ 
rialism  is  the  basis,  in  one  way  or  other, 
for  nearly  all  forms  of  unbelief.  Thus, 
Atheism  denies  that  there  is  a  God:  hence, 
the  mystery  of  our  own  being,  and  of  the 
world  around  us,  has  to  be  explained  by 
Materialism.  Pantheism  regards  God  as  a 
kind  of  animating  principle,  or  impersonal 
soul  of  the  world;  God  and  Nature  become 
interchangeable  ideas;  matter  is  merged 
into  God,  and  a  kind  of  materialism  has  to 
explain  how  Nature  begat  matter  and  life. 
Deism ,  Naturalism ,  Pationalism  admit  that 
God  created  the  world,  but  that,  having 
once  done  this,  he  takes  no  further  part  in 
its  government,  but  leaves  it  to  be  regu¬ 
lated  by  fixed  laws.  The  difficulty  of  the 
origin  of  life  and  matter  is  thus  got  over, 
but  a  phase  of  Materialism  has  to  be  called 
in  to  explain  how  the  world  keeps  on  with¬ 
out  a  Divine  Ruler.  So  also  the  Positivist 
makes  a  clean  sweep,  even  of  the  idea  of 
God,  ascribing  it  merely  to  erroneous  teach¬ 
ing,  and  he,  too,  has  only  matter  left  to 
deal  with.  (Atheism;  Pantheism;  Deism; 
Positivism.)  Materialism  merges  God  in 
matter,  and  its  creed  is,  “  There  is  nothing 
but  matter.” 

The  History  of  Materialism  is  a  long  one. 


w 


Mat  (  577  )  Mat 


It  pervades  the  whole  history  or  mankind. 
The  gloomy  outlook  to  which  it  leads  is 
before  us  in  the  words  of  the  “  Preacher,” 
“  Vanity  of  vanities,  all  is  vanity.”  It 
seems  to  have  flourished  in  the  Chinese 
Empire  early  in  the  third  century  before 
Christ,  and  earlier  still  in  Greece.  Democ¬ 
ritus,  B.  C.  460,  first  propounded  the 
“atomic  theory,”  still  held,  with  some 
changes,  by  Materialists  at  the  present  day. 
He  taught  that  matter  is  eternal,  that  it 
consists  of  minute  atoms  incapable  of  divis¬ 
ion,  with  spaces  between  them.  He  de¬ 
rived  the  soul  from  the  finest  fire  atoms. 
Epicurus,  b.  c.  342,  maintained  that  much 
of  the  unhappiness  and  degradation  of  man¬ 
kind  arose  from  the  slavish  dread  which 
they  entertained  of  the  power  and  wrath  of 
the  gods  in  this  life  and  after  death.  To 
remove  these  fears  he  taught  that  the  gods 
dwelt  in  sublime  peacefulness,  and  were 
indifferent  to  the  world  and  its  inhabitants, 
and  he  sought  to  show  that  the  material 
universe  was  not  created  by  the  gods,  but 
that  all  the  objects  in  it  were  formed 
by  the  union  of  elementary  atoms,  which 
had  existed  from  all  eternity,  and  were  gov¬ 
erned  by  simple  laws.  Lucretius,  a  Latin 
poet,  about  three  hundred  years  later,  tried 
to  popularize  and  make  these  views  attract¬ 
ive  in  a  long  poem,  De  Renwi  Natura ,  in 
which,  whilst  he  apostrophized  the  gods, 
he  yet  sought  to  free  his  countrymen  from 
the  tyranny  of  their  religious  beliefs.  He 
begins  with  the  axiom  that  nothing  can  be 
produced  from  nothing,  and  that  nothing 
can  be  reduced  to  nothing;  and  then  goes 
on  to  define  the  ultimate  atoms,  infinite  in 
number,  which,  together  with  vacant  space, 
infinite  in  extent,  constitute  the  universe. 
Generally  speaking,  these  principles  are 
maintained  by  modern  Materialistic  writers. 
Sir  W.  Thomson,  however,  holds  that  the 
primary  substance  is  a  Derfect  fluid  which 
fills  all  space,  atoms  being  only  the  rotat¬ 
ing  portions  of  this  fluid.  These  atoms 
are,  however,  only  objects  of  faith  to  the 
Materialist,  for  they  have  never  been  seen. 
Lucretius  endowed  atoms  with  the  power 
of  motion  and  of  freewill,  and  thus  he  en¬ 
deavored  to  show  how  they  came  together 
to  make  a  beginning  of  organized  nature; 
whilst  Materialists  of  the  present  day  deny 
the  power  of  motion  to  atoms  and,  of 
course,  of  freewill.  Man,  they  say,  is  a 
Necessitarian,  he  has  no  freewill,  since  all 
his  passions  and  thoughts  are  mere  func¬ 
tions  of  organized  substance. 

During  the  long  conflict  between  Chris¬ 
tianity  and  Paganism,  Materialism,  as  a 
philosophy,  passed  out  of  sight,  but  again 
came  into  power  at  the  time  of  the  French 
Revolution,  when  “  There  is  no  God  in 
heaven,  no  soul  in  man,  no  future  life  ” 


was  the  creed  of  many  of  the  rulers  of  the 
French  people.  Modern  English  Material¬ 
ism  made  a  fresh  start  with  H.  G.  Atkin¬ 
son  and  Harriet  Martineau;  and  at  the 
present  time,  the  writings  of  Professors 
Tyndall  and  Huxley  state  the  Materialistic 
argument  in  a  powerful  as  well  as  attractive 
manner,  although  it  is  only  just  to  say  that 
these  gentlemen  do  not  call  themselves 
Materialists,  and,  indeed,  deny  some  of  the 
apparently  logical  materialisticconclusions. 

Origin  of  the  Universe  according  to  Ma¬ 
terialists.  —  Allowing  the  existence  of 
atoms,  Materialists  now  rely  on  the  law  of 
gravitation  to  explain  the  movements  of 
atoms  whereby  they  came  together  and 
formed  the  various  kinds  of  matter,  organ¬ 
ized  and  unorganized,  with  which  we  are 
acquainted.  This  law  is  “  that  every  body 
attracts  every  other  body  with  a  force  pro¬ 
portional  to  their  masses  conjointly,  and  to 
the  square  of  their  distances  apart  inverse¬ 
ly.”  Hence,  they  say,  the  atoms  would 
come  together  of  themselves;  but  in  order 
that  they  may  do  this  it  has  further  to  be 
assumed,  either  that  the  atoms  are  of  differ¬ 
ent  sizes,  or  that  they  are  at  unequal  dis¬ 
tances  apart,  since,  if  they  were  all  equal 
in  size  and  all  equidistant,  there  could  be 
no  motion,  their  mutual  attractions  exactly 
balancing  each  other.  But  this  assumption 
is  fatal  to  the  theory,  since — matter  being 
a  single  substance,  and  hence  uniformly 
divided — it  would  have  to  be  allowed  that 
some  other  power  had  collected  matter  into 
unequal  atoms,  or  had  set  these  at  varying 
distances  apart.  This  position  is  in  no  way 
altered  by  using  the  terms  energy  and  force. 
Energy  is  defined  by  physicists  to  be  the 
power  of  doing  work;  force,  the  rate  at 
which  that  work  is  done.  The  energy 
which  moves  atoms  must — as  there  is  noth¬ 
ing  but  matter  divided  into  atoms — be  resi¬ 
dent  in  them,  but  this  will  not  help  to  ex¬ 
plain  how  they  first  moved  together,  since 
physical  science  declares  that  energy  is 
locked  up  in  matter,  and  only  becomes 
active  in  consequence  of  some  previous 
energy  exerted,  i.  e.,  of  some  work  done 
(for  example,  the  stone  cannot  fall  to  the 
ground  until  it  has  been,  by  work,  lifted 
up;  the  spring  cannot  recoil  until  it  has 
been  first  bent).  Hence,  to  unloose  the 
pent-up  energy  of  the  atoms,  to  convert 
what  is  called  potential  into  actual  energy, 
there  would  be  wanted  the  exercise  of 
some  previous  energy  altogether  outside 
matter,  and  therefore  unknown  to  Mate¬ 
rialists.  Materialism,  then,  fails  to  explain 
how  the  universe  was  first  formed,  and  we 
are  compelled  to  go  back  for  an  explanation 
of  this  to  some  great  First  Cause — in  short, 
to  God.  Supposing,  however,  the  difficulty 
of  starting  the  universe  to  be  surmounted. 


Mat 


(  573  ) 


Mat 


Materialists  then  make  great  strides  with 
the  help  of  the  doctrine  of  Evolution,  since, 
to  a  large  extent,  they  are  treading  on  firm 
and  sure  ground;  but  again  they  break 
down  when  they  try  to  explain,  by  its 
means,  man’s  spirit  and  intellect  and  moral 
sense. 

There  remains  to  be  discussed  the  origin 
of  life.  How  does  Materialism  explain 
this  ?  Living  things,  whether  plants  or 
animals,  from  the  lowest  to  the  highest, 
feed,  grow,  and  reproduce  themselves: 
these  are  the  signs  of  life.  Besides  living 
things,  there  are  the  various  lifeless  sub¬ 
stances  making  up  the  soil  and  the  air  and 
water.  Where  is  the  point  of  contact  be¬ 
tween  living  and  non-living  things  ?  It  has 
been  discovered  that  plants  have  the  power 
of  taking  up  the  various  constituents  of 
soil,  water,  and  air,  and  converting  them 
into  living  matter — in  short,  of  feeding 
upon  them;  whilst  animals  can  only  feed 
upon  living  matter,  or  that  which  has  once 
lived — on  plants  or  other  animals.  Hence 
we  have  non-living  matter  converted  into 
living  matter,  but  only  by  a  living  agent. 
Is  there  any  evidence  to  prove  that  any 
form  of  life  can  be  developed  out  of  matter 
without  life  ?  Professors  Tyndall  and 
Huxley  admit  that  they  cannot  point  to  any 
proof  that  life  can  be  developed  except 
from  previous  life.  Life  can  only  be  pro¬ 
duced  from  some  living  germ.  Here  again 
the  Materialist  theory  breaks  down  ;  it 
fails  altogether  to  explain  the  origin  of  life. 

Materialism  necessarily  dispenses  with 
Religion;  it  denies  the  existence  of  God,  of 
the  soul,  of  a  future  life:  hence  prayer  and 
worship  have  no  meaning.  It  likewise  un¬ 
dermines  the  basis  of  Morals.  Man,  being 
only  a  complicated  aggregation  of  atoms  of 
matter  governed  by  physical  laws,  is  alto¬ 
gether  irresponsible  for  his  actions.  A  Ma¬ 
terialist  who  is  intelligent  enough  can  have 
no  conscience,  no  sense  of  sin,  no  ideas  of 
right  or  wrong.  Harriet  Martineau  said, 

‘  ‘  When  we  have  finally  dismissed  all  notion 
of  subjection  to  a  superior  lawless  will,  all 
the  perplexing  notions  of  sin  and  responsi¬ 
bility  .  .  .  .  the  relief  is  like  that  of  coming 
out  of  a  cave  full  of  painted  shadows  under 
the  free  sky.”  Another  Materialist,  Vogt, 
has  expressed  himself  with  great  plainness: 
“  Freewill  does  not  exist,  neither  does  any 
amenability  or  responsibility,  such  as  mor¬ 
als,  penal  justice,  and  Heaven  knows 
what  else,  would  impose  upon  us.  At  no 
moment  are  we  our  own  masters  any  more 
than  we  can  decree  as  to  the  secretion  of 
our  kidneys.  The  organism  cannot  govern 
itself;  it  is  governed  by  the  law  of  its  ma¬ 
terial  combination.  It  is  impossible  to 
demonstrate  the  admissibility  of  punish¬ 
ment.”  Such  is  Materialism  carried  to  its 


logical  conclusions.  Many  Materialists  are 
vastly  better  than  this  creed.  But  it  would 
be  a  mistake  to  attribute  their  character  to 
their  Materialism.  It  is  due  rather  to  early 
training,  and  to  the  silent  influence  of  cen¬ 
turies  of  Christian  habits  and  feelings  upon 
the  society  amongst  which  they  live.  They 
are  unknowing  witnesses  to  the  life  and 
power  of  Christianity,  which  compels  them 
to  adopt  its  high  moral  standard. — Benham: 
Diet,  of  Religion.  See  F.  A.  Lange:  Ge- 
schichte  des  ATaterialistnus,  translated  by 
Thomas.  Among  the  advocates  of  Ma¬ 
terialism  are  Strauss,  Spencer,  Huxley, 
Tyndall,  etc.  Its  opponents  number  Beal, 
Carpenter,  Bowen,  Joseph  Cook,  Hodge, 
Le  Conte,  McCosh,  Porter,  Flint,  etc. 

Mather,  Cotton,  “  was  the  most  learned 
and  widely  known  of  a  family  which 
through  four  generations  enjoyed  singular 
consideration,  and  exercised  commanding 
influence  upon  New  England  in  its  first 
century.  Richard,  son  of  Thomas  Mather 
of  Lowton  (Winwick),  Lancashire,  Eng¬ 
land,  after  studying  for  a  time  at  Brase- 
nose,  Oxford ,  and  teaching  and  subsequent¬ 
ly  preaching  at  Yoxteth  Park,  went  to  New 
England  for  nonconformity’s  sake,  in  the 
summer  of  1635,  where,  till  his  death  in 
1669,  at  seventy-three,  he  was  pastor  of 
the  Congregational  church  in  Dorchester 
(now  a  part  of  Boston),  acquiring  large  re¬ 
pute,  writing  three  or  four  instructive  and 
constructive  treatises  upon  polity,  and  be¬ 
ing  much  trusted  as  to  the  foundations  of 
both  church  and  state.  His  youngest  son, 
Increase,  took  his  first  degree  at  Harvard 
College  in  T656,  at  seventeen,  returning 
after  a  visit  to  the  old  country,  in  which  he 
served  several  pulpits,  to  take,  at  twenty- 
five,  the  pastorate  of  the  Second  (or  North) 
Church  in  Boston,  which  place  he  held  till 
his  death  in  1723,  at  eighty-five;  while,  in 
addition,  he  had  been  acting,  or  actual, 
president  of  the  college  most  of  the  time 
from  1681  to  1701;  the  author  of  one  hun¬ 
dred  and  sixty  books  or  tracts,  and,  for  four 
of  its  most  perilous  years,  the  choice  of  all 
its  citizens  to  represent  the  Massachusetts 
colony  before  the  English  Government. 
His  wife,  Maria,  was  daughter  of  the  fa¬ 
mous  John  Cotton,  and  their  first-born  re¬ 
ceived  both  family  names,  and  when  he 
took  his  B.  A.  degree  at  less  than  sixteen, 
at  Harvard,  in  1678,  his  promise  tempted 
President  Oakes  to  say  in  his  presence,  re¬ 
ferring  to  his  two  distinguished  grand¬ 
fathers;  “  Cottonus  atque  Alatherus  tarn  re 
qnam  nomine  coalescant  et  reviviscant.' 
After  a  short  time  spent  as  a  tutor,  and  a 
period  of  diligent  toil  ending  in  the  con¬ 
quest  of  an  impediment  of  speech  which 
endangered  success  in  the  family  profes* 


Mat 


(  579  ) 


Mat 


sicn,  he  became  assistant  to  his  father,  in 
two  years  being  ordained  pastor,  and  hold¬ 
ing  the  pulpit  for  nearly  three  and  forty 
years,  till  his  death  at  sixty-five.  As  a 
private  Christian,  from  his  frank  diaries,  it 
is  clear  that  he  labored  much  with  himself, 
in  a  single  year  devoting  more  than  sixty 
days  to  fasting,  and  twenty  nights  to  vigil. 
As  a  preacher  he  was  conscientious  and 
successful,  always  diligently  studying  his 
discourses,  in  one  year  delivering  more 
than  seventy  public  sermons,  with  nearly 
half  as  many  in  private  houses,  sometimes 
thus  ‘  pressing  a  glorious  Christ’  through 
eleven  successive  days;  and,  with  six  com¬ 
petitors  by  his  side,  maintaining  to  the  last 
his  hold  upon  the  largest  congregation  in 
New  England,  having  about  four  hundred 
gifted  communicants.  As  a  pastor  he  was 
exceptionally  laborious,  systematically  ex¬ 
horting  and  praying  with  his  people  at  their 
homes,  making  conscience  of  spiritualizing 
every  casual  interview,  and  now  and  then 
spending  days  upon  his  knees  with  the 
names  of  his  flock  before  him  to  prompt 
his  intercessions  for  them,  and  for  himself, 
that  he  might  better  reach  their  peculiar 
need.  As  a  philanthropist,  while  abundant 
in  personal  benefactions,  he  originated 
more  than  twenty  societies  for  public  chari¬ 
ty,  bore  the  cost  of  a  school  for  Christian¬ 
izing  the  negroes,  and,  at  the  risk  of  life, 
in  the  face  of  popular  opposition,  medically 
led,  advocated,  and  vindicated  the  intro¬ 
duction  of  inoculation  as  a  protection 
against  the  then  terrible  ravages  of  the 
small-pox.  As  an  author  he  was  learned — 
publishing  in  French,  Spanish,  and  Algon- 
kin  as  well  as  English — and  voluminous, 
three  hundred  and  eighty-two  of  his  print¬ 
ed  works  having  been  catalogued,  several 
of  which  are  elaborate  books,  and  one  a 
folio  of  800  pages;  while  his  Biblia  Ameri¬ 
cana,  by  him  considered  the  great  work 
of  his  life,  remains  in  six  huge  volumes  of 
manuscript  to  this  day.  As  a  scholar  he 
was  better  known  across  the  sea  than  any 
other  American  of  his  time,  once  contem¬ 
poraneously  corresponding  with  more  than 
fifty  learned  Europeans,  in  his  forty- 
seventh  year  being  made  doctor  of  divinity 
at  Glasgow,  and  receiving  election  as  a 
fellow  of  the  Royal  Society,  in  those  days 
eminent  distinctions  for  a  colonist.  With 
all  this  it  must  be  confessed  that  he  had 
some  grave  defects.  His  common-sense 
was  not  uniformly  equal  to  his  need.  Al¬ 
ways  ambitious  and  self-opinioned,  he  was 
occasionally  irritable  and  conceited.  He 
lacked  good  taste,  and  it  was  his  uncon¬ 
cealed  grief  that  he  was  never  elected  to 
preside  over  Harvard  College.  His  enor¬ 
mous  knowledge  did  not  digest  well,  and 
his  use  of  learning  tended  to  be  crude.  He 


was  superstitious,  and  it  was  his  misfor¬ 
tune  that,  as  to  witchcraft,  he  was  not,  as 
with  vaccination,  in  advance  of  his  genera¬ 
tion,  any  more  than  such  men  as  Richard 
Baxter  and  Sir  Matthew  Hale.  Of  his 
works,  the  Magnalia  and  Ratio  Disciplines 
are  indispensable  to  the  student  of  New 
England  history.” — Ency.  Britannica. 

Mathew,  Theobald,  popularly  known  as 
“  Father  Mathew,”  the  apostle  of  Tem¬ 
perance  in  Ireland,  was  b.  at  Thomastown, 
in  Tipperary,  Oct.  10,  1790;  d.  at  Queens¬ 
town,  Dec.  8,  1856.  He  studied  at  Kil¬ 
kenny  and  Maynooth,  and  became  a  priest 
in  the  Roman  Catholic  Church  in  1814.  He 
became  head  of  the  Capuchin  monastery 
at  Cork,  where  he  established  a  society  foi 
visiting  the  poor,  after  the  model  of  those  of 
St.  Vincent  de  Paul.  Through  the  influ¬ 
ence  of  one  of  his  fellow-governors,  Wil¬ 
liam  Martin,  a  Quaker,  he  became  deeply 
interested  in  the  cause  of  temperance. 
From  the  spring  of  1838,  he  devoted  his 
energies  to  the  advocacy  of  total  absti¬ 
nence.  He  met  with  wonderful  success, 
and  within  a  few  months  many  thousands 
signed  the  pledge.  He  traveled  all  over 
Ireland,  Scotland  and  England,  and  spent 
two  years  in  America  (1849-51).  His  en¬ 
terprise  involved  him  in  financial  straits, 
from  which  he  was  partially  relieved  by  a 
royal  annuity  of  300  pounds.  His  memory 
is  justly  cherished  as  one  of  the  greatest 
of  Ireland’s  benefactors. 

Mathilde,  Countess  of  Tuscany,  b. 
1046;  d.  in  the  monastery  of  Bondeno 
de’Roncori,  July  24,  1115.  She  was  adaugh- 
ter  of  Boniface,  Marquis  of  Tuscany,  who 
changed  from  an  adherent  of  the  German 
emperor  in  his  struggle  with  the  pope, 
and  in  later  life  sustained  the  side  of  the 
papal  power.  His  daughter  sympathized 
with  him,  and  when  she  came  into  posses¬ 
sion  of  her  father’s  estate  in  North  and 
Central  Italy,  while  quite  young,  she  was 
an  earnest  supporter  of  Gregory  VII. 
against  Henry  IV.,  and  after  Gregory’s 
death  carried  on  the  war  with  great  skill. 
Mathilde  was  married  twice,  first  to  God¬ 
frey  of  Lorraine,  and  afterward  to  Duke 
Welf  of  Bavaria,  from  whom  she  was  di¬ 
vorced. 

Matins,  the  name  given  to  the  first  of 
the  seven  daily  hours  of  prayer,  which 
were  held  in  England  previous  to  the  Ref¬ 
ormation.  It  came  about  daybreak. 

Matthew,  The  Gospel  According  to. 
“  Its  author . — The  author  of  this  Gospel  is 
presumed  to  be  the  Matthew  mentioned  in 
chap.  ix.  9,  who  is  called  Levi,  the  son  of 


Mat 


(  58o  ) 


Mat 


Alphaeus,  in  Mark  ii.  14  (see  Luke  v.  27), 
and  is  described  as  a  publican,  whose  busi¬ 
ness  it  was  to  collect  the  Roman  custom 
on  goods  crossing  the  Sea  of  Tiberias,  but 
who  rose  and  left  the  receipt  of  custom  on 
the  simple  call  of  Christ,  and  afterward 
became  one  of  his  twelve  apostles.  We 
know  nothing  for  certain  of  the  author’s 
after-history,  except  what  may  in  a  gen¬ 
eral  way  may  be  deduced  from  the  tenor  of 
this  Gospel.  From  the  structure,  or  drift, 
of  it,  it  has  been  inferred  that  he  was  at 
first  the  apostle  of  Christianity  to  the  Jews, 
probably  in  Palestine,  and  afterward,  in 
.consequence  of  their  rejection  of  his  testi¬ 
mony,  the  witness  of  its  truth  to  other 
nations — tradition  says  in  Ethiopia,  Ind^a, 
and  Parthia — in  which  last  country  he  is 
further  said  to  have  suffered  martyrdom 
for  the  faith.  He  is  generally  represented 
in  Christian  art  as  an  old  man,  with  a  large 
flowing  beard,  and  often  as  occupied  in 
writing  his  Gospel  with  an  angel  standing 
by  him. 

“ Original  language. —  According  to  the 
unanimous  testimony  of  the  earliest  writ¬ 
ers  in  the  Christian  Church  who  refer  to 
the  subject,  Matthew  wrote  his  Gospel  in 
Hebrew,  i.  e.,  in  Aramaic,  the  current 
language  of  Palestine.  On  the  other  hand, 
it  is  pretty  generally  agreed  that  our  Gos¬ 
pel  as  it  stands  in  Greek  is  not  a  trans¬ 
lation  from  the  Hebrew,  but  an  original 
composition  in  Greek.  Did  Matthew  write 
two  Gospels  ?  or  are  we  to  say  that  our 
Gospel  is  not  the  genuine  Gospel?  or  were 
the  ancient  writers  mistaken  in  supposing 
the  Gospel  was  written  in  Hebrew  ?  or, 
lastly,  was  the  Hebrew  Gospel  of  which 
they  wrote  not  genuine  ?  Another  piece 
of  information  throws  some  light  on  these 
questions.  Later  church  writers  refer  to 
and  quote  from  a  “  Gospel  according  to 
the  Hebrews,”  a  book  which  was  not  ac¬ 
cepted  by  the  general  Church,  but  used  by 
Judaizing  sects.  Some  fragments  of  this 
Gospel  remain,  and  they  do  not  coincide 
with  our  Gospel.  Yet  we  cannot  suppose 
it  likely  that  this  book,  rejected  by  the 
Church,  handed  over  to  heretics  and  now 
lost,  was  the  true  work  of  the  apostle; 
whilst  our  Gospel,  which  is  a  great  and 
evidently  inspired  book,  is  only  a  second¬ 
hand  imitation.  Is  it  not  much  more  rea¬ 
sonable  to  believe  that  ours  is  the  original 
work,  written  in  Greek,  and  that  the 
Church  tradition  that  Matthew  wrote  in 
Hebrew  grew  out  of  the  knowledge  that  a 
Hebrew  Gospel  existed,  as  undoubtedly  it 
did  exist  ?  This  view  is  supported  by  the 
fact  that  none  of  the  earliest  writers  re¬ 
ferred  to  state  that  they  themselves  had 
ever  seen  the  Hebrew  original.  It  is  quite 
possible  that  uncritical  men,  who  had  only 


heard  by  report  of  a  Hebrew  Gospel,  in 
many  respects  like  Matthew’s  Gospel, 
should  have  imagined  that  this  was  the 
original  work  of  the  Apostle  to  the  He¬ 
brews.  We  may  probably  conclude,  then, 
that  rumors  of  the  ‘  Gospel  according  to 
the  Hebrews,’  reaching  men  who  had  not 
seen  that  Gospel,  led  them  to  identify  the 
work  with  Matthew’s  Gospel,  whilst  in 
fact  it  was  another  work,  but  that  Matthew 
wrote  his  Gospel  in  Greek. 

“ Genuineness . — This  question  is  closely 
connected  with  the  preceding  subject.  But 
further  it  is  to  be  noted  that  Papias,  a  dis¬ 
ciple  of  the  apostle  John,  who  lived  in  the 
early  part  of  the  second  century,  and 
Irenaeus,  who  knew  John’s  intimate  disciple 
Polycarp,  tell  us  that  Matthew  wrote  a 
Gospel,  though  they  say,  as  we  have  seen, 
that  this  was  in  Hebrew.  But  Irenaeus 
quotes  from  our  Gospel  as  Matthew’s. 
Justin  Martyr,  who  wrote  only  forty  years 
after  the  death  of  John,  frequently  quotes 
from  our  Gospel.  His  quotations  have 
been  referred  by  some  to  another  source — 
perhaps  some  document  now  lost — because 
they  are  not  accurate.  But  Justin  Mar¬ 
tyr’s  quotations  from  the  Septuagint  are 
just  as  loose  as  his  quotations  from  Mat¬ 
thew.  When  books  were  produced  in  the 
form  of  cumbrous  rolls,  and  when  verbal 
accuracy  was  not  much  considered,  quota¬ 
tions  from  memory  may  have  been  frequent¬ 
ly  given  without  a  reference  to  the  author¬ 
ity  cited.  As  the  inaccuracy  which  would 
thus  arise  is  seen  with  Justin’s  use  of  the 
Septuagint,  there  is  no  reason  to  be  sur¬ 
prised  at  finding  it  also  in  his  use  of  Mat¬ 
thew.  Then  the  beautiful  little  Epistle  to 
Diognetus — about  the  same  date — appears 
to  quote  Matthew;  so  does  Hegesippus. 
The  later  writers,  Tertullian,  Clement, 
and  Origen,  undoubtedly  knew  our  Gospel. 
Henceforth  the  general  acceptance  of  the 
book  is  unquestionable. 

“Date.  —  According  to  Irenaeus,  Mat¬ 
thew  wrote  his  Gospel  when,  as  he  repre¬ 
sents  it,  Peter  and  Paul  were  founding  the 
Church  at  Rome — that  is,  about  the  year 
62  A.  D. 

“Aim. — The  aim  of  this  Gospel  is  to 
show  that  the  Messiah  promised  in  the  Old 
Testament  has  appeared  in  Jesus  of  Naz¬ 
areth — in  a  form,  however,  which  led  to 
his  rejection  by  the  Jews,  and  their  conse¬ 
quent  rejection  by  him,  to  the  eventual 
emancipation  and  salvation  of  the  Gentile 
nations  (chap,  xxviii.  19,  20).  It  is  the 
author’s  justification,  as  it  was  that  of  the 
apostles  generally,  for  missionary  work 
among  the  heathen  to  the  neglect  of  his 
own  countrymen,  who  had  spurned  his 
message. 

“The  matter ,  character ,  and  its  arrange- 


Mat 


<  581 ) 


Mau 


ment. — The  arrangement  is  often  not  chron¬ 
ological,  but  topical,  while  the  matter 
which  we  more  particularly  owe  to  it  em¬ 
braces  the  Sermon  on  the  Mount  (chap.  v. 
-vii.),  Christ’s  charge  to  his  apostles  (chap, 
x. ),  most  of  the  parables  in  chap,  xiii.,  that 
of  the  unmerciful  servant  (chap,  xviii.), 
and  some  in  chaps,  xxi.-xxviii.  It  is  not 
written  with  such  spiritual  insight  as  is 
John’s,  or  even  Luke’s  Gospel,  and  hence 
was  called  by  the  Fathers  the  ‘  somatic,’ 
or  bodily  Gospel.” — Bagster:  Bible  Helps . 
See  Com?nentaries  of  Alford,  Wordsworth, 
J.  A.  Alexander,  Lange,  Eng.  trans.  by 
Schaff  (1864);  Mansel,  in  Speaker's  Commen¬ 
tary;  G.  P.  Fisher:  Beginnings  of  Chris¬ 
tianity,  pp.  256-286. 

Matthew’s-Day,  St.,  commemorated  in 
the  Roman  and  Anglican  Churches  on  Sept. 
21,  and  by  the  Greek,  Nov.  16. 

Matthew  of  Paris,  one  of  the  most  learned 
men  of  his  day;  b.  early  in  the  thirteenth 
century.  His  surname  was  given  probably 
from  the  fact  that  he  was  perhaps  born  or 
studied  in  Paris.  He  entered  the  Cluniac 
monastery  at  St.  Albans  in  1217,  and 
through  the  favor  of  Henry  III.  he  secured 
certain  privileges  for  the  University  of  Ox¬ 
ford.  He  died  in  1259.  His  great  work 
was  the  Historia  Anglica  Major ,  extending 
from  1066  to  1259.  The  first  part  was  cop¬ 
ied  from  the  Chronicle  of  Roger  of  Wend- 
over. 

Matthew  of  Westminster,  so  called  be¬ 
cause  he  was  a  Benedictine  in  the  monas¬ 
tery  of  Westminster.  His  work,  Flores  His- 
toriarum ,  is  an  abridgment  of  the  Historia 
Major  of  Matthew  of  Paris. 

Maundy  Thursday,  the  day  preceding 
Good  Friday.  The  word  “  maundy  ”  is 
identified  with  the  “  mandatum  ”  of  the  ru¬ 
bric,  which  refers  to  the  “  new  command¬ 
ment”  of  John  xiii.  34,  especially  to  the 
precept  given  in  the  chapter  “  to  wash  one 
another’s  feet.”  For  many  centuries  past 
the  pope  on  this  day  has  washed  the  feet 
of  twelve  beggars,  and  the  custom  is  prac¬ 
ticed  by  the  Austrian  emperor  and  other 
Roman  Catholic  sovereigns. 

Maur,  St.,  a  Congregation  of  the  order 
of  Benedictines  in  France.  During  the  lat¬ 
ter  part  of  the  Middle  Ages  the  order  had 
sunk  very  low,  and  in  the  early  part  of  the 
seventeenth  century  efforts  were  made  to 
revive  it.  Didier  de  la  Cour  established 
the  order,  with  severe  discipline,  at  the 
monastery  of  St.  Vanne.  In  1614  a  con¬ 
vention  of  the  French  clergy  sought  a  union 
of  all  the  Benedictine  monasteries  with  St. 


Vanne,  but  the  chapter-general  feared  the 
results  of  such  an  extension,  and  Dom 
Benard,  a  monk  of  St.  Vanne,  received  au¬ 
thority  from  Louis  XIII.,  in  1618,  to  form 
a  new  order,  which  was  placed  under  the 
patronage  of  St.  Maur.  The  sixteen  prov¬ 
inces,  into  which  the  order  was  divided,  had 
about  twenty  religious  houses.  Besides 
the  rule  of  St.  Benedict,  they  had  special 
constitutions.  They  gave  particular  care 
to  the  interests  of  learning  and  the  educa¬ 
tion  of  the  young.  In  the  line  of  historical 
investigation  their  labors  have  been  im¬ 
mense.  They  have  published  editions  of 
the  Fathers  of  great  value.  The  Congre¬ 
gation  was  suppressed  during  the  Revolu¬ 
tion,  but  revived,  in  1837,  at  the  abbey  of 
Solesmes. 

Maurice  of  Saxony,  b.  at  Freiberg, 
March  21,  1521;  d.  in  the  camp  at  Sievers- 
hausen,  July  11,  1553.  He  succeeded  his 
father  as  duke  of  Saxony  in  1541,  and  was 
made  elector  after  the  battle  of  Mtihlberg, 
1547.  He  had  early  embraced  the  Ref¬ 
ormation  and  signed  the  Articles  of  Smal- 
cald,  but  he  did  not  join  the  League.  For 
the  purpose  of  furthering  his  ambitious 
plans,  at  the  Diet  of  Ratisbon  (1546)  he 
made  a  secret  alliance  with  Charles  V. 
When  the  war  broke  out  he  invaded  the 
territory  of  his  cousin,  the  elector  of 
Saxony,  who  returned  and  drove  Maurice 
out  of  his  country,  and  took  from  him  his 
dukedom.  With  the  aid  of  the  emperor  he 
soon  returned,  and  was  given  a  consider¬ 
able  part  of  the  territory  of  his  cousin,  and 
made  elector.  By  the  terms  of  the  Diet  of 
Augsburg  (1548),  he  was  left  free  in  relig¬ 
ious  matters,  and  he  rejected  the  Augs¬ 
burg  Interim;  but  the  Leipzig  Interim, 
adopted  after  conference  with  Melanchthon 
and  others,  did  not  please  his  subjects. 
This  position  of  affairs,  in  connection  with 
the  treachery  of  the  emperor  in  keeping 
his  father-in-law  as  a  prisoner,  led  Maurice 
to  form  an  alliance  with  France.  By  a 
sudden  attack,  while  the  emperor  was  sick 
at  Imspruck,  he  compelled  him  to  flee  for 
his  life.  Through  the  efforts  of  King  Fer¬ 
dinand  the  Convention  of  Passau  was  held, 
Aug.,  1552,  and  full  religious  liberty  was 
granted  to  the  Protestants.  This  victory 
made  Maurice  the  military  leader  of  the 
Reformers.  In  a  feud  with  the  Margrave 
of  Brandenburg  he  was  wounded,  and 
died  a  few  days  afterward. 

Maurice,  Rev.  John  Frederick  Deni¬ 
son,  D.  D.,  “a  distinguished  divine  of  the 
Church  of  England,  and  one  of  the  most 
influential  thinkers  of  his  age,  was  the  son 
of  a  Unitarian  minister,  and  was  born  in 
Normanston,  Suffolk,  Eng.,  Aug.  29,  1805. 


Mau 


(  582  ) 


May 


His  reputation  at  the  university  for  schol¬ 
arship  stood  high,  but  being  at  this  time  a 
dissenter,  and  otherwise  not  in  a  position 
to  sign  theThirty-nine  Articles,  he  left  Cam¬ 
bridge  without  taking  a  degree,  and  com¬ 
menced  a  literary  career  in  London.  To 
this  period  belongs  his  novel  entitled 
Eustace  Conway.  He  also  wrote  for  the 
Athenceian,  which  had  then  been  recently 
started  by  James  Silk  Buckingham.  After 
the  lapse  of  two  years,  a  change  came  over 
his  religious  sentiments  and  opinions;  his 
spirit  was  profoundly  stirred  and  influenced 
by  the  speculations  of  Coleridge,  and  he 
now  resolved  to  become  a  clergyman  of 
the  Church  of  England.  He  did  not,  how¬ 
ever,  return  to  Cambridge,  but  proceeded 
to  Oxford,  where  he  took  the  degree  of  M. 
A.,  and  was  ordained  a  priest  about  1828. 
From  that  time  the  aim  of  his  whole  life 
was  the  interpretation  of  Christianity  in 
accordance  with  the  most  pure  and  spirit¬ 
ual  conceptions  of  our  nature;  nor  have  his 
labors  been  without  result.  At  the  time 
of  his  death  there  was  probably  no  clergy¬ 
man  in  the  United  Kingdom  more  deeply 
reverenced  and  loved  than  he  was  by  a 
large  body  of  the  thoughtful  and  cultivated 
portion  of  the  religious  laity.  He  also 
succeeded  in  gathering  round  him,  zvithin 
the  Church,  a  large  number  of  adherents, 
especially  among  the  younger  clergy,  who 
constitute  what  is  commonly  called  the 
‘  Broad-Church  ’  party,  though  its  mem¬ 
bers  repudiate  any  sectional  tendency,  and 
do  not  associate  for  the  purpose  of  carry¬ 
ing  out  any  sectional  schemes,  like  the 
‘  Evangelicals  ’  and  Tractarians.  Maurice’s 
theological  opinions,  especially  on  the 
question  of  the  atonement,  are  not  con¬ 
sidered  ‘  sound  ’  by  the  ‘  orthodox  '  portion 
of  the  clergy;  and  the  publication  of  a 
volume  of  Theological  Essays,  in  which, 
among  other  heresies,  he  took  the  chari¬ 
table  view  of  future  punishments,  lost 
him  the  professorship  of  theology  in  King’s 
College,  London.  For  many  years  Maurice 
was  chaplain  of  Lincoln’s  Inn,  but  in  1S60 
he  was  appointed  incumbent  of  the  District 
Church  of  Vere  Street,  Mary-le-bone.  He 
was  always  a  warm  and  enlightened  friend 
of  the  working  classes,  and  founded  the 
first  Working-man’s  College  in  London. 
Maurice  became  professor  of  moral  philos¬ 
ophy  at  Cambridge  in  1866,  and  died  April 
1,  1S72.  He  wrote  largely.  All  his  works 
are  written  in  the  most  exquisite  English, 
and  display  a  beauty  and  tenderness  of 
Christian  sentiment  that  are  nearly  fault¬ 
less,  but  united  with  a  subtlety  of  thought 
that  frequently  passes  into  mysticism.  His 
principal  productions  are  his  Mental  and 
Moral  Philosophy;  Religions  of  the  World; 
Prophets  and  Kings  of  the  Old  Testament; 


Patriarchs  and  Lawgivers  of  the  Old  Testa¬ 
ment;  The  Kingdom  of  Christ;  The  Doc¬ 
trine  of  Sacrifice;  Theological  Essays;  Lect¬ 
ures  on  the  Ecclesiastical  History  of  the 
First  and  Second  Centuries;  Gospel  of  St. 
John;  and  Social  Morality — Chambers: 
Cyclopcedia.  See  The  Life  of  John  Frederick 
D enison  Maurice ,  by  his  son  (London, 1884), 
2  vols. 

Maury,  Jean  Siffrein,  Roman  Catholic 
cardinal;  b.  at  Valreas  in  Venaissin,  June 
26,  1746;  d.  at  Montefiascone,  May  11, 
1817.  Educated  at  Avignon,  he  early  at¬ 
tracted  attention  as  an  orator.  Elected  a 
member  of  the  States-General  in  1780,  he 
was  an  eloquent  defender  of  the  Crown,  as 
well  as  the  Church.  Compelled  to  leave 
France,  he  found  refuge  in  Rome,  in  1792, 
and  was  received  by  Pius  VII.  with  pecul¬ 
iar  honor,  and  made  a  bishop  of  Montefias¬ 
cone  and  cardinal  in  1794.  Having  become 
reconciled  with  the  French  Government  he 
returned  to  Paris  in  1806,  and  became  in¬ 
timate  with  Napoleon,  who  made  him  arch¬ 
bishop  of  Paris,  in  1810.  The  pope  re¬ 
fused  to  sanction  this  appointment,  and 
when  the  Bourbons  regained  power  he  was 
expelled  from  his  see.  Visiting  Rome  to 
plead  his  case  before  the  pope,  he  was  im¬ 
prisoned  in  the  Castle  of  St.  Angelo,  and 
kept  there  until  he  resigned  his  see.  A 
part  of  his  writings  were  published  by  his 
nephew  (Paris,  1827,  5  vols).  See  his  Life 
by  Ponjoulat  (Paris,  1835). 

Maximus,  Confessor,  b.  in  Constanti¬ 
nople  about  580;  d.  in  the  castle  of  Shem- 
ari,  on  the  eastern  shore  of  the  Black  Sea, 
Aug.  13,  662;  was  the  chief  champion  and 
martyr  in  the  Monothelite  controversy,  and 
one  of  the  most  acute  theologians  and  most 
subtle  mystics  of  the  Greek  Church.  See 
Wagenmann  in  Schaff-Herzog:  Ency. 

May,  Samuel  J.,  b.  in  Boston,  Sept.  12, 
1797;  d.  in  Syracuse,  N.  Y. ,  July  1,  1871. 
After  graduating  at  Harvard  in  1817  he 
was  pastor  of  a  Unitarian  Church  at  Brook¬ 
lyn,  Conn.  (1822-35).  In  1835  he  acted  as 
agent  of  the  Massachusetts  Anti-slavery 
Society,  and  in  1836  was  pastor  in  South 
Scituate,  Mass;  1842-45  principal  of  the 
Lexington  Normal  School  for  Girls;  1845- 
68  pastor  at  Syracuse.  He  was  ardently 
devoted  to  the  anti-slavery  cause,  and  his 
life  was  often  endangered.  He  wrote 
Recollections  of  our  Anti-slavery  Conflict 
(Boston,  1869).  See  his  Memoir,  by  J.  T. 
Mumford  (1873). 

Mayer,  Lewis,  D.  D.,  German  Reformed; 
b.  at  Lancaster,  Pa.,  March  26,  1783;  d.  at 
York,  Pa.,  Aug.  25,  1849.  He  was  or- 


May 


(  583  ) 


Mea 


dained,  1807;  pastor  at  Shepherdstown, 
Va. ,  until  1821,  and  at  York  until  1825. 
He  then  accepted  the  presidency  of  the 
theological  seminary,  founded  first  at  Car¬ 
lisle,  Pa.,  but  afterward  removed  to  York. 
After  his  retirement  in  1835  he  began  the 
preparation  of  a  history  of  the  German  Re¬ 
formed  Church,  of  which  only  one  volume, 
bringing  the  story  down  to  1770,  was  pub¬ 
lished  in  1850.  A  Mc7noir,  by  Rev.  E. 
Hciner,  is  prefixed  to  this  volume. 

Mayhew,  Experience,  b.  at  Martha’s 
Vineyard,  Mass.,  Jan.  27,  1673;  d.  there, 
Nov.  29,  1758.  For  sixty-four  years  he 
labored  as  a  missionary  among  the  Indians. 
He  published,  in  1727,  Indian  Converts ,  giv¬ 
ing  brief  sketches  of  thirty  Indian  preach¬ 
ers,  and  eighty  other  converts.  At  the 
request  of  the  Society  for  the  Propagation 
of  the  Gospel,  he  prepared  a  version  of  the 
Psalms  and  of  John.  His  learning  and  de¬ 
votion  were  widely  recognized. 

Mayhew,  Jonathan,  son  of  the  preced¬ 
ing;  b.  at  Martha’s  Vineyard,  Mass.,  Oct. 
8,  1720;  d.  in  Boston,  July  9,  1766.  He 
was  ordained  minister  of  the  West  Church, 
Boston,  in  1747,  where  he  remained  until 
his  death.  He  took  an  active  part  in  op¬ 
posing  the  introduction  of  bishops  into  the 
colonies,  and  earnestly  advocated  the  rights 
of  the  colonists  in  the  discussion  that  led 
to  the  Revolution.  In  theology  he  was 
Unitarian.  He  published:  Christian  So¬ 
briety, ,  in  Eight  Sermons  to  Young  Men; 
Observations  on  the  Charter  and  Conduct  of 
the  Society  for  Propagating  the  Gospel  in  For¬ 
eign  Parts.  See  his  Memoir ,  by  A.  Brad¬ 
ford  (Boston,  1838). 

Maynooth,  fifteen  miles  from  Dublin,  is 
the  seat  of  the  Royal  College  of  St.  Patrick, 
founded  in  1795,  for  the  training  of  Roman 
Catholic  priests.  It  was  supported  by  an 
annual  grant  of  ^8,000  from  the  Irish  Par¬ 
liament,  which  was  continued  after  the 
Union  (1801).  Other  grants  were  made, 
but  after  the  Irish  Church  Act  in  1869  all 
of  them  ceased,  and  as  a  compensation 
^372»33I  was  appropriated  for  the  support 
of  the  institution.  The  college  has  a  full 
faculty  in  the  arts  and  theology. 

Mazarin,  Jules,  Cardinal;  b.  at  Piscina, 
in  Southern  Italy,  July  14,  1602;  d.  at  Vin¬ 
cennes,  March  19,  1661.  He  gave  early 
proofs  of  an  acute  intellect,  and  after 
studying  law  at  Alcala,  entered  the  pope’s 
military  service.  The  peace  of  Queisas  is 
ascribed  to  his  efforts.  He  gained  the 
favor  of  Cardinal  Richelieu,  and  also  of 
Louis  XIII. ,  who  procured  him  a  cardinal’s 
hat  from  Urban  VIII.  in  1641.  After  the 


death  of  Richelieu  he  was  made  Privy 
Councillor,  and,  as  the  executor  of  the 
king,  had  charge  of  affairs  during  the 
regency  of  Queen  Anne  of  Austria.  The 
hatred  of  the  poor  and  oppressed  was 
aroused  against  him,  and  this  gave  rise  to 
the  civil  war  (1649-52).  He  retired  to  the 
Netherlands,  but,  after  the  war,  returned  to 
the  court,  and  soon  regained  his  former 
power,  and  exerted  a  great  influence  in  ad¬ 
vancing  the  interests  of  France.  Partly 
from  indifference,  partly  for  political  rea¬ 
sons,  he  was  very  tolerant  toward  the  Hu¬ 
guenots. 

Mazarine  Bible,  The,  was  the  first  com¬ 
plete  book  ever  printed  with  movable  type. 
It  was  printed  by  Gutenburg  at  Mentz, 
1450-55.  There  are  six  copies  on  vellum 
and  twenty-one  copies  on  paper  that  are 
known  to  be  in  existence.  A  copy  on  paper 
is  in  the  Lenox  Library,  New  York  City. 
It  is  valued  at  fifteen  thousand  dollars. 

Mead,  Charles  Marsh,  Ph.  D.  (Tubing¬ 
en,  1866),  D.  D.  (Middlebury  College, 
1881),  Congregationalist ;  b.  in  Cornwall, 
Vt. ,  Jan.  28,  1836.  He  was  graduated  at 
Middlebury,  Vt.,  in  1856,  and  at  Andover 
Theological  Seminary  in  1862;  studied  in 
Berlin  and  Halle,  1863-66;  professor  of 
Hebrew  at  Andover,  1866-82.  He  was  a 
member  of  the  Old  Testament  Revision 
Company.  His  publications  include  a 
translation  of  Exodus  in  the  American 
Lange  series  (New  York,  1876),  and  The 
Soul  Here  and  Hereafter:  A  Biblical  Sttidy 
(1879). 

Meade,  William,  D.  D.,  third  bishop  of 
the  Protestant  Episcopal  Church  of  Vir¬ 
ginia;  b.  Nov.  11,  1789,  in  Clarke  Co.,  Va. ; 
d.  in  Richmond,  March  14,  1862.  He  be¬ 
gan  his  ministry  as  pastor  of  Christ 
Church,  Alexandria,  in  1811.  He  was  the 
founder  of  the  Protestant  Episcopal  Theo¬ 
logical  Seminary  of  Virginia  (1823).  In 
1829  he  was  elected  assistant  bishop  of 
Virginia,  and  at  the  death  of  Bishop  Moore, 
in  1841,  he  became  bishop,  and  continued  in 
this  office  until  his  death.  He  exerted  a 
great  influence  in  the  councils  of  his  de¬ 
nomination,  and  was  successful  in  building 
up  and  restoring  interests  that  had  suffered 
very  much  from  the  effects  of  the  Revolu¬ 
tion.  He  published :  Lectures  on  the  Pastoral 
Office ;  The  Bible  and  Classics;  and  Old 
Churches ,  Ministers ,  and  Families  of  Vir¬ 
ginia.  See  A  Memoir  of  the  Life  of  the  Rt. 
Rev.  William  Meade ,  D.  D.f  by  J.  Johns 
(Baltimore,  1867). 

Meals  and  Banquets  Among  the  He¬ 
brews.  “  The  Jews  would  appear  to  have 


Mea 


(  584  ) 


Med 


sat  down  to  two  chief  meals  a  day — one  of 
a  light  nature  in  the  morning,  about  9  or 
10  o’clock,  and  another,  which  was  the 
principal  meal,  and  of  a  more  substantial 
nature,  after  sunset.  Meals  were  origi¬ 
nally  and  ordinarily  eaten  in  a  sitting  post¬ 
ure,  and  it  was  only  in  later  times  that  the 
practice,  introduced  from  Syria  and  Baby¬ 
lon,  began  to  prevail  of  reclining  at  them 
on  couches.  This  was  the  custom  in  vogue 
in  the  days  of  Christ,  the  arrangement, 
called  a  triclinium ,  being  a  table  in  the  cen¬ 
tre,  with  couches,  generally  for  three  men 
each,  on  three  sides  of  it,  the  guests  re¬ 
clining  with  their  bodies  leaning  forward 
and  raised  on  the  left  elbow.  The  hands 
were  washed,  and  grace  was  said  before 
and  after  eating;  and  the  food,  which  was 
usually  served  in  a  common  dish,  though 
sometimes  special  portions  were  sent 
round,  was  eaten  by  dipping  bread  in  it,  or 
by  using  two  pieces  of  it  by  way  of  forks. 
Meals  of  a  sumptuous  order  were  custom¬ 
ary  on  the  great  festival  days,  and  also  in 
connection  with  birthdays,  marriages,  fu¬ 
nerals,  and  all  high  occasions.  At  such 
times  the  guests  were  saluted  with  a  kiss; 
sometimes  they  had  their  heads  anointed 
with  ointment,  and  encircled  with  garlands, 
and  occasionally  their  persons  were  deco¬ 
rated  with  a  specially  provided  festive  gar¬ 
ment.  The  guests  had  their  several  places 
at  the  table  allotted  to  them,  and  one  of 
them  was  elected  master  of  the  ceremonies, 
and  called  the  ‘  governor  of  the  feast.’ 
(John  ii.  8.)” — Bagster:  Bible  Helps. 

Means  of  Grace  are  the  ordinances  which 
God  has  established  as  the  channels  of  his 
mercy,  through  Christ.  In  a  restricted 
sense  they  are:  (1)  the  Word  of  God;  (2) 
the  sacraments  (the  Lord’s  Supper  and 
baptism),  (3)  and  prayer.  The  efficacy  of 
these  instrumentalities  depends  upon  the 
faith  of  the  individual,  in  their  appropria¬ 
tion,  attended  by  the  gracious  influences 
of  the  Holy  Spirit.  The  Roman  Church 
holds  that  these  sacraments  are  alone  valid 
in  their  efficacy,  as  administered  through  a 
priesthood,  and  baptism  is  regarded  as  a 
condition  of  salvation.  Protestants  teach 
that  the  Holy  Spirit  may  regenerate  and 
sanctify,  irrespective  of  the  sacraments, 
but  not  as  a  rule.  See  Baptism;  Lord’s 
Supper. 

Measures.  See  Weights  and  Measures. 

Mecca,  the  birthplace  of  Mohammed, 
and  capital  of  the  Arabian  province  of 
Hedjaz.  It  is  sixty-five  miles  east  of 
Jiddah  on  the  Red  Sea,  and  two  hundred 
and  fifty  miles  south  of  Medina.  It  has  a 
population  of  about  forty-five  thousand, 


who  are  almost  entirely  dependent  upon 
the  great  crowd  of  pilgrims  who  visit  the 
renowned  mosque,  and  kiss  the  black  stone 
of  the  Kaabah. 

Mec'hitar,  Mec'hitarists.  See  Mekhi- 

TARISTS. 

Medes.  See  Media. 

Media.  The  name  is  the  same  as  Madai, 
“  middle  land,”  one  of  Japheth’s  sons. 
(Gen.  x.  2.)  The  Hebrew  word  is  also 
rendered  “  Medes”  (2  Kings  xvii.  6,  etc.), 
“  Media”  (Esth.  i.  3,  etc.),  and  “  Mede.” 
(Dan.  xi.  1.)  Its  boundaries  appear  to 
have  been  the  Caspian  Sea,  and  the  river 
Araxes  on  the  north;  Parthia,  Hyrcania, 
and  the  desert  of  Iram  on  the  east;  Persia 
and  Susiana  on  the  south;  Assyria  and 
Armenia  on  the  west.  It  is  now  a  part  of 
the  dominion  of  the  Shah  of  Persia.  The 
origin  of  the  Medes  is  given  in  Gen.  x.  2. 
It  is  in  connection  with  the  captivity  of 
Israel  that  mention  is  made  of  their  history 
in  the  Bible.  (2  Kings  xvii.  6;  xviii.  11.) 
Their  character  and  work  are  given  by 
Isaiah  (xiii.  17,  18;  xxi.  2).  Conquered  by 
Sargon,  and  afterward  by  Sennacherib,  it 
regained  independence,  and  under  the 
leadership  of  Cyaxares  in  b.  c.  625  took 
part  in  the  destruction  of  Nineveh.  It 
then  became  a  great  and  powerful  mon¬ 
archy.  The  two  kingdoms  of  the  “  Medes 
and  Persians  ”  were  united  under  Cyrus, 
B.  C.  558.  Its  principal  city  was  Ecbatana. 
The  Medes  were  successful  in  revolt  in 
B.  C.  500,  and  b.  C.  420.  Absorbed  for  a  time 
in  the  empire  of  Alexander  the  Great,  it 
later  gained  independence,  but  at  the  be¬ 
ginning  of  the  Christian  era  became  a  part 
of  the  Parthian  Empire.  (Acts  ii.  9.) 

Mediator,  one  who  intervenes  to  rec¬ 
oncile  two  parties  who  are  at  variance. 
The  idea  of  mediation  as  a  necessity  to 
salvation  formed  a  great  part  of  the  relig¬ 
ion  of  Paganism,  and  the  name  of  “  media¬ 
tor  ”  was  given  by  the  Persians  to  their 
god,  and  by  the  Jews  to  the  Messiah.  It 
is  a  part  of  human  consciousness  that  sin 
makes  a  separation  between  God  and  the 
soul.  Christ  is  the  appointed  Mediator  to 
bring  about  the  reconciliation;  through 
him  alone  can  man  be  brought  into  a  state 
of  salvation,  and  into  a  state  of  greater 
friendship  with  God  than  was  possible  be¬ 
fore  the  Fall.  In  order  to  accomplish  this 
work  of  reconciliation  it  was  necessary 
that  the  mediator  should  be  God  and  man 
in  one  person.  He  must  be  man,  in  order 
that  he  might  be  related  to  those  in  whose 
cause  he  was  to  mediate;  that  reconcilation 
should  be  made  for  sin  in  the  same  nature 


Med 


(  585  ) 


Mel 


which  sinned;  that  the  mediator  should  be 
capable  of  obeying  the  law  broken  by  the 
sin  of  man,  which  God  could  not  do;  that 
he  might  be  capable  of  suffering  death, 
since  “  without  shedding  of  blood  there  is 
no  remission;”  that  he  might  sustain  man 
by  sympathy,  having  experience  of  his 
trials  and  temptations;  and  that,  being  holy 
and  sinless,  he  might  offer  himself  without 
spot  to  God,  thereby  taking  away  the  sins 
of  men.  On  the  other  hand,  he  must  be 
God,  in  order  that  he  might  enter  into  a 
covenant  with  God,  as  no  mere  man  could 
do;  that  his  obedience  and  sufferings  might 
be  infinite  in  their  effect;  and  that  we  might 
have  such  confidence  in  his  mediation  as 
would  be  impossible  were  he  only  man. 
Were  Christ  God  and  not  man,  we  could  not 
approach  him  with  confidence;  were  he 
man  and  not  God,  we  should  be  guilty  of 
idolatry  to  worship  him  at  all.  His  attri¬ 
butes  as  mediator  are:  (1)  He  is  the  only 
mediator.  (2)  He  is  the  mediator  of  men 
only,  not  of  spirits.  (3)  He  is  the  mediator 
for  all  men,  without  exception,  and  for  all 
who  died  before  his  Incarnation,  as  well  as 
for  all  who  have  existed  since.  (4)  He  is  a 
constant,  just,  and  loving  mediator,  and 
his  mediation  is  successful. — Benham: 
Did.  of  Religion.  See  Atonement; 
Christology,  etc. 

Medina,  the  burial  place  of  Mohammed, 
situated  in  the  Arabian  province  of  Hedjaz. 
Next  to  Mecca  it  is  the  point  visited  by 
the  greatest  numbers  of  pilgrims.  The 
mausoleum  of  the  prophet  is  within  the 
precincts  of  a  large  mosque.  See  Burton: 
Mecca  and  Medina  (London,  1879—80). 

Meeting.  See  Friends. 

Megid'do,  a  city  of  Manasseh,  situated 
within  the  borders  of  Issachar.  Before  its 
conquest  by  Joshua  it  was  a  royal  city  of 
the  Canaanites.  (Josh.  xii.  21.)  It  is  usu¬ 
ally  identified  with  the  modern  Lejjziu,  six 
miles  from  Carmel,  on  the  southwestern 
edge  of  the  plain  of  Esdraelon.  Conder 
gives  reasons  for  identifying  it  with  Me- 
fedcfa ,  ten  miles  from  Jenin.  This  places 
the  valley  of  Megiddo,  where  Josiah  re¬ 
ceived  his  death-wound  (2  Kings  xxiii.  29), 
in  the  valley  leading  from  Jezreel  to  Beth- 
shean. 

Mek'hitarists,  The,  an  order  of  the  Ro¬ 
man  Church,  which  has  developed  a  re¬ 
markable  literary  activity.  Its  founder, 
Mekhitar,  was  b.  at  Sebaste,  in  Lesser  Ar¬ 
menia,  Feb.  7,1676;  d.  in  Venice,  April  27, 
1749.  In  early  life  he  made  rapid  progress 
in  the  study  of  the  Scriptures  at  Edshmia- 
zin,  the  seat  of  Armenian  learning.  While 


on  the  way  to  Rome  he  was  detained  by 
serious  illness  at  Cyprus,  and  compelled 
to  return  to  Sebaste.  Here  he  was  or¬ 
dained  as  priest  and  began  his  life-work, 
which  sought  the  religious  education  of  his 
people,  and  bringing  about  the  reconcilia¬ 
tion  of  the  Armenian  and  Roman  Catholic 
Churches.  In  1700  he  went  to  Constanti¬ 
nople,  but  persecutions  compelled  him  to 
find  refuge,  in  1703,  in  Morea,  under  the 
protection  of  the  republic  of  Venice.  After 
Morea  was  conquered  by  the  Turks  the  or¬ 
der, which  had  been  established  by  Clement 
IX.  in  1712,  was  removed  to  Venice.  The 
city  council  gave  the  order  the  Island  of 
San  Lazzaro.  From  this  time  it  began  a 
career  of  literary  activity  which  has  had  a 
great  influence  among  Armenians  and  in 
the  Armenian  Church. 

Melanchthon,  Philip,  is  known  preemi¬ 
nently  as  the  coadjutor  of  Luther  in  the 
great  Reformation.  Never  were  two  souls 
more  the  complement  of  each  other,  or 
more  indispensable  to  each  other,  in  carry¬ 
ing  forward  an  important  cause.  Each 
had,  furthermore,  the  advantage  of  fully 
understanding  alike  the  talents  and  the 
weaknesses  of  the  other,  and  they  ascribed, 
respectively,  to  each  other  the  highest  ser¬ 
vices  to  the  reformation  of  the  Church. 

Melanchthon  was  born  at  Bretten,  in 
Baden,  Feb.  16,  1497,  and  died  at  Witten¬ 
berg,  April  19,  1560.  He  was  a  nephew  of 
the  famous  scholar,  Reuchlin,  from  whom 
he  received  much  encouragement  in  his 
earlier  studies,  and  at  whose  instance,  in 
accordance  with  the  literary  fashion  of  the 
times,  he  changed  his  name,  Schwarzerd,  to 
its  Greek  equivalent,  Melanchthon.  At  the 
age  of  12  he  entered  the  University  of 
Heidelberg.  At  14  he  took  the  bachelor’s 
degree,  and  when,  a  year  later,  Heidelberg 
refused  him  the  master’s  degree,  on  ac¬ 
count  of  his  youth,  while  admitting  his 
proficiency,  he  went  to  Tubingen,  where 
he  applied  himself  to  humanism,  philos¬ 
ophy,  law,  astronomy,  and  medicine,  pub¬ 
lishing  editions  of  Terence  before  he  was 
21,  and  a  Greek  grammar  when  he  was  22. 
At  the  recommendation  of  Reuchlin  he 
was  called  to  the  chair  of  Greek  at  Witten¬ 
berg  in  1618,  just  when  Luther’s  course 
was  beginning  to  shake  the  world,  and 
while  at  first  sharing  with  Erasmus  the 
hope  of  reforming  the  Church  through  lit¬ 
erary  culture,  he  was  soon  influenced  by 
Luther  to  prosecute  the  study  of  the 
Scriptures  and  to  emphasize  their  author¬ 
ity.  Becoming  warmly  attached  to  the 
Reformer,  he  came  out  as  his  champion  in 
1521,  although  the  thought  of  an  irrecon¬ 
cilable  separation  from  the  Romish  Church 
caused  him  infinite  pain.  His  literary 


Mel 


(  586  ) 


Mel 


attainments,  now  consecrated  to  the  puri¬ 
fication  of  the  faith,  were  of  the  highest 
order.  Learning  was  his  passion,  and 
Greek  and  Latin  were  more  familiar  to 
him  than  his  vernacular.  His  lectures  at 
the  university  were  attended  at  times  by 
two  thousand  students,  and  he  received 
the  title  of  Preceptor  of  Germany.  Among 
the  most  imperishable  monuments  of  his 
pen  are  his  Loci  Communes  in  1521,  the  first 
Evangelical  System  of  Theology;  his  par¬ 
ticipation  in  the  translation  of  the  Bible, 
his  Commentaries,  and,  above  all,  the 
Augsburg  Confession,  the  pioneer  of  Prot¬ 
estant  Confessions,  and  the  Apology  of 
the  Augsburg  Confession,  “an  admirable 
portrayal  of  the  scriptural  evidences  for 
evangelical  doctrines.” 

Mild  and  retiring  by  nature,  shrinking 
from  contentions  and  divisions,  he  is 
charged  with  wavering  in  his  positions, 
and,  notwithstanding  his  love  of  peace,  he 
became  the  occasion  of  much  theological 
strife,  and  the  object  of  sharp  attacks, which 
wore  upon  his  mind  and  embittered  his  later 
years.  The  key  to  his  course  is  his  bias 
for  union — the  spirit  of  union  abroad  in  the 
Churches  to-day  is,  doubtless,  an  inherit¬ 
ance  from  Melanchthon — and  this  led  him 
to  moderate  the  expression  of  his  own 
views,  both  to  the  right  and  to  the  left,  for 
to  the  very  last  he  was  willing  to  hold  con¬ 
ferences  with  the  Roman  Catholics,  in  or¬ 
der  to  find  a  common  ground  for  reunion, 
as  well  as  with  the  Calvinists  to  restore 
the  unity  of  Protestantism.  Although 
standing  with  Luther,  in  declining,  at  Mar¬ 
burg  in  1529,  Church  fellowship  with  the 
Swiss,  he  subsequently  altered  the  Tenth 
Art.  of  his  own  confession,  so  as  to  make 
it  acceptable  to  the  Calvinists.  His  most 
serious  departure  from  the  common  faith 
of  the  Lutheran  Reformation  was  his  so- 
called  Synergism,  taught  in  the  later  edi¬ 
tions  of  the  Loci ,  which  is  clearly  in  con¬ 
flict  with  Augustinian  views  on  the  sover¬ 
eignty  of  grace. 

These  vacillations  have  sometimes  been 
ascribed  to  personal  weakness  and  want  of 
courage,  but  they  doubtless  are  in  the 
main  due  to  his  irenic  disposition,  and  his 
anxiety  for  the  welfare  of  the  Church; 
and,  although  his  was  confessedly  not  the 
powerful  personality  of  a  Luther,  there  is 
no  question  but  that  his  moderation  and 
conservative  and  conciliatory  tendency 
were,  in  their  place,  as  serviceable  to  the 
Reformation  as  the  belligerent  heroism  of 
the  great  leader.  There  were  instances  of 
defection  which  moved  Luther  to  a  public 
disapprobation  of  his  colleague’s  action, 
but  at  other  times  he  punctuated  his  strict¬ 
ures  by  the  assurance  that  he  would,  in  spite 
of  this, “share  his  heart  with  Melanchthon.” 


A  complete  edition  of  his  works  by 
Bretschneider  &  Bindseil  is  contained  in 
the  Corpus  Ref ormatorum ,  in  28  volumes. 
Ledderhose’s  Life  is  the  only  work  on  Me¬ 
lanchthon  that  has  appeared  in  English. 

E.  J.  Wolf. 

Melchites  (Heb.  Melcha ,  a  king),  “  fol¬ 
lowers  of  the  king” — a  name  given  in  the 
East  to  Syrian  and  Egyptian  Christians  of 
the  orthodox  Greek  Church,  who  adhered 
to  the  creed  supported  by  the  authority  of 
the  king — the  Byzantine  emperor.  They 
accepted  the  doctrines  laid  down  by  the 
Council  of  Chalcedon,  451.  The  Arabs 
treated  them  much  more  severely  than  they 
did  the  Nestorians  and  Jacobites. 

Meletius,  bishop  of  Antioch,  was  b.  at 
Melitine,  in  Lesser  Armenia.  When  Eu- 
doxius  was  translated  from  the  see  of  Anti¬ 
och  to  that  of  Constantinople,  in  361,  Me¬ 
letius,  then  bishop  of  Sebaste,  was  elected 
to  that  of  Antioch.  Those  who  raised  him 
to  this  position  supposed  that  he  held  Arian 
views,  but  soon  after  his  installation  he 
preached  a  sermon  in  favor  of  the  Nicene 
doctrine.  Arian  influences  secured  his 
deposition  and  banishment  within  a  short 
time.  Two  bishops  were  elected  to  fill  his 
place — Euzoius,  by  the  Arians;  and  Paul¬ 
inos,  by  the  Luciferians.  Each  of  the  three 
bishops  had  their  followers.  In  363  Mele¬ 
tius  was  restored  to  his  see,  and  at  once 
called  a  synod,  in  which  the  bishop  signed 
the  Nicene  Creed.  Banished  by  Valens, 
he  was  finally  reinstated  by  the  Emperor 
Theodosius.  During  a  part  of  the  sessions 
of  the  Council  of  Constantinople  (381),  he 
acted  as  president,  but  died  before  its  close. 

Meletius,  bishop  of  Lycopolis,  in  Egypt. 
He  was  the  leader  of  a  schism  which  arose, 
either  out  of  a  local  persecution,  about  301, 
or  that  of  the  great  Diocletian  persecution, 
about  306.  The  accounts  differ,  one  attrib¬ 
uting  the  schism  to  the  disapproval  of 
Meletius  of  the  leniency  shown  by  the 
bishop  of  Alexandria  in  dealing  with  peni¬ 
tent  apostates;  the  other  states  that  its 
cause  was  his  deposition  for  having  sacri¬ 
ficed  during  the  persecution.  Probably, 
jealousy  of  the  growing  power  of  the 
bishop  of  Alexandria  had  much  to  do  with 
it.  He  gained  a  considerable  following — 
at  one  time  as  many  as  twenty-eight  bish¬ 
ops.  The  Council  of  Nicaea  was  successful 
in  bringing  about  a  conciliation,  but  it  did 
not  last  long.  After  the  death  of  Meletius 
the  sect  fell  into  Arianism.and  was  lost  to 
sight. 

Mel'ita,  the  site  of  the  shipwreck  of  the 
vessel  in  which  Paul  was  being  taken  to 


Mel 


(  537  ) 


Men 


Rome.  (Acts  xxvii-xxviii.)  Two  islands 
formerly  bore  the  name  of  Melita,  one  in 
the  Adriatic  Sea,  and  the  other  the  modern 
Malta,  sixty  miles  south  of  Sicily,  in  the 
Mediterranean.  The  latter  island,  without 
doubt,  was  the  scene  of  the  shipwreck. 
See  Capt.  Smith  in  Voyage  and  Shipwreck 
of  St.  Paul ,  and  Dean  Howson  in  Smith’s 
Bible  Diet,  and  Life  of  St.  Paul. 

Melito  of  Sardis  flourished  in  the  middle 
of  the  second  century.  Of  his  numerous 
works  only  a  few  fragments  remain.  He 
addressed  a  celebrated  Apology  to  Marcus 
Aurelius.  Little  is  known  of  his  life,  but 
he  won  the  respect  and  reverence  of  his 
age. 

Melvill,  Henry,  b.  at  Pendennis  Castle, 
Cornwall,  Eng.,  Sept.  14,  1800;  d.  in  Lon¬ 
don,  Feb.  9,  1871.  He  was  graduated  at  St. 
Peter’s  College,  Cambridge,  in  1821,  and 
after  taking  orders  became  incumbent  of 
the  parish  of  Camden  Chapel  in  London; 
and  afterward  was  principal  of  the  East 
India  College,  chaplain  of  the  Tower  of 
London,  chaplain  to  the  queen  (1853), 
canon  of  St.  Paul’s  (1856)  and  in  1863  he 
became  rector  of  Barnes.  He  was  a  re¬ 
markable  rhetorician,  and  many  of  his 
sermons  have  been  republished  in  this 
country.  It  is  said  that  he  rewrote  his 
sermons  two  or  three  times  before  preach¬ 
ing.  Among  his  published  books  are: 
Voices  of  the  Year ;  Golden  Counsels  (1857), 
and  Persuasions  to  a  Christian  Life. 

Melville,  Andrew,  an  eminent  Scotch 
Reformer,  b.  at  Baldovv,  on  the  banks  of 
the  South  Esk,  in  1545.  He  lost  both  par¬ 
ents  when  only  two  years  old,  and  his 
care  devolved  on  his  eldest  brother.  An¬ 
drew  was  educated  at  Montrose  Grammar 
School,  and  in  1559  went  to  St.  Mary’s 
College,  in  the  University  of  St.  Andrews, 
where  he  remained  for  five  years.  He 
studied  in  Paris  for  two  years,  and  then 
proceeded  to  Poitiers,  where  he  was  at 
once  made  Regent  of  St.  Macreon  College. 
Driven  away  by  political  disturbances,  he 
went  to  Geneva,  where  he,  through  his 
friend  Beza,  was  appointed  to  the  chair  of 
Humanity  in  the  Academy.  Here  it  was 
that  he  gained  the  love  for  religious  lib¬ 
erty  for  which  he  was  afterward  so  zealous. 
He  returned  to  Scotland  in  1574,  and  was 
offered  the  post  of  private  tutor  in  the 
family  of  the  regent,  Morton,  but  refused, 
and  became  principal  of  Glasgow  College. 
He  made  many  improvements,  and  gained 
a  great  influence,  not  only  over  the  stu¬ 
dents,  but  throughout  the  whole  of  Scot¬ 
land.  The  overthrow  of  Episcopacy  and 
the  establishment  of  Presbyterianism  were 


greatly  owing  to  him,  and  he  received  the 
nickname  of  “  Episcopomastix,”  or  “  the 
scourge  of  bishops.”  He  was  possessed 
of  great  intrepidity,  and  it  is  related  of  him 
that  on  one  occasion,  when  Morton  had  ex¬ 
claimed  that  there  would  be  no  peace  in 
the  country  till  he  was  hanged  or  banish¬ 
ed,  he  replied,  “  Tush,  man!  threaten  your 
courtiers  so.  It  is  the  same  to  me  whether 
I  rot  in  the  air  or  in  the  ground ;  and  I  have 
lived  out  of  your  country  as  well  as  in  it. 
Let  God  be  praised,  you  can  neither  hang 
nor  exile  his  truth.”  At  the  end  of  1580 
he  was  made  principal  of  St.  Mary’s  Col¬ 
lege,  St.  Andrews,  where  he  worked  with 
much  zeal  and  ability;  the  number  of  stu¬ 
dents  increased,  and  those  of  other  colleges 
also  attended.  In  1592  the  Privy  Council 
revived  Episcopacy,  and  filled  up  the  see 
of  Glasgow.  The  Scotch  Church  excom¬ 
municated  the  new  bishop,  upon  which  the 
Privy  Council  declared  the  excommunica¬ 
tion  to  be  void,  imprisoned  those  who  re¬ 
fused  to  pay  the  episcopal  rents,  and  laid 
Glasgow  College  under  an  interdict.  Mel¬ 
ville  preached  against  these  proceedings  so 
fiercely  that  he  was  summoned  before  the 
Privy  Council.  He  claimed  to  be  tried  in 
a  Church  court,  and,  on  a  refusal,  made 
his  escape  and  fled  to  London,  where  he 
remained  for  twenty  months.  On  his  re¬ 
turn  to  St.  Andrews  he  continued  his  work 
with  as  great  zeal  as  before,  and  was  made 
Moderator  of  the  General  Assembly  and 
Rector  of  the  University.  In  1605  James 
I.  wished  to  make  another  attempt  to  re¬ 
establish  Episcopacy,  and  in  order  to  get 
rid  of  some  of  his  opponents,  invited  Mel¬ 
ville  and  others  to  come  to  London  and 
take  part  in  the  Hampton  Court  Confer¬ 
ence.  They  went,  and  had  interviews  with 
the  king,  but  found  that  they  were  really 
prisoners,  and  not  allowed  to  return  home. 
Melville  wrote  a  Latin  epigram,  in  which 
he  ridiculed  a  service  which  had  taken 
place  in  the  Chapel  Royal  on  St.  Michael’s 
Day.  For  this  he  was  confined  for  nearly 
a  year  in  the  houses,  first  of  the  dean  of 
St.  Paul’s,  and  afterward  of  the  bishop  of 
Winchester;  then  in  the  Tower,  where  he 
remained  till  February,  1611;  and  then  was 
not  allowed  to  return  home,  but  was  only 
liberated  on  condition  that  he  should  be¬ 
come  professor  of  Sedan  University, 
where  he  remained  till  his  death  in  1622. — 
Benham:  Diet,  of  Religion. 

Mem'phis.  See  Noph. 

Menaea,or  Menaion,  corresponds  in  the 
Greek  Church  to  the  breviary  of  the  Ro¬ 
man  Church.  It  contains  the  prayers  and 
hymns  for  each  fast-day  and  holiday,  with 
short  lives  of  saints  and  martyrs. 


Men 


( 588) 


Mer 


Men'ahem  {consoler),  the  son  of  Gadi, 
came  to  the  throne  by  his  murder  of  Shal- 
lum,  who  had  reigned  but  one  month. 
His  reign  of  ten  years  (771-760  b.  c.),  was 
marked  with  acts  of  cruelty  and  oppression. 
(2  Kings  xv.  14-20.)  The  first  invasion  of 
the  Assyrians  took  place  in  his  reign. 

Menander,  one  of  the  earliest  Gnostics, 
who  taught  at  Antioch.  He  was  a  native 
of  Capparatia,  a  village  in  Samaria,  and 
according  to  Irenaeus  was  a  pupil  of  Simon 
Magnus,  and  in  his  teaching  represented 
the  transition  from  the  Oriental  to  the 
Hellenistic  Gnosticism. 

Mendaeans.  See  Christians  of  St. 
John. 

Mendenhall,  James  William,  Ph.  D.  (Mt. 
Union  College,  Io. ,  1880),  D.  D.  (Ohio 
Wesleyan  University,  1884),  LL.  D.  (Cor¬ 
nell  College,  Mt.  Vernon,  Io.,  1888),  Meth¬ 
odist  Episcopal;  b.  at  Centreville,  Mont¬ 
gomery  County,  O.,  Nov.  8,  1844:  was 
graduated  at  Ohio  Wesleyan  University  in 
1864,  and  entered  the  ministry  of  the  Meth¬ 
odist  Episcopal  Church.  In  1888  he  was 
appointed  by  the  General  Conference  ed¬ 
itor  of  the  Methodist  Review.  He  is  the 
author  of:  Echoes  fro7n  Palestine  (1883); 
Plato  and  Paul  (1886). 

Mendicant  Friars.  These  orders  came 
into  existence  in  the  thirteenth  century. 
They  were  four  in  number — the  Francis¬ 
cans,  Dominicans,  Carmelites,  and  Augus- 
tinians.  Whatever  may  have  been  their 
early  history  these  orders  in  time  sought 
after  and  gained  the  wealth  and  power 
which  their  vows  opposed. 

Menno  Simons.  See  Mennonites. 

Mennonites,  a  name  given  to  the  Dutch 
Baptists  in  memory  of  their  reformer, 
Menno  Simons.  There  are  four  sects  who 
come  under  this  head — Flemings,  Germans, 
Frieslanders,  and  Waterlanders,  and  they 
were  originally  called  Anabaptists,  but 
changed  the  name  in  consequence  of  the 
ridicule  which  had  attached  to  it.  They 
were  also  known  as  Doopsgezinden  or 
“  Dippers.”  Menno,  who  was  a  priest  of 
Friesland,  was  born  in  1492,  and  was  led  at 
the  dawn  of  the  Reformation  to  cast  off 
papal  doctrine.  He  came  to  the  conclu¬ 
sion  that  Infant  Baptism  was  not  sanctioned 
in  Scripture,  but  rejected  the  enthusiasms 
and  revelations  of  the  first  Anabaptists,  and 
their  doctrines  concerning  the  new  King¬ 
dom  of  Christ,  and  formulated  tenets  which 
are  still  held  by  his  followers.  He  died  in 
1559.  His  treatise,  entitled^  True  Chris¬ 


tian  Belief,  was  in  1580  developed  by  two 
Mennonite  preachers  into  the  Confession  of 
Waterland,  which  is  supposed  to  contain 
the  whole  of  the  Mennonite  doctrine.  It 
declares  that  Christ’s  Body  was  not  of  the 
substance  of  his  mother,  but  of  a  direct 
creation  by  the  power  of  the  Holy  Spirit 
from  the  essence  of  the  Father;  that  there 
is  no  Original  Sin,  and  therefore  no  neces¬ 
sity  for  Infant  Baptism;  that  it  is  not  law¬ 
ful  for  Christians  to  exercise  any  office  of 
magistracy,  nor  to  wage  war  upon  any 
terms;  that  the  ministers  of  the  Gospel 
ought  to  receive  no  salary;  and  that  it  is 
possible  for  a  Christian  to  attain  to  the 
height  of  perfection  in  this  life.  A  sup¬ 
plementary  Confession  was  written  in  1632 
introducing  the  Arian  belief  respecting  the 
Incarnation;  but  the  generality  of  the  com¬ 
munities  at  the  present  day  appear  to  be 
orthodox,  as,  in  most  points,  appears  to 
have  been  Menno  himself.  There  are  sev¬ 
eral  congregations  of  Mennonites  in  Elsass 
and  Bavaria,  several  in  Poland  also,  and  a 
few  in  France.  There  are  also  about 
200,000  of  them  in  America. — Benham: 
Diet,  of  Religion.  See  Tunkers. 

Menologion,  in  the  Greek  Church,  cor¬ 
responds  to  Martyrologium  of  the  Roman 
Church.  It  contains  a  complete  list  of  all 
the  festivals  celebrated  throughout  the 
year  in  honor  of  the  saints  and  martyrs, 
with  brief  sketches  of  their  life  and  death. 

Mental  Reservation,  a  doctrine  of  the 
Jesuits,  to  the  effect  that  falsehood  in  cer¬ 
tain  circumstances  may  be  reconciled  to  the 
conscience,  if,  at  the  same  time,  a  saving 
clause  be  added  secretly.  They  say  that 
even  when  giving  evidence  on  oath  mental 
reservation  may  be  made,  so  that  the  evi¬ 
dence  may  be  understood  falsely,  by  the 
witness  giving  his  words  some  qualification 
in  his  own  mind. 

Mercersburg  Theology  arose  in  1836  at 
the  Theological  Seminary  of  the  German 
Reformed  Church,  in  Mercersburg,  Penn¬ 
sylvania.  Dr.  Rauch,  president  of  the 
College,  who  had  come  from  Germany,  and 
was  well  read  in  German  metaphysics,  de¬ 
sired  to  establish  a  regular  and  orderly 
system  of  philosophy,  which  should  em¬ 
body  the  ripe  teaching  of  the  great  thinkers. 
His  method  was  intensely  subjective;  all 
ideas  and  opinions  were,  with  him,  parts  of 
a  vast  unity  held  together  by  an  internal 
law,  the  centre  of  which  is  the  living  In¬ 
telligence.  His  method  of  reasoning  was 
cut  short  by  his  death  in  1841,  before  he 
had  fully  developed  it,  and  his  successor, 
Dr.  Nevin,  continued  it.  At  the  same  time 
Dr.  Philip  Schaff  was  appointed  as  profess- 


Mer 


(  589  ) 


Mer 


or  of  Church  History  at  Mercersburg,  and 
the  two  together  developed  the  principles 
of  the  Theology  in  different  ways,  Nevin 
regarding  it  from  a  theological,  and  Schaff 
from  a  historical  point  of  view.  Their  aim 
was  the  revival  and  defence  of  the  pure  Re¬ 
formed  doctrine;  yet,  in  consequence  of 
their  appeals  to  ancient  history  and  the 
early  Fathers,  they  were  accused  of  Roman¬ 
ist  tendencies,  and  tried  for  heresy,  of 
which  they  were  unanimously  acquitted. 
The  doctrine  on  which  the  Mercersburg 
Theology  is  based  is  that  of  the  twofold 
nature  of  Christ,  from  which  it  is  believed 
that  all  other  doctrines  are  to  be  developed. 
The  Church  is  regarded  as  a  spiritual  or¬ 
ganism,  with  the  life,  like  that  of  an  indi¬ 
vidual,  developing  by  successive  stages 
from  childhood  to  manhood,  whence  it  is 
inferred  that  views  and  modes  of  expres¬ 
sion  which  held  good  at  one  period  of  her 
existence  need  not  necessarily  do  so  at  a 
later  period.  In  common  with  others  of 
the  German  Reformers,  the  Mercersburg 
Theologians  reject  the  doctrine  of  Apos¬ 
tolical  Succession.  They  believe  in  the  life- 
giving  power  of  the  Sacraments,  in  oppo¬ 
sition  to  the  usually  received  opinion  in 
America  that  they  are  merely  emblems  or 
symbols.  They  have  also  drawn  up  a 
liturgy  for  the  use  of  their  disciples,  be¬ 
ing  strongly  opposed  to  the  practice  of  ex¬ 
temporaneous  public  prayer,  and  in  favor 
of  the  revival  of  the  old  pre-Reformation 
liturgy. — Benham:  Did.  of  Religion. 

Mercy  “  is  kindness  exercised  toward 
the  miserable,  and  includes  pity,  compas¬ 
sion,  forbearance  and  gentleness,  which 
the  Scriptures  so  abundantly  ascribe  to 
God.  Grace  is  love  exercised  toward  the 
unworthy.” — Hodge:  Sys.  Theology ,  vol.  i., 
p.  427.  The  theological  distinction  here 
made  is  not  found  in  the  New  Testament 
where  the  words  “  grace  ”  and  “  mercy  ” 
occur. 

Mercy,  Sisters  of,  or  Order  of  our 
Lady  of  Mercy,  was  founded  by  Miss 
Catharine  McAuley,  at  Dublin  in  1831. 
The  order  is  under  the  rule  of  St.  Augus¬ 
tine,  and  was  confirmed  by  Gregory  XVI. 
in  1840.  It  has  spread  rapidly  both  in 
Great  Britain  and  the  United  States.  The 
first  house  opened  in  this  country  was  at 
Pittsburg,  Penn.,  1843.  The  Sisters  de¬ 
vote  themselves  to  the  relief  of  the  sick 
and  suffering,  and  the  tempted  class  of 
women.  They  are  divided  into  choir- 
sisters,  and  lay-sisters:  the  latter  care  for 
the  house,  and  the  former  engage  inactive 
duties.  The  members  are  received  after 
a  novitiate  of  two  years,  and  take  the  ir¬ 
revocable  vows  of  poverty,  chastity,  obe¬ 


dience  and  service  to  the  poor,  sick,  and 
ignorant.  Their  dress  is  a  black  robe  with 
long,  loose  sleeves,  a  white  coif  and  a 
white  or  black  veil.  On  the  street  a  bon¬ 
net  of  black  crape  is  worn  instead  of  the 
coif  and  veil. 

Mer'cy-Seat,  the  name  of  the  cover  or 
lid  of  the  Ark  of  the  Covenant.  See  Ark 
of  the  Covenant. 

Mer'ibah  {quarrel),  the  name  of  two 
places:  (1)  The  fountain  near  Rephidim 
that  flowed  from  the  rock  which  Moses 
smote  by  command  of  God.  (Ex.  xvii.  1-7.) 
Wilson  and  Warren  place  it  in  Wady 
Feiran,  near  Mount  Serbal;  Holland,  in  the 
pass  at  Watiyeh,  at  the  eastern  end  of 
Wady-es  Sheikh. 

(2)  Meribah,  near  Kadesh,  in  the  desert 
of  Zin.  It  was  here  that  Moses,  by  his 
disobedience  in  striking  the  rock  instead 
of  speaking  to  it,  was  not  allowed  to  enter 
the  promised  land.  (Num.  xx.  12.)  See 
Kadesh. 

Merle  D’Aubign6,  Jean  Henri,  “  a  pop¬ 
ular  ecclesiastical  historian,  wasb.  at  Eaux- 
Vives,  near  Geneva,  in  Switzerland,  Aug. 
16,  1794,  studied  there  and  at  Berlin  under 
Neander,  and  subsequently  became  pastor 
of  the  French  Protestant  church  in  Ham¬ 
burg.  Thence,  after  a  residence  of  five 
years,  he  proceeded  to  Brussels,  became 
chaplain  of  King  William,  who,  after  the 
revolution  of  1830,  invited  him  to  Holland, 
as  tutor  to  the  Prince  of  Orange.  Merle, 
however,  declined  the  offer,  and,  returning 
to  Geneva,  took  part  in  the  institution  of 
a  new  college  for  the  propagation  of  ortho¬ 
dox  theology,  in  which  he  was  appointed 
professor  of  church  history.  With  the  ex¬ 
ception  of  some  visits  to  England  and 
Scotland,  where  he  had  numerous  readers 
and  admirers,  he  remained  constantly  at 
Geneva.  The  work  which  has  given  him 
so  wide-spread  a  reputation  is  his  Histoire 
de  le  Reformation  au  Seizieme  Siecle  (1835, 
et  seq.).  It  is  written  with  the  utmost 
vivacity,  and  is  sometimes  eloquent.  Its 
popularity  has  been  immense.  Among 
Merle  d’Aubigne’s  other  writings  are:  Le 
Lutheranisme  et  la  Reforme  (Paris,  1844); 
Germany,  England,  and  Scotland  (1848);  Le 
Protedeur  au  la  Re'publique  cTAngleterre 
aux  fours  de  Cromwell  (1848);  Trois  Siecles 
de  Lutte  en  Ecosse  (1850);  Caradere  du  Re- 
formateur  et  de  la  Reformation  de  Geneve, 
and  Histoire  de  la  Reformation  en  Europe 
aux  Temps  de  Calvin  (1862-77).  He  died 
at  Geneva,  Oct.  20,  1872.” — Chambers: 
Cyclopcedia. 

Mero'dach,  a  Babylonian  idol-god,  son 


Mer 


'  (  590  ) 


Mts 


of  Ea,  god  of  the  planet  Jupiter.  He  was 
confounded  in  later  times  with  Bel.  The 
name  often  appears  in  connection  with 
Babylonian  proper  names.  Merodach  was 
worshiped  among  the  Assyrians. 

Mero'dach-Bal'adan,  a  king  of  Babylo¬ 
nia,  who  sent  ambassadors  with  presents 
to  Hezekiah,  on  his  recovery  from  sick¬ 
ness.  (2  Chron.  xxxii.  31;  Isa.  xxxix.  1.) 
He  is  called  Berodach-baladan. 

Me'rom,  Waters  of,  the  name  of  a  lake 
in  northern  Palestine,  where  Joshua  gained 
a  complete  victory  over  the  northern  tribes 
under  Jabin.  (Josh.  xi.  5,  7.)  It  is  identi¬ 
fied  by  most  authorities  with  the  modern 
el  Huleh ,  eleven  miles  north  of  the  Lake 
of  Galilee.  Josephus  calls  it  “Lake  Sa- 
machonitis.”  It  is  about  six  miles  long, 
three  and  a  half  wide,  and  only  seven  feet 
deep. 

Merrill,  Selah,  D.  D.  (Iowa  College, 
1875),  LL.  D.  (Union  College,  1884),  Con¬ 
gregationalism  b.  in  Canton  Centre,  Hart¬ 
ford  Co.,  Conn.,  May  2,  1837.  He  studied 
at  Yale,  where  he  also  prepared  for  the 
ministry.  He  was  chaplain  in  the  army, 
1864-65,  and  studied  in  Germany,  1868-70. 
From  1874  till  1877,  he  was  in  the  Holy 
Land  as  archaeologist  of  the  American  Pal¬ 
estine  Exploration  Society,  and  United 
States  consul  at  Jerusalem  from  1882  till 
1886.  During  these  years  he  made  discov¬ 
eries  that  settled  the  location  of  the  second 
wall  of  the  city,  on  which  the  site  of  Cal¬ 
vary  depends.  He  is  the  author  of :  East  of 
the  Jordan  (New  York,  1881,  new  ed.,  1883); 
Galilee  in  the  Time  of  Christ  (Boston,  1885- 
86);  parts  of  Picturesque  Palestine  (New 
York,  1882-83);  Greek  Inscriptions  Collected 
in  the  years  1875-77  ^ie  Country  East  of 
the  fordan  (1885),  and  Reports  on  the  Coun¬ 
try  East  of  the  Jordan  in  the  Fourth  State¬ 
ment  of  the  American  Palestine  Exploration 
Society  (1887);  The  Site  of  Calvary  (Jerusa¬ 
lem,  1886). 

Merrill,  Stephen  Mason,  D.  D.  (Ohio 
Wesleyan  University,  1868)  ;  LL.  D. 
(Northwestern  University,  Evanston, 
Ill.,  1886),  bishop  of  the  M.  E.  Church;  b. 
in  Jefferson  county,  Ohio,  Sept.  16,  1825. 
He  entered  the  Methodist  ministry  in  1864, 
became  editor  of  the  Western  Christian 
Advocate  in  1868,  and  was  consecrated  bish¬ 
op  in  1872.  His  publications  include  : 
Christian  Baptism  (1876);  New  Testament 
Idea  of  Hell  (1878)  ;  Second  Coming  of 
Christ  (1879);  Aspects  of  Christian  Expe¬ 
rience  (1882)  ;  Digest  of  Methodist  Latu 
(1885);  Out  lutes  of  Thought  on  Probation 
(1886). 


Mesopotamia  is  the  name  given  by  the 
Greeks,  and  afterward  by  the  Romans,  to 
the  region  bounded  on  the  east  and  west 
by  the  Tigris  and  Euphrates.  The  northern 
part  is  mountainous,  and  its  fruitful  val¬ 
leys  were  the  home  of  a  large  population 
from  an  early  period.  The  southern  sec¬ 
tion  was  a  desolate  waste,  except  along 
the  river-beds,  and  abandoned  to  wild 
beasts  and  Arab  robber-bands.  It  was  in 
Mesopotamia  that  the  ancestors  of  the 
Hebrew  people  settled  after  leaving  Ur  of 
the  Chaldees.  (Gen.  xi.  10 sqq.,  xii.  5;  Josh, 
xxiv.  2;  Acts  vii.  2.)  It  was  the  early 
home  of  Rebekah,  and  here  Jacob  came  to 
find  both  wives  and  fortune.  (Gen.  xxviii.) 
We  learn  from  the  Assyrian  inscriptions 
that  the  land  was  divided  among  petty 
chiefs,  who  were  finally  subdued  by  the 
Assyrians.  After  having  come  under  the 
control  successively  of  the  Assyrians, 
Babylonians,  and  Persians,  it  was  incor¬ 
porated  into  the  Roman  Empire  in  the 
reigns  of  Trajan  and  Caracalla  (a.  d.  217). 
Mesopotamia  was  conquered  by  the  Arabs 
in  A.  D.  637-641. 

Messiah,  Messianic  Prophecy.  Defin¬ 
ing  Messianic  Prophecy  as  the  prediction 
of  the  completion  of  redemption  through 
the  Messiah,  we  must  understand  the 
meaning  of  the  word  “Messiah.”  The 
term  “  Messiah,”  or,  more  correctly, 
Mashiach ,  represented  in  the  Greek  by 
Alessias,  denotes  “  the  Anointed  One.”  In 
the  Septuagint  and  the  New  Testament  it  is 
rendered  by  Christos ,  which  means  the 
same  as  “  Messiah.”  Among  the  Jews  the 
prophets,  priests  and  kings  were  anointed 
to  their  respective  offices.  We  have  only 
one  instance  of  the  anointing  of  a  prophet 
(1  Kings  xix.  16),  and  cannot  tell  whether 
this  was  a  usual  ceremony  in  the  consecra¬ 
tion  to  the  prophetical  office;  but  of  the 
great  future  prophet,  the  Messiah,  it  is  ex¬ 
pressly  said,  “  The  Lord  hath  anointed  me 
to  preach  good  tidings  unto  the  meek.” 
(Isa.  lxi.  1.)  Anointing  was  regularly  em¬ 
ployed  in  the  consecration  to  the  priestly 
office.  (Ex.  xxviii.  41.)  The  high-priest 
especially  was  thus  consecrated;  hence  he 
is  called  “the  priest  that  is  anointed.” 
(Lev.  iv.  3.)  Samuel  anointed  Saul  and 
David,  and  Elisha  anointed  Jehu.  But 
while  the  title  “  Messiah  ”  might  be  applied 
to  all  the  three  offices,  it  was  especially  at¬ 
tached  to  royal  dignity.  The  king  was 
preeminently  “the  Lord’s  Anointed”  (2 
Sam.  i.  14;  xix.  21;  Lam.  iv.  20);  hence, 
not  an  absolute  monarch,  but  the  anointed 
vicegerent  or  representative  of  Jehovah, 
the  true  king  of  Israel. 

And  thus  the  title  “Messiah”  having 
reference  to  the  anointed  king,  we  may  un- 


Mes 


(  59i  ) 


Mes 


derstand  the  primary  though  subordinate 
meaning  of  several  passages  in  the  Psalms 
(ii.  2;  xx.  6).  At  length  the  term,  which 
was  at  first  the  official  title  of  the  Israelitish 
monarchs,  came — especially  after  the  dis¬ 
solution  of  the  Jewish  monarchy,  and  the 
Babylonish  captivity — to  be  restricted  to 
the  future  Deliverer,  the  expected  Re¬ 
deemer.  He  is  revealed  in  the  prophets 
as  the  ideal  king,  the  true  representative 
of  Jehovah,  who  was  to  sit  on  the  throne 
of  David,  and  to  rule  over  the  house  of 
Israel.  Hence  the  royal  title  of  “  Messiah  ” 
was  applied  to  him  in  whom  all  the  three 
offices  to  which  men  were  formerly  anoint¬ 
ed  were  to  meet.  Thus  it  has  come  to 
pass  that  the  title  “Messiah”  is  now  re¬ 
stricted  to  him,  both  by  Jews  and  Christ¬ 
ians — the  former  expecting  yet  their  king, 
Messiah;  the  latter  believing  that  the  De¬ 
liverer  has  already  appeared  in  the  person 
of  Jesus  of  Nazareth,  the  Messiah  of  the 
Jews. 

As  noted  above,  the  promise  of  the  Mes¬ 
siah  was  connected  with  the  house  of 
David,  but  it  presupposes  and  was  built 
upon  the  hope  of  salvation,  which  Revela¬ 
tion  from  the  beginning  had  excited.  It 
is  with  this  expectation,  therefore,  that  we 
must  here  begin. 

The  first  promise  of  salvation  is  put  in 
closest  connection  with  the  Fall.  (Gen.  iii. 
13.)  In  this  protevangelium  the  seed  of  the 
woman,  who  is  to  bruise  the  serpent’s  head, 
is  not  an  individual;  but  the  passage  de¬ 
clares  that  the  contest  with  evil,  to  which 
the  human  race  is  now  exposed,  shall  issue 
in  the  victory  of  the  latter,  though  this 
shall  not  be  obtained  without  injury.  In 
the  promises  met  with  in  the  histories  of 
the  patriarchs,  the  seed  of  Abraham  (Gen. 
xii.  3;  xviii.  18;  xxii.  18),  Isaac  (xxvi.  4), 
and  Jacob  (xxviii.  14),  in  whom  all  the  na¬ 
tions  of  the  earth  are  to  bless  themselves, 
is  not  merely  an  individual.  The  expres¬ 
sion  refers  to  the  entire  race  of  Abraham 
as  the  recipients  of  revelation,  though  these 
promises  have  their  final  fulfillment  in 
Christ.  In  the  blessing  of  Jacob,  the  tribe 
of  Judah  is  chosen  to  rule  all  nations  (xlix. 
20),  and  Balaam’s  prophecy  (Num.  xxiv. 
17  seq. )  points  to  an  illustrious  sway  pro¬ 
ceeding  from  Israel,  which  is  to  subdue  the 
neighboring  states,  and  to  outlast  the  fall 
of  the  nations  far  and  near — a  sway  which 
certainly  cannot  be  conceived  of  apart  from 
a  personal  ruler.  The  promise,  Deut. 
xviii.  1 5-19,  cannot  be  confined  to  a  single 
individual,  but  is  meant  in  a  collective 
sense,  referring  to  a  prophetical  order,  cul¬ 
minating  in  the  Messiah  as  its  chief. 

The  point  of  departure  for  the  more  def¬ 
inite  concentration  of  the  Messianic  expec¬ 
tation  on  a  person  is  2  Sam.  vii.,  where 


Jehovah  promises  to  establish  David’s 
dynasty  forever,  and  to  make  his  seed  his 
son.  The  seed  of  David  is  not  the  whole 
of  David’s  descendants,  but. one  of  David’s 
sons.  (1  Chron.  xvii.  11.)  From  2  Sam. 
vii.  we  learn  that  the  Messiah  was  to  be  a 
king,  and  a  son  of  David.  The  seed  of 
David  may  be  humbled,  but  not  forever. 
(1  Kings  xi.  39.)  The  crown  of  David  may 
be  taken  away,  but  One  will  come  whose 
right  it  is.  (Ezek.  xxi.  27  seq.)  The  topmost 
branch  of  the  cedar,  which  in  Ezekiel’s  vis¬ 
ion  (ch.  xvii.)  represents  the  house  of 
David,  may  be  broken  off,  but  the  cedar 
itself  remains.  In  David’s  last  song  (2  Sam. 
xxiii.)  predicates  are  affirmed  of  David’s 
royalty  which  cannot  be  referred  to  his  own 
person,  but  to  the  ideal  kingdom  he  repre¬ 
sented  (comp.  Psa.  xxi.  5-7;  lxi.  7).  In 
Psa.  ii. ;  xlv. ;  lxxii.  and  cx.  a  royal  per¬ 
sonage  is  depicted,  to  whom  neither  David 
nor  Solomon  corresponds,  but  only  he  of 
whom  they  were  types. 

Turning  to  the  prophetical  books,  we 
find  in  the  older  writings  none  of  the  more 
special  references  to  the  person  of  the 
Messiah,  but  the  elaborate  descriptions  of 
his  person  and  rule  which  Isaiah  and  Micah 
give  do  not  convey  the  impression  that  the 
idea  was  a  novel  one.  The  low  estate  to 
which  the  Davidic  kingdom  had  fallen  was, 
indeed,  the  external  occasion  of  directing 
the  prophetic  glance  the  more  vividly 
toward  its  perfection;  because  it  is  at  those 
times  when  the  divine  promise  seems,  hu¬ 
manly  speaking,  to  fail,  and  it  is  the  office 
of  prophecy  to  testify  to  its  certain  per¬ 
formance. 

Pursuing,  first,  the  line  of  the  predic¬ 
tions  concerning  the  person  of  the  Messiah, 
we  discover  that  he  is  to  be  endowed  with 
a  superhuman  dignity.  He  is  of  divine 
origin  (Mic.  v.  2),  and  endowed  with  divine 
power  (v.  4).  To  this  passage  (v.  2),  cor¬ 
responds  Isa.  iv.  2,  provided  this  is  to  be 
referred  to  the  Messiah.  But  the  passage 
Mic.  v.  3,  on  the  other  hand,  is  parallel 
with  Isa.  vii.  14  of  the  birth  of  Immanuel, 
a  passage  whose  reference  to  the  Messiah 
is  demanded  by  its  connection  with  ix.  5, 
where  the  divine  nature  of  the  Messiah  is 
affirmed.  In  xi.  1  seq. ,  the  divine  element 
in  the  Messiah  appears  only  as  the  fullness 
of  the  Spirit  of  the  Lord  resting  upon  him. 
In  Jer.  xxiii.;  xxxiii.  14-26  we  have  the 
prophecies  of  the  Messiah,  although  the 
first  (xxiii.  6)  does  not  necessarily  contain 
the  affirmation  of  the  divinity  of  the  Mes¬ 
siah.  In  Jer.  xxx.  21,  however,  the  Mes¬ 
siah  is  described  as  a  governor,  and  in  a 
peculiar  relation  to  Jehovah,  such  as  no 
human  being  could  claim  for  himself.  In 
Zech.  iii.  8;  vi.  12  the  Messiah’s  proper 
name  is  “  Branch.”  In  Mai.  iii.  1  we  have 


Mes 


(  592  ) 


Mes 


a  prophecy  of  a  “  messenger,”  whom  the 
Lord  would  send  to  prepare  the  way  for 
the  “  message  of  the  covenant,”  or  angel 
of  the  covenant.  The  Lord  who  sends  this 
harbinger  is  Jehovah,  and  the  angel  of  the 
covenant  is  the  Messiah  himself.  Finally, 
in  Dan.  vii.  13  seq. ,  the  “  Son  of  man  ”  is 
spoken  of  as  “  coming  with  the  clouds  of 
heaven,  brought  before  the  Ancient  of 
Days.”  The  passage,  it  is  true,  is  contro¬ 
verted,  but  it  has  always  been  regarded  as 
Messianical,  where  the  Messiah  appears  as 
a  divine  as  well  as  a  human  being;  since  God 
alone  can  use  the  clouds  as  his  chariot. 
(Psa.  civ.  3.)  According  to  the  usual  in¬ 
terpretation,  the  Messiah  is  not  again  to 
appear  among  the  heavenly  creatures  of 
the  book  of  Daniel;  but  who  is  he  of  whom 
mention  is  made  in  viii.  15-17;  x.  5  seq. ; 
xii.  6  seq.  ?  The  best  view  is  that  which 
sees  here  the  angel  of  Jehovah,  the  angel 
of  the  face.  If  this  be  so,  his  identity  with 
the  Son  of  man  of  vii.  13  is  easily  made 
out. 

Turning  to  the  office  and  work  of  the  Mes¬ 
siah,  we  find  that  he  is  first  to  be  a  king. 
His  coming  presupposes  the  rejection  of 
the  nation,  and  the  deepest  humiliation  of 
the  house  of  David:  hence  the  Messianic 
kingdom  rises  from  an  abject  to  a  glorious 
state.  (Isa.  xi.  1;  Mic.  v.  2.)  The  Messiah 
comes  forth  as  a  sprout  out  of  the  trunk  of 
Jesse,  and,  like  the  first  David,  proceeds 
from  the  insignificant  town  of  Bethlehem. 
The  passage,  Ezek.  xvii.  22  seq. ,  already 
referred  to,  treats  of  this  subject.  The 
Messiah  was  to  come,  not  with  the  pomp 
of  an  earthly  conqueror,  but  in  lowly  array, 
and  riding  upon  an  ass  (Zech.  ix.  9  seq.), 
but  his  royal  power  was  to  extend  over  all 
nations.  (Isa.  xi.  10  seq.)  Connected  with 
the  work  and  office  of  the  Messiah  is  the 
question:  Does  the  Old  Testament  speak 
of  a  suffering  Messiah  (i.  e.,  one  who  atones 
by  death  and  suffering  for  the  sins  of  the 
people)?  We  answer  in  the  affirmative, 
although  the  Messianic  passages  hitherto 
quoted  do  not  involve  this.  The  Messiah, 
it  is  true,  abolished  (according  to  Isa.  xi. 
4,  9)  sin  by  the  exercise  of  righteous  judg¬ 
ment,  and  by  filling  the  earth  with  the 
knowledge  of  the  Lord.  But  together  with 
these  statements  there  is  another  prophetic 
view  which  points  to  a  servant  of  God  who 
suffers  in  the  place  of  the  people;  to  an 
act  of  atonement  on  which  the  dawning  of 
the  day  of  redemption  depends;  to  the 
priesthood  of  the  Messiah.  The  sufferings 
of  the  Messiah  bring  about  a  manifestation 
of  God’s  faithfulness  and  power  in  his  de¬ 
liverance,  and  procure  an  acknowledgment 
of  his  saving  power  from  those  who  as  yet 
have  not  known  him.  This  idea  is  brought 
out  very  distinctly  in  Psa.  xxii.  This  Mes¬ 


sianic  suffering  is  regarded  as  vicarious. 
The  whole  Old  Testament  is  full  of  the 
thought  that  God  stays  judgment  upon  a 
guilty  race  on  account  of  a  just  and  right¬ 
eous  substitute.  But  as  these  appointed 
mediators  are  sinful  themselves  (Isa.  xliii. 
27 seq. ;  Ezek.  xiv.  14  seq.),  the  people  need  a 
more  perfect  mediator,  and  this  is  the  ser¬ 
vant  of  Jehovah,  Isa.  liii.  The  fundamental 
conception  of  the  servant  of  God  in  Isa. 
xl.  seq. ,  it  is  true,  commences  with  the  na¬ 
tion,  but  culminates  in  an  individual; 
and  this  must  be  affirmed  very  positively 
with  regard  to  Hi.  13-liv.  12.  The  people 
itself  has  the  consciousness  of  guilt  (lix. 
16;  Ixiv.  5),  and  cannot  atone  for  its  sins. 
The  prophecy  points  to  One  who  suffers, 
not  for  his  own  sins,  but  as  the  substitute 
of  the  people,  and  for  their  sins.  This 
servant  of  God  is  the  great  Son  of  David 
(lv.  3  seq.).  In  Zechariah  the  Messiah  dis¬ 
tinctly  appears  as  the  future  Redeemer  of 
the  people,  and,  indeed,  as  their  atoning 
high-priest  (ch.  iii. ),  is  crowned  with  the 
double  crown,  uniting  the  priestly  and 
royal  dignities  (vi.  9-15),  and  suffers  death; 
and  when  he  is  pierced  it  is  as  though  Je¬ 
hovah  himself  were  pierced  (xii.  10-13). 

Turning  from  the  canonical  books  of  the 
Old  Testament  to  the  Apocrypha  and  Apoc¬ 
alyptic  writings,  we  state  that  the  former 
contain  but  few  Messianic  allusions,  be¬ 
cause,  for  the  most  part,  they  are  historical 
or  didactic,  and  not  prophetic.  But  this 
does  not  mean  that  the  Messianic  idea  was 
not  entertained  by  the  authors.  Besides 
the  hope  of  a  return  of  the  dispersed  of  Is¬ 
rael  (Baruch  iv.  36,  37;  v.  5-9;  2  Macc.  ii. 
18),  of  a  conversion  of  the  Gentiles  (Tob. 
xiii.  1 1— 1 8 ;  xiv.  6,  7),  and  the  perpetual 
existence  of  the  Jewish  nation  (Ecclus. 
xxxviii.  25;  xliv.  13),  we  also  find  the  idea 
of  an  everlasting  kingdom  of  the  house  of 
David.  (Ecclus.  xlvii.  11;  1  Macc.  ii.  57.) 

The  richer,  however,  flows  the  stream 
of  Messianic  prophecies  in  the  Apocalyptic 
writings,  which  can  be  systematically  ar¬ 
ranged.  Space  forbidding  to  enter  into 
details  we  must  confine  ourselves  to  the 
barest  outline, which  we  indicate  by  the  fol¬ 
lowing  headings  of  subjects:  (1)  Signs  of 
the  last  times;  (2)  Elijah,  the  forerunner 
of  the  Messiah;  (3)  appearance  of  the  Mes¬ 
siah;  (4)  the  last  enemies;  (5)  destruction 
of  the  enemies;  (6)  renovation  of  Jerusa¬ 
lem;  (7)  gathering  of  the  dispersed;  (8) 
the  kingdom  of  glory  in  Palestine;  (9)  ren¬ 
ovation  of  the  world;  (10)  general  resur¬ 
rection;  (11)  last  Judgment,  eternal  bless¬ 
edness  and  damnation. 

Literature. — Comp.  Oehler-Orelli ,  art. 
“  Messias  ”  in  Herzog’s  Real-Ency.,  2d  ed., 
ix.  641-672;  Oehler:  Old  Testament  Theol- 
ogy  (N.  Y.,  1883);  Castelli:  II  Messia  Seeon- 


Met 


(  593  ) 


Met 


do  Gli  Ebrei  (Firenze,  1874);  Riehm:  Mes¬ 
sianic  Prophecy  (Edinburgh,  1876);  Gloag: 
The  Messianic  Prophecies  (ibid.,  1879);  Or- 
elli:  The  Old  Testament  Prophecy  of  the 
Consummation  of  God  s  Kingdom  {ibid.,  1885); 
Briggs:  Messianic  Prophecy  (N.  Y.,  1889); 
Delitzsch:  Messianische  Weissagungen 

(Leipzig,  1890);  Pick:  Talmudic  Notices  con¬ 
cerning  the  Messiah  {Pres.  Review,  July, 
1884);  the  same:  Old  Testament  Passages 
Messianically  applied  by  the  Ancient  Syn¬ 
agogue  {Hebraica ,  Oct.,  1884  and  seq. );  the 
same:  art.  “Messianic  Hope”  in  the  2d 
supplement  vol.  of  McClintock  and  Strong's 
Cyclopcedia  (N.  Y.,  1887),  in  which  the  Mes¬ 
sianic  hope,  as  expressed  in  the  apocalyptic 
literature,  is  treated  at  length. 

B.  Pick. 

Methodists,  Wesleyan. — The  early  his¬ 
tory  of  this  remarkable  body  will  be  more 
fully  given  in  the  biographies  of  its  found¬ 
ers,  John  and  Charles  Wesley  {q.  v.). 
“  The  first  rise  of  Methodism,”  says  John 
Wesley,  “was  in  November,  1729,  when 
four  of  us  met  together  at  Oxford.”  Their 
object  in  meeting  was  to  deepen  their 
spiritual  life  by  prayer  and  study  of  the 
Scriptures.  They  were  called  “  method- 
ists  ”  first  in  a  taunting  spirit,  because  they 
were  unusually  precise  and  “  methodic  ” 
in  the  observance  of  their  religious  duties, 
and  in  the  regularity  of  their  lives.  Very 
soon  they  were  joined  by  other  Oxford  men, 
including  George  Whitefield.  On  his  return 
from  America,  in  1738,  John  Wesley  began 
to  organize  those  who  attended  his  devo¬ 
tional  meetings  into  a  Society.  The  mem¬ 
bers  met  regularly  once  a  week,  at  least, 
in  some  private  house  for  spiritual  exer¬ 
cises,  and  were  constant  in  their  attendance 
at  the  services  of  the  parish  church;  for 
Wesley’s  aim  was  to  rekindle  a  spirit  of 
piety  within  the  Church  of  England,  and 
not  to  set  up  a  sect  in  opposition  to  her. 
Hence  the  meetings  of  his  society  were  not 
held  during  the  hours  of  Divine  Service, 
his  object  being  to  supplement  the  work  of 
the  clergy,  and  not  to  provide  a  substitute 
for  such  work.  His  teaching  on  this  point 
is  most  emphatic.  He  says,  “  We  hold 
communion  with  the  Church  for  conscience’ 
sake,  by  constantly  attending  both  the 
Word  preached  and  the  Sacraments  admin¬ 
istered  therein.”  Again,  he  bade  his  lay- 
preachers,  whom  he  had  appointed  to 
minister  to  his  followers  in  different  parts 
of  the  country,  “in  every  place  to  exhort 
those  who  are  brought  up  in  the  [Establish- 
edjChurch  constantly  to  attend  its  services.” 
And  he  wrote  even  in  1790,  the  year  before 
his  death,  “  I  fear  that  when  the  Method¬ 
ists  leave  the  [Established]  Church,  God 
will  leave  them.”  Circumstances  were, 


however,  too  strong  for  him.  The  spirit¬ 
ual  deadness,  which  had  of  itself  stimulated 
his  movement,  was  unable  to  endure  it, 
and  in  1740  this  intolerance  was  displayed 
by  the  clergy  repelling  Methodists  from  the 
Lord’s  Supper  at  Bristol  —  an  example 
widely  followed  elsewhere.  The  brothers 
were  thus  driven  into  administering  the 
sacrament  to  their  own  people  at  their  own 
meetings,  but  it  was  not  till  1788  that  Wes¬ 
ley  ordained  preachers  to  assist  in  admin¬ 
istering  the  sacraments  in  England,  and 
not  till  his  death  in  1791  was  the  last  link 
severed  which  bound  the  [Established] 
Church  to  Methodism,  the  gradual  sever¬ 
ance  having  been  against  his  own  will  at 
every  stage  of  the  process.  The  Method¬ 
ists  were  equally  excluded  from  many  of 
the  Dissenting  meeting-houses,  and  by  this 
want  of  sympathy  on  the  part  of  others 
was  largely  developed  that  wonderful  sys¬ 
tem  of  open-air  preaching,  which  did  so 
much  to  bring  the  neglected  populace  of 
England  within  the  reach  of  the  gospel. 

Methodism,  in  its  inception,  was  not  in¬ 
tended  so  much  to  be  a  Church  or  sect,  as 
a  “  method  ”  of  cultivating  the  divine  life; 
and  this  method  remains  essentially  the 
same  still,  in  all  the  bodies  into  which  the 
original  Wesleyan  Methodists  have  now 
divided.  Its  success  as  such  has  been 
simply  wonderful.  It  has  produced  great 
works  of  Christian  benevolence,  and  has 
exerted  an  influence  on  the  religious  life  of 
England  so  great,  that  a  thoughtful  philos¬ 
opher,  F.  D.  Maurice,  has  expressed  his 
conviction  that  it  was  Methodism  which 
saved  England  from  being  carried  into  the 
terrible  vortex  of  the  French  Revolution. 
In  seeking  to  account  for  such  success,  in 
the  first  place  let  it  be  noted  that  Method¬ 
ism  was,  at  its  very  heart,  a  religious  move¬ 
ment.  It  did  not  take  its  rise  in  any 
doctrinal  disputes  or  questions  of  church 
government.  Its  declared  object  was  “  to 
reform  the  nation,  more  particularly  the 
Church,  and  to  spread  Scriptural  holiness 
over  the  land.”  To  the  Methodist  all 
ideas  were  subordinated  to  this  need  of 
personal  holiness,  in  order  that  the  soul 
might  hold  fast  to  God.  “  John  Wesley,” 
says  Mr.  Matthew  Arnold,  “  had  a  genius 
for  godliness.”  Secondly,  we  have  to  take 
into  account  Wesley’s  marvelous  powers 
of  organization,  a  power  which  was  still 
predominated  by  the  main  idea  we  have 
stated,  and  which  was  subjected  to  the  in¬ 
fluence  of  the  methodical  habits  already  al¬ 
luded  to.  Thus  it  was,  that  so  simple  a 
custom  as  the  weekly  meeting  of  the  few 
at  Oxford  developed  into  the  class-meet¬ 
ing,  and  so  on.  In  every  village  his  So¬ 
ciety  was  at  work,  and  preaching  houses 
were  erected  throughout  the  kingdom.  In 


Met 


(  594  ) 


Met 


order  to  retain  hold  on  those  who  had  been 
moved  by  his  preaching,  Wesley  formed 
every  dozen  or  twenty  converts  into  a 
“  class,”  under  a  class-leader,  or  sometimes 
under  a  lay-preacher  :  these  bands  and 
classes  met  weekly  for  prayer  and  confes¬ 
sion  of  sins.  Several  of  these  “  classes  ” 
were  grouped  together  to  form  a  “  circuit,” 
and  about  eighteen  “  circuits  ”  formed  a 
“district.”  A  “  circuit  ”  generally  com¬ 
prised  a  market  town,  and  the  neighboring 
villages  within  a  distance  of  ten  or  twelve 
miles.  It  was  under  the  guidance  of  three 
or  four  ministers  and  some  lay-preachers. 
The  management  of  each  “  district  ”  was 
entrusted  to  the  ministers,  who  met  on  cer¬ 
tain  stated  occasions  for  discussion  and 
transaction  of  necessary  business.  And 
once  a  year  each  “  district  ”  sent  up  repre¬ 
sentatives  to  attend  a  conference  held  in 
London  or  some  large  town. 

The  same  features  still  distinguish 
Methodism,  and  the  only  condition  exacted 
of  those  desiring  to  enter  the  Society  is  “  a 
desire  to  flee  from  the  wrath  to  come,  and 
to  be  saved  from  their  sins.”  The  mem¬ 
bers  are  arranged  into  classes  of  about  a 
dozen,  more  or  less,  under  a  “  class-lead¬ 
er,”  who  meet  weekly,  after  Wesley’s  old 
Oxford  custom,  to  relate  and  compare  their 
spiritual  “  experience,”  and  receive  exhor¬ 
tation  or  counsel  from  the  leader,  or  from 
one  another  under  his  superintendence. 
The  leader  also  receives  at  these  meetings 
the  weekly  contributions  toward  the  ex¬ 
penses  of  the  ministry,  the  customary 
minimum  being  one  penny  a  week.  These 
contributions  are  then  handed  to  the 
“  stewards,”  and  in  this  way — in  which 
Methodism  stands  alone  —  the  humblest 
member  is  grasped  by  the  system,  and 
brought  into  direct  pecuniary  as  well  as 
spiritual  relation  with  the  body.  A  con¬ 
venient  number  of  classes  is  united  into  a 
society,  or  congregational  church,  and  a 
sufficient  number  of  these  into  circuits, 
each  circuit  having  one  or  more  itinerant 
or  recognized  preachers  authorized  by  the 
Conference,  under  whom  are  lay  or  “  local  ” 
preachers  ministering  in  their  own  locali¬ 
ties.  It  is  an  essential  part  of  the  modern 
Methodist  system  that  every  one  who  gives 
apparent  evidence  of  the  possession  of  true 
ministerial  gift,  or  of  “  preaching  power,” 
should  be  led  to  exercise  it  under  the  re¬ 
sponsible  ministry;  so  that  the  system  not 
only  recognizes,  but  is  a  vast  agency  for 
the  express  development  of,  lay-preaching. 
Without  this  vast  body  of  lay-preachers 
ths  work  could  not  possibly  be  carried  on; 
and  the  results  accomplished  are  an  elo¬ 
quent  testimony  to  the  value  of  lay-preach¬ 
ing  under  proper  safeguards.  Owing  to 
their  permanent  residence  and  local  knowl- 


f  ~~  ' 

edge,  some  local-preachers  of  character  and 

ability  have  even  superior  influence  to  the 
circuit-preachers.  These  are  appointed  for 
three  years  only,  and  no  circuit  or  itinerant 
preacher  can  be  appointed  again  to  the 
same  circuit  until  he  has  been  three  years 
absent  at  some  other.  Furnished  residences 
are  provided  for  these  Conference  preach¬ 
ers,  and  to  keep  up  the  furniture  and  uten¬ 
sils  complete  is  part  of  the  duty  of  the 
stewards.  Candidates  for  the  regular  or 
paid  ministry  have  to  pass  four  years  as 
probationers,  after  which  they  are  admitted 
to  the  theological  colleges;  and  this  sys¬ 
tem  ensures  that  every  minister  shall  (in 
the  opinion  of  his  brethren  at  least)  be 
possessed  of  some  amount  of  preaching 
power.  Each  society  has  a  monthly 
“  leaders’  meeting,”  composed  of  stewards 
and  leaders;  this  deals  with  most  cases  of 
discipline,  etc.,  and  is  the  general  church 
court  of  reference;  but  each  circuit  also 
has  its  quarterly  “  circuit  ”  meeting,  com¬ 
posed  of  leaders,  preachers,  and  stewards. 
The  supreme  court  of  all  is  the  Conference. 
The  foundation  of  this  in  Wesleyan  Method¬ 
ism  is  the  “  legal  hundred,”  whose  num¬ 
bers  are  kept  up  by  election  to  vacancies, 
and  who  really  possess  the  legal  power  of 
the  Conference,  according  to  a  deed  exe¬ 
cuted  by  John  Wesley,  and  enrolled  in 
Chancery.  But,  as  a  matter  of  fact,  repre¬ 
sentatives  elected  by  assemblages  of  cir¬ 
cuits,  called  “  districts,”  deliberate  togeth¬ 
er  with  the  legal  hundred,  which  confirms 
their  decisions,  and  finally  sanctions  all 
ministerial  appointments.  The  standard  of 
Methodist  doctrine  (except  among  the  Cal- 
vinistic  branch)  is  found  in  the  volumes  of 
Wesley’s  own  iVrwwwand  Notes  on  the  Ne?o 
Testament ,  which  are  so  named  in  trust- 
deeds.  Methodists  believe  that  no  man 
can  possess  any  assurance  of  final  salva¬ 
tion,  but  only  of  pj-esent  acceptance  with 
God,  and  that  it  is  fearfully  possible  to  fall 
entirely  away,  even  from  a  real  state  of 
grace.  They  also  maintain  the  possibility 
of  an  entire  deliverance  from  sin,  even  in 
this  life. 

Besides  the  usual  sacraments  and  ob¬ 
servances  of  a  Christian  Church,  Wesley 
borrowed  from  the  Moravians  the  “  love- 
feast,”  in  which  one  or  more  societies  meet 
together  in  fellowship,  and  partake  to¬ 
gether,  with  some  solemnity,  of  cakes  and 
water.  Another  practice,  almost  general 
amongst  them,  is  the  holding  of  a  “  watch- 
night  ”  service  on  the  eve  of  the  New 
Year,  when  the  services  are  protracted  till 
past  midnight;  and  when  the  New  Year 
has  commenced  the  whole  congregation 
stands  up  and  renews  the  solemn  vow  to 
serve  the  Lord. 

It  is  not  surprising  that,  in  an  age  of  the 


* 


Met 


(  595  ) 


Met 


greatest  lukewarmness  and  indifference  on 
the  part  of  the  Church  of  England,  a  So¬ 
ciety  displaying  so  much  zeal  and  activity 
should  win  many  converts,  especially 
when  we  consider  the  avowedly  unsec¬ 
tarian  nature  of  the  organization,  which 
was  joined  by  many  members  both  of  the 
Church  of  England  and  Dissenting  bodies. 
In  1741  the  first  secession  took  place,  upon 
theological  grounds.  Hitherto  the  Wes¬ 
leys  and  Whitefield  had  worked  together, 
but  Whitefield’s  strong  views  concerning 
predestination  were  now  found  incompat¬ 
ible  with  further  union,  and  he  left  the  So¬ 
ciety  along  with  many  followers.  Wes¬ 
ley’s  views  on  these  subjects  were  mainly 
in  accordance  with  Arminian  theology,  but 
otherwise  may  be  described  as  what  is 
popularly  called  “  Evangelical.”  Among 
a  large  portion  of  the  Wesleyan  Methodists 
the  whole  or  part  of  the  Church  of  Eng¬ 
land  Service  is  still  used  at  morning  wor¬ 
ship,  testifying  to  the  desire  always  felt 
by  Wesley  that  his  movement  should  be 
considered  part  and  parcel  of  the  Anglican 
body. 

The  rupture,  however,  became  inevi¬ 
table,  and  was  practically  effected  by  his 
own  act  in  1784,  though  the  last  hope  of 
union  was  not  finally  destroyed  until  his 
death  in  1791.  So  far  back  as  1746  Wesley 
had  become  convinced  by  Lord  King’s  Ac¬ 
count  of  the  Primitive  Church  that  bishops 
and  presbyters  have  the  same  meaning  in 
the  New  Testament.  Thirty-eight  years 
later,  when  pressing  representations  were 
made  to  him  of  the  need  for  ministers  to 
be  ordained  in  America  to  administer  the 
sacraments,  he  ordained*  Dr.  Coke  as  su¬ 
perintending  “  bishop”  for  America,  who 
subsequently  ordained  Francis  Asbury. 
Soon  after,  Wesley  exercised  the  same  re¬ 
sponsibility  in  regard  to  Scotland,  and  in 
1788  he  ordained  ministers  for  England 
also.  His  brother  Charles  strongly  disap¬ 
proved  of  this  step;  but  there  is  no  doubt 
that  it  was  sincerely  taken,  and  Southey’s 
offensive  insinuations  on  the  subject  have 
very  little  ground.  Not  content  with  im¬ 
puting  to  Wesley  more  or  less  conscious 
dishonesty,  Southey  argues  that  if  presby¬ 
ter  and  bishop  were  synonymous  the  con¬ 
secration  was  useless,  as  Dr.  Coke  was  or¬ 
dained  already,  and  therefore  “  as  good  a 
bishop  as  Mr.  Wesley  himself.”  Wesley 
would  not  have  questioned  that  for  a 
moment;  and  his  solemn  ordination  of  Dr. 
Coke  was  not  to  the  mere  office  of  presby¬ 
ter,  but  as  a  delegate  of  his  own  authority 
to  be  exercised  in  America.  It  was  a  step 
taken  with  hesitation,  as  were  all  Wesley’s 
steps  in  the  direction  of  separation;  but  it 
appeared  to  be  forced  on  him,  and  when 
taken  was  practically  final  and  irrevocable. 


Perhaps  few  thoughtful  students  of  what 
Methodism  has  since  done  will  question 
the  reality  of  the  divine  providence  which 
so  modified  Wesley’s  personal  wishes  into 
an  entirely  different  direction. 

At  the  death  of  John  Wesley  great  dis¬ 
sensions  arose  in  the  Methodist  body,  now 
increased  to  over  60,000  members.  The 
laity  claimed  a  share  in  the  government  of 
their  body;  they  protested  against  the 
Conference  being  solely  composed  of  min¬ 
isters;  they  also  claimed  their  “  right  to 
hold  public  religious  worship  at  such 
hours  as  were  most  convenient,  without 
being  restricted  to  the  mere  intervals  of 
the  hours  appointed  for  service  in  the  Es¬ 
tablished  Church;  ”  and  also  the  right  to 
receive  the  sacraments  at  the  hands  of 
their  [, lay-preachers — a  thing  which  Wesley 
had  refused  to  permit.  At  last,  in  order 
to  allay  the  discontent  and  dissensions, 
which  had  increased  to  an  alarming  extent 
the  Conference  in  1795  drew  up  a  Plan  of 
Pacification.  The  claims  of  the  laity  to  a 
share  in  the  government  of  the  Society 
were  steadily  rejected.  The  claims  of  the 
trustees  of  the  various  chapels  to  a  voice 
in  the  appointment  of  their  ministers  were 
also  denied.  The  whole  business  of  elect¬ 
ing  and  appointing  ministers  and  local 
preachers  was  reserved  to  the  Conference. 
But,  on  the  other  hand,  in  order  to  meet 
the  claims  of  the  laity  to  a  certain  extent, 
a  new  court  was  formed  to  administer  dis¬ 
cipline  in  each  district.  The  Court  con¬ 
sisted  of  the  preachers  of  each  district,  and 
all  trustees,  stewards,  and  leaders  of  the 
circuit.  The  Court  received  accusations 
against  a  preacher,  and  had  power  to  sus¬ 
pend  him  till  the  next  Conference,  to 
whom  the  matter  must  then  be  submitted. 
This  arrangement  still  continues  in  force. 

Owing  to  the  dissatisfaction  that  many 
of  the  laity  felt  at  the  decisions  of  the  Con¬ 
ference  of  1795,  a  second  secession  oc¬ 
curred  in  1797,  the  seceding  members 
forming  the  “  Methodist  New  Connection;” 
they  are  sometimes  called  Kilhamites, 
after  their  leader,  Alexander  Kilham.  A 
few  years  later,  in  1812,  the  “  Primitive 
Methodists  ”  formed  a  distinct  sect,  after 
being  expelled  from  the  main  body.  In 
1815  a  further  secession  occurred,  the 
Bryanites  or  Bible  Christians  forming  a 
separate  communion.  The  “  Methodist 
Free  Churches  ”  consist  of  those  who  were 
expelled  from  Methodism  in  1828,  1835, 
and  1849;  they  amalgamated  in  1857,  and 
are  known  as  the  “  United  Free  Churches.” 

Wesleyan  Methodists. — In  spite,  how¬ 
ever,  of  these  numerous  secessions, 
amounting  in  a  few  years  to  the  loss  of 
100,000  members,  the  Society  still  flour¬ 
ishes,  and  remains  the  leading  division  of 


Met 


(  596  ) 


Met 


the  great  body.  At  the  present  time  they 
have,  in  the  United  Kingdom,  2,183  minis¬ 
ters,  469,857  class  members,  and  7,071 
chapels.  According  to  the  official  returns 
published  at  the  close  of  1885,  Methodists 
of  all  kinds  throughout  the  world  number 
32,701  minsters,  and  5,174,037  class-mem¬ 
bers. 

Calvinistic  Methodists.  —  This  sect 
followed  Whitefield  in  1741,  but  it  was  not 
till  1748  that  a  secession  formally  occurred, 
in  consequence  of  Whitefield  preaching 
strong  Calvinistic  doctrine.  Some  of  their 
earliest  chapels  were  erected  in  Moorfields 
and  in  Tottenham  Court  Road  about  the 
year  1756;  but  the  greatest  number  were 
in  Wales.  On  the  death  of  Whitefield,  in 
1769,  the  various  congregations  supported 
themselves  on  the  Independent  principle. 
At  the  present  time  they  number  970  min¬ 
isters,  276,051  members, and  1,372  chapels. 
A  section  of  this  body  is  known  as  “  Lady 
Huntingdon’s  Connection.”  (Hunting¬ 
don,  Countess  of.) 

Methodist  New  Connection,  founded 
in  1797,  owing  to  the  expulsion  of  Alex¬ 
ander  Kilham  from  the  Methodist  minis¬ 
try;  5,000  sympathizers  formed  the  first 
members  of  this  new  sect.  Alexander 
Kilham  was  the  first  to  claim  the  right  of 
the  Methodist  people  to  meet  together  for 
worship  in  Church  hours,  and  to  receive 
the  Sacraments  from  their  own  ministers. 
In  theology,  the  New  Connexion  does  not 
differ  from  the  old;  the  chief  difference  be¬ 
tween  the  two  bodies  is  that  the  New  ad¬ 
mits  the  laity  to  a  share  in  the  government 
of  the  society.  Ministers  and  lay  dele¬ 
gates  attend  the  Conference  in  equal  num¬ 
bers,  and  the  laity  have  a  voice  in  the 
election  and  expulsion  of  their  ministers. 
This  body  has  missions  abroad,  especially 
in  China,  and  at  the  present  time  has,  in 
the  United  Kingdom,  211  ministers,  33,964 
members,  and  444  chapels.  The  society 
is  also  strong  in  Canada. 

Primitive  Methodists. — This  sect  arose 
from  the  expulsion  of  William  Clowes  and 
Hugh  Bourne  from  the  Methodist  Society 
in  1 81 1.  These  two  men  had  preached  and 
conducted  prayer-meetings  among  the  men 
engaged  in  the  potteries  in  Staffordshire: 
great  numbers  of  people  attended  their 
meetings.  In  1807  they  introduced  the 
American  custom  of  holding  camp-meet¬ 
ings,  at  which  various  speakers  addressed 
the  congregation  assembled  in  the  open 
air.  These  meetings  were  prolonged 
sometimes  throughout  the  whole  day. 
The  Methodist  Conference,  disapproving 
of  this,  expelled  the  promoters,  William 
Clowes  and  Hugh  Bourne.  In  1812  they 
took  the  name  of  “  Primitive  Methodists,” 
signifying  by  this  that  they  wished  to  walk 


as  closely  as  they  could  in  the  steps  of 
John  Wesley.  They  were  named  also 
“  Ranters,”  from  their  custom  of  singing 
aloud  in  the  open  streets.  In  their  theol¬ 
ogy  they  do  not  differ  materially  from  the 
original  Methodist  Society ,  their  prominent 
doctrine  being  “  full,  free,  and  present 
salvation.”  They  differ  from  the  older 
Methodists  in  the  admission  of  laity  .to 
their  Conference,  in  a  majority  of  two  to 
one.  Other  characteristics  of  this  body 
are  their  preference  for  open-air  preaching, 
and  the  allowing  women  to  preach,  the  dis¬ 
tribution  of  bread  and  water  at  their  love- 
feasts,  and  the  great  excitement  which  pre¬ 
vails  at  their  meetings.  They  flourished 
chiefly  in  the  northern  counties  of  England 
at  first.  Their  present  statistics  for  the  Unit¬ 
ed  Kingdom  are  as  follows:  1,042  minis¬ 
ters,  192,389  members,  and  4,217  chapels. 

Bible  Christians  or  Bryanites. — This 
sect  arose  in  1815,  with  the  secession  of 
William  O’Bryan,  a  Methodist  local-preach¬ 
er  in  Cornwall.  It  succeeded  well  in 
Devonshire  and  Cornwall,  but  in  1829 
O’Bryan  left  the  sect.  Their  Conference 
consists  of  equal  numbers  of  ministers  and 
people;  and  they  allow  females  to  act  as 
itinerant  preachers.  They  possess  in  the 
United  Kingdom,  at  the  present  time,  245 
ministers,  28,760  class-members,  and  578 
chapels;  and  they  have  a  mission  also  in 
Australia. 

Methodist  United  Free  Churches 
consist  of  members  expelled  from  the 
Methodist  Society,  especially  for  agitating 
in  favor  of  the  admission  of  the  laity  to  a 
voice  in  the  management  of  their  society. 
They  were  amalgamated  in  1857,  and  differ 
only  from  the  older  society  in  giving  in¬ 
creased  powers  to  the  laity.  They  have 
foreign  missions  in  Africa  and  Australia; 
and  number  at  the  present  time,  in  the 
United  Kingdom,  419  ministers,  84,653 
class  members,  and  1,232  chapels. 

Two  other  very  small  sections  of  Method¬ 
ism  are  The  Wesleyan  Reform  Union, 
founded  in  1849,  and  the  Independent 
Methodists.  Their  adherents  together 
muster  13,915  members.  —  Benham:  Diet, 
of  Religion. 

Methodist  Episcopal  Church.  A  just 
estimate  of  an  organization  requires  more 
than  a  knowledge  of  the  immediate  facts  of 
origin,  formal  constitution,  gradual  devel¬ 
opment,  and  achievements;  for  the  insti¬ 
tution  is  always  the  product  of  antecedent 
forces  and  conditions,  which  give  it  form 
and  efficiency,  and  which  we  must  care¬ 
fully  consider,  in  order  to  any  adequate 
judgment  of  its  .'place  and  value.  What 
seems  newest  may  be,  in  reality,  oldest. 

The  Methodist  Episcopal  Church  is  a 


M 


(  597  ) 


Met 


branch  of  the  visible  Church  of  Jesus 
Christ,  one  of  the  many  “  outward  and 
visible  ”  ecclesiastical  expressions  and  ad¬ 
justments  of  the  “  inward  and  invisible  ” 
ideas  and  energies  of  Christianity,  empha¬ 
sizing  in  its  creed  the  apostolical  confes¬ 
sion:  “  I  believe  in  the  Holy  Catholic 
Church;  the  communion  of  saints;”  train¬ 
ing  its  children  to  look  upon  all  other 
churches  which  exalt  Christ,  appeal  to  the 
Holy  Scriptures  as  the  final  authority  in 
matters  of  faith  and  conduct,  and  believe 
in  the  quickening  and  sanctifying  opera¬ 
tions  of  the  Holy  Spirit,  as  equally  sharing 
with  itself  the  authority  and  privileges  of 
the  Holy  Catholic  Church,  which  is  “  the 
pillar  and  ground  of  the  truth,”  the  “house¬ 
hold  of  God,”  the  “  body,”  of  which  Jesus 
Christ  is  the  “  Head.”  This  conception 
is  always  present  in  the  ruling  thought 
and  teaching  of  the  Methodist  Episcopal 
Church,  and  is  a  safeguard  against  secta¬ 
rian  narrowness.  The  Church  accounts 
itself  one  part  of  a  vast  and  diversified  in¬ 
stitution:  one  part,  and  not  the  whole;  one 
division  of  a  great  army;  one  household 
of  a  royal  family. 

The  Methodist  Episcopal  Church  is,  as 
a  form  of  the  visible  Church,  one  of  the 
results  of  that  comparatively  modern 
movement  in  the  religious  world  known 
commonly  as  “  Methodism,”  acknowl¬ 
edged  by  thoughtful  Christians  of  all  de¬ 
nominations  as  a  divine  work  of  revival 
and  reformation,  restoring  to  the  general 
Church  the  fervent  spirit,  the  evangelical 
doctrines,  the  simple  methods,  and  the 
Christian  activities  of  the  first  century. 
Methodism  is  “  a  revival  of  apostolic 
Christianity,”  the  reproducing  of  “  the 
first-century  Church.”  Mr.  Wesley  said 
to  his  followers  in  America,  “  Follow  the 
Scriptures  and  the  primitive  Church.” 
Thus  Methodism  is,  in  a  word,  another 
Reformation,  as  wide  -  reaching  as  the 
great  movement  under  Martin  Luther  and 
his  coadjutors;  a  reformation  even  more 
radical  than  that.  Under  Luther,  souls  in 
bondage  made  protest  against  ecclesiastical 
tyrannies,  and  against  papal  perversions 
of  the  gospel,  and  looked,  as  did  the  dis¬ 
ciples  in  the  beginning,  when  the  temple 
lost  its  power  to  satisfy  them,  toward  the 
heavens,  whither  their  Lord  had  gone. 
Under  Wesley  a  step  forward  was  taken; 
the  ascended  Lord  came  again  to  his  peo¬ 
ple;  the  scenes  of  Pentecost  were  renew¬ 
ed;  the  “dispensation  of  the  Spirit”  re¬ 
ceived  new  illustration  and  application, 
and  the  Church  was  prepared  for  a  new 
age — the  age  of  intellectual,  scientific,  po¬ 
litical,  and  religious  activity;  the  age  of 
Christian  civilization,  in  the  heart  of  which 
we  are  living  to-day. 


This  large  claim  for  the  providential 
origin  of  Methodism,  and  its  relation  to 
our  modern  civilization,  must  not  be  pro¬ 
nounced  extravagant.  One  has  but  to  read 
the  records  of  the  eighteenth  century  in 
England  and  on  the  continent  of  Europe, 
as  made  by  judicious  and  impartial  stu¬ 
dents  and  observers  in  all  the  churches, 
and  beyond  the  churches,  to  appreciate  the 
importance  of  the  Methodist  movement. 
It  was  an  age  of  unbelief,  indifferentism, 
intemperance,  dissoluteness,  hardness,  and 
heartlessness.  John  Telford,  in  his  ad¬ 
mirable  life  of  John  Wesley,  says  :  “  In 

1736  every  sixth  house  in  London  was  a 
grog-shop,  and  the  gin-sellers  hung  out 
boards  announcing  that  they  would  make 
a  man  drunk  for  a  penny,  dead-drunk  for  a 
twopence,  and  find  straw  for  him  to  lie  on 
till  he  recovered  from  his  carouse.”  The 
Church  of  England  was  full  of  the  spirit 
of  irreligion;  the  clergy,  to  a  lamentable 
degree  ignorant  of  the  Bible,  given  up  to 
questionable  amusements,  and  despised  by 
the  people.  Into  this  night  of  darkness 
came  the  apostolic  reformers,  the  Wesleys, 
Whitefield,  and  their  fellow-laborers.  Their 
work  as  instruments  in  the  hands  of  God 
is  well  and  fairly  summarized  by  a  com¬ 
petent  and  certainly  unbiased  judge,  the 
distinguished  Unitarian,  Dr.  Bellows,  who, 
in  1866,  wrote:  “  Millions  have  been  con¬ 
verted  by  Methodism ;  millions  have  been 
awakened  from  their  worldliness,  started 
out  of  their  stupor — some  from  sinful 
courses — and  spiritually  quickened  and 
strengthened  by  its  offices  and  ministra¬ 
tions . There  are  no  moral  census- 

tables  to  tell  in  mathematical  figures  the 
real  good  Methodism  has  done;  the  statis¬ 
tics  of  its  work  must  be  studied  in  the 
altered  lives,  and  the  improved  manners 
and  morals,  and  the  noble  aims  of  the  peo¬ 
ple  influenced  by  it,  and  the  higher  life  of 
society  in  communities  where  it  has  flour¬ 
ished.”  It  would  be  easy  to  fill  pages  with 
similar  testimony  from  writers  of  the  high¬ 
est  standing. 

The  relation  of  the  Methodist  Episcopal 
Church  to  the  Republic  is  a  subject  full 
of  suggestion.  A  government  for  the 
people,  and  by  the  people,  demanded  just 
what  Methodism  was  most  sure  to  empha¬ 
size  and  most  competent  to  promote — a 
popular  conscience,  a  religious  faith  full  of 
large  and  beneficent  ideas,  a  spirit  of  equal¬ 
ity  and  brotherhood,  a  religious  life  of  fer¬ 
vor  and  aggression  to  neutralize  the  ten¬ 
dencies  to  secularity  and  worldliness  inci¬ 
dent  to  the  intense  life  of  the  new  freedom 
in  a  new  country  and  a  new  age.  Thus, 
when  the  God  of  nations  prepared  on  this 
continent  a  sphere  for  the  people’s  growth, 
culture  and  responsibility,  he  provided  for 


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the  people  a  Church,  and  through  it  pro¬ 
moted  in  all  the  Churches  a  revival  of 
primitive,  first-century  Christianity,  ear¬ 
nest  in  spirit,  Scriptural  in  doctrine,  facile 
and  practical  in  method,  indefatigable  in 
effort  and  thoroughly  democratic  in  aim. 

The  Methodist  Episcopal  Church  was 
organized  in  America  with  the  approval,  by 
the  authority,  and  under  the  direction,  of 
Mr.  John  Wesley.  He  preferred  that,  dur¬ 
ing  his  life-time,  the  Wesleyans  of  England 
should  remain  a  “Society”  within  the 
Church  of  England.  In  that  venerable 
branch  of  the  Christian  Church  he  was 
born.  By  one  of  its  bishops,  John  Potter, 
D.  D.,  Bishop  of  Oxford  (afterward  Arch¬ 
bishop  of  Canterbury),  he  was  set  apart  to 
the  Diaconate  and  to  the  “  Priesthood.”  In 
the  Church  of  England  he  lived,  preached 
and  died.  By  the  authority  given  to  him 
when  ordained  a  presbyter,  according  to 
the  true  interpretation  of  the  “orders,” 
by  the  ablest  ecclesiastical  scholars,  in  pur¬ 
suance  of  unchallenged  precedents  in  the 
early  Church,  John  Wesley,  in  a  providen¬ 
tial  emergency,  exercised  his  rights  as  a 
presbyter  ( episcopos)',  and  in  due  form,  as¬ 
sisted  by  other  presbyters  of  the  Church 
of  England ,  set  apart  Thomas  Coke,  LL.  D. , 
as  a  Superintendent  (an  Episcopos ),  a  Bishop 
of  the  Wesleyan  body  in  America.  He 
prepared  an  edition  of  the  “  Book  of  Com¬ 
mon  Prayer  ”  for  American  use.  He  sent 
Bishop  Coke  to  assist  in  organizing  the 
Church  in  America.  He  said,  “  I  firmly 
believe  that  I  am  a  Scriptural  Episcopos  as 
much  as  any  man  in  England,  or  in  Europe; 
that  the  uninterrupted  succession  I  know  to 
be  a  fable,  which  no  man  ever  did  or  can 
prove.”  And  be  it  noted  that  John  Wes¬ 
ley  continued  an  acceptable  member  and 
clergyman  of  the  Church  of  England  to  the 
day  of  his  death;  and  although  his  course 
in  the  ordination  of  a  Bishop  for  America 
was  much  condemned  and  ridiculed,  he 
was  never  called  to  account  by  the  author¬ 
ities  of  the  Church.  Those  who  knew  the 
whole  subject  best  knew  that  Wesley  had 
precedents  for  his  action,  that  his  ordina¬ 
tion  was  valid,  and  that  the  New  Testa¬ 
ment  powers  of  the  ministry  of  the  Church 
of  England  were  in  a  legitimate  way  con¬ 
veyed  to  the  Methodist  Episcopal  Church 
of  America,  which  was,  as  Dr.  Abel  Stevens 
says,  “the  first  Protestant  Episcopal 
Church  in  the  world;  and  as  Wesley  had 
given  it  the  Anglican  Articles  of  Religion 
(omitting  the  XVIIth,  On  Predestination), 
and  the  Liturgy  Wesley  abridged,  it  be¬ 
came,  both  by  its  Protestant  organization, 
and  its  subsequent  numerical  importance, 
the  real  successor  to  the  Anglican  Church 
in  America.” 

The  early  life  of  Methodism  in  the  Unit¬ 


ed  States  was  intense,  active  and  aggres¬ 
sive.  Its  ministers  went  everywhere 
preaching  the  Word.  They  allowed  no 
obstacles  to  hinder  their  work.  They  pro¬ 
claimed  the  pure  gospel,  a  new  gospel  in 
that  age;  a  gospel  to  all  men;  a  gospel  of 
salvation  as  free  and  full  as  it  was  all-em¬ 
bracing.  The  people  saw  and  felt  that 
these  ardent,  ever-moving  and  straight¬ 
forward  itinerant  preachers  were  full  of 
what  old  Dr.  Mason,  of  New  York,  used  to 
call  “  blood  earnestness.”  The  zeal  of  the 
preachers  prepared  the  people  to  hear  and 
to  heed  their  message.  Multitudes  were  at¬ 
tracted,  awakened,  convicted  and  convert¬ 
ed.  The  powers  of  the  world  to  come 
broke  through  the  shell  of  wordliness,  in¬ 
difference,  sensualism  and  infidelity.  Whole 
communities  were  reformed.  Instead  of 
cursing  and  confusion,  were  heard  songs  of 
praise  for  a  divine  deliverance.  Drunkards 
became  sober  men,  and  those  who  had 
aforetime  been  maddened  by  strong  drink, 
were  now  “  filled  with  the  Spirit.”  The 
proof  of  the  divine  wisdom,  love  and  power 
in  this  great  Instauration,  are  to  be  found 
in  all  the  Churches  of  every  denomination, 
in  the  social  and  political  life  of  the  nation, 
in  the  pulpits  of  Christendom,  in  the  in¬ 
creased  zeal  of  believers  for  home  and 
foreign  missions,  in  the  personal  joy  of 
salvation  as  experienced  by  the  hearts  to- 
which  this  new  proclamation  of  the  old 
gospel  has  come  with  such  power,  and  in 
the  multitude  of  the  redeemed  who,  saved 
from  earth  and  sin,  are  now  before  the 
throne  of  him  in  whose  “presence  is 
fullness  of  joy,  and  at  whose  right  hand 
are  pleasures  for  ever  more.” 

The  formal  organization  of  the  Methodist 
Episcopal  Church  took  place  in  “  Lovely 
Lane  Chapel,”  Baltimore,  Md.,  at  the  fa¬ 
mous  “  Christmas  Conference,”  which  be¬ 
gan, December  24, 1784,  and  closed,  January 
2,  1785.  There  were,  at  that  time,  14,988 
members  of  the  Societies  in  America,  sev¬ 
eral  hundred  Local  Preachers,  and  84  Trav¬ 
eling  Preachers,  60  of  whom  were  present 
at  the  conference,  not  including  Bishop 
Coke,  Francis  Asbury,  Richard  Whatcoat 
and  Thomas  Vasey.  Bishop  Coke  pre¬ 
sided.  He  read  a  letter  from  John  Wesley 
expressing  his  desire  for  the  organization 
of  the  Church,  and  a  plan  for  the  same. 
This  plan  was  adopted.  Francis  Asbury, 
on  the  second  day  of  the  conference,  was 
ordained  Deacon,  on  the  third  day  Elder, 
and  on  the  fourth  day  General  Superinten¬ 
dent,  or  Bishop.  There  were  at  this  Con¬ 
ference  thirteen  Preachers  elected  and  or¬ 
dained  Deacons,  and  twelve  elected  and 
ordained  Elders. 

There  are  now  129  Conferences  and  Mis¬ 
sions  in  the  Methodist  Episcopal  Church; 


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1 5 ,°95  Traveling  Preachers;  983  Supernu¬ 
merary  Preachers;  1,638  Superannuated 
Preachers;  making  a  total  of  17,716  in 
conference  relations.  There  are,  besides 
these,  13,561  Local  Preachers.  While  the 
ministry  lost,  during  the  year  1889,  by 
deaths,  locations  and  withdrawals  485,  the 
additions  made  up  the  deficit,  and  showed 
a  net  gain  of  551  in  her  ministry. 

During  the  same  year  there  were  28,256 
deaths  among  the  lay  members  of  the 
Church.  Notwithstanding  these  losses 
and  withdrawals,  for  various  reasons,  the 
net  gain  was  83,177,  leaving  a  total  mem¬ 
bership,  including  those  on  probation,  at 
the  close  of  the  year  1889,  of  2,237,526. 
The  total  of  ministerial  and  lay  members 
of  the  Church  is,  therefore,  2,353,639. 

The  value  of  church  property  is  re¬ 
ported  as  $104,172,793;  the  total  value  of 
connectional  church  property,  including 
churches,  parsonages,  educational  institu¬ 
tions,  hospitals,  etc.,  is  not  less  than 
$143,500,000. 

During  the  year  1889  the  total  amount 
raised  for  church  expenses,  including  new 
churches,  payment  on  indebtedness  on 
church  property,  current  church  expenses, 
ministerial  support,  including  Presiding 
Elders  and  Bishops,  reached  the  sum  of 
$20,352,798. 

The  receipts  for  the  year  1889,  for  the 
three  Missionary  Societies,  the  “  Parent,” 
the  “  Woman’s  Foreign,”  and  the  “  Wom¬ 
an’s  Home,”  make  a  grand  total  of  $1,466,- 
238.51;  for  the  Board  of  Church  Exten¬ 
sion,  $277,779.17;  for  the  Sunday-school 
Union,  $22,504.05;  for  the  Tract  Society, 
$19,461.00;  for  the  Board  of  Education, 
$54,476.56;  for  the  Freedmen’s  Aid  and 
Southern  Education  Society  (for  1S88), 
$84,587.00;  for  the  American  Bible  Society 
(for  1888),  $33,348.00;  for  the  Conference 
Claimants,  $217,876.00;  making  a  grand 
total  of  $2,185,980.22,  for  actual  benevo¬ 
lences  under  the  General  Conference  of  the 
Church. 

The  Methodist  Episcopal  Church  repre¬ 
sents  the  revolution  in  theological  thought 
which  has  compelled  the  older,  and  es¬ 
pecially  the  Calvinistic,  churches  to  re¬ 
vise  their  creeds.  It  is  substantially  Ar- 
minian,  although  its  only  authority  is  the 
Holy  Bible.  It  refers  to  Paul.  John  and 
James,  rather  than  to  any  human  teacher 
or  school  of  divinity.  It  remands  to  the 
cloister  and  the  chamber  of  the  metaphysi¬ 
cian  the  philosophical  problems  which  grow 
out  of  the  critical  study  of  the  Word,  but 
which  have  not  been  to  us  revealed.  It 
cares  little  for  theological  speculations. 
It  aims  to  reach  the  hearts  and  consciences 
of  the  mass  of  men.  It  puts  stress  on 
law  and  gospel,  on  personal  responsibility, 


personal  freedom,  and  the  personal  con¬ 
sciousness  of  the  indwelling  Spirit  of  God. 
It  proclaims  everywhere  the  Fatherhood 
of  God  and  the  Brotherhood  of  man.  The 
following  brief  putting  of  Methodist  doc¬ 
trines  under  the  general  head  of  “  The 
Ten  Points  of  Doctrine,”  has  been  approved 
by  leading  theologians  of  the  Church: 
“  (1)  All  men  are  sinners.  (2)  God  the 
Father  loves  all  men  and  hates  all  sin.  (3) 
Jesus  Christ  died  for  all  men  to  make  pos¬ 
sible  their  salvation  from  sin,  and  to  make 
sure  the  salvation  of  all  who  believe  in 
him.  (4)  The  Holy  Spirit  is  given  to  all  men 
to  enlighten,  and  to  incline  them  to  repent 
of  their  sins,  and  to  believe  in  the  Lord 
Jesus  Christ.  (5)  All  who  repent  of  their 
sins  and  believe  in  the  Lord  Jesus  Christ 
receive  the  forgiveness  of  sins  (this  is  “  Jus¬ 
tification”).  (6)  All  who  receive  the  forgive¬ 
ness  of  sin  are  at  the  same  time  made  new 
creatures  in  Christ  Jesus  (this  is  “Regenera¬ 
tion  ”).  (7)  All  who  are  made  new  creatures 
in  Christ  Jesus  are  accepted  as  the  children 
of  God  (this  is  “  Adoption  ”).  (8)  All  who 
are  accepted  as  the  children  of  God  may 
receive  the  inward  assurance  of  the  Holy 
Spirit  to  that  fact  (this  is  the  “  Witness  of 
the  Spirit  ”).  (9)  All  who  truly  desire  and 
seek  it,  may  love  God  with  all  their  heart 
and  soul,  mind  and  strength,  and  their 
neighbors  as  themselves  (this  is  entire 
“Sanctification”).  (10)  All  who  persevere 
to  the  end,  and  only  those,  shall  be  saved 
in  heaven  forever  (this  is  the  true  “  Final 
Perseverance  ”). 

Methodism  began  within  the  walls  of 
the  university.  Its  projectors  and  first 
promoters  were  men  of  fine  intellectual  en¬ 
dowment,  thorough  education,  and  more 
than  one  of  them  of  broad  and  varied  schol¬ 
arship.  The  very  beginnings  of  Method¬ 
ism  were  in  the  upper  room  of  Lincoln 
College,  where  John  and  Charles  Wesley, 
George  Hervey,  George  Whitefield,  and 
several  others,  either  fellows  or  under¬ 
graduates  of  the  university,  met  four 
nights  a  week  for  biblical,  spiritual,  phil¬ 
anthropic,  and  literary  exercises.  It  is  a 
singular  fact  that  the  spiritual  agency 
which  was  to  enter  the  field  of  human  ac¬ 
tivity  at  the  founding  of  our  American  re¬ 
publican  civilization  was  developed  in  a 
college.  It  seems  as  though  the  great 
Head  of  the  Church  was  preparing  a  people 
who  should  be  able  to  carry  Christianity 
into  the  very  heart  of  a  new  century,  in 
which  the  educational,  scientific,  and  liter¬ 
ary  forces  were  to  be  at  their  best;  Cult¬ 
ure  without  grace  is  impotent;  but  grace 
must  ally  herself  with  knowledge,  and  that 
in  many  departments,  in  order  to  meet  all 
the  demands  of  such  a  civilization  as  the 
present.  In  Oxford  University  this  prep- 


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aration  was  begun,  and  the  men  who  were 
to  be  a  power  of  burning  in  the  hearts  of 
the  people,  were  also  to  be  a  tongue  of  fire 
crowning  their  intellects,  and  preparing 
them  to  shed  light  as  well  as  to  promote 
fervor  among  the  masses  and  the  classes 
in  the  new  century  or  the  new  continent  be¬ 
yond  the  sea. 

Mr.  Wesley,  although  at  first  reluctant 
to  lower  his  standard  of  ministerial  ef¬ 
ficiency  and  scholastic  preparation,  was,  as 
a  practical  man,  compelled  to  employ  those 
who  had  never  enjoyed  the  advantages  of 
the  classical  or  professional  schools.  He 
needed  men  to  arouse  men.  He  needed 
earnest  men  who  knew  well  the  Book  of 
God,  and  who  also  knew,  by  their  own  per¬ 
sonal  experience,  its  power  over  the  hu¬ 
man  heart.  He  and  his  American  succes¬ 
sors,  therefore,  followed  the  leadership  of 
the  other  learned  professions — the  “  law  ” 
and  “  medicine  ” — and  chose  men,  whether 
classically  educated  or  not,  who  had  the 
essential  qualifications  for  the  Christian 
ministry — hard  sense,  fervent  piety,  stu¬ 
dious  habits,  a  love  of  the  Word  of  God, 
and  sympathy  with  their  fellow-men.  He 
would  not  have  refused  to  employ  Dwight 
L.  Moody  as  evangelist  or  pastor.  The 
men  he  did  select — John  Oliver,  John  Paw- 
son,  Alexander  Mather,  Thomas  Oliver, 
George  Story,  Thomas  Walsh,  and  others, 
were  men  brought  up  to  business;  but 
they  knew  men,  and  they  knew  how  to 
reach  and  save  them  through  the  gospel 
of  Christ.  This  is  the  policy  which  lias 
prevailed  in  the  Methodist  Episcopal 
Church,  and  with  marvelous  success.  The 
evils  resulting  have  been  far  overbalanced 
by  the  good. 

What  was  done  in  the  old  country,  Wes¬ 
ley,  Coke,  and  Asbury  projected  for  the 
new.  Thomas  Coke,  the  first  bishop  of 
the  “  First-Century  ”  type  on  the  American 
Continent,  was  a  man  of  extensive  learning, 
and  Francis  Asbury,  who  was  the  pioneer 
bishop  of  Methodism  in  America,  was,  as 
Abel  Stevens  says,  “  One  of  those  men  of 
anomalous  greatness,  in  estimating  whom 
the  historian  is  compelled  to  use  terms 
which  would  be  irrelevant  to  most  men 
with  whom  he  has  to  deal.  His  dis¬ 
crimination  of  character  was  marvelous; 
his  administrative  talent  would  have  placed 
him  in  civil  government  along-side  of 
Richelieu  or  Caesar;  his  success  placed  him 
at  the  head  of  leading  characters  of  Amer¬ 
ican  ecclesiastical  history.”  He  was  a  man 
with  “  a  restless  instinct  for  work,”  always 
“  going,”  and  always  “  doing,”  methodical, 
gentlemanly  in  his  manners,  and  direct  and 
practical  in  his  preaching.  He  was  in  the 
habit  of  spending  three  hours  a  day  in 
private  devotion,  and  made  it  a  rule  to  read 


every  day,  thoughtfully,  one  hundred 
pages  of  good  literature.  It  is  said  that 
during  the  forty-five  years  of  his  American 
ministry,  he  preached  about  16,500  ser¬ 
mons,  traveled  about  270,000  miles,  pre¬ 
sided  in  not  less  than  224  Annual  Confer¬ 
ences,  and  ordained  more  than  4,000 
preachers. 

I  he  very  first  General  Conference, 
known  as  the  “  Christmas  Conference,”  re¬ 
solved  to  found  a  college,  and  an  effort  was 
made  to  raise  funds  for  its  endowment,  and 
for  the  erection  of  necessary  buildings. 
Bishop  Asbury  says,  “  Bishop  Coke  and  I 
have  agreed  to  use  our  joint  endeavors  to 
establish  a  school  or  college.”  The  site 
was  chosen  at  Abingdon,  Md.,  twpnty-five 
miles  from  Baltimore,  and  on  Sunday, 
June  5,  1785,  the  corner-stone  of  Cokesbury 
College  was  laid.  Within  three  years  there 
were  thirty  students  in  the  college  proper, 
and  fifteen  in  the  preparatory  school.  In 
1792  seventy  students  were  enrolled,  pur¬ 
suing  not  only  the  English  branches,  but 
the  ancient  and  modern  languages,  and  also 
lines  of  study  in  agriculture  and  architect¬ 
ure — so  practical  were  these  founders  of  a 
system  of  education  for  the  people.  When 
the  Methodist  Book  Concern  was  estab¬ 
lished,  a  portion  of  the  profits  was  set  aside 
for  this  first  Methodist  college.  Notwith¬ 
standing  the  disaster  which  came  in  the 
burning  of  the  building,  December  7,  1795, 
the  educational  work  continued,  and  there 
are  to-day  197  institutions  of  learning  under 
the  control  of  the  Methodist  Episcopal 
Church,  of  which  129  are  academies  and 
seminaries,  56  colleges  and  universities, 
and  12  theological  schools;  the  buildings 
and  endowments  of  the  same  aggregating 
not  less  than  $21,163,407.  In  1S89  these 
schools  report  1,595  professors  and  other 
teachers,  and  32,276  students. 

The  Methodist  Episcopal  Church  has 
always  been  a  foremost  friend  of  education. 
Edward  Everett  said,  forty  years  ago, 
“  Methodism  has  done  more  than  any  other 
branch  of  the  Church  for  the  promotion  of 
popular  education  in  America.”  Her  suc¬ 
cess  does  not  demand  the  repudiation  of 
the  public  school,  nor  is  “  Ignorance  the 
mother  of  Methodist  devotion.”  She  goes 
to  the  people  to  lift  them  up,  socially,  in¬ 
tellectually,  commercially,  religiously,  and 
to  bring  to  the  higher  levels  all  classes  of 
men.  As  Bishop  Foster  well  says:  “  Meth¬ 
odism  does  not  want  to  court  the  world, 
or  let  down  the  standard  to  meet  the  pop¬ 
ular  taste,  to  set  her  sails  for  the  wealthy 
and  great;  nor  does  she  want  to  reject  or 
repel  them.  Her  mission  is  to  the  rich 
and  the  poor;  the  refined  and  the  uncult¬ 
ured;  to  one  class  just  as  much  as  another, 
and  to  all  alike.  ..  .  At  her  altars,  whether 


Met 


(  Go  i  ) 


Met 


in  the  humble  chapel  or  magnificent 
churchly  edifice,  they  are  to  stand  side  by 
side  as  children  of  one  Father,  and  brothers 
equally  beloved.” 

Thus  is  Methodism  the  exponent  and 
representative  for  the  twentieth  century  of 
the  theology,  spirit,  experience,  energy, 
enterprise,  and  methods  of  the  first  cen¬ 
tury;  the  adaptation  of  the  oldest  to  the 
demands  of  the  newest;  and  her  mission 
has  but  just  begun.  J.  H.  Vincent. 

Methodist  Episcopal  Church,  South. 

Episcopal  Methodism  began  its  organic 
existence  in  Baltimore,  Maryland,  at  the 
Christmas  Conference  of  1784.  Methodist 
preachers  had  been  laboring  among  the 
American  colonists  since  1766,  and,  de¬ 
spite  the  interruption  to  their  labors 
caused  by  the  War  of  the  Revolution, 
there  had  been  gathered  into  the  Method¬ 
ist  societies  in  this  country  some  15,000 
members,  under  the  ministry  of  84  itiner¬ 
ant  preachers.  They  were  without  the 
sacraments,  however,  as  there  were  no 
ordained  preachers  among  them.  Rev. 
John  Wesley,  who,  under  God,  had  been 
the  founder  of  these  societies  in  Europe 
and  America,  set  apart  Rev.  Thomas  Coke, 
LL.  D.,  a  presbyter  in  the  Church  of  Eng¬ 
land,  but  for  some  years  a  faithful  co-la¬ 
borer  in  the  Methodist  movement,  who, 
jointly  with  Rev.  Francis  Asbury,  was  to 
organize  the  different  societies  into  a  reg¬ 
ular  Church,  with  an  ordained  ministry  for 
the  administration  of  the  sacraments. 
Coke  and  Asbury  were  unanimously  chos¬ 
en  superintendents  or  bishops  by  the  Con¬ 
ference,  which  also  elected  a  number  of 
qualified  preachers  to  deacons’  and  elders’ 
orders.  Dr.  Coke,  having  been  ordained 
by  Mr.  Wesley,  ordained  Mr.  Asbury, 
and  they  jointly  ordained  the  deacons  and 
elders. 

For  the  next  sixty  years  Episcopal  Method¬ 
ism  remained  undivided;  but,  for  sufficient 
reasons,  the  General  Conference  of  1344 
authorized  a  division  into  two  General 
Conference  jurisdictions.  The  relations 
between  these  two  branches  of  Episcopal 
Methodism  were  fully  and  clearly  defined 
in  the  action  of  the  Cape  May  Commission 
in  their  Declaration  and  Basis  of  Frater¬ 
nity,  in  which  the  status  of  the  Methodist 
Episcopal  Church  and  of  the  Methodist 
Episcopat  Church,  South,  and  their  co¬ 
ordinate  relation  as  legitimate  branches  of 
Episcopal  Methodism  are  stated  as  follows: 
“  Each  of  said  Churches  is  a  legitimate 
branch  of  Episcopal  Methodism  in  the 
United  States,  having  a  common  origin  in 
the  Methodist  Episcopal  Church  organized 
in  1784;  and  since  the  organization  of  the 
Methodist  Episcopal  Church,  South,  was 


consummated  in  1845,  by  the  volunta¬ 
ry  exercise  of  the  right  of  the  Southern 
Annual  Conferences,  ministers,  and  mem¬ 
bers,  to  adhere  to  that  communion,  it  has 
been  an  Evangelical  Church,  reared  on 
scriptural  foundations,  and  her  ministers 
and  members,  with  those  of  the  Methodist 
Episcopal  Church,  have  constituted  one 
Methodist  family,  though  in  distinct  ec¬ 
clesiastical  connections.” 

The  doctrines  of  the  Methodist  Episco¬ 
pal  Church,  South,  are  substantially  those 
of  Evangelical  Arminianism,  as  held  by 
Methodists  everywhere.  In  1866  lay  del¬ 
egation  was  incorporated  into  its  polity, 
and  from  that  time  the  General  Conference 
has  been  composed  of  an  equal  number  of 
ministers  and  laymen.  Laymen  are  elected, 
also,  to  the  annual  conference,  each  dis¬ 
trict  being  entitled  to  four  lay  delegates, 
one  of  whom  may  be  a  local-preacher. 
Each  lay  delegate  must  be  at  least  twenty- 
five  years  of  age,  and,  for  the  six  years 
preceding  his  election,  a  member  of  the 
Church.  What  is  known  as  the  veto  power 
of  the  bishops  is  defined  as  follows:  “When 
any  rule  or  regulation  is  adopted  by  the 
General  Conference,  which,  in  the  opinion 
of  the  bishops,  is  unconstitutional,  the 
bishops  may  present  to  the  Conference 
which  passed  said  rule  or  regulation  their 
objections  thereto,  with  their  reasons,  in 
writing;  and  if  then  the  General  Confer¬ 
ence  shall,  by  a  two-thirds  vote,  adhere  to 
its  action  on  said  rule  or  regulation,  it 
shall  then  take  the  course  prescribed  for 
altering  a  restrictive  rule,  and,  if  thus  pass¬ 
ed  upon  affirmatively,  the  bishops  shall 
announce  that  such  rule  or  regulation  takes 
effect  from  that  time.”  The  Restrictive 
Rules  are  six  in  number,  and  are  known 
as  the  Constitution  of  the  Church,  defining 
as  they  do  the  limits  within  which  the  Gen¬ 
eral  Conference  may  legislate.  They  for¬ 
bid  the  General  Conference  to  make  any 
changes  in  the  doctrines  of  the  Church;  to 
allow  of  more  than  one  representative  for 
every  eighteen  members  of  an  Annual 
Conference,  or  a  less  number  than  one  for 
every  sixty;  to  destroy  the  plan  of  our 
itinerant  general  superintendency;  to  re¬ 
voke  or  change  the  General  Rules  of  the 
United  Societies;  to  do  away  the  privileges 
of  our  ministers  and  members  of  trial  by 
a  committee,  and  of  an  appeal;  to  appro¬ 
priate  the  produce  of  the  Publishing  House 
to  any  purpose  other  than  for  the  benefit 
of  the  traveling,  supernumerary,  superan¬ 
nuated,  and  worn-out  preachers,  their 
wives,  widows,  and  children.  These  Re¬ 
strictive  Rules  may  be  changed,  upon  the 
concurrent  recommendation  of  three- 
fourths  of  all  the  members  of  the  several 
Annual  Conferences,  who  may  be  present 


Met 


(  602  ) 


Met 


and  vote  on  such  recommendation,  the 
General  Conference,  by  a  two-thirds  vote 
making  the  recommended  change.  This 
does  not  apply,  however,  to  the  first  article 
respecting  changes  in  the  Articles  of  Re¬ 
ligion  or  Standards  of  Doctrine. 

This  is  the  second  largest  Methodist 
Church  in  the  world,  having-  a  member¬ 
ship — including  4,862  traveling  preachers 
— of  1,177,150.  It  has,  in  1890,  11,767 
churches,  worth  $16,878,575,  and  2,561 
parsonages,  worth  $2,876,575.  It  gives  in¬ 
struction  to  694,553  Sabbath-school  schol¬ 
ars,  under  the  care  of  88,842  teachers. 
Under  its  fostering  care  are  70  institutions 
of  learning,  including  14  colleges  and  uni¬ 
versities.  It  has  missions  in  China,  Japan, 
Mexico,  Brazil,  Cuba,  and  among  the  In¬ 
dians.  Its  greatest  missionary  work  for 
many  years  was  among  the  colored  pop¬ 
ulation  of  the  slave-holding  States,  where 
at  the  outbreak  of  the  war,  in  1861,  there 
was  a  colored  membership  of  207,766,  in 
whose  evangelization  the  Church  had 
spent  over  a  million  dollars  since  its  sep¬ 
arate  organization  in  1844.  The  Colored 
Methodist  Episcopal  Church  in  America 
was  organized  out  of  the  remnant  of  this 
membership  ;  and  their  two  institutions, 
Paine  and  Lane  Institutes,  are  under  the 
fostering  care  of  the  Methodist  Episcopal 
Church,  South,  whose  ministers  are  ap¬ 
pointed  to  preside  over  the  education  of 
the  colored  ministers  and  others  who  re¬ 
ceive  instruction  there. 

In  1889  there  was  contributed  for  home 
and  foreign  missions  $341,023;  for  Church 
Extension  $56,561 ,  and  for  superannuated 
preachers  and  the  widows  and  orphans  of 
deceased  preachers,  $132,952.  There  is  a 
publishing  house  located  at  Nashville 
which  does  a  large  business  in  the  manu¬ 
facture  and  sale  of  books.  This  is  also  the 
seat  of  the  Board  of  Missions,  the  publish¬ 
ing  committee,  the  S.  S.  Board,  and  the 
place  of  annual  meeting  of  the  College 
of  Bishops.  There  are  now  ten  living 
bishops:  John  C.  Keener,  New  Orleans, 
La.;  Alpheus  W.  Wilson,  Baltimore,  Md.; 
John  C.  Granbery,  St.  Louis,  Mo.;  Robert 
K.  Hargrove,  Nashville,  Tenn.;  William 
Wallace  Duncan,  Spartansburg,  S.  C.; 
Charles  B.  Galloway,  Jackson,  Miss.; 
Eugene  R.  Hendrix,  Kansas  City,  Mo.; 
and  Joseph  S.  Key,  Ft.  Worth,  Texas  (At- 
ticus  Haygood  and  O.  P.  Fitzgerald  elect¬ 
ed  1890). 

At  the  time  of  the  separation  of  the 
Methodist  Episcopal  Church  in  America, 
in  1844,  the  following  was  the  law  of  the 
Church  on  the  subject  of  Slavery:  (See 
Section  X.  of  the  Discipline.)  “  Question: 
What  shall  be  done  for  the  extirpation  of 
the  evil  of  slavery  ? 


“  Answer  1.  We  declare  that  we  are  as 
much  as  ever  convinced  of  the  great  evil 
of  slavery:  therefore  no  slave-holder  shall 
be  eligible  to  any  official  station  in  our 
Church  hereafter,  where  the  laws  of  the 
State  in  which  he  lives  will  admit  of  eman¬ 
cipation,  and  permit  the  liberated  slave  to 
enjoy  freedom. 

“  2.  When  any  traveling  preacher  be¬ 
comes  an  owner  of  a  slave  or  slaves,  by 
any  means,  he  shall  forfeit  his  ministerial 
character  in  our  Church,  unless  he  execute, 
if  it  be  practicable,  a  legal  emancipation  of 
such  slaves,  conformably  to  the  laws  of  the 
State  in  which  he  lives. 

“  3.  All  our  preachers  shall  prudently 
enforce  upon  our  members  the  necessity 
of  teaching  their  slaves  to  read  the  Word 
of  God;  and  to  allow  them  to  attend  upon 
the  public  worship  of  God  on  our  regular 
days  of  divine  service. 

“4.  Our  colored  preachers  and  official 
members  shall  have  all  the  privileges  which 
are  usual  to  others  in  the  district  and  quar¬ 
terly  conferences,  where  the  usages  of  the 
country  do  not  forbid  it.  And  the  presid¬ 
ing  elder  may  hold  for  them  a  separate 
district  conference  where  the  number  of 
colored  local-preachers  will  justify  it. 

“  5.  The  annual  conferences  may  em¬ 
ploy  colored  preachers  to  travel  and 
preach  where  their  services  are  judged 
necessary;  provided  that  no  one  shall  be 
so  employed  without  having  been  recom¬ 
mended  according  to  the  form  of  disci¬ 
pline.” 

This  law  had  been  faithfully  observed  by 
the  members  of  the  Methodist  Episcopal 
Church  living  in  the  slave-holding  States. 
Bishop  Andrew  having  become  connected 
with  slavery  by  his  marriage  to  a  widow 
owning  slaves,  he  made  over  all  his  right 
and  interest  in  them  to  his  wife,  as,  under 
the  laws  of  the  State  in  which  he  lived,  they 
could  not  be  emancipated.  A  resolution 
that  he  desist  from  the  exercise  of  his  office 
as  a  bishop  so  long  as  he  remained  con¬ 
nected  with  slavery  in  any  form  led  to  the 
adoption  of  a  Plan  of  Separation,  whereby 
the  Methodist  Episcopal  Church  in  Amer¬ 
ica  became  two  Methodist  Episcopal 
Churches,  which,  for  convenience,  were 
called  North  and  South,  according  to  their 
fields  of  operation.  It  was  intended  to 
make  two  General  Conferences  of  the 
Church,  and  Dr.  Capers  offered  a  resolu¬ 
tion  that  one  be  called  the  “  Southern  Gen¬ 
eral  Conference  of  the  Methodist  Episco¬ 
pal  Church  in  the  United  States”  and  the 
other  the  “  Northern  General  Conference 
of  the  Methodist  Episcopal  Church  in  the 
United  States.”  As  the  proposed  name 
was  somewhat  lengthy,  it  was  finally  short¬ 
ened  into  Methodist  Episcopal  Church, 


Met 


(  Oo3  ; 


Met 


South.  As  it  was  not  claimed  that  Bishop 
Andrew  had  violated  any  law,  and  as  no 
trial  was  proposed  or  had,  but  simply  a 
mandatory  resolution  suspending  him 
from  the  exercise  of  his  office  as  a  bishop, 
the  members  of  the  General  Conference 
from  the  Southern  conferences  deemed 
that  grave  differences  on  constitutional 
questions  rendered  separate  General  Con¬ 
ference  jurisdictions  desirable  and  neces¬ 
sary.  They  claimed  that  a  General  Con¬ 
ference  had  no  more  right  to  demand  that 
a  bishop  should  cease  to  exercise  the  rights 
and  functions  of  his  office,  without  form  of 
trial,  than  Congress  could  make  a  like 
demand  of  the  President  of  the  United 
States,  without  due  process  of  trial. 

The  Plan  of  Separation,  whereby  the  two 
branches  of  Episcopal  Methodism  were 
formed,  passed  the  General  Conference  of 
1844  by  a  vote  of  135  to  15.  Bishop  Joshua 
Soule,  the  senior  bishop  of  the  Methodist 
Episcopal  Church,  adhered  with  the  Meth¬ 
odist  Episcopal  Church,  South,  asdid  Bish¬ 
op  J.  O.  Andrew.  At  the  first  General  Con¬ 
ference  of  said  Church,  held  in  1846,  Will¬ 
iam  Capers  and  Robert  Paine  were  elected 
bishops.  In  1850,  H.  B.  Bascomb  was 
elected  to  the  same  office.  In  1854,  George 
F.  Pierce,  John  Early,  and  H.  H.  Kavan- 
augh  were  elected  bishops.  In  1S66,  D. 
S.  Doggett,  E.  M.  Marvin,  W.  M.  Wight- 
man,  and  H.  N.  McTyeire;  in  1870,  J.  C. 
Keener;  and  in  1882,  A.  W.  Wilson,  L. 
Parker,  J.  C.  Granbery  and  R.  K.  Har¬ 
grove  were  chosen  to  the  same  responsible 
office.  The  present  bishops  of  the  Church 
are  given  above. 

A  leading  characteristic  of  this  Church  is 
its  conservatism.  It  began  as  a  protest 
against  alliances  with  the  State,  and  its  pul¬ 
pits  have  been  marked  by  freedom  from 
political  discussions,  and  have  been  emi¬ 
nently  evangelical  and  successful. 

Literature. — Organization  of  the  Metho¬ 
dist  Episcopal  Church ,  South ,  by  A.  H. 
Redford,  D.  D.  (Published  by  the  South¬ 
ern  Methodist  Publishing  House,  Nash¬ 
ville,  Tenn.,  1871);  History  of  Methodism, 
by  Bishop  H.  N.  McTyeire;  (Published  by 
the  Southern  Methodist  Publishing  House, 
1884);  Refutation  of  Erroneous  Viezvs  in 
regard  to  the  Methodist  Episcopal  Church , 
South,  by  J.  E.  Godbey,  D.  D.  (Published 
by  Southwestern  Methodist  Publishing 
Co. .Kansas  City,  Mo.,  1890). 

E.  R.  Hendrix. 

Methodist  Protestant  Church,  The.  The 
Methodist  Protestant  Church  was  the  out¬ 
growth  of  the  discussion  of  lay-delegation 
in  the  Methodist  Episcopal  Church,  in  the 
early  part  of  this  century.  In  the  Gen¬ 
eral  Conference  of  the  Methodist  Episcopal 


Church  of  1824  numerous  petitions  were 
presented,  praying  for  a  representation  of 
laymen,  as  well  as  of  ministers,  in  the  law¬ 
making  body  of  the  Church.  No  practical 
results  were  obtained  from  these  petitions. 

The  question  had  been  earnestly  dis¬ 
cussed  for  several  years  prior  to  this  Gen¬ 
eral  Conference,  and  on  failing  to  gain  the 
attention  of  the  General  Conference,  the 
friends  of  the  movement  for  the  reform  of 
lay-delegation  in  that  church  called  a  con¬ 
vention  to  meet  in  Baltimore.  At  this 
convention  it  was  determined  to  publish  a 
pamphlet,  known  as  “  Mutual  Rights,” 
advocating  the  views  of  the  reformers.  It 
was  also  determined  to  form  a  Union  So¬ 
ciety,  to  be  composed  of  such  persons  as 
sympathized  with  the  movement,  for  the 
purpose  of  cooperation  in  the  furtherance 
of  their  common  cause. 

Subsequently,  conventions  were  held  in 
several  of  the  States,  for  the  purpose  of 
making  inquiry  into  the  propriety  of  pre¬ 
paring  one  united  petition  to  the  General 
Conference  of  1828,  praying  for  represen¬ 
tation.  These  conventions,  and  the  dis¬ 
cussion  ensuing,  called  forth  much  opposi¬ 
tion  from  the  church  authorities.  Church 
members  were  expelled  for  participating  in 
the  controversy,  among  these  being  eleven 
ministers,  in  Baltimore,  and  twenty-two 
laymen. 

These  expelled  ministers  and  members 
immediately  organized,  under  Wesley’s 
rules,  under  the  name  of  the  Associated 
Methodist  Reformers. 

In  November,  1827,  a  convention,  com¬ 
posed  of  ministerial  and  lay  representa¬ 
tives  elected  by  State  conventions  and 
Union  Societies,  met  in  Baltimore.  This 
convention  prepared  a  memorial  to  the 
General  Conference  of  1S28,  praying  that 
the  government  of  the  Church  might  be 
made  representative,  and  more  in  accord¬ 
ance  with  the  mutual  rights  of  ministers 
and  people.  This  memorial,  like  the 
former  petitions,  was  fruitless. 

Finding  that  there  was  no  hope  of  ob¬ 
taining  a  change  in  the  government  of  the 
Church,  the  reformers  called  a  convention 
to  meet  in  Baltimore,  Nov.  12,  1828.  At 
this  convention  articles  of  association  were 
adopted,  and  the  name  “  Associated  Meth¬ 
odist  Churches”  taken  as  a  title,  until  a 
permanent  organization  could  be  formed  at 
a  later  convention.  On  Nov.  2,  1830,  this 
convention  for  permanent  organization 
met,  and  the  new  organization  adopted  the 
name  of  “Methodist  Protestant  Church.” 
and  prepared  a  constitution  and  disci¬ 
pline. 

The  new  church  recognized  the  principle 
of  constituting  the  General  and  Annual 
Conferences  of  an  equal  number  of  minis- 


Met 


(  604  ) 


Met 


tersand  laymen,  and  a  representative  polity 
throughout  was  adopted. 

The  church  thus  organized  prospered 
fairly,  until  the  slavery  agitation  began  to 
divide  the  churches  of  the  land.  In  1858  a 
convention  of  nineteen  annual  conferences 
in  the  Northern  States  decided  to  separate 
themselves  from  the  churches  and  confer¬ 
ences  supporting  the  institution  of  slavery, 
until  the  cause  for  disagreement  should  be 
removed.  Soon  after,  the  Civil  War  broke 
out,  and  all  intercourse  between  the  north¬ 
ern  and  southern  portions  of  the  church 
was  broken  off.  The  northern  portion 
dropped  the  word  Protestant  from  its  name 
meanwhile,  and  was  known  simply  as  the 
“  Methodist  Church.” 

After  the  war,  negotiations  between  the 
separated  portions  of  the  church  took 
place,  and  on  May  11,  1877,  a  convention 
composed  of  representatives  from  both 
Northern  and  Southern  branches  met  in 
Baltimore,  Md.,  and  arrangements  were 
happily  perfected  for  the  reunion  of  the 
dissevered  portions  of  the  church. 

Since  then  the  church  has  steadily  gained 
ground.  It  has  at  present  a  membership 
■s  of  150,000.  Over  1,400  itinerant  ministers 
are  enrolled  in  its  work.  It  has  a  college 
in  Adrian,  Michigan,  with  property  valued 
at  $300,000.  Another  college  is  located  in 
Westminster,  Md.,  with  property  valued 
at  about  $150,000.  Several  seminaries  and 
academies  are  controlled  by  some  of  the 
annual  conferences. 

The  Methodist  Protestant  in  Baltimore, 
and  the  Methodist  Recorder  in  Pittsburg, 
Pa.,  are  the  chief  organs  of  the  church,  al¬ 
though  several  conference  and  independent 
papers  are  published  in  different  parts  of 
the  country. 

The  church  has  in  hand  a  prosperous 
mission  work  in  Japan.  Thirteen  mission¬ 
aries  in  that  country  are  at  present  sup¬ 
ported  by  the  Board  of  Foreign  Missions 
and  the  Woman’s  Board  of  Foreign  Mis¬ 
sions. 

A  Board  of  Home  Missions  is  organized 
to  carry  on  mission  work  in  this  country. 
A  Board  of  Ministerial  Education  has  been 
of  great  service  in  assisting  young  men 
studying  for  the  ministry. 

The  Methodist  Protestant  Church,  while 
aiming  to  preserve  the  traditions  and 
spiritual  fervor  of  Methodism,  also  en¬ 
deavors  to  conjoin  with  this  a  representa¬ 
tive  and  democratic  form  of  ecclesiastical 
government.  She  recognizes  that  the  ulti¬ 
mate  authority  in  all  matters  of  church 
government  is  inherent  in  the  ministers 
and  members  of  the  Church.  She  believes 
that  the  living  Church  which  God  has  es¬ 
tablished  in  the  hearts  of  his  children  re¬ 
quires  that  the  outward  visible  church 


should  provide  that  all  its  members  should 
have  a  voice  and  a  representation  in  its 
councils  and  legislation. 

D.  S.  Stephens. 

Wesleyan  Methodist  Connection  of 
America. — This  Church,  an  outgrowth  of 
the  anti-slavery  agitation,  was  organized 
at  a  convention  held  at  Utica,  N.  Y.,  May 
31,  1843.  It  is  Arminian  in  doctrine,  re¬ 
jects  the  episcopacy,  and  strongly  opposes 
all  secret  societies.  They  publish  two 
periodicals,  and  sustain  several  institutions 
of  learning. 

Free  Methodist  Church. — This  body 
was  organized  at  Pekin,  N.  Y. ,  Aug.  23, 
i860.  It  is  modeled  very  closely  in  its 
government  after  the  Wesleyans.  They 
lay  special  stress  upon  simplicity  in  dress 
and  demeanor.  They  sustain  two  educa¬ 
tional  institutions,  a  monthly  magazine, 
and  a  weekly  church  paper. 

Colored  Methodists  in  the  United 
States. — See  African  Methodist  Epis¬ 
copal  Church;  African  Methodist  Epis¬ 
copal  Zion  Church. 

Union  American  Methodist  Episcopal 
Church. — This  body  was  formed  in  1813, 
by  colored  members  who  seceded  from 
the  Methodist  Episcopal  Church.  Its  doc¬ 
trines  are  the  same  as  the  parent  Church, 
and  its  polity  is  similar. 

Colored  Methodist  Episcopal  Church 
in  America. — Before  the  Civil  War,  large 
numbers  of  the  colored  people,  not  being 
allowed  by  law  to  hold  meetings  among 
themselves,  united  with  the  M.  E.  Church, 
South.  After  their  emancipation,  many 
broke  away  from  this  connection,  and,  as 
the  result,  the  above-named  church  was 
organized  in  1874.  In  doctrine  and  disci¬ 
pline  they  follow  the  order  of  the  M.  E. 
Church,  South. 

Americo-German  Methodism  is  repre¬ 
sented  by  the  German  Conferences  con¬ 
nected  with  the  Methodist  Episcopal 
Church.  See  Evangelical  Association; 
United  Brethren  in  Christ. 

Canadian  Methodism. — (1)  Methodist 
Episcopal  Church  in  Canada. — Methodism 
was  introduced  into  Canada  as  early  as 
1788;  but  it  was  not  until  1S24  that  the 
Canada  Conference  was  organized  under 
the  authority  of  the  M.  E.  Church.  It 
holds  an  independent  position,  but  in  doc¬ 
trine  and  polity  is  like  the  parent  Church. 
(2)  Alethodist  Church  of  Canada.  —  This 
body  was  formed  in  1S74  by  a  union  of  the 
Wesleyan  Methodists,  the  New  Connection 
and  the  Wesleyan  Methodists  in  the  East¬ 
ern  Provinces.  In  doctrine  and  polity  they 
closely  resemble  the  British  Wesleyan 
Church,  and  are  the  largest  body  of  Meth¬ 
odists  in  British  America.  (3)  The  British 
Methodist  Episcopal  Church  is  composed  of 


Met 


(  605  ) 


Mey 


the  colored  Methodists  of  Canada.  It  was 
formerly  connected  with  the  African  M. 
E.  Church,  but  became  independent  in 
1864.  (4)  The  Primitive  Methodist  Connec¬ 

tion  has  two  conferences  in  the  United 
States  and  one  in  British  America.  The 
Bible  Christian  Church ,  a  Wesleyan  body, 
has  a  few  societies  in  the  Northern  States 
and  in  British  America.  There  are  a 
number  of  Independent  Methodist  churches 
in  different  localities  that  are  essentially 
Congregational  in  polity. 

Metho'dius,  the  famous  missionary  to  the 
Slavs.  See  Cyrillus  and  Methodius. 

Metropolitan  denoted  the  bishop  of  the 
municipal  capital  of  a  province.  In  rank 
he  took  the  precedency  of  the  other  bish¬ 
ops,  acted  at  their  consecration,  and  called 
together  councils.  In  the  Anglican  Church 
there  are,  in  England,  two  metropolitans, 
the  archbishops  of  Canterbury  and  York. 

Mexico  is  a  federal  republic  with  a  pop¬ 
ulation  of  over  10,000,000,  one-sixth  of 
which  is  of  pure  European,  three-sixths 
Indian,  and  two-sixths  of  mixed  blood. 
The  original  inhabitants  were  the  Toltecs, 
who  came  from  the  north  in  the  seventh 
century,  and*were  followed  by  the  Aztecs 
in  the  thirteenth  century.  The  Aztecs 
practiced  the  most  revolting  rites  in  their 
worship,  and  offered  human  sacrifices. 
After  the  conquest  of  the  country  by  Cor¬ 
tez  (1 519-21)  the  Roman  Catholic  religion 
was  forced  upon  the  people,  and  in  its  dom¬ 
inance  gained  great  wealth  for  the  Church, 
and  developed  a  religious  superstition  of 
the  darkest  kind,  that  brought  forth  only 
the  fruits  of  moral  degeneracy  and  igno¬ 
rance.  It  was  not  until  1857  and  1859,  when 
President  Juarez  ordered  the  abolition  of 
the  convents  and  the  sequestration  of  the 
property  of  the  Church,  that  religious  tol¬ 
eration  was  granted.  The  first  Protestant 
mission  school  was  opened  by  Miss  Rankin 
at  Brownsville,  and  afterward  (1866)  at 
Monterey.  A  dozen  schools  were  founded 
by  her  efforts,  with  native  teachers,  which 
were  finally  cared  for  by  the  American  and 
Foreign  Christian  Union.  In  1865  a  Roman 
Catholic  priest,  Francis  Aguilar,  started  a 
reform  movement  in  the  Mexican  Church, 
which  was  named  the  “  Church  of  Jesus.” 
Aguilar,  in  1867,  opened  a  hall  for  public 
worship  in  San  Jose  de  Real.  After  his 
death  the  Church  sought  aid  from  the  Prot¬ 
estant  Episcopal  Church  of  the  United 
States.  This  help  has  been  given  since 
1878,  and  Rev.  Henry  C.  Riley,  who  had 
labored  since  1869  under  commission  of 
the  American  and  Foreign  Christian  Union, 
was  appointed  bishop.  Meanwhile  mission 


work  was  undertaken  by  other  denomina¬ 
tions.  The  following  are  the  churches  at 
work  in  the  Republic,  with  the  date  of  com¬ 
mencement,  and  the  names  of  the  States  in 
which  they  are  respectively  laboring: 

(1)  American  Baptist  Home  Missionary 
Society,  1863.  In  six  States,  viz.:  Coa- 
huila,  Nuevo  Leon,  Tamaulipas,  San  Luis 
Potosi,  Aguas  Calientes,  and  Mexico. 

(2)  Episcopal  Missions,  1869.  In  four 
States:  Mexico,  Morelos,  Guerrero,  and 
Hidalgo. 

(3)  Friends’  Mexican  Mission,  1S71.  In 
two*  States:  Tamaulipas,  and  San  Luis 
Potosi. 

(4)  Presbyterian  Board  of  Foreign  Mis¬ 
sions,  1872.  In  twelve  States:  Nuevo 
Leon,  Coahuila,  San  Luis  Potosi,  Durango, 
Zacatecas,  Hidalgo,  Mexico,  Michoacan, 
Guerrero,  Vera  Cruz,  Tabasco,  and  Yuca¬ 
tan. 

(5)  Methodist  Episcopal,  1873.  In  seven 
States:  Guanajuato,  Queretaro,  Hidalgo, 
Mexico,  Puebla,  Oaxaca,  and  Vera  Cruz. 

(6)  Methodist  Episcopal  (South),  1873. 
In  seventeen  States:  Nuevo  Leon,  Chihua¬ 
hua,  Sonora,  Sinaloa,  Durango,  Jalisco, 
Coahuila,  Tamaulipas,  San  Luis  Potosi, 
Guanajuato,  Aguas  Calientes,  Michoacan, 
Mexico,  Hidalgo,  Puebla,  Morelos,  and 
Vera  Cruz. 

(7)  Presbyterian  (South),  1874.  In  two 
States:  Tamaulipas,  and  Nuevo  Leon. 

(8)  Associate  Reformed  Presbyterian, 
1880.  In  two  States:  Tamaulipas,  and  Vera 
Cruz. 

(9)  A.  B.  C.  F.  M.,  1882.  In  three 
States:  Chihuahua,  Sonora,  and  Jalisco. 

(10)  Southern  Baptists,  1884.  In  five 
States:  Nuevo  Leon,  Coahuila,  Tamauli¬ 
pas,  Zacatecas,  and  Aguas  Calientes. 

( 1 1 )  Cumberland  Presbyterian,  1S86.  In 
two  States:  Aguas  Calientes,  and  Guana¬ 
juato. 

It  will  thus  be  seen  that  only  three  States 
remain  without  a  missionary  representa¬ 
tive,  viz.:  Colima,  Chiapas,  and  Campeche. 
The  Baptist  Church  has  recently  sent  one 
of  its  number  to  the  latter  State  with  a  view 
of  establishing  work  there.  At  the  present 
time  (1890)  there  are  510  workers  in  this 
interesting  field.  Of  this  number  55  are 
ordained  missionaries  from  abroad,  and  94 
ordained  native  ministers.  The  number  of 
congregations  are  393,  with  14,523  com¬ 
municants,  and  89  church  buildings. 

Meyer  {mi’ er),  Heinrich  August  Wil¬ 
helm,  a  distinguished  commentator  on  the 
New  Testament;  b.  at  Gotha,  Jan.  10,  1800; 
d.  in  Hanover,  June  21,  1873.  From  1821  to 
1848  he  was  engaged  in  pastoral  duties,  but 
at  the  same  time  prosecuted  his  labors  as 
an  exegete.  In  1848  he  retired  to  Han- 


Mic 


(  606  ) 


Mid 


over,  and  for  the  most  part  devoted  the  rest 
of  his  life  to  the  writing  and  revising  of 
his  commentaries.  Acute  in  criticism,  la¬ 
borious  in  research,  and  evangelical  in 
sentiment,  his  work  has  received  wide  rec¬ 
ognition,  not  only  in  Germany  but  in  this 
country  and  Great  Britain. 

Micah.  “  The  author  of  this  book  was 
a  native  of  Moresheth,  a  small  town  in  the 
southwest  of  Judaea,  near  Gath,  and  a  con¬ 
temporary  of  Isaiah,  Hosea,  and  Amos, 
being  probably  the  youngest  of  the  group. 
His  name  is  a  contracted  form  of  Micaiah, 
which  means,  ‘  Who  is  like  Jehovah  ?’  and 
it  appears,  according  to  the  fashion  of  the 
times  (see  Isaiah),  to  have  been  given  to 
him  or  adopted  by  him  as  a  sign  to  the  peo¬ 
ple  of  Israel.  His  prophecies  are  in  the 
same  vein  as  those  of  Isaiah,  and  both  nu¬ 
merous  and  close  are  the  coincidences 
which  have  been  traced  between  them.  A 
greater  sternness  of  temper  is  at  first  sight 
apparent,  and  a  greater  severity  of  tone 
pervades  his  prophecies,  but  from  time  to 
time  a  deep  tenderness  of  heart  reveals  it¬ 
self  (chap.  i.  10),  and  his  pleading  is  as 
urgent  as  any  wherewith  an  inspired  mes¬ 
senger  of  heaven  has  sought  to  reconcile 
the  sinner  to  God  (chap.  vi.  8).  Chap.  vii. 
S-20  is  referred  to  as  ‘  one  of  the  sweetest 
passages  of  prophetic  writing.’  Micah’s 
style  is  clear,  vivid,  concise,  and  poetic. 
His  prophecies  predict  the  destruction  of 
the  northern  kingdom  and  its  capital,  Sa¬ 
maria  (chap.  i.  6-8),  the  destruction  of  Jeru¬ 
salem  (chaps,  iii.  12;  vii.  13),  the  Captiv¬ 
ity  (chap.  iv.  10),  the  Return  (chaps,  iv. 
1-8;  vii.  n),  the  establishment  of  the  the¬ 
ocracy  in  Zion  (chap.  iv.  8),  and  the  ruler 
to  come  out  of  Bethlehem  (chap.  v.  2). 

“  Divisions  of  the  Book. — It  has  been  di¬ 
vided  into  three  sections — ( a )  chaps,  i.-iii. ; 
(b)  chaps,  iv.  and  v. ;  and  (e)  chaps,  vi.  and 
vii. 

“  Contents.  — (tf)  Chap.  i.  contains  a 
threatening  of  judgment  on  Samaria  and 
Jerusalem, and  the  prophet’s  lament  over  it. 
Chap.  ii.  refers  the  cause,  while  it  de¬ 
scribes  the  punishment,  to  the  sins  of  the 
princes  and  rulers.  Chap.  iii.  describes 
the  cruel  conduct  of  these  men,  foretells 
the  fate  of  the  false  prophets,  and  refers 
again  to  the  national  sin  and  judgment. 

“  (b)  Chap.  iv.  predicts  the  return  of 
prosperity  to  Zion.  Chap.  v.  predicts  the 
birth  and  rule  of  the  Messiah,  with  the  ab¬ 
olition  of  war  and  idolatry. 

“  (r)  Chaps,  vi.  and  vii.  state  the  case  be¬ 
tween  the  Lord  and  his  people.” — Bagster: 
Bible  Helps. 

Michael  (who  is  like  God?')  “appears  in 
the  Old  Testament  as  a  man’s  name,  sy¬ 


nonymous  with  Micaiah  or  Micah.  In 
the  book  of  Daniel  the  same  name  is 
given  to  one  of  the  chief  ‘  princes  ’  of  the 
heavenly  host,  the  guardian  angel  or 
‘  prince  ’  of  Israel  (Dan.  x.  13,  21;  xii.  1), 
and  as  such  he  naturally  appears  in  Jewish 
theosophy  as  the  greatest  of  all  angels, 
the  first  of  the  four  who  surround  the 
throne  of  God.  (See  Gabriel.)  It  is  as 
guardian  angel  of  Israel,  or  of  the  Church, 
the  true  Israel,  that  Michael  appears  in 
Jude  9  and  Rev.  xii.  7.  In  the  Western 
Church  the  festival  of  St.  Michael  and  all 
angels  (Michaelmas)  is  celebrated  on  Sept. 
29.  It  appears  to  have  grown  out  of  a  local 
celebration  of  the  dedication  of  a  church  of 
St.  Michael,  either  at  Mount  Garganus  in 
Apulia  or  at  Rome,  and  was  a  great  day  by 
the  beginning  of  the  ninth  century.” — Ency. 
Britannica. 

Michaelmas.  This  festival,  held  on 
Sept.  29,  is  celebrated  not  only  in  the  Ro¬ 
man  Catholic  Church,  but  also  in  the 
Greek  and  some  other  Protestant  churches, 
in  honor  of  the  Archangel  Michael.  The 
festival  is  a  special  commemoration  of  the 
benefits  received  from  the  ministry  of  an¬ 
gels.  There  is  a  tradition  that  the  festival 
was  instituted  by  Alexander,  bishop  of 
Alexandria.  • 

Middle  Ages,  “  the  designation  applied 
to  the  great  historic  period  between  the 
times  of  classic  antiquity  and  modern  times. 
The  beginning  and  close  of  this  period  are 
not  very  definite.  It  is  usual,  however,  to 
regard  the  Middle  Ages  as  beginning  with 
the  overthrow  of  the  Western  Roman  Em¬ 
pire  in  the  year  476;  and  there  is  a  pretty 
general  concurrence  in  fixing  on  the  Ref¬ 
ormation  as  the  great  event  which  brought 
this  period  to  a  close.  It  began  with  the 
rise  of  the  Frankish  upon  the  ruins  of  the 
ancient  Roman  Empire,  and  with  the  com¬ 
mencement  of  civilization  among  the  bar¬ 
barous  tribes  which  had  taken  possession 
of  the  former  Roman  provinces.  In  course 
of  it  the  different  nations  of  modern  Europe 
were  formed,  and  their  political  and  social 
systems  developed.  It  was  a  period  of 
much  superstition,  in  connection  with 
which  much  religious  enthusiasm  very  ex¬ 
tensively  prevailed,  manifested  in  many 
great  religious  endowments,  in  magnificent 
ecclesiastical  buildings,  in  pilgrimages, and, 
above  all,  in  the  crusades.  In  the  earlier 
parts  of  this  period  the  Church  was  much 
occupied  in  the  extension  of  its  bounds  in 
the  North  of  Europe,  where  heathenism 
still  subsisted,  and  the  means  employed 
were  not  always  consistent  with  the  spirit 
of  Christianity.  During  the  Middle  Ages 
the  hierarchy  acquired  enormous  power 


Mid 


(  607  ) 


Mig 


and  wealth,  and  the  papacy  rose  from  com¬ 
paratively  small  beginnings  to  its  utmost 
greatness.  During  the  Middle  Ages  chiv¬ 
alry  had  its  rise  and  decline,  modifying 
and  in  many  respects  tending  to  refine  the 
feelings  and  usages  of  society.  Towards 
the  close  of  the  Middle  Ages  the  revival  of 
letters,  the  increase  of  knowledge,  and  the 
formation  of  a  wealthy  and  influential  class 
in  society,  distinct  alike  from  the  aristoc¬ 
racy  and  the  peasantry,  tended,  even  before 
the  Reformation,  both  to  the  diminution  of 
the  power  of  the  hierarchy  and  the  decay 
of  the  feudal  system.  See  Guizot’s  His- 
toire  de  la  Civilisation;  Riihs’s  Handbuch 
der  Geschichte  des  Mittelalters ;  and  Hal- 
lam’s  History  of  the  Middle  Ages.” — Cham¬ 
bers:  Cyclopaedia . 

Middleton,  Conyers,  D.  D.,  famous  as  a 
controversalist,  and  the  author  of  a  Life  of 
Cicero;  b.  at  York,  Dec.  27,  1683;  d.  at 
Hildersham,  July  28,  1750.  A  graduate 
of  Cambridge,  he  became  a  fellow  of  Trin¬ 
ity  in  1716.  In  the  following  year  he  be¬ 
came  involved  in  controversies  with  Bent¬ 
ley,  then  master  of  Trinity,  and  made  such 
a  caustic  attack  upon  some  published  spec¬ 
imens  of  an  edition  of  the  New  Testa¬ 
ment,  projected  by  Bentley,  that  he  gave 
up  the  work.  He  had  a  passion  for  con¬ 
troversy,  which  involved  him  in  many 
conflicts  of  opinion.  In  1749  he  pub¬ 
lished  Introductory  Discourse ,  etc. ,  to  the 
Free  Inquiry  into  the  Miraculous  Powers 
which  are  Supposed  to  have  Subsisted  in  the 
Christian  Church ,  from  the  Earliest  Ages 
through  Several  Successive  Centuries.  This 
work  denied  the  continuance  of  miraculous 
power  in  the  Church  after  the  time  of  the 
apostles.  A  complete  edition  of  his  works, 
with  the  exception  of  his  Life  of  Cicero , 
was  published  in  London,  1755,  4  vols. 
Middleton’s  great  work  was  his  Life  of 
Cicero  (best  edition,  London,  1848). 

Midian  {strife),  the  territory  extending 
from  the  Elanitic  Gulf  to  Moab  and  Mount 
Sinai,  or,  according  to  others,  from  the 
Sinaitic  peninsula  to  the  desert  and  the 
banks  of  the  Euphrates.  The  people  car¬ 
ried  on  trade  with  Egypt,  Palestine  and 
Lebanon.  Moses  lived  among  the  Midian- 
ites.  (Ex.  ii.  15-21;  Num.  x.  29.)  In  the 
desert  they  were  on  intimate  terms  with 
the  Israelites,  but,  having  infected  them 
with  their  sins  of  idolatry  and  uncleanness, 
they  were  destroyed.  (Num.  xxv.;xxxi.) 
The  Midianites  afterward  became  a  strong 
nationand  oppressed  the  Hebrews,  but  were 
miraculously  defeated  by  Gideon.  (Judg. 
vi.-viii.)  The  Midianites  gradually  were 
absorbed  among  the  Moabites  and  Ara¬ 
bians.  Many  ancient  ruins  have  been  dis¬ 


covered  in  the  region  east  of  Edom  and 
Moab.  Some  portions  of  the  country  are 
very  fertile,  and  the  modern  Arabs  in  these 
sections  bear  a  resemblance  in  character 
and  habits  to  what  is  known  of  the  ancient 
Midianites.  “  Curtains  of  Midian  ”  (Hab. 
iii.  7)  is  a  figurative  expression  denoting 
the  borders  of  Midian. 

Midrash.  “  The  term  ‘  Midrash  ’  de¬ 
notes,  in  the  abstract  and  general  sense, 
‘  the  study,’  ‘  the  exposition  of  Holy 
Writ.’  After  the  return  from  Babylon, 
the  law  was  the  centre  of  the  spiritual  life 
in  Israel;  and  its  study  became  the  object 
of  scientific  treatment  when  the  temple, 
the  Jewish  sanctuary,  was  destroyed.  The 
‘  law  of  Moses  ’  had  not  only  to  be  adapt¬ 
ed  to  the  altered  circumstances  of  life,  but 
had  also  to  be  supplemented  by  more 
precisely  determining  that  which  was  un¬ 
determined,  in  order  to  meet  all  individual 
relations  and  circumstances  of  life.  This 
investigation  and  explanation  of  Scripture 
was  termed  Midrash ,  and  was  divided  into 
the  Halachic  (‘  exegesis  ’),  i.  e.,  embracing 
law  and  practice,  or  doctrine  in  its  whole  ex¬ 
tent,  and  Hagadic,  i.  e.,  embracing  all  other 
scientific  products,  all  the  afflux  of  free 
meditation,  whether  its  subject  -  matter 
might  be  historical  or  legendary,  ethical, 
parabolic  or  speculative. 

“  The  writing  down  of  the  Midrash,  i.  e. , 
of  a  Halachoth  and  Hagadoth,  commenced 
with  the  second  century  of  our  era,  and 
ended  in  the  eleventh  century;  since  that 
time  history,  religious  philosophy,  gram¬ 
matical  exegesis,  and  Cabala  became  the 
objects  of  study.  A  large  portion  of  the 
Midrashim  consists  of  homiletical  lectures 
introduced  by  a  text  not  contained  in  the 
Pentateuch.  This  was  called  p'ticha ,  or 
proem.  The  most  simple  form  of  the 
proem  is  the  quotation  of  a  verse,  the  re¬ 
lation  of  which  to  the  section  of  the  Penta¬ 
teuch,  or  rather  its  application  to  the  sub¬ 
ject,  was  left  to  the  reader  or  hearer  to  be 
found  out.  Sometimes  more  than  one  text 
was  introduced,  and  the  exposition  was 
given  in  such  a  manner  that  the  last  ex¬ 
position,  or  its  close,  served  as  a  connect¬ 
ing  link  between  the  introduction  and  the 
subject  under  discussion.” — H.  L.  Struck. 
For  full  literature  of  the  subject  see  his 
art.  in  Schaff-Herzog:  Ency.,  vol.  ii.,  pp. 
1505-1507. 

Migne,  Jacques  Paul,  a  famous  Roman 
Catholic  author  and  publisher;  b.  at  St. 
Flour,  Cantal,  France,  Oct.  25,  1800;  d.  in 
Paris,  Oct.  25,  1875.  Educated  at  the 
theological  seminary  in  Orleans,  he  was 
ordained  priest,  1824,  and  became  curate  at 
Puiseaux,  in  the  diocese  of  Orleans.  The 


Mil 


(  608  ) 


Mil 


publication  of  his  Liberty  of  the  Priests  in¬ 
volved  him  in  controversy  with  his  bishop, 
and  in  1833  he  came  to  Paris  and  started 
IL  Univers,  which  he  sold  in  1836,  and 
then  at  Petit  Montrouge,  near  Paris,  laid 
the  foundations  of  the  great  printing-house, 
which  he  named  Imprimerie  Catholique.  A 
large  number  of  the  works  of  the  Greek 
and  Latin  Fathers  and  other  theological 
works  issued  from  its  presses.  Not  only 
did  Migne  carry  on  printing  in  his  estab¬ 
lishment,  but  the  building  of  organs,  statu¬ 
ary,  pictures,  and  other  things  used  in 
churches.  This  great  work  -  shop  was 
burned  down  in  1868,  but  was  speedily  re¬ 
built.  Previous  to  this  the  archbishop  for¬ 
bade  Migne  to  continue  his  business,  but  he 
refused,  and  was  suspended. 

Milburn,  William  Henry,  Methodist 
Episcopal;  b.  in  Philadelphia,  Pa.,  Sept. 
26,  1823.  By  an  accident  in  youth  he  lost 
the  sight  of  one  eye,  and  the  other  became 
blind  in  early  manhood.  He  studied  in 
Illinois  College,  and  in  1843  entered  the 
ministry  of  the  Methodist  Church.  In 
1845,  when  a  little  over  twenty-two  years 
of  age,  he  was  elected  chaplain  of  the 
29th  Congress.  From  1845  he  was  again 
in  the  pastorate  until  1853,  when  he  return¬ 
ed  to  Washington  as  chaplain  of  the 
33d  Congress.  For  many  years  he  has 
devoted  himself  chiefly  to  lecturing.  In 
188^  he  served  for  the  third  time  as  chap¬ 
lain  of  Congress,  and  was  again  elected  in 
1887.  He  is  the  author  of:  Rifle ,  Axe ,  and 
Saddle  Bags:  Symbols  of  Western  Character 
and  Civilization  (New  York,  1856);  Ten 
Years  of  Preacher- Life:  Chapters  from  an 
Autobiography  (1858);  The  Pioneers ,  Preach¬ 
ers ,  and  People  of  the  Mississippi  Valley 
(i860). 

Mildmay  Conferences,  a  name  given  to 
various  missionary  and  religious  conven¬ 
tions  held  at  the  Conference  Hall  in  Mild¬ 
may  Park,  London.  The  present  hall  was 
erected  in  1870,  and  seats  2,500  people. 
It  is  the  centre  of  evangelistic  work  in  that 
section  of  the  city,  and  has  in  charge  a 
large  number  of  philanthropic  organiza¬ 
tions. 

Mile'tus,  a  city  of  Ionia,  on  the  coast  of 
Asia  Minor,  thirty-six  miles  south  of  Ephe¬ 
sus.  In  500  B.  C.  it  was  the  largest  and 
most  prosperous  Greek  City  in  Asia.  It 
was  the  native  place  of  Thales  and  other 
distinguished  men.  After  its  capture  by 
Alexander  the  Great,  b.  c.  334,  it  never  re¬ 
gained  its  former  position.  A  few  ruins 
still  mark  its  site.  It  was  at  Miletus  that 
Paul  stopped  on  his  return  to  Jerusalem 
from  his  third  missionary  tour,  and  met 


the  elders  from  Ephesus.  (Acts  xx.  15-38.) 

.  The  fact  that  Paul  left  Trophimus  here  at 
another  time,  on  account  of  his  sickness 
(2  Tim.  iv.  20),  is  supposed  by  many  to 
indicate  a  later  visit,  after  his  first  imprison¬ 
ment  at  Rome.  See  Howson:  Idfe  of  St. 
Paul ,  chap,  xxvii. 

Military  Orders.  The  origin  of  these 
associations  may  be  traced  to  the  necessi¬ 
ties  of  the  Christian  pilgrims  to  the  Holy 
Land,  who  often  reached  Jerusalem  utterly 
destitute  and  broken  in  health,  and  who 
were  tended  in  the  hospitals  by  the  monks, 
who  were  compelled  in  self-defence  to  as¬ 
sume  the  joint  character  of  soldier  and 
monk.  Many  of  these  orders  have  now 
fallen  into  disuse,  but  some  of  them  still 
exist  in  the  form  of  orders  of  knighthood. 
There  were  once  from  ninety  to  one  hun¬ 
dred.  We  give  a  few  particulars  of  the 
more  important: 

I.  Knights  Hospitallers. — This  order 
owed  its  foundation  to  some  merchants  of 
Amalfi,  who  obtained  leave  from  the  Ca¬ 
liph  of  Egypt  to  build  a  church  at  Jerusa¬ 
lem.  They  founded  a  monastery  of  the 
Benedictine  Order,  to  receive  and  entertain 
Christian  pilgrims,  and  a  convent  of  nuns 
dedicated  to  Mary  Magdalene,  to  receive 
the  women  who  should  visit  the  Holy  Sep¬ 
ulchre.  The  hospital  was  built  in  1080. 
and  the  administration  of  it  was  committed 
to  the  Abbot  Gerard,  who,  after  Godfrey 
of  Bouillon  had  taken  the  city  in  1099, 
founded  the  Order  of  St.  John  of  Jerusa¬ 
lem,  and  became  its  first  Grand  Master. 
He  instituted  a  rule  and  religious  habit 
for  the  knights,  who,  at  their  reception, 
vowed  chastity,  obedience,  and  self-abne¬ 
gation,  and  promised  always  to  assist  the 
Christians.  Gerard  died  in  1118,  and  was 
succeeded  by  Raymond  Du  Puy,  who  es¬ 
tablished  a  yet  more  severe  rule,  which 
was  confirmed  by  Pope  Calixtus  II.  in 
1120.  Numerous  hospitals,  called  Com- 
manderies,  were  established  at  seaside 
towns,  whence  pilgrims  were  assisted  on 
their  way  to  the  Holy  Land.  The  Order 
had  become  military  in  1104,  and  many 
rich  men  enrolled  themselves,  and  they 
were  styled  “  knights.”  When  Jerusalem 
was  conquered  by  Saladin  in  1187,  the 
knights,  with  their  Grand  Master  Daps, 
retired  to  Margatt,  in  Phoenicia,  and  thence 
to  Acre,  which  they  valiantly  defended  in 
1290.  Then  they  went  to  Cyprus,  where 
they  stayed  till  1310,  and  in  that  year,  un¬ 
der  the  Grand  Master,  Foulques  de  Villa- 
ret,  they  took  Rhodes,  and  next  year  de¬ 
fended  it  against  the  Saracens,  for  which 
reason  their  successors  have  used  these 
four  letters  for  a  device:  F.  E.  R.  T. ,  i.  e. , 
Fortitudo  ejus  Rhodian  tenuit.  In  1522  this 


Mil 


(  609  ) 


Mil 


island  was  attacked  by  Solyman  the  Mag¬ 
nificent,  and  the  Grand  Master,  Villiers  de 
I’lle  d’Adam,  was  forced  to  capitulate; 
they  then  retired  to  Candia,  thence  to  Sic¬ 
ily,  where  Pope  Adrian  VI.  granted  them 
the  city  of  Viterbo.  In  1530  the  Emperor 
Charles  V.  gave  them  the  island  of  Malta, 
which  he  had  conquered  from  Tunis,  on 
condition  that  they  should  defend  his 
kingdom  of  Sicily  from  the  Turks.  In  1565 
Solyman  besieged  Malta  for  four  months, 
but  it  was  gallantly  defended  by  the  Grand 
Master,  John  de  Valette  Parisot.  They 
then  remained  undisturbed  till  1798,  when, 
by  means  of  bribery  to  some  French 
knights,  and  the  cowardice  of  the  Grand 
Master,  Ferdinand  d’Hompesch,  the  isl¬ 
and  was  surrendered  to  Napoleon.  The 
order  was  then  suppressed  in  many  of 
the  European  States,  and  the  office  of 
Grand  Master  has  never  since  been  fill¬ 
ed  up  ;  a  Deputy  Grand  Master  has, 
however,  been  appointed,  who  lives  in 
Spain,  but  the  knights  are  now  very  few 
in  number.  The  order  was  divided  into 
three  classes — (1)  Knights,  who  must  all 
be  of  noble  birth;  (2)  Chaplains;  (3)  Serv¬ 
ing  brothers,  who  were  not  noble.  The 
knights  were  divided  into  eight  different 
languages,  or  nations — (1)  That  of  Pro¬ 
vence,  from  which  the  Grand  Commander 
was  always  chosen;  (2)  Auvergne,  whose 
chief  was  Marshal  of  the  order;  (3)  France, 
whose  chief  was  Grand  Hospitaller;  (4) 
Italy,  whose  chief  was  High  Admiral;  (5) 
Aragon,  whose  chief  was  Grand  Conserva¬ 
tor;  (6)  Germany,  whose  chief  was  Grand 
Bailiff;  (7)  Castile,  whose  chief  was  Grand 
Chancellor;  and  (8)  England,  whose  chief 
was  General  of  Infantry.  Every  language 
had  several  Grand  Priories,  and  every 
Grand  Priory  a  certain  number  of  Com- 
manderies.  Amongst  the  knights  the 
Grand  Crosses  were  those  who  had  a  right 
to  be  candidates  for  the  dignity  of  Grand 
Master,  who  was  the  sovereign  of  the  isl¬ 
and,  and  to  whom  all  knights  owed  obedi¬ 
ence.  There  were  also  Dormes  or  Demi- 
Crosses,  who  were  allowed  to  marry,  and 
wore  a  golden  cross  of  three  branches.  In 
times  of  peace  the  knights  wore  a  black 
habit  with  a  white  cross  of  the  well-known 
shape  called  the  Maltese  cross,  having 
eight  points.  When  fighting,  the  dress 
was  red  with  a  great  white  cross  before 
and  behind. 

II.  The  Knights  Templars  began  at  Jeru¬ 
salem  about  1118.  Hugh  de  Payens  and 
Geoffrey  of  St.  Omer,  with  seven  others, 
whose  names  are  not  known,  devoted 
themselves  to  God’s  service  as  Canons  Reg¬ 
ular,  and  made  their  religious  vows  to  the 
patriarch  of  Jerusalem.  Baldwin  II.  gave 
them  a  house  near  the  site  of  the  temple, 


whence  their  name  of  Templars,  or  Knights 
of  the  Temple,  or  Poor  Soldiers  of  the 
Temple  of  Solomon.  The  king  and  nobles 
gave  them  estates,  some  for  a  set  term  of 
years,  others  for  ever;  the  object  of  the 
institution  being  to  defend  pilgrims  from 
the  cruelty  of  the  infidels,  and  to  keep  the 
passes  free  for  such  as  undertook  the  jour¬ 
ney  to  the  Holy  Land.  Until  1128,  the 
nine  knights  added  none  to  their  number, 
but  after  the  Council  of  Troyes  aspirants 
for  knighthood  joined  the  order  in  great 
numbers.  At  that  council,  Honorius  II. 
confirmed  the  rules  of  their  order,  amongst 
the  rest,  that  their  dress  should  be  white; 
in  1146  Eugenius  III.  added  a  cross  to  be 
set  on  their  cloaks.  Like  other  orders 
they  were  divided  into  three  classes — (1) 
The  Knights  proper;  (2)  the  Esquires;  (3) 
Rich  men  who,  without  actually  becoming 
knights,  aided  with  gifts  of  money,  and 
obtained  protection  in  case  of  need.  As 
their  numbers  increased,  they  were  or¬ 
ganized  into  Provinces,  each  containing 
so  many  Commanderies  and  Preceptories. 
A  spirit  of  rivalry  existed  between  them 
and  the  Knights  Hospitallers.  After  the 
conquest  of  Jerusalem  by  the  Saracens, 
they  spread  all  over  Europe,  and  were  a 
very  wealthy  society.  Matthew  Paris  says 
they  had  9,000  houses  or  convents,  and  20,- 
000  knights.  Their  stations  in  the  East  were 
Jerusalem,  Antioch,  Tripoli  and  Cyprus, 
and  almost  every  country  in  the  West  had 
one  of  their  Provinces.  In  each  country 
they  had  their  Governor,  who  was  called 
Master  of  the  Temple,  or  of  the  Militia  of 
the  Temple.  One  of  their  Masters  fell  at 
the  siege  of  Acre  (1291),  and  they  then  re¬ 
tired  to  Cyprus.  Their  work  of  fighting 
against  the  infidels  was  now  done,  and  they 
took  up  no  definite  enterprise.  In  Spain 
and  Portugal  they  remained  popular  for  a 
time  because  of  the  assistance  they  gave 
against  the  Moors;  but  in  France,  where 
was  their  chief  settlement,  their  immense 
wealth  excited  the  cupidity  of  the  French 
king.  All  sorts  of  dreadful  charges  were 
brought  against  them,  many  of  them  ab¬ 
surd  and  incredible,  and  in  1307  they  were 
seized  by  secret  orders  of  Philip  le  Bel  and 
thrown  into  prison.  Confessions  were  ex¬ 
torted  from  some  of  them  by  torture,  which 
they  afterward  retracted.  In  these  pro¬ 
ceedings  Philip  was  aided  by  Pope  Clement 
V. ,  who  owed  his  office  to  the  French 
king.  Philip,  impatient  at  the  pope’s 
leniency,  submitted  the  case  to  the  officers 
of  the  Inquisition;  but  the  pope  suspend¬ 
ed  these  proceedings,  and  ordered  that  the 
knights  should  be  tried  by  a  commission 
of  cardinals  appointed  by  him.  Two  or 
three  years  passed  in  disputes  as  to  how 
the  Templars  should  be  dealt  with,  and  at 


Mil 


(  610  ) 


Mil 


last,  in  1310,  Philip  called  a  council  at 
Paris,  headed  by  the  archbishop  of  Sens, 
and  under  this  council  the  proceedings  of 
the  Inquisition  were  resumed.  Many 
knights  died  either  of  torture  or  long  cap¬ 
tivity,  and  many  were  burnt,  among  them 
the  Grand  Master,  Jacques  du  Molay;  this 
was  in  1313.  The  year  before  (1312),  the 
whole  order  had  been  abolished  at  the 
General  Council  of  Vienne,  and  their  prop¬ 
erty  was  given  to  the  Knights  of  St.  John 
of  Malta,  who  also  received  from  Edward 
II.  of  England,  in  1323,  a  like  grant  of  their 
English  possessions.  The  Templars, 
though  suppressed  in  other  countries,  were 
nowhere  else  ill-treated  as  in  France.  The 
seal  of  the  Templars  represented  two 
knights  riding  on  one  horse,  as  an  emblem 
of  their  poverty;  their  war-cry  was  “  Beau 
se'ant”  and  their  banner  bore  the  same 
name,  and  the  motto,  “  Non  nobis ,  D online , 
non  nobis ,  sed  Tuo  Nomini  da  gloriam." 
Traces  of  the  Knights  Templars  are  still 
to  be  found  in  England — in  the  Temple 
Church,  London,  where  are  cross-legged 
figures  of  several  of  the  knights;  in  the 
Round  Churches  at  Northampton,  Cam¬ 
bridge,  and  Maplestead;  and  in  the  names 
of  several  villages,  Temple  Brewer,  Lin¬ 
colnshire;  Temple  Newsom,  Yorkshire; 
Temple  Cowley,  near  Oxford;  places  in 
which  they  possessed  property,  and  had 
small  Preceptories  of  their  order. 

III.  Teutonic  Knights,  or  Knights  of 
St.  Mary,  instituted  after  the  siege  of 
Acre  in  1192  with  the  sanction  of  Henry  of 
Jerusalem,  Frederick  of  Suabia,  and  the 
Emperor  Henry  VI.  in  favor  of  the  Ger¬ 
man  nation,  who  had  suffered  greatly  in 
that  siege.  The  statutes  of  the  order  were 
formed  on  the  model  of  those  of  the  Hos¬ 
pitallers  and  Templars.  The  knights  were 
to  be  exclusively  Teutonic  or  German,  to 
be  well  born,  to  vow  the  defence  of  the 
Christian  Church  and  Holy  Land,  and  to 
give  entertainment  to  the  pilgrims  of  their 
own  nation,  and  they  were  to  be  called 
Knights  of  St.  Mary,  or  of  Our  Lady  of 
Mount  Zion.  Pope  Celestine  III.  ordered 
that  they  should  be  clad  in  white,  and  wear 
a  black  cross,  in  the  form  of  that  of  St. 
John  of  Jerusalem,  on  their  habits,  stand¬ 
ards,  and  arms,  and  live  according  to  St. 
Augustine’s  rule.  At  first  the  Teutonic 
Knights  were  all  laymen,  but  soon  they 
had  priests,  and  in  1221  a  class  of  half- 
brothers,  or  serving-brothers,  was  added. 
Their  first  station  was  Acre.  After  the 
fall  of  Jerusalem  they  removed  to  Venice, 
thence  to  Marburg  in  Hesse,  and  in  1309 
to  Marienburg  on  the  Vistula.  In  1252 
they  had  been  joined  by  the  Order  of 
Christ,  or  Brethren  of  the  Sword,  who 
possessed  Livonia,  and  for  a  long  time  the 


knights  carried  on  a  cruel  war  against  the 
heathen  nations  on  the  shores  of  the  Bal¬ 
tic,  which  resulted  in  the  conquest  of 
Prussia  and  other  territories,  and  raised 
the  order  to  the  rank  of  a  sovereign 
Power.  (See  Chaucer’s  Prologue,  “  The 
Knight.”)  Their  power  began  to  decline 
in  the  fifteenth  century,  when  Sigismund 
of  Poland  snatched  West  Prussia  from 
them.  In  1510  the  knights  chose  his 
nephew,  Albert  of  Brandenburg,  for  their 
Grand  Master;  this  prince,  embracing 
Luther’s  doctrines,  treated  with  Sigismund 
to  make  him  absolute  master  of  Prussia, 
on  condition  of  his  doing  homage  for  it  to 
the  Crown  of  Poland.  He  then  drove  the 
knights  from  the  country,  and  they  retireu 
to  Mergentheim  in  Suabia.  The  order 
was  formally  abolished  by  Napoleon  in 
1809. 

In  Spain  there  were  three  military 
orders: — 

(1)  The  Knights  of  Calatrava,  founded 
by  a  Cistercian  monk  named  Velasquez,  in 
1158,  to  defend  Calatrava  from  the  Moors, 
were  sanctioned  by  Pope  Alexander  III.  in 
1164.  At  first  they  were  victorious;  but 
in  1197  the  Moors  took  Calatrava,  and  the 
knights  went  to  Salvatierra  and  took  that 
name  till  they  were  able  to  return  to  their 
former  city  in  1212.  The  order  soon  be¬ 
came  rich,  and  this  caused  so  manv  dis- 
sensions  as  to  patronage  that  in  1489  Pope 
Innocent  VIII.  annexed  the  Grand  Master¬ 
ship  to  the  Crown  of  Spain.  In  this  cen¬ 
tury  the  order  was  suppressed,  with  other 
monastic  institutions  in  Spain,  and  the  title 
is  now  only  an  honorary  distinction. 

(2)  Knights  of  St.  James  of  Compos- 
tella. — The  relics  of  St.  James  the  Apostle 
are  said  to  have  been  buried  at  Compos- 
tella  in  Gallicia,  which  occasioned  an  ex¬ 
traordinary  concourse  of  pilgrims  to  flock 
thither.  In  1161  thirteen  Spanish  nobles 
founded  an  order  of  knighthood  to  protect 
those  pilgrims  from  the  Moors;  the  order 
was  confirmed  in  1175  by  Pope  Celestine 
III.  They  outstripped  in  wealth  and  pow¬ 
er  the  other  Spanish  orders,  and  gained 
vast  territories.  This  wealth  was  with 
them,  as  with  other  orders,  the  primary 
cause  of  their  decline.  In  1522  the  Grand 
Mastership  was  transferred  to  papal  au¬ 
thority.  The  order  was  not  finally  dis¬ 
solved  till  1835. 

(3)  Knights  of  Alcantara. — This  or¬ 
der  was  founded  about  the  same  time  as  that 
of  Compostella,  for  the  defence  of  Estre- 
madura  from  the  Moors.  It  adopted  the 
rule  of  St.  Benedict,  and  was  confirmed  in 
1197  by  Pope  Celestine  III.  It  was  after¬ 
ward  joined  to  the  Order  of  Calatrava,  but 
in  the  fourteenth  century  the  knights  quar¬ 
reled  over  the  election  of  a  Grant!  Master, 


Mil 


(  6n  ) 


Mil 


which  resulted  in  open  war  and  ultimate 
separation.  In  1495  it,  with  Calatrava  and 
Compostella,  was  placed  under  the  author¬ 
ity  of  the  Spanish  Crown.  The  order  was 
abolished  in  this  century,  but  revived  in 
1874  by  the  late  king  of  Spain. 

Among  French  military  orders  we  may 
mention  the  Ultramarine,  or  Beyond-sea 
Order,  founded  -  by  St.  Louis  in  1269,  to 
encourage  his  nobles  to  undertake  the  ex¬ 
pedition  tothe  Holy  Land;  the  Knights  oe 
St.  Lazarus,  to  whom  Louis  VII.  gave 
lands  near  Orleans,  and  who  were  united 
to  the  Knights  of  Malta  by  Pope  Innocent 
VIII.,  but  reestablished  by  Henry  IV.  in 
1608 — known,  also,  as  the  Order  of  Our 
Lady  of  Mount  Carmel  ;  the  Knights  of 
St.  Louis,  established  by  Louis  XIV.  in 
1093 — a  strictly  military  order;  the 
Knights  of  Notre  Dame  de  Lis,  insti¬ 
tuted  against  the  Moors  by  Garcia  IV., 
King  of  Navarre,  in  1408.  Then  there  was 
the  Order  of  the  Golden  Fleece,  insti¬ 
tuted  in  1429  by  Philip  the  Good,  Duke  of 
Burgundy,  in  defence  of  the  Catholic  faith; 
the  military  Order  of  St.  Dominic,  estab¬ 
lished  against  the  Albigenses;  the  Knights 
of  Jesus  Christ,  instituted  about  1318  by 
Denys,  King  of  Portugal,  against  the 
Moors. 

In  England,  we  have  the  Order  of  the 
Bath,  spoken  of  by  writers  in  the  thir¬ 
teenth  century,  as  of  ancient  custom;  the 
Order  of  the  Garter,  founded  by  Ed¬ 
ward  III.  in  1347;  in  Scotland,  the  Order 
of  the  Thistle,  instituted  by  James  V.  in 
1534. — Benham:  Diet,  of  Religion. 

Mill,  John,  b.  at  Shap,  Westmoreland, 
about  1645 ;  d.  at  Blechingdon,  Oxfordshire, 
June  23,  1707.  A  graduate  of  Oxford,  he 
became  fellow  at  Queen’s  College,  Nov., 
1669;  chaplain  to  Charles  II.,  and  rec¬ 
tor  of  Blechingdon,  1681;  principal  of  St. 
Edmund’s  Hall,  May,  1685.  His  fame 
rests  upon  his  critical  edition  of  the  Greek 
Testament.  It  was  the  fruit  of  thirty 
years  of  labor,  and  contains  thirty  thou¬ 
sand  various  readings.  The  work  appear¬ 
ed  only  two  weeks  before  his  death. 

Mill,  John  Stuart,  an  English  philos¬ 
opher;  b.  in  London,  May  20,  1S06;  d.  at 
Avignon,  May  9,  1873.  He  was  the  son  of 
an  acute  thinker,  who  educated  him  not 
only  in  ordinary  subjects  of  study,  but  in 
politics  and  all  the  foremost  controversies 
of  the  day.  In  this  way  he  imbibed  the 
philosophy  founded  solely  upon  utility  and 
experience  from  his  very  cradle.  In  1820 
he  went  to  France  fora  year,  part  of  which 
he  spent  in  the  south,  at  the  house  of  Sir 
Samuel  Bentham,  the  brother  of  Jeremy 
Rentham,  and  the  rest  of  the  time  at  Paris, 


where  he  lived  with  Jean  Baptiste  Say,  the 
French  economist,  and  made  the  acquaint¬ 
ance  of  many  leading  politicians.  On  his 
return  to  England  he  brought  backastrong 
interest  in  Liberalism  and  Democracy,  and 
had  laid  the  foundation  of  his  Utilitarian¬ 
ism.  With  a  view  to  promoting  the  spread 
of  this  principle,  he  and  his  friends  started 
the  Utilitarian  Debating  Society,  and  they 
also  began  the  publication  of  the  West¬ 
minster  Review.  In  1823  he  entered  the 
India  House  as  Examiner  of  Indian  Corre¬ 
spondence,  and  he  continued  to  hold  this 
post  till  1856,  when  he  was  promoted  to  , 
the  head  of  the  department.  He  retired 
on  a  pension  in  1858,  and  from  that  time 
devoted  himself  to  authorship.  His  works 
are  powerful,  and  likely  to  last.  His  work 
on  Logic  is  the  best  in  the  English  lan¬ 
guage,  though  his  treatise  on  Liberty  is 
more  popular.  His  examination  of  Sir 
William  Hamilton’s  philosophy  was  re¬ 
markably  acute,  and  is  considered  by  many 
most  damaging  to  that  writer.  His  posi¬ 
tion  with  respect  to  religion  it  is  impossible 
to  fix  definitely.  In  some  of  his  writings, 
even  to  the  last,  we  find  absolute  negation 
and  rejection  of  Christianity.  But,  on  the 
other  hand,  there  is  a  plaintive  confession 
that  he  has  not  found  the  peace  and  rest 
for  which  he  yearned,  and  a  regret  that  his 
education  was  what  it  was.  Deep  earnest¬ 
ness,  strong  conscientiousness,  intense  de¬ 
sire  to  find  truth,  and  to  lead  others  to  it, 
all  these  are  to  be  found  in  his  writings. 
He  rejects  Christianity,  yet  looks  longing¬ 
ly  upon  it;  and  in  one  of  his  Essays  on  Re¬ 
ligion  goes  so  far  as  to  say  that  to  the 
“  rational  ”  skeptic  it  must  ever  present  it¬ 
self  as  a  “  possibility  ”  that  Christ  may 
have  had  a  unique  and  special  “commis¬ 
sion  from  God.”  Many  a  firm  believer  in 
Christian  doctrine,  reading  Mill’s  essays, 
has  expressed  the  conviction  that,  darken¬ 
ed  as  his  intellectual  conceptions  were  on 
the  most  important  of  all  subjects,  these 
essays  are  the  work  of  one  who  was  not  far 
from  the  kingdom  of  God.  —  Benham: 
Diet,  of  Religion. 

Middledoler,  Philip,  D.  D.,  a  prominent 
minister  in  the  Reformed  Church;  b.  at 
Rhinebeck,  N.  Y.,  Sept.  22,  1775;  d.  on 
Staten  Island,  Sept.  23,  1851.  He  was  grad¬ 
uated  at  Columbia  College  (1793),  and 
from  1795  to  1825  held  important  pastor¬ 
ates  in  New  York  City  and  Philadelphia. 
He  was  president  of  Rutgers  College,  New 
Brunswick,  N.  J.,  1825-41;  and  one  of  the 
founders  of  the  American  Bible  Society, 
1816. 

Millenarianism,  Millennium.  Millena- 
rians  maintain  substantially  the  following 


(  <*I2  ) 


Mil 


iv'i  .J 


views:  “  Christ’s  personal  advent  precedes 
the  millennium;  (2)  the  resurrection  of 
saints  occurs  at  this  advent;  (3)  the  saints 
are  to  reign  with  him, while  mankind  is  still 
in  the  body,  subject  to  disease  and  death; 
(4)  this  dispensation  is  to  continue  one  thou¬ 
sand  years,  in  which  Jews  and  Gentiles  are 
to  be  converted.  The  doctrine  involves 
these  positions:  («)  The  millennium  is  not 
an  expansion  of  the  present,  but  a  new  dis¬ 
pensation.  (/>)  It  is  not  to  be  introduced 
by  present  agencies;  all  will  wax  worse 
and  worse;  the  gospel  will  not  convert  the 
world,  (e)  The  Son  of  God  will  have  a  vis¬ 
ible  reign  and  majesty  in  the  world.  Christ 
and  his  saints  will  dwell  in  a  new  Jerusa¬ 
lem,  of  which  Rev.  xxi.  gives  the  descrip¬ 
tion,  over  and  on  the  earthly  Jerusalem; 
the  temple  will  be  rebuilt,  the  Jews  re¬ 
stored,  the  centre  of  worship  will  be  at 
Jerusalem,  (tf)  There  are  two  resurrec¬ 
tions,  one,  of  the  holy  dead,  at  the  begin¬ 
ning — another,  of  the  wicked  dead,  at  the 
close  of  the  millennium.  ( e )  There  will  be 
no  general  Judgment;  the  Judgment  is  in 
two  parts,  one  before,  and  one  after,  the 
millennium.  (f)  Then  the  world  is  to  be 
refitted  and  forever  inhabited.  (Rev.  xx.)” 
— Dr.  H.  B.  Smith:  Christiati  Theology, 
p.  608. 

Three  periods  are  distinguished  in  the 
history  of  millenarianism:  (1)  In  the  tribu¬ 
lations  and  persecutions  from  which  the 
early  Christians  suffered  the  doctrine  of 
the  millennium  took  strong  root,  especially 
among  the  Jewish  Christians.  In  the 
midst  of  present  afflictions  they  found  com¬ 
fort  in  the  thought  of  a  speedy  reward. 
The  doctrine  was  finally  superseded  by 
that  of  St.  Augustine,  who  taught  that  the 
Church  was  the  Kingdom  of  God  on  earth. 

(2)  The  second  period  begins  with  the 
Reformation.  Many  of  the  Reformers 
shared  in  a  very  general  faith  that  the  mil¬ 
lennium  was  not  far  distant.  Fanaticism 
broke  forth  in  the  wild  excesses  of  certain 
Anabaptists,  who, at  the  point  of  the  sword, 
made  preparations  to  establish  the  new 
Zion  at  Munster  (1534).  The  Augsburg 
and  Helvetic  Confessions  condemned  these 
fanatical  views,  and  later  theologians  gen¬ 
erally  held  that  the  thousand  years  were 
past.  Millenarianism  again  became  preva¬ 
lent  in  the  seventeenth  century,  especially 
among  those  who  had  suffered  in  the  relig¬ 
ious  wars  in  Germany  and  the  persecu¬ 
tions  of  the  Huguenots  and  Puritans  in 
England. 

(3)  The  third  period  dates  from  the  mid¬ 
dle  of  the  eighteenth  century.  The  great 
commentator,  Bengel,  did  much  to  call  at¬ 
tention  to  the  subject  in  his  commentary 
on  Revelation  and  his  Sermons  for  the 
People.  In  England  the  Irvingites  (</.  v. ) 


declared  the  speedy  coming  of  Christ. 
The  doctrine  found  fanatical  expression 
among  the  Mormons,  who  established  Zion 
at  Salt  Lake  City,  and  the  Adventists 
( q .  v. ).  In  recent  years  millenarian  theories 
have  been  advocated  by  Rothe,  Hoffman, 
Delitzsch,  Volck,  and  other  eminent  schol¬ 
ars.  No  satisfactory  work  on  the  subject 
has  yet  appeared. 

Millenary  Petition,  a  petition  presented 
by  nearly  a  thousand  (whence  its  name) 
Puritan  ministers  to  James  I.,  in  April, 
1603.  It  prayed  for  the  “  reformation  of 
certain  ceremonies  and  abuses  of  the 
Church.”  The  petition  resulted  in  the 
Hampton  Court  Conference. 

Millennium.  See  Millenarianism. 

Miller,  Hugh,  an  eminent  Scotch  geol¬ 
ogist  and  the  first  editor  of  the  Free  Church 
newspaper,  The  Witness,  was  b.  at  Crom¬ 
arty,  Scotland,  Oct.  10,  1802;  d.  by  his  own 
hand,  in  a  fit  of  insanity,  at  Portobello, 
near  Edinburgh,  Dec.  26,  1856.  His  geo¬ 
logical  works,  Vestiges  of  the  Natural  His¬ 
tory  of  Creation  (1844);  Footprints  of  the  Cre¬ 
ator  (1849),  and  The  Old  Red  Sandstone ,  did 
much  to  popularize  the  science  and  defend 
revelation,  although,  at  the  time,  they  were 
criticised  severely  for  advancing  views  that 
are  now  generally  accepted. 

Miller,  Samuel,  D.  D.,  b.  near  Dover, 
Del.,  Oct.  31,  1769;  d.  at  Princeton,  N.  J. , 
Jan.  7,  1850.  He  was  graduated  at  the  Uni¬ 
versity  of  Pennsylvania,  in  1789,  and  after 
finishing  a  course  of  theological  study,  he 
became  associate  pastor  of  the  First  Presby¬ 
terian  Church,  New  York  City,  1793-1S13. 
He  was  the  first  professor  of  church  history 
and  government  in  the  theological  seminary 
at  Princeton  from  1813  till  his  death.  He 
was  prominent  in  the  discussions  that  led 
to  the  disruption  of  the  Presbyterian 
Church,  in  1837.  He  was  a  wise  and  ef¬ 
ficient  teacher,  beloved  for  his  social  qual¬ 
ities,  and  respected  for  his  ability  as  a 
scholar  and  preacher.  He  published  a 
number  of  works.  See  his  Life ,  by  his  son, 
Samuel  Miller  (Philadelphia,  1869),  2  vols. 

Miller,  William,  b.  in  Pittsfield,  Mass., 
Feb.  15,  1782;  d.  at  Low  Hampton,  N.  Y., 
Dec.  20,  1849.  A  farmer  by  occupation, 
and  having  very  limited  educational  ad¬ 
vantages,  he  became  deeply  interested  in 
the  study  of  the  prophecies,  and  in  1S33 
began  to  lecture  on  the  second  coming  of 
Christ,  and  predicted  the  destruction  of  the 
world  in  1843.  He  made  many  converts  to 
his  views  in  the  United  States,  Canada, 
and  Great  Britain.  They  were  called  Mil- 


Mil 


(  613  ) 


Mil 


lerites.  The  repeated  failure  of  his  pre¬ 
dictions  weakened  the  faith  of  his  follow¬ 
ers,  but  they  regarded  him  as  a  man  of 
great  intellectual  ability,  and  a  devoted 
Christian.  See  his  Life ,  by  White  (Battle 
Creek,  Mich.,  1875). 

Millerites.  See  Adventists. 

Mills,  Samuel  John,  one  of  the  first  in 
the  United  States  to  enter  the  work  of 
foreign  missions;  b.  at  Torringford,  Conn., 
April  21,  1783;  d.  at  sea,  off  the  coast  of 
Africa,  June  16,  1818.  While  a  student  at 
Williams  College  he  became  deeply  inter¬ 
ested  in  the  work  of  sending  the  gospel  to 
heathen  lands,  and  after  entering  Andover 
Seminary  in  1810,  with  his  fellow-students, 
Judson,  Nott  and  Newell,  he  joined  in  an 
address  to  the  general  Association  of  Mas¬ 
sachusetts  presenting  the  claims  of  this 
work.  Between  1812  and  1817  he  pros¬ 
ecuted  an  extensive  col  portage  work  in  the 
South  and  West.  In  1817  the  Colonization 
Society,  which  had  been  recently  organized, 
sent  him  with  the  Rev.  Mr.  Burgess  as 
their  agents  to  explore  Sierra  Leone  and 
Western  Africa.  He  died  on  the  return 
voyage.  See  Memoirs  of  the  Rev.  Samuel 
f.  Mills ,  by  Gardiner  Spring  (N.  Y.,  1820). 

Milman,  Henry  Hart,  D.  D.,  “  an  Eng¬ 
lish  poet  and  ecclesiastical  historian,  was 
the  youngest  son  of  Sir  Francis  Milman, 
physician  to  George  III.,  and  was  b.  in 
London,  Feb.  10,  1791.  He  was  educated 
at  Eton,  and  afterward  at  Brasenose  Col¬ 
lege,  Oxford,  where  he  took  the  degree  of 
M.  A.,  obtained  the  Newdegate  prize  in 
1S12;  published  Fazio ,  a  Tragedy  (which 
was  successfully  brought  upon  the  stage 
at  Covent  Garden)  in  1815,  took  orders 
in  1817,  and  shortly  after  was  appointed 
vicar  of  St.  Mary’s,  Reading.  In  the  fol¬ 
lowing  year  appeared  his  Savior ,  Lord  of 
the  Bright  City :  An  Heroic  Poem ,  which  was 
followed  in  1820  by  the  Fall  of  Jerusalem , 
a  beautiful  dramatic  poem,  with  some  fine 
sacred  lyrics  interspersed.  In  1821  Mil- 
man  was  chosen  professor  of  poetry  at  Ox¬ 
ford,  and  published  three  other  poems  in 
the  course  of  the  sanve  year — The  Martyr 
of  Antioch,  Belshazzar ,  Anne  Bolcyn.  His 
Sermons  as  Bampton  Lecturer  appeared 
in  1827,  and  his  History  of  the  Jews  (3  vols. ) 
in  1829.  The  last  of  these  works  did  not 
bear  the  author’s  name;  it  was  written  in 
so  liberal  and  tolerant  a  spirit  that  ec¬ 
clesiastics  of  the  stricter  sort  could  hardly 
fail  to  be  offended.  Its  weak  point  was  a 
want  of  adequate  learning,  especially  in  the 
department  of  biblical  criticism.  A  new 
edition,  greatly  improved  and  more  criti¬ 
cal,  yet  still  far  from  being  very  accurate, 


or  built  on  solid  foundations,  with  an  in¬ 
teresting  preface,  was  published  in  1863. 
In  1840  appeared  a  collected  edition  of  his 
Poetical  Works ,  containing  some  other 
pieces  besides  those  already  mentioned. 
The  same  year  witnessed  the  publication 
of  his  History  of  Christianity  from  the 
Birth  of  Christ  to  the  Abolition  of  Paganism 
in  the  Roman  Empire  (3  vols.).  In  1849  he 
was  made  dean  of  St.  Paul’s;  and  in  1854 
published  his  masterpiece,  History  of  Latin 
Christianity .  including  that  of  the  Popes ,  to 
the  Pontificate  of  Nicholas  V.  (3  vols.).  It 
is  a  work  of  great  learning,  liberality,  and 
chastened  eloquence;  it  displays  a  broad 
grasp  of  human  nature  in  its  religious 
workings;  besides  a  philosophic  and  poet¬ 
ical  sympathy  with  the  different  men  and 
opinions  which  it  reviews.  The  work 
secured  for  its  author  a  position  in  the 
first  rank  of  English  historians.  Milman 
edited  Gibbon,  and  contributed  extensively 
to  the  Quarterly  Review.  He  died  in  1868. 
A  posthumous  work  contains  his  Essays  on 
St.  Paul ,  Savonarola ,  Erasmus ,  etc.” — 
Chambers:  Cylcopcedia. 

Milner,  the  name  of  two  distinguished 
brothers  and  church  historians.  Isaac  was 
b.  at  Leeds,  Jan.  11,  1751;  d.  in  London, 
April  1,  1820.  Joseph  was  b.  in  Leeds 
Jan.  2,  1744;  d.  in  Hull,  Nov.  15,  1797. 
They  were  among  the  founders  and  leaders 
of  the  Evangelical  school.  The  work  upon 
which  their  fame  rests  is  the  History  of  the 
Church  of  Christ  of  which  Joseph  wrote  the 
first  three  volumes,  and  Isaac  the  last  two. 
Before  the  great  work  of  Neander  appear¬ 
ed,  this  history  had  a  wide  circulation,  but 
it  is  now  obsolete. 

Milnor,  James,  D.  D. ;  b.  in  Philadelphia, 
June  20,  1773;  d.  in  New  York  City,  April 
8,  1844.  He  was  admitted  to  the  bar  in 
1794,  and  was  a  member  of  the  House  of 
Representatives  in  1810.  He  entered  the 
ministry  of  the  Protestant  Episcopal 
Church  in  1814,  and  from  1816  till  his  death 
was  rector  of  St.  George’s,  New  York. 
He  was  an  earnest  and  eloquent  preacher, 
and  a  leader  of  the  Low-Church  party.  See 
Memoirs  of  the  Life  of  James  Milnor ,  by  J. 
S.  Stone  (New  York,  1855). 

Milton,  John,  the  greatest  of  English 
sacred  poets,  was  b.  in  London,  Dec.  9, 
1608;  d.  in  London,  Nov.  8,  1674.  He  was 
educated  at  Christ’s  College,  Cambridge, 
and  then  resided  for  a  time  at  Horton,  in 
Buckinghamshire,  where  he  wrote  his 
Minor  Poems.  In  1638  he  traveled  in  Italy, 
and  the  following  year  returned  to  London, 
where  he  became  involved  in  the  contro¬ 
versy  between  the  Episcopalians  and  Pres- 


Min 


(  614  ) 


Mir 


byterians,  taking  the  side  of  the  Presbyte¬ 
rians.  This  was  the  period  of  his  great 
prose  works:  On  Church  Government ;  On 
Divorce ;  Areopagitica:  A  Speech  for  the 
Liberty  of  Unlicensed  Printing,  etc.  Blind¬ 
ness  and  poverty  fell  to  his  lot,  but  in  the 
midst  of  these  trials  he  bore  himself  with 
courage.  In  1665  he  finished  his  Paradise 
Lost ,  and  in  1671  appeared  his  Samson 
Agonist es  and  the  Paradise  Regained.  The 
best  English  life  is  by  Masson  (1859-80, 
new  ed.,  1881,  London). 

Minister,  Ministry.  See  Clergy. 

Ministerium,  that  body  in  the  Lutheran 
Church  which  examines,  licenses,  and  or¬ 
dains  candidates  for  the  ministry,  conducts 
trials  for  clerical  heresy,  and  also  of  lay 
heresy  when  there  is  an  appeal  from  a 
church  council.  Only  ordained  ministers 
can  belong  to  this  body. 

Minor  Canons,  priests  in  collegiate 
churches,  next  in  rank  to  the  canons  and 
prebendaries,  but  not  of  the  chapter,  who 
are  responsible  for  the  performance  of  the 
daily  service.  Their  stipend  is  fixed  by 
law  at  not  less  than  £ 150 ,  and  the  office 
may  be  held  by  a  vicar,  if  his  benefice  is 
within  six  miles  of  the  cathedral. 

Minor  Prophets,  The,  are  twelve  in 
number:  viz.,  Hosea,  Joel,  Amos,  Obadiah, 
Jonah,  Micah,  Nahum,  Habbakuk,  Zepha- 
niah,  Haggai,  Zechariah,  and  Malachi. 
They  are  called  “Minor  Prophets”  simply 
because  of  their  brevity,  and  to  distinguish 
them  from  the  four  longer  books  of  proph¬ 
ecy  (Isaiah,  Jeremiah,  Ezekiel,  and  Dan¬ 
iel).  In  the  Hebrew  canon  they  constitute 
only  one  book.  For  full  literature  see 
Charles  Elliott,  D.  D.  (in  Lange):  Intro¬ 
duction  to  the  Minor  Prophets. 

Minorites,  a  name  of  the  Franciscan 
order  derived  from  the  original  later  de¬ 
nomination  adopted  by  their  founder, 
Fratres  Minores.  See  Franciscans. 

Minucius  Felix  was  a  Christian  apologist 
of  the  end  of  the  second  or  beginning  of 
the  third  century.  He  was  the  author  of 
a  work  entitled  Octavius.  In  the  form  of  a 
dialogue  between  a  heathen  and  Christian, 
it  refutes  the  objections  to  Christianity 
that  were  then  urged  by  educated  pagans. 
A  translation  maybe  found  in  vol  ii.  of  the 
Writings  of  Cyprian ,  in  the  Ante-Nicene 
Library  (Edinburgh,  1873). 

Miracles.  Miracles  are  mentioned  in 
Scripture  under  four  names:  “  Wonders, 
signs,  powers,  and  works.”  As  “  won¬ 


ders,”  their  immediate  physical  effect  on 
the  spectator  is  emphasized;  as  “  signs,” 
their  moral  and  spiritual  purpose  is  im¬ 
plied,  lurking  under  their  phenomenal  as¬ 
pect;  as  “  powers,”  they  hint  at  some  hid¬ 
den  cause  that  produces  them;  while  as 
“  works,”  their  general  practical  character 
is  regarded,  as  the  acts  of  a  distinct  person, 
in  attestation  of  his  mission  and  his  mes¬ 
sage. 

Still  the  question  remains,  What  is  a 
miracle?  It  may  be  replied  that  a  miracle 
is  not  a  violation  of  the  ordinary  laws  of 
nature,  but  a  special  interference  of  super¬ 
natural  or  superhuman  power  for  a  definite 
moral  purpose.  It  is  the  extraordinary  in¬ 
terposition  of  the  Great  Law-giver  himself, 
modifying  for  the  time  the  regular  action 
of  his  own  ordinary  laws.  Even  so  the 
human  will  is  a  potent  factor  in  the  physi¬ 
cal  world,  as  when  a  man  raises  his  hand, 
or  throws  up  a  ball  into  the  air,  in  spite  of 
the  law  of  gravitation.  It  is  God’s  will 
making  itself  seen  and  felt  in  the  ordinary 
course  of  nature.  A  miracle  then,  is  a 
possible  event,  because  it  does  not  of  itself 
deny  the  existence  of  the  regular  order  of 
nature.  An  exceptional  phenomenon,  like 
a  miracle,  simply  reveals  God  in  another 
way  than  that  in  which  nature  reveals  him. 
An  occasional  departure  does  not  over¬ 
throw  the  harmony  of  the  cosmos,  but,  on 
the  contrary,  implies  it.  There  could  be 
no  exception,  unless  there  were  also  a  gen¬ 
eral  law. 

Modern  science,  which  has  fathomed 
more  deeply  the  unbroken  reign  of  law  in 
the  physical  order  of  creation,  denies  the 
possibility  of  a  miracle.  The  real  question 
is,  Is  there  a  God,  or  is  there  not?  If 
there  is,  a  miracle  is  possible.  Once  admit 
the  idea  of  One  Almighty  God,  and  a  mir¬ 
acle  becomes  an  imaginable  event.  And  if 
there  is  thus  room  for  one  miracle,  there 
is  room  for  many. 

But  can  a  miracle  be  proved?  Hume 
denied  that  it  could.  Our  belief,  according 
to  his  view,  is  the  result  of  experience,  and 
ordinary  experience  knows  nothing  of  mir¬ 
acles.  He  urges  further  that  the  human 
testimony  advanced  in  their  support  is 
solitary,  exceptional,  and  may  be  mistaken, 
inasmuch  as  all  testimony  is  as  likely  to 
be  false  as  true;  no  testimony,  therefore, 
is  to  be  received  which  contradicts  the  uni¬ 
form  tenor  of  nature.  The  question, 
however,  is  not  the  abstract  credibility  of 
all  human  testimony,  but  the  specific 
credibility  of  certain  special  witnesses. 
The  character  and  circumstances  of  the 
evangelists  and  apostles  is  a  distinct  ele¬ 
ment  in  this  inquiry.  What  they  were  in 
themselves,  and  what  they  suffered  in  sup¬ 
port  of  the  miraculous  story  they  publish- 


Mir 


(  615  ) 


Mir 


ed,  affords  strong  proof  that  they  were  at 
least  honest  men.  But  were  they  mistaken 
men,  mistaken  in  their  interpretation  of  the 
phenomena  which  they  witnessed  ?  The 
answer  is,  No:  not  only  because  the  char¬ 
acter  of  some  of  the  miracles  was  such  as 
to  admit  only  of  one  interpretation,  and 
that,  the  supernatural  interpretation,  such, 
for  instance,  as  the  Ascension — and  if  we 
admit  one  miracle,  we  must  also  admit 
others — but  because  of  the  extraordinary 
purity  of  the  morality  which  the  miracles, 
thus  vouched  for,  inculcated:  and  also  be¬ 
cause  of  the  lasting  beneficial  results  that 
remain  to  this  day. 

It  ought  to  be  remembered  that  a  mere 
wonder  of  itself  proves  nothing.  The  won¬ 
der  must  also  be  a  sign,  associated  with 
some  word  or  act  indicative  of  design. 
This  coincidence  of  extraordinary  manner 
and  avowed  purpose,  which  is  found  in 
most  of  the  Scriptural  miracles,  and  which 
is  wanting  in  mediaeval  and  so-called  mod¬ 
ern  miracles,  is  an  essential  part  of  the 
evidence  for  the  miracles  themselves. 
What  new  morality,  what  permanent  re¬ 
sults,  have  followed  from  the  fantastic 
miracles  of  the  Middle  Ages,  or  from  the 
unauthenticated  vagaries  of  modern  Spirit¬ 
ualism  ? 

Miracles,  again,  are  necessary  as  the 
credentials  of  Revelation;  and  since  Reve¬ 
lation  makes  known  what  could  not  bp 
otherwise  discovered,  what  is  bevond  and 
above  reason,  it  follows  that  reason  is  not 
adequate  of  itself  to  gauge  the  truth  of  a 
revelation  when  given;  some  other  sign, 
some  other  proof  is  wanted,  viz.,  a  miracle 
— in  its  purpose  and  in  its  results  evidently 
from  above.  A  miracle,  then,  is  not  only 
possible,  but  probable;  and  if  it  is  prob¬ 
able,  it  is  also  credible.  With  the  existing 
evidence  in  their  favor,  it  is  more  weakly 
credulous  to  renounce  the  miracles  of  the 
Gospels  than  to  accept  them.  To  imagine 
that  Christ  founded  his  religion,  and  that 
his  followers  conquered  the  larger  part  of 
the  civilized  world  in  his  name,  without 
miracles  as  his  or  their  original  credentials, 
is  a  greater  strain  on  our  reason  and  faith 
than  to  suppose  that  the  miracles  were 
facts,  and  that  the  record  given  of  them  is 
true. 

After  all,  Nature  is  not  sufficient,  apart 
from  Revelation.  There  is  no  complete 
discovery  of  God  in  nature.  It  reveals 
Wisdom  and  Power,  but  not  Love.  The 
sum  of  Natural  Theology,  as  Lord  Brough¬ 
am  said,  is  only  to  discover  “  a  great 
Mechanician.”  God’s  moral  character,  or 
his  connection  with  ourselves,  is  not  clear¬ 
ly  legible  in  the  works  of  creation.  “  Our 
Father  which  art  in  heaven  ”  was  never 
found  in  Nature’s  Book;  it  was  Christ  him¬ 


self  who  alone  authorized  such  a  mode  of 
address,  and  all  that  it  contains.  Under 
such  conditions,  when  a  further  revelation 
was  wanted,  it  is  not  incredible  that  it 
should  be  given;  and  given,  too,  in  the  only 
way  by  which  it  could  be  substantiated — by 
the  occasional  performance  of  miracles; 
mighty,  and  therefore  proofs  of  his  power; 
beneficial,  and  therefore  signs  of  his  love; 
lasting  inconsequent  results,  and  therefore 
evidences  of  a  set  design ;  by  which  also  he 
showed  that  there  were  other  laws  at  work 
than  the  physical  laws  of  nature;  by  wffiich, 
too,  he  lifted  up  men’s  hearts  and  minds  at 
once  into  a  higher  spiritual  sphere,  and 
made  known  to  mankind  his  own  moral 
perfections  and  infinite  love.  Nor  is  there 
an  escape  from  such  conclusions  by  sup¬ 
posing  that  Christ  was  in  possession  of 
some  of  the  secrets  of  science  in  advance  ot 
his  own  day,  or  even  of  later  times,  and 
therefore  wrought  only  what  seemed  to  be 
wonders  to  the  ignorant  eyes  that  beheld 
them.  For  as  Christ  appealed  to  his  mir¬ 
acles  as  proofs  that  he  was  God,  and  came 
from  God,  he  must  then  have  been  only  an 
arrant  deceiver,  even  while  inculcating  the 
loftiest  morality,  which  has  since  revolu¬ 
tionized  the  world.  Such  truth  and  such 
falsehood  in  the  same  person  would  only 
exhibit  a  moral  monster,  which  would  be  a 
monstrous  miracle  in  itself. 

In  the  present  day,  the  internal  proof  of 
Christianity  most  relied  on  is  its  sublimity 
and  its  fitness  for  human  wants.  But, 
valuable  as  this  may  be  as  an  auxiliary,  in¬ 
ternal  proof  is  not  sufficient  without  ex¬ 
ternal  evidence.  Internal  proof  only  ap¬ 
peals  to  reason,  and  reason  is  not  the  sole 
judge  in  such  a  matter.  Our  Lord  himself 
said:  “  Believe  me  that  I  am  in  the  Father 
.  .  .  or  else  believe  me  for  the  very 
works’  sake.”  This  was  an  argument  for 
the  truth  of  his  doctrine  from  the  character 
of  his  works.  For  instance,  the  central 
facts  of  the  Incarnation  and  Atonement  are 
not  proved  actually  to  have  taken  place, 
because  they  are  exactly  suitable  to  man’s 
wants;  such  internal  evidence  requires  his¬ 
torical  corroboration  as  an  additional  proof 
in  their  favor.  Even  so,  the  indirect 
evidence  from  the  character  of  the  Gospel 
itself  demanded  the  direct  evidence  of 
miracles  in  order  to  substantiate  its  claims. 

In  conclusion,  it  may  be  said  that  mira¬ 
cles  are  possible,  if  the  existence  of  one 
Supreme  God  is  admitted;  that  they  are 
antecedently  probable  from  the  necessary 
character  of  a  revelation  from  heaven; 
that  trustworthy  evidence  has  been  adduc¬ 
ed  in  their  support  of  a  very  various  and 
complex  kind;  and  that  by  them  a  new 
moral  and  spiritual  element  has  been  in¬ 
troduced  into  the  world,  of  which  the  last- 


Mis 


(  616  ) 


Mis 


ing  results  are  a  standing  proof  of  the 
miracles  themselves.  On  the  other  hand, 
it  should  be  pointed  out  that  the  question 
of  the  general  credibility  of  miracles,  as  re¬ 
corded  in  Scripture,  must  not  be  confound¬ 
ed  with  that  of  the  actual  occurrence  or 
not  of  any  single  event  presumed  to  be  so 
recorded,  but  which  may  rest  on  less  than 
the  normal  evidence,  or  may  present  less 
of  those  signs  of  a  true  miracle  above  men¬ 
tioned,  or  may  involve  some  error  in  inter¬ 
pretation.  Thus,  for  instance,  the  nar¬ 
rative  concerning  Joshua  and  the  sun  and 
moon  standing  still  may  be  held  to  be  a 
quotation  from  a  recognized  poem,  rather 
than  a  sober  statement,  and  is  so  held  by 
many  who  sincerely  believe  generally  in 
the  miraculous  element  of  revelation.  It  is 
not  so  much  the  character  of  the  marvel, 
as  the  moral  surroundings  and  whole  set¬ 
ting  of  the  passage,  that  arouse  suspicion 
in  such  a  case.  Again,  the  account  of  the 
angelic  interference  at  the  Pool  of  Bethesda 
is  now  known  to  be  merely  a  corruption  of 
the  text,  being  absent  from  the  oldest  MSS. 
But  caution  is  needed  in  the  exercise  of 
such  selective  processes,  lest  they  de- 
*  generate  into  a  mere  systematic  attempt  to 
explain  away  every  miracle,  where  any 
possible  grounds  can  be  found.  Such  a 
course  will  be  of  no  real  benefit  in  the  end, 
since,  as  has  been  partly  indicated  above, 
the  miraculous  element  is  too  deeply  in¬ 
grained  in  the  biblical  revelation  for  one 
to  be  really  destroyed  without  the  virtual 
destruction  of  the  other  also.  —  Benham: 
Diet,  of  Religion.  See  Trench:  Miracles 
of  our  Lord;  Bushnell:  Nature  and  the 
Supernatural;  Mozley  :  Eight  Lectures 
on  Miracles  (Bampton  Lectures,  1865); 
Fisher:  Supernatural  Origin  of  Christi¬ 
anity  (1877);  Lias:  A  re  M ira  cles  Credi ble 
(1883)? 

Misere're  ( have  mercy )  is  the  musical 
rendering  of  portions  of  the  Fifty-first  and 
Fifty-seventh  Psalms.  It  forms  a  part  of 
the  liturgy  of  the  Roman  Catholic  Church, 
and  is  used  at  services  of  penitence  and 
at  funerals.  The  most  impressive  of  the 
many  melodies  that  have  been  composed 
is  that  by  Gregorio  Allegri  (1590-1640), 
which  is  always  used  at  the  Sistine  Chapel 
at  Rome  on  Thursdav  and  Friday  in  Holv 
Week. 

Mishnah  {doctrine),  denotes  the  great 
collection  of  legal  decisions  by  the  ancient 
rabbis  which  forms  in  each  Talmud  the 
text  on  which  the  Gernara  rests,  and  so  is 
the  fundamental  document  of  the  oral  law 
of  the  Jews.  See  Talmud. 

Missa.  See  Mass. 


Missal,  the  office-book  of  the  Roman 
Catholic  Church  which  contains  the  liturgy 
of  the  mass. 

Mission  is  a  term  used  by  Roman  Cath¬ 
olics  and  Ritualists  for  special  revival 
meetings,  in  which  subjects  of  vital  spir¬ 
itual  interest  are  preached  upon,  and  ex¬ 
traordinary  efforts  are  made  to  secure  the 
attention  of  the  people. 

Missions.  A  universal  religion  demands 
a  world-wide  proclamation.  This  obvious 
truth  was  but  slowly  apprehended,  even  by 
the  apostles.  The  Church  of  Christ  has 
not  yet  fully  measured  its  obligations, 
growing  out  of  its  possession  of  a  gospel 
adapted  to  and  designed  for  the  whole  hu¬ 
man  race.  Under  the  Old  Testament  dis¬ 
pensation  there  were  predictions  of  “a 
light  to  lighten  the  Gentiles,”  and  of  a  king 
in  Zion  who  should  have  “  dominion  from 
the  river  even  unto  the  ends  of  the  earth.” 
Yet  in  spite  of  these  intimations  of  the 
world-wide  reach  of  the  Messiah’s  rule, 
the  Jewish  people  appear  to  have  had  no 
thought  of  attempting  the  conversion  of 
other  nations  to  their  faith.  It  would 
seem  as  if  the  instructions  of  Christ, 
crowned  by  his  last  commission  to  “  Go 
into  all  the  world,  and  preach  the  Gospel  to 
every  creature,”  could  not  have  failed  to 
convince  his  disciples  of  their  obligations; 
and  yet  we  find  Peter,  even  after  Pente¬ 
cost,  doubting  whether  it  would  be  right 
for  him  to  preach  the  Gospel  to  a  Roman 
centurion  who  had  sent  to  him  for  instruc¬ 
tion.  And  not  until  a  new  and  extraordi¬ 
nary  vision  was  given  him  from  heaven 
did  Peter  learn  that  God  had  called  the 
Gentiles  to  repentance  unto  life.  But  be¬ 
fore  the  death  of  the  apostles  the  breadth 
of  the  Saviour’s  command  was  apprehend¬ 
ed  by  them,  and  the  gospel  was  preached 
in  Cyprus  and  Phoenicia,  throughout  Asia 
Minor,  and  in  Macedonia  and  in  Greece. 
In  the  three  great  missionary  journeys  of 
Paul  the  divine  message  was  proclaimed, 
and  churches  were  established  all  the  way 
from  Jerusalem  to  Rome,  and  there  were 
saints  in  Csesar’s  household.  The  perse¬ 
cutions  which  occurred  during  the  three 
centuries  after  Christ  did  not  hinder  the 
earnest  propagation  of  the  faith.  And  at 
the  end  of  that  period,  a.  d.  323,  upon  the 
union  of  the  Roman  Empire  under  Con¬ 
stantine,  Christianity  was  recognized  as 
the  religion  of  the  State. 

In  the  fourth  and  fifth  centuries  mission¬ 
ary  operations  were  carried  forward  with 
much  vigor.  Ulfila  became  the  “  Apostle 
of  the  Goths.”  The  “  golden-mouthed  ” 
Chrysostom  established  a  training-school 
at  Constantinople,  to  which  natives  from 


Mis 


(  617  ) 


Mis 


pagan  lands  were  brought  to  be  trained  as 
missionaries  to  their  countrymen.  St. 
Patrick  of  Ireland,  in  the  beginning  of  the 
fifth  century,  accomplished  a  wonderful 
work  in  evangelizing  that  island,  and  sent 
forth  missionaries  to  other  lands.  Then 
followed  other  eminent  missionaries,  Co- 
lumba  of  Iona,  Aidan  and  Columbanus. 
English  missionaries  went  into  the  heart  of 
the  German  forests.  The  Church  of  Rome, 
in  the  beginning  of  the  seventh  century, 
sent  its  missionaries,  under  St.  Augustine, 
to  the  pagan  tribes  of  Britain.  In  the 
same  century  the  Nestorian  missionaries 
carried  the  gospel  into  China.  In  the  ninth 
and  tenth  centuries  Cyril  and  Methodius 
preached  the  gospel  to  the  Slavic  peoples, 
and  Adalbert  went  as  missionary  among 
the  pagans  of  Prussia. 

Up  to  this  time  there  seems  to  have  been 
a  clear  recognition  of  the  obligation  of  all 
Christians  to  give  the  gospel  to  those  who 
had  it  not,  and  there  were  vigorous  and 
successful  efforts  to  fulfill  this  obligation. 
During  the  centuries  which  followed,  the 
Church  was  sadly  compromised  by  its  rela¬ 
tions  to  the  State,  and  the  missionary  spirit 
waned.  Doubtless  there  was  something  of 
this  spirit  in  some  of  those  who  took  part 
in  the  Crusades.  But  Christ’s  kingdom 
was  not  to  be  established  by  the  sword, 
and  those  who  took  the  sword  lost  sight  of 
the  purpose  that  should  actuate  them.  It 
is  a  singular  fact,  too,  that  the  evangelical 
reformers,  both  before  and  after  Luther, 
were  so  absorbed  in  their  conflicts  for 
Christian  truth  and  in  cleansing  the  Church 
in  doctrine  and  practice,  that  their  thoughts 
do  not  seem  to  have  been  turned  toward 
the  pagan  world.  There  arose,  however, 
in  the  sixteenth  century,  among  the  Roman 
Catholics, a  most  zealous  missionary,  Fran¬ 
cis  Xavier,  who,  whatever  opinions  are  en¬ 
tertained  of  his  doctrine  and  methods, 
must  be  regarded  as  a  man  of  eminent  abil¬ 
ity  and  devotion.  He  arrived  in  India  in 
1 542,  and  to  the  time  of  his  death,  ten  years 
later,  he  toiled  with  wonderful  energy  in 
India  and  Japan.  His  successor,  Ricci, 
established  the  Roman  Church  in  China. 
It  should  not  be  forgotten  that  the  Pilgrim 
Fathers  had  a  missionary  purpose  in  seek¬ 
ing  the  New  World;  and  the  labors  of  the 
“  Apostle  ”  Eliot,  and  of  the  Brainerds 
and  Mayhews,  in  the  seventeenth  century, 
are  among  the  most  interesting  in  mission¬ 
ary  annals. 

The  era  of  modern  missions  may  proper¬ 
ly  be  said  to  have  begun  in  1705,  almost  a 
century  before  English  missionaries  were 
sent  out  to  labor  among  the  pagans  in  for¬ 
eign  lands.  About  the  time  the  Pilgrim 
Fathers  landed  in  America,  the  Danish 
East  India  Company  obtained  a  foothold  at 


Tranquebar,  on  the  eastern  coast  of  India. 
The  duty  of  giving  the  gospel  to  the  natives 
of  that  region  was  pressed  upon  the  Da¬ 
nish  king  by  his  chaplain,  and  as  a  result 
Ziegenbalg  and  Pltitschau  arrived  at  Tran¬ 
quebar  in  1706,  being  the  first  Protestant 
missionaries  to  India.  Later,  this  mission 
was  aided  to  some  extent  by  the  Society 
for  the  Propagation  of  the  Gospel  in  For¬ 
eign  Parts,  which  was  organized  in  Eng¬ 
land  in  1701,  and  also  by  the  Society  for 
Promoting  Christian  Knowledge.  The  de¬ 
voted  missionary,  Schwartz,  joined  this 
mission  in  1570,  and,  fifty  years  after  Zie¬ 
genbalg  landed,  11,000  souls  were  enrolled 
as  Christians.  But  the  toleration  of  caste 
proved  a  vast  hindrance,  and  subsequently 
the  blight  of  rationalism  in  the  home 
churches  led  to  the  practical  failure  of  the 
mission,  save  as,  in  a  few  places,  it  opened 
the  way  for  missions  which  were  subse¬ 
quently  established. 

Hans  Egede,  a  Norwegian  pastor,  went 
to  Greenland  in  1721,  sent  by  a  college  in 
Copenhagen.  In  1*831  the  United  Brethren, 
or  Moravians,  unaer  the  lead  of  Count 
Zinzendorf,  began  those  labors  for  the  con¬ 
version  of  the  world  which  have  entitled 
the  Moravians  to  the  name  of  the  Mission¬ 
ary  Church.  It  is  said  that  within  ten  years 
from  that  date  they  had  commenced  work  in 
the  West  Indies,  South  America  and  South 
Africa,  in  Greenland,  Lapland,  and  Ceylon. 
But  as  yet  the  churches  of  England  were 
not  awake  to  their  duty.  That  awakening 
came  through  William  Carey,  who  in  early 
life  was  a  shoemaker,  and  became  a  Bap¬ 
tist  minister.  He  preached  before  his 
ministerial  association  at  Nottingham,  on 
the  31st  of  May,  1792,  a  sermon  in  which, 
with  extraordinary  eloquence,  he  enforced 
the  duty  of  attempting  the  evangelization 
of  heathen  nations.  This  resulted  in  the 
organization  of  the  Baptist  Missionary 
Societ}',  and  Carey  became  its  first  mis¬ 
sionary  to  India.  With  Marshman  and 
Ward,  a  station  was  begun  at  Serampore, 
a  few  miles  above  Calcutta.  This  place 
was  under  Danish  rule,  the  missionaries 
having  been  compelled  to  seek  the  protec¬ 
tion  of  that  government,  inasmuch  as  the 
English  Company  objected  to  their  evan¬ 
gelistic  work.  Great  ridicule  was  heaped 
upon  this  undertaking,  and  the  sarcasms 
of  Sidney  Smith  upon  the  enterprise  of  the 
“  Consecrated  Cobbler”  have  passed  into 
history.  But  his  work  was  the  means  of 
arousing  a  remarkable  interest,  and  within 
a  few  years  many  missionary  organizations 
were  formed:  the  London  Missionary  So¬ 
ciety  in  1795,  the  Church  Missionary  So¬ 
ciety  in  1799,  the  Religious  Tract  Society 
in  1799,  and  the  British  and  Foreign  Bible 
Society  in  1S04. 


Mis 


(  6lS  ) 


Mis 


In  the  United  States  various  bodies  be¬ 
gan  to  plan  for  missionary  work,  but  their 
attention  was  directed  largely  to  the  abo¬ 
rigines  who  lived  near  them.  In  1806  a 
few  young  men  in  Williams  College  were 
much  impressed  in  regard  to  their  duty  to 
the  heathen.  One  of  them  was  Samuel  J. 
Mills,  whose  mother  consecrated  him  at 
his  birth  to  be  a  missionary.  These  young 
students  frequently  met  for  prayer,  and 
one  afternoon  in  the  autumn  of  1806,  hav¬ 
ing  been  driven  by  a  sudden  shower  to  find 
shelter  under  a  hay-stack,  they  consecrated 
the  spot,  which  has  since  been  called  “  the 
Birthplace  of  American  Missions.”  In  the 
year  1810  Mills  found  kindred  spirits 
among  his  associates  at  the  Theological 
Seminary  at  Andover,  and  after  consulta¬ 
tion  with  their  instructors,  four  of  these 
young  men,  Samuel  J.  Mills,  Adoniram 
Judson,  Samuel  Nott,  and  Samuel  Newell 
presented  themselves  before  the  General 
Association  of  Massachusetts  at  its  session 
at  Bradford  on  June  25,  expressing  their 
desire  to  be  sent  to  the  heathen,  and  asking 
advice.  Others  would  have  applied  at  the 
same  time,  but  it  was  feared  that  the 
presence  of  so  many  would  alarm  the  As¬ 
sociation,  in  view  of  the  probable  cost  of 
undertaking  their  support.  The  Associa¬ 
tion  listened  to  their  plea,  and  though 
some  of  its  members  thought  their  pro¬ 
posal  rash  and  presumptuous,  yet  their 
spirit  was  commended,  and  their  plans  ap¬ 
proved,  and  the  Association  formed  for 
their  support  the  first  foreign  missionary 
organization  of  the  United  States,  under 
the  ponderous  name  of  the  American  Board 
of  Commissioners  for  Foreign  Missions, 
it  was  not  without  much  difficulty  that  this 
organization  obtained  a  charter  from  the 
State  of  Massachusetts.  One  of  the  argu¬ 
ments  against  granting  it  was  that  there 
was  none  too  much  religion  in  the  land  to 
warrant  its  exportation,  but  the  reply  was 
made  that  religion  was  of  such  a  nature 
that  the  more  it  was  imparted  the  more  it 
increased,  and  the  Charter  was  granted  in 
1812.  In  view  of  the  doubt  entertained 
whether  the  churches  in  the  United  States 
could  support  four  missionaries,  Judson 
had  been  sent  to  England  to  inquire  as  to 
a  possible  cooperation  with  the  London 
Missionary  Society,  but.  that  scheme  fail¬ 
ing,  it  was  decided  to  undertake  a  mission 
in  India,  and  five  young  men,  three  of  them 
having  wives,  sailed  early  in  the  year  1S12. 
During  the  voyage  the  views  of  two  of 
these  missionaries,  Judson  and  Rice,  on 
the  subject  of  baptism  underwent  a  change, 
and  this  event  led  to  the  formation  in  1814 
of  the  American  Baptist  Missionary  Union, 
under  which  organization  Judson  went  to 
Burma,  so  that,  through  the  good  Provi¬ 


dence  of  God,  an  event  which  threatened  to 
prove  divisive  tended  directly  to  the  de¬ 
velopment  of  missionary  operations.  Other 
branches  of  the  Christian  Church  in  the 
United  States  soon  organized  for  foreign 
missionary  work:  The  Methodist  Epis<  o- 
pal  Church  in  1819;  the  Protestant  Episco¬ 
pal  Church  in  1835;  the  Free  Baptist 
Church  in  1836.  Until  1837  the  whole 
Presbyterian  Church  supported  the  Amer¬ 
ican  Board,  as  did  the  Reformed  Dutch 
Church,  and  the  larger  portion  of  the  Pres¬ 
byterian  Church  did  so  for  a  quarter  01  a 
century  longer.  In  1857  the  Reformed 
Church,  and  in  1870  the  -  Presbyterian 
Church,  amicably  withdrew,  in  the  hope  of 
prosecuting  foreign  missionary  work  more 
vigorously  under  Boards  of  their  own. 
There  are  now  in  the  United  States  not  less 
than  thirty-five  missionary  societies  con¬ 
ducting  independent  work  in  foreign  lands. 
These  societies  had  an  income  for  the  year 
1888-S9  of  about  $3,700,000.  Connected 
with  their  640  principal  stations,  in  which 
missionaries  reside,  there  were  over  3,oo<3 
out-stations.  The  2,300  missionaries  from 
America,  about  1,000  of  whom  were  males, 
are  aided  in  their  work  by  over  8,000  na¬ 
tive  helpers.  The  2,300  churches  had  an 
enrolled  membership  of  a  little  over  a 
quarter  of  a  million,  with  167,000  pupils 
in  the  schools  of  all  grades. 

In  Canada  the  M.  E.  Church  organized 
a  missionary  board  in  1824,  the  Presbyte¬ 
rian  Church  in  1844,  and  other  churches 
somewhat  later.  The  income  of  these 
Canadian  societies  for  foreign  missions  for 
the  year  1888-S9  amounted  to  about  $1  So, - 
000,  and  they  supported  in  foreign  lands 
over  100  missionaries,  male  and  female. 

In  Great  Britain  there  are  now  between 
thirty-five  and  forty  foreign  missionary 
societies,  reporting  an  income  for  the  year 
1888,  according  to  tables  prepared  by  Can¬ 
on  Robertson,  of  $6,672,000.  Of  this  sum 
the  societies  of  the  Church  of  England 
contributed  $2,708,000;  the  joint  societies 
of  Churchmen  and  Nonconformists,  $1  ,- 
042,000,  English  and  Welsh  Nonconform¬ 
ists,  $1,961,000  ;  and  Presbyterian  soci¬ 
eties,  $916,000.  These  British  societies 
report  about  1,900  male  missionaries  and 
600  female  missionaries,  with  24,000  na¬ 
tive  helpers,  and  351,000  communicants  in 
their  churches.  In  Germany  there  are 
some  eighteen  evangelical  missions,  some 
of  them  working  most  efficiently  in  foreign 
lands.  Together,  they  have  about  600  Eu¬ 
ropean  missionaries, and  not  far  from  80,000 
communicants  in  their  churches.  There  are 
also  efficient  missionary  organizations  in 
France,  Holland,  Denmark,  and  Sweden. 
The  most  recent  statistics  received  from 
these  missions  last  named  give  the  number 


Mis 


(  619  ) 


Mis 


of  their  missionaries  as  about  100,  their 
native  helpers  as  nearly  500,  and  their 
communicants  as  somewhat  over  10,000. 

The  summary,  therefore,  of  the  Protes¬ 
tant  missions  would  make  about  115  prin¬ 
cipal  foreign  missionary  societies,  many  of 
them  having  a  large  number  of  auxiliaries. 
Their  income  amounts  to  a  little  over  $10,- 
000,000.  Their  stations,  principal  and 
subordinate,  number  8,500;  about  3,600 
men,  ordained  or  unordained,  are  labor¬ 
ing  in  foreign  lands.  The  various  soci¬ 
eties  report  but  about  2,000  female  mis¬ 
sionaries,  but  should  they  uniformly 
include  the  wives,  the  number  of  women 
would  doubtless  exceed  that  of  men.  The 
native  helpers  who  are  connected  with 
these  foreign  missionaries  number  about 
33,000,  while  the  communicants  are  re¬ 
ported  as  704,000.  It  is  impossible  to 
state  accurately  the  number  of  adherents, 
who,  though  not  communicants  in  the 
churches,  are  yet  fully  identified  with  the 
several  Christian  communities,  but  it  is 
believed,  taking  the  ratio  that  exists  be¬ 
tween  the  communicants  and  adherents  in 
many  missions,  that  the  total  number  of 
adherents  is  about  3,000,000. 

Mention  should  be  made  of  two  or  three 
special  branches  of  missionary  work.  Med¬ 
ical  missions  have  been  prosecuted  in  con¬ 
nection  with  most  of  the  great  organiza¬ 
tions.  Efforts  to  heal  the  body  appeal 
directly  to  many  who  are  little  disposed  to 
hear  of  a  new  religious  faith;  and  preju¬ 
dices  have  been  removed,  and  the  way 
opened  for  the  gospel  by  the  practice  of 
the  healing  art.  Several  medical  mission¬ 
ary  societies  have  been  formed,  and  ref¬ 
uges,  hospitals,  and  dispensaries  have 
proved  a  most  efficient  agency  in  the  dis¬ 
semination  of  the  gospel.  In  waiting-rooms 
of  hospitals  have  often  been  found  the 
best  audiences  for  the  Christian  preachers. 

Woman’s  Work  in  missions,  though  of 
recent  development,  has  proved  a  power¬ 
ful  auxiliary.  The  woes  under  which  wom¬ 
en  suffer  in  pagan  and  Mohammedan 
lands  could  not  fail  to  appeal  strongly  to 
the  hearts  of  Christian  women  throughout 
the  world,  and  they  have  not  been  slow 
to  take  up  these  branches  of  work,  which 
seemed  specially  adapted  for  them.  Par¬ 
ticularly  have  they  devoted  their  energies 
to  education,  opening  boarding-schools  for 
girls.  In  India  female  missionaries  have 
done  a  great  work  among  the  zenanas, 
carrying  the  Word  of  life  to  women  who 
are  excluded  from  society,  but  whose  in¬ 
fluence  in  their  homes  is  powerful,  and 
without  whose  conversion  it  seems  impos¬ 
sible  to  renovate  society.  There  are  sixty- 
one  principal  Women’s  Foreign  Missionary 
Societies:  thirty-nine  in  the  United  States, 


nine  in  Canada,  thirteen  in  Great  Britain. 
The  thirty-nine  Women’s  Boards  in  the 
United  States  have  not  less  than  33,000 
auxiliaries,  including  Bands  of  children, 
and  their  membership  is  estimated  at  about 
700,000. 

Some  brief  statement  should  be  made  in 
this  article  in  regard  to  the  progress  of 
missionary  work  in  the  principal  nations  of 
the  world. 

The  vast  Continent  of  Africa  has  been 
entered  at  many  points.  The  Moravians, 
under  George  Schmidt,  were  the  pioneers 
who  commenced  in  Cape  Colony,  and  that 
region,  through  the  labors  of  the  London 
Missionary  Society,  is  fairly  under  Chris¬ 
tian  influences.  The  English  Wesleyans 
in  the  Transkei,  the  Paris  Evangelical  So¬ 
ciety  among  the  Basutos,  and  the  Ameri¬ 
can  Board  among  the  Zulus,  have  accom¬ 
plished  much.  The  Scotch  Presbyterians 
of  the  Established  and  Free  Churches  have 
successful  missions  along  the  Shir6  and  at 
Lake  Nyassa.  The  English  Church' Mis¬ 
sionary  Society,  and  the  Universities’  Mis¬ 
sion,  on  the  East  Coast,  have  done  a  noble 
work.  The  Church  Missionary  Society  has 
planted  a  station  at  Uganda,  in  the  very 
heart  of  the  continent,  where  scores  of 
converts  have  proved  steadfast  while  in 
the  fires jof  persecution,  even  unto  death. 
The  same  society  has  also  on  the  West 
Coast  accomplished  a  great  work  along  the 
Niger,  and  since  the  Congo  has  been  opened 
the  English  and  American  Baptists  have 
planted  vigorous  missions  along  that  high¬ 
way.  The  German  missions  have  been 
planted  both  on  the  eastern  and  western 
coasts.  The  American  Presbyterians  have 
held  fast  to  their  work,  begun  in  1842,  at 
the  Gaboon;  and  the  United  Presbyterian 
Church  of  America  has  accomplished  re¬ 
markable  results  in  Egypt.  Altogether,  35 
Missionary  Societies  are  at  work  in  Africa, 
from  the  mouth  of  the  Nile  to  the  Cape,  of 
Good  Hope,  and  the  Dark  Continent  is  il¬ 
lumined  at  many  points  by  the  light  of  the 
gospel. 

Throughout  the  Turkish  Empire  the 
missionary  work,  begun  in  1819,  has  been 
left  almost  entirely  to  the  American  Board, 
save  that  since  1870  the  Syrian  mission  has 
been  connected  with  the  Presbyterian 
Church,  and  there  are  some  English  mis¬ 
sions  in  Palestine.  Little  has  been  accom¬ 
plished  as  yet  among  Moslems,  for,  though 
there  is  nominally  religious  liberty,  yet 
death  or  exile  awaits  any  convert  from 
Mohammedanism.  But  a  vast  work  has 
been  accomplished  among  the  decayed 
churches,  especially  the  Gregorian  Arme¬ 
nians.  At  the  first  these  churches  bitterly 
opposed  the  incoming  of  evangelical  truth,, 
but  many  of  their  members,  and  even  their 


Mis 


(  620  ) 


Mis 


leaders,  though  still  adhering  to  the  old 
Church,  are  feeling  the  force  of  a  better 
Christian  teaching  and  example.  Includ¬ 
ing  Syria  and  European  Turkey,  there  are 
now  in  the  Turkish  Empire  135  churches 
having  a  membership  of  over  13,000. 

It  is  less  than  a  century  since  Carey  and 
his  associates  were  expelled  by  the  British 
authorities  in  India.  In  1S13  the  first  mis¬ 
sionaries  from  the  United  States  to  India 
were  driven  from  Calcutta,  and  only  after 
protracted  negotiations  were  permitted  to 
stay  at  Bombay.  But,  from  that  date  to 
this,  Christianity  has  been  vigorously 
propagated  throughout  Hindustan.  Not 
far  from  forty  missionary  societies  are 
laboring  there,  under  the  protection  of  the 
British  Government;  and  the  old  fear  lest 
any  attempt  to  disturb  the  superstitions 
of  the  natives  might  lead  to  revolt  and  the 
overthrow  of  English  rule  has  entirely 
passed  away.  Henry  Martyn  thought  that 
it  would  be  the  nearest  approach  to  a 
miracle  of  anything  that  could  be  witness¬ 
ed,  should  he  ever  see  a  Brahman  con¬ 
verted  to  Christ.  That  miracle  has  been 
witnessed  in  hundreds  of  cases.  In  the 
year  1851  the  number  of  Protestant  com¬ 
municants  in  India,  including  Burma,  was 
17,306.  In  the  year  1S81  they  numbered 
145,097.  In  India  alone,  in  the  decade 
from  1871  to  1881,  the  communicants  in¬ 
creased  from  52,000  to  113,000,  while  the  ad¬ 
herents  increased  from  224,000  to  417,000. 
Sir  William  Hunter,  an  acknowledged  au¬ 
thority,  states  that  in  the  nine  years  preced¬ 
ing  1881  the  native  Christians  increased  at 
the  rate  of  64.07  per  cent. ,  while  the  general 
population  increased  at  the  rate  of  10.89 
per  cent.;  the  Mohammedans  at  the  rate 
of  10.96  per  cent.,  and  the  Hindus  at  a  rate 
below  13.64  per  cent.  Though  recent  re¬ 
turns  are  not  complete,  it  is  believed  that 
the  number  of  Protestant  communicants 
cannot  be  less  than  180,000,  and  the  ad¬ 
herents  not  less  than  700,000.  Among  the 
converts  are  persons  of  all  castes,  from  the 
highest  to  the  lowest,  and  of  all  races  dwell¬ 
ing  in  India.  Not  a  few  Mohammedans  have 
espoused  the  religion  of  Jesus  Christ. 
But  statistics  cannot  show  the  great  revo¬ 
lution  that  is  going  on.  The  barriers  of 
ignorance,  caste,  and  false  religion  are  by 
no  means  overthrown,  but  even  the  de¬ 
fenders  of  false  faiths  are  compelled  to  ad¬ 
mit  that  the  leaven  of  the  gospel  is  per¬ 
meating  India. 

In  Burma  the  American  Baptist  mission 
has  had  a  rich  harvest,  and  the  work  be¬ 
gun  by  Judson  and  others  has  progressed 
until,  in  the  year  1889,  there  were  in  that 
kingdom  521  churches  having  a  member¬ 
ship  of  29,952. 

China  received  its  first  Protestant  mis¬ 


sionary  in  the  year  1807,  Robert  Mor¬ 
rison  being  compelled,  on  account  of  the 
opposition  of  the  East  India  Company,  to 
proceed  to  Canton  by  way  of  New  York. 
For  years  an  entrance  was  denied  to  the 
messengers  of  Christ,  but  with  extraor¬ 
dinary  patience  their  efforts  were  con¬ 
tinued.  The  study  of  the  language  and 
the  work  of  translation  were  prosecuted 
until,  in  1842,  a  treaty  was  signed  which 
opened  five  ports  to  the  commerce  of 
the  world.  Since  that  time  various  pro¬ 
visions  have  been  introduced  into  the 
treaties  with  foreign  powers  so  that  the 
Christian  missionary  is  free  to  prosecute 
his  work  throughout  the  empire.  In  the 
year  1843  it  was  believed  that  there  were 
not  more  than  ten  converted  souls  within 
the  empire.  In  1853  there  were  351  en¬ 
rolled  Christians;  in  1863  nearly  2,000;  in 
1877,  13,035,  and  by  the  last  report,  cover¬ 
ing  the  year  1888,  the  Protestant  com¬ 
municants  numbered  35,122.  There  are 
now  laboring  within  the  empire,  counting 
some  of  the  smaller  bodies,  forty  mission¬ 
ary  societies  having  connected  with  them 
1,168  missionaries,  545  of  them  being  men. 
These  missionaries  are  aided  by  1,325  or¬ 
dained  and  unordained  native  laborers. 
Notwithstanding  this  remarkable  growth, 
China  is  so  vast  that  comparatively  few  of 
its  hundreds  of  millions  of  souls  have  as 
yet  heard  the  blessed  message.  But  the 
empire  is  open,  and  the  rate  of  present 
progress  gives  promise  for  a  speedy  and 
glorious  harvest. 

It  is  but  a  third  of  a  century  since  Japan 
was  sealed,  not  only  to  all  Christians,  but 
to  all  foreigners.  It  is  less  than  twenty 
years  since  a  native  teacher  of  one  of  the 
missionaries  was  thrown  into  prison  on 
mere  suspicion  of  being  a  Christian.  The 
first  church  in  Japan  was  organized  in  1S72, 
at  which  date  there  were  twenty  ordained 
missionaries  within  the  empire.  This 
number  has  increased  until,  in  1890,  the  male 
missionaries  were  200,  connected  with 
twenty-eight  missionary  societies  in  Great 
Britain,  the  United  States,  and  Canada. 
Including  the  wives  of  missionaries,  and 
unmarried  women,  the  number  of  mission¬ 
aries  is  527.  During  the  eighteen  years  the 
churches  increased  in  number  from  one 
to  274,  and  the  membership  from  eleven  to 
28,877.  With  extraordinary  avidity  the 
Japanese  have  studied  the  arts  and  sciences 
of  the  Western  World,  and  havealready  lost 
confidence  in  their  national  religions,  Shin¬ 
toism  and  Buddhism,  and  have  been  ready 
to  listen  to  the  preaching  of  the  gospel. 
The  New  Constitution  of  the  empire,  pro¬ 
claimed  in  Feb.,  1SS9,  guarantees  perfect 
religious  liberty,  and  the  Christian  preach¬ 
er  will  be  welcomed  in  every  city  of  the 


MISSIONARY  STATISTICS. 


PRINCIPAL  FOREIGN  MISSIONARY  SOCIETIES  OF  GREAT  HRITAIN. 


Income 

Stations 

and 

Out- 

stations. 

Missionaries. 

Native 

Helpers. 

Com¬ 

muni¬ 

cants. 

1 

Ad¬ 

herents. 

Societies. 

in 

Dollars. 

Male. 

! 

Female. 

London  Missionary  Society . 

<1655,280 

1,920 

i54 

36 

5,504 

74,127 

3l6,355 

Church  Missionary  Society . 

1,260,080 

305 

316 

44 

3-99° 

47-754 

188,037 

Society  for  Propagation  of  the  Gospel . 

691,830 

* 

493 

* 

2,444 

66,593 

281,620 

Universities’  Mission . . 

82,500 

14 

45 

18 

36 

566 

1,281 

Church  of  England  Zenana  Miss’y  Soc’y. . . 

116,340 

46 

•  • 

105 

534 

.  . 

.  . 

Baptist  Missionary  Society . 

404,090 

496 

Il8 

•  . 

1,014 

47,i33 

General  Baptist  Society . 

39.515 

U 

9 

7 

20 

i,39° 

3,7io 

China  Inland  Mission . 

182,558 

i45 

i53 

123 

144 

2,464 

* 

English  Presbyterian  Mission . 

7°>  395 

12  7 

24 

l6 

108 

3,597 

6,016 

Free  Church  of  Scotland . 

324.995 

2 1 1 

79 

38 

568 

6,276 

=* 

Established  Church  of  Scotland . 

80,245 

l6 

32 

I 

195 

805 

3-537 

United  Presbyterian,  Scotch . 

282,674 

228 

6l 

21 

528 

14,079 

* 

Wesleyan  Missionary  Society . 

659.335 

359 

152 

* 

6,104 

37, 031 

118,247 

Irish  Presbyterian  Society . 

72>9X5 

*3 

i5 

IO 

207 

429 

2,223 

Methodist,  New  Connection . 

13,100 

4 

8 

I 

44 

1,268 

X 

Primitive  Methodists . 

70,642 

IO 

5 

2 

20 

420 

=* 

Methodist,  United  Free . 

105,140 

25 

21 

* 

166 

6,670 

* 

Moravian  Missions . 

37.704 

i33 

151 

141 

1,71° 

35.920 

84,201 

South  American  Missionary  Society . 

92,500 

37 

48 

8 

13 

411 

3,038 

Friends . 

42,500 

5 

IO 

l6 

378 

2,970 

36,36-0 

Welsh  Calvinistic  Methodists . 

25,000 

8 

IO 

8 

302 

1.389 

6,519 

Turkish  Missions  Aid  Society . 

10,608 

•  • 

Totals . 

$5,3U,946 

4.U9 

1,904 

595 

24,029 

351,292 

c  051,144 

*  Not  reported. 

FOREIGN  MISSIONARY  SOCIETIES  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES,  1 888-89. 


C/3 

Missionaries. 

& 

V 

a 

& 

c 

& 

> 

c/5 

O 

O 

Societies. 

Income. 

Stations. 

Out-station 

Male. 

Female. 

U 

a 

<u 

> 

4-» 

GJ 

Churches. 

0 

*5 

I 

r* 

e 

0 

O 

4-» 

1/5 

r2 

T3 

V 

T3 

HD 

< 

rC 

u 

in 

0 

d 

a 

Pupils. 

American  Board . 

0685,111 

93 

1,023 

J95 

3J9 

2,380 

360 

33  220 

4,609 

1,066 

43,838 

Presbyterian  Board,  North.. 

852,815 

IOI 

* 

224 

308 

1,209 

321 

25,346 

3,067 

543 

27,394 

Presbyterian  Board,  South . . 

96,054 

39 

96 

35 

39 

56 

* 

1,678 

364 

* 

1,214 

Reformed  Church  of  Amer¬ 
ica  (Dutch) . 

93,i42 

14 

127 

26 

31 

274 

5i 

5,089 

762 

125 

3=775 

United  Presbyterian  Board. . 

108,585 

l6 

i55 

20 

36 

402 

34 

8,712 

1,874 

236 

9,639 

Cumberland  Presb.  Church. . 

I7»475 

5 

6 

6 

IO 

I 

8 

513 

47 

5 

220 

Reformed  Presb.  Church. . . . 

16,432 

2 

6 

4 

9 

52 

2 

336 

50 

36 

975 

Asso.  Ref.  Synod  of  the 
South . 

6,453 

6 

t 

8 

2 

I 

6 

3 

226 

32 

2 

27 

Reformed  Church  of  the 

U.  S.,  German . 

Ref.  Presb.  Gen.  Synod . 

18,000 

4 

12 

3 

5 

1 6 

3 

1,438 

293 

2 

62 

4,300 

I 

9 

I 

4 

8 

4 

18 

2 

20 

* 

Baptist  Missionary  Union  f. . . 

414,895 

62 

1,179 

IO7 

172 

1,313 

687 

78,543 

6,093 

983 

18,574 

Baptist  Southern  Convention. 

99,023 

30 

35 

33 

47 

75 

57 

2,050 

228 

8 

600 

Free  Baptists . 

24,885 

5 

7 

8 

14 

19 

10 

646 

54 

103 

3,59i 

Seventh  Day  Baptists . 

4,108 

r 

* 

2 

3 

5 

I 

30 

5 

2 

29 

Baptist  Convention  of  the 
United  States  § . 

4,598 

3 

2 

2 

I 

2 

I 

2,000 

20 

2 

27 

German  Baptist  Brethren 
(Tunkers) . 

1,055 

4 

20 

* 

* 

* 

* 

* 

* 

* 

Methodist  Epis.  Church  t  li- . . 

566,139 

52 

25O 

148 

IQO 

1,388 

516 

63,295 

3,027 

801 

27,519 

Meth.  Epis.  Church,  South.. 

244,176 

18 

* 

34 

* 

97 

* 

4>OI4 

228 

* 

* 

Meth.  Protestant  Church. . . . 

15,000 

3 

* 

4 

IO 

8 

2 

239 

42 

3 

300 

African  Meth.  Episcopal  §. . . 

12,000 

7 

5 

7 

I 

8 

9 

900 

302 

5 

408 

Wesleyan  Methodist . 

2,000 

1 

1 

I 

2 

I 

I 

256 

IO 

1 

33° 

Free  Methodist . 

2,500 

3 

3 

5 

2 

I 

18 

6 

2 

35 

Protestant  Episcopal  Foreign 
Missionary  Society . 

i59, M9 
2,646 

51 

124 

75 

33 

124 

32 

2,367 

3°o 

IOI 

3,755 

Reformed  Episcopal  Church . 

1 

. , 

I 

2 

•  . 

,  . 

Evangelical  Association . 

13,662 

55 

6 

6 

8 

77 

5° 

9,959 

1,007 

319 

17.983 

United  Brethren  in  Christ. . . 

28,000 

15 

60 

7 

7 

5° 

* 

6,000 

200 

* 

460 

Evangelical  Lutheran  Gener¬ 
al  Synod . 

82,404 

4 

8 

4 

6 

388 

113 

5,443 

1,001 

155 

4,33° 

Evangelical  Lutheran  Gener¬ 
al  Council  § . 

10,288 

6 

50 

5 

4 

72 

4 

805 

235 

57 

767 

Foreign  Christian  Missionary 
Society  (Disciples) . 

61,866 

15 

l6 

27 

15 

27 

3° 

2,990 

617 

14 

380 

Amer.  Christian  Connection. 

3,000 

4 

IO 

2 

2 

8 

3 

140 

40 

I 

7 

Mennonite  Gen.  Conference. 

* 

3 

3 

IO 

* 

6 

5 

2 

IOO 

Friends . 

28,273 

l6 

II 

1 1 

23 

23 

IO 

379 

50 

15 

7°9 

United  Brethren  (Mora¬ 
vians)  J . 

13,500 

•  . 

.  . 

.  • 

•  • 

%  • 

Total . 

$3,69L534 

639 

3,226 

1,006 

1,317 

00 

£ 

M 

2,313 

256,556 

24,570 

4,609 

167,048 

*  Not  reported.  t  Work  of  these  Societies  in  Protestant  countries  of  Europe  is  not  here  reported. 

$  Excepting  receipts  from  the  United  States,  the  Statistics  of  Moravian  Missions  are  given  in  the  table  of  British 
Societies.  §  The  statistics  of  1887-88  in  whole  or  in  part.  II  Not  including  the  Woman’s  Board  of  this  church. 


(  621  ) 


Mis 


(  622  ) 


Miz 


empire  by  a  few,  if  not  by  many  who  de¬ 
sire  to  know  of  a  better  faith  than  that  of 
their  fathers. 

Some  of  the  most  marvelous  triumphs 
of  modern  missions  have  been  witnessed  in 
the  Island  World.  The  great  island  of 
Madagascar,  the  jewel  in  the  crown  of  the 
London  Missionary  Society,  has  been  in 
large  degree  brought  under  the  power  of 
Christianity.  After  passing  through  the 
fires  of  persecution,  the  Christian  Church 
among  the  Malagasy  has  come  out  tri¬ 
umphant;  and  although  the  London  Society 
has  but  twenty-eight  missionaries  among 
them,  there  are  670  ordained  native  min¬ 
isters,  3,700  native  preachers  unordained, 
50,000  church  members,  and  236,000  native 
adherents. 

The  triumphs  of  the  gospel  among  the 
savage  islanders  of  the  Pacific  furnish  con¬ 
vincing  proof  of  its  Divine  origin  and  power. 
Islands  from  which  the  missionaries  were 
driven  by  force,  or,  if  captured,  were  slain 
and  eaten,  have  not  only  accepted  the  truth, 
but  have  sent  forth  of  their  own  people  on 
missionary  work  to  other  islands.  Almost 
all  branches  of  the  Christian  Church  have 
had  a  share  in  this  work  in  Polynesia, 
Melanesia,  and  Micronesia.  The  London 
Missionary  Society  has  been  specially 
honored  in  its  work  in  Tahiti,  the  Society, 
the  Hervey,  the  Samoan,  and  the  Loyalty 
Islands  and  in  New  Guinea.  The  Wesleyan 
Society  of  England  has  won  a  notable  vic¬ 
tory  in  Tonga  and  Fiji.  In  1879  Sir  A. 
Gordon,  the  English  governor  of  Fiji,  de¬ 
clared  that  out  of  a  population  of  about 
120,000  former  cannibals,  102,000  were 
regular  worshipers  in  churches,  and  that 
in  every  family  there  was  morning  and 
evening  worship.  The  societies  of  the 
Church  of  England  have  labored  earnestly 
and  successfully  in  Melanesia;  and  the 
Presbyterian  Churches  of  Scotland  and 
Canada  in  the  New  Hebrides,  and  the 
American  Board  in  the  Sandwich  Islands 
and  Micronesia.  Many  of  these  islands 
have  been  so  thoroughly  Christianized  that 
they  do  not  now  make  reports  to  the  so¬ 
cieties  which  established  Christian  work 
within  them,  so  that  the  statistics  of  Chris¬ 
tian  work  in  the  Island  World  are  by  no 
means  complete,  but  we  have  a  record  of 
over  96,000  communicants  and  of  nearly 
a  half- million  adherents  in  connection 
with  the  churches  in  the  islands  of  the 
Pacific. 

The  South  American  Missionary  Society 
of  England  has  accomplished  a  noble  work, 
commencing  among  the  savages  of  Tierra 
del  Fuego  and  coming  north;  and  the 
American  Presbyterian  and  Methodist 
Epicopal  Churches  are  laboring  earnestly 
in  Brazil.  The  Moravians  are  toiling,  as 


is  their  wont,  among  the  degraded  tribes 
of  British  Guiana  and  Central  America. 

If  the  present  outlook  for  missions  is 
compared  with  that  of  a  hundred  years  ago, 
it  will  be  seen  that  there  is  everything  to 
cheer  the  Christian  in  reference  to  the  fu¬ 
ture.  The  apathy  of  the  Church  has  given 
place  in  some  good  degree  to  earnest  en¬ 
deavor.  The  nations  that,  a  hundred  years 
ago,  openly  forbade  the  preaching  of  the 
Gospel,  or  the  coming  of  the  foreigner,  are 
now  freely  open.  The  means  of  transit 
are  wonderfully  improved,  so  that,  in  place 
of  the  voyage  of  six  months  or  a  year,  al¬ 
most  any  mission-field  can  be  reached  in  a 
few  weeks.  The  introduction  of  modern 
science  and  art  is  overthrowing  the  super¬ 
stitions  of  pagan  nations,  as  they  find  that 
their  sacred  pages  are  filled  with  absurdi¬ 
ties.  The  languages  of  the  illiterate  nations 
have  been  reduced  to  writing,  and  into 
about  300  tongues  of  the  earth  the  Script¬ 
ures  have  been  translated,  and  dictionaries 
and  other  appliances  for  learning  these 
foreign  tongues  have  been  provided.  Mis¬ 
sionary  societies  in  large  numbers,  and 
working  by  different  methods,  have  been 
organized.  The  batteries  of  Christianity 
have  been  planted  in  all  the  great  nations. 
The  native  agency  has  been  set  in  opera¬ 
tion,  and  schools  and  colleges  have  been 
founded.  The  preliminary  work  may  be 
said  to  be  done.  Nothing  is  now  wanted 
but  united  and  consecrated  effort  on  the 
part  of  the  whole  Church  of  Christ,  accom¬ 
panied  by  the  outpouring  of  the  Spirit,  to 
bring  the  kingdoms  of  the  world  under  the 
sway  of  him  to  whom  they  belong. 

E.  E.  Strong. 

Mite,  a  small  bronze  or  copper  coin, 
which,  in  Christ’s  time,  was  worth  only 
half  a  mill. 

Mitre,  the  head-dress  worn  in  solemn 
church  services  by  bishops,  abbots,  and 
other  prelates  in  the  Latin  Church.  The 
materials  used  in  their  manufacture  con¬ 
sist  of  most  costly  stuffs,  studded  with 
gold  and  precious  stones.  It  is  tongue¬ 
shaped  in  form,  and  is  supposed  to  sym¬ 
bolize  the  “  cloven  tongue”  of  Pentecost. 
The  origin  of  its  use  is  uncertain:  no  spe¬ 
cial  mention  is  made  of  it  before  the  ninth 
century. 

Miz'pah  ( watch-tower ).  (1)  The  Mtzpeh 

of  Gilead  (Judg.  xi.  29),  Ramath-mizpeh 
(Josh.  xiii.  26),  and  Ramoth-gilead  (1  Kings 
iv.  13),  were  probably  the  same  place. 
Here  Jacob  and  Laban  set  up  a  heap  of 
stones  as  a  landmark  between  them  (Gen. 
xxxi.  23,  25,  48,  52),  and  here  Jephthah  was 
met  by  his  daughter.  (Judg.  xi.  34.)  It  is 


Moa 


(  623  ) 


Moh 


identified  with  the  modern  Jebei  Osha, 
three  miles  northwest  of  Ramoth-gilead. 
(2)  The  Mizpah  of  Benjamin  (Josh,  xviii. 
26)  is  generally  identified  with  the  modern 
Neby  Samwil.  Here  Saul  was  elected  king 
(r  Sam.  x.  17-21),  and  Gedaliah  was  mur¬ 
dered.  (2  Kings  xxv.  23,  25.) 

Moab,  a  name  used  in  designating  both 
the  Moabites  and  their  territory,  which  lay 
along  the  eastern  shore  of  the  Dead  Sea 
and  the  lower  course  of  the  Jordan.  It  is 
a  well-watered,  fertile',  and  mountainous 
country,  rising  more  than  three  thousand 
feet  above  the  level  of  the  sea.  By  an¬ 
cestry  and  language  the  Moabites  were 
related  both  to  the  Israelites  and  Edomites. 
They  were  addicted  to  sensual  habits,  and 
worshiped  Chemosh  as  their  chief  divin¬ 
ity.  (1  Kings  xi.  7,  33;  2  Kings  xxiii.  13.) 
Human  sacrifices,  especially  of  children, 
were  made  in  their  worship.  (2  Kings  iii. 
27.)  Chedorlaomer  subdued  the  Emim, 
the  original  inhabitants  of  the  country,  in 
the  time  of  Abraham.  (Gen.  xiv.  5.)  After 
the  Moabites  took  possession  of  the  coun¬ 
try  they  were  ruled  by  their  own  kings, 
but  were  subdued,  and  became  dependent 
to  the  Amorites  in  the  territory  north  of 
the  Arnon,  and  to  Israel  south  of  the 
Arnon.  When  the  separation  of  the  two 
kingdoms  took  place,  Moab  followed  Is¬ 
rael.  (2  Kings  iii.  4.)  They  favored  the 
revolt  against  Nebuchadnezzar,  but  when 
he  marched  against  Israel  they  at  once 
joined  his  forces.  Nothing  further  is 
known  of  their  history.  The  country  be¬ 
longed  to  the  Nabataeans  until  A.  D.  105, 
when  it  fell  into  the  hands  of  the  Romans. 
The  ancient  cities  of  Moab  are  now  in 
ruins,  and  the  scattered  population  roam¬ 
ing  through  the  country  is  of  a  degraded 
type.  In  1868  the  famous  Moabite  stone 
was  discovered  by  Mr.  Klein  (a  German 
missionary  at  Jerusalem),  near  the  walls 
of  old  Dibon.  It  is  a  slab  of  black  basalt, 

3  feet,  8j£  inches  high,  2  feet,  3 )/>  inches 
wide,  and  1  foot,  1.78  inches  thick.  The 
stone  is  now  in  the  museum  of  the  Louvre 
in  Paris. 

Modalism,  a  term  used  to  denote  the  doc¬ 
trine,  first  set  forth  by  Sabellius,  that  the 
Father,  the  Son,  and  the  Holy  Spirit  were 
not  three  distinct  personalities,  but  only 
three  different  modes  of  manifestation.  See 
Christology;  Monarchianism;  Sabel- 
lianism;  Trinity. 

Moderates,  a  name  given  to  a  party  in  the 
Established  Church  of  Scotland,  during  the 
eighteenth  century,  who  were  lax  in  their 
doctrinal  views.  The  discussions  which  I 
grew  out  of  their  position  finally  culmi¬ 


nated  in  the  organization  of  the  Free 
Church. 

Moderator  is  the  title  of  the  presiding 
officer  of  Presbyterian  courts  (session,  pres¬ 
bytery,  synod,  general  assembly).  The 
title  is  often  used  to  distinguish  the  presid¬ 
ing  officer  in  Congregational  assemblies. 

Moffat,  Robert,  D.  D.,  “African  mis¬ 
sionary,  was  born  at  Ormiston,  Hadding¬ 
tonshire,  Scotland,  on  December  21,  1795, 
of  humble  parentage.  Moffat  learned  the 
craft  of  gardening,  but  in  1814  offered  him¬ 
self  to  the  London  Missionary  Society, 
who,  in  1816,  sent  him  out  to  South  Africa. 
After  spending  a  year  in  Namaqua  Land 
with  the  powerful  and  dreaded  chief  Afri¬ 
caner,  whom  he  converted,  Moffat  returned 
,  to  Cape  Town  in  1819,  and  married  Miss 
Mary  Smith,  a  remarkable  woman  and 
most  helpful  wife.  In  1820  Moffat  and  his 
wife  left  the  Cape,  and  proceeded  to  Griqua 
Town,  and  ultimately  settled  at  Kuruman, 
among  the  Bechuana  tribes  lying  to  the 
west  of  the  Vaal  River.  Here  he  worked 
as  a  missionary  till  1870,  when  he  reluc¬ 
tantly  returned  finally  to  his  native  land. 
He  made  frequent  journeys  into  the  neigh¬ 
boring  regions,  as  far  north  as  the  Matabele 
country,  to  the  south  of  the  Zambezi.  The 
results  of  these  journeys  he  communicated 
to  the  Royal  Geographical  Society  (Jour. 
P.  G.  S.  xxv.,  xxviii.,  and  Proc.  ii. ),  and 
when  in  England  in  1842  he  published  his 
well-known  Missionary  Labours  and  Scenes 
in  South  Africa.  Single-handed  he  trans- 
I  lated  the  whole  of  the  Bible  into  Bechuana. 
While  solicitous  to  turn  the  people  to 
Christian  belief  and  practice,  Moffat  was, 
perhaps,  the  first  to  take  a  broad  view  of 
the  missionary  function,  and  to  realize  the 
importance  of  inducing  the  savage  to  adopt 
the  arts  of  civilization.  He  himself  was 
builder,  carpenter,  smith,  gardener,  farm¬ 
er,  all  in  one,  and  by  precept  and  example 
he  succeeded  in  turning  a  horde  of  blood¬ 
thirsty  savages  into  a  ‘  people  appreciating 
and  cultivating  the  arts  and  habits  of  civil¬ 
ized  life,  with  a  written  language  of  their 
own.’  Now  we  find  more  or  less  Christian¬ 
ized  communities  extending  from  Kuruman 
to  near  the  Zambezi.  Moffat  met  with  in¬ 
credible  discouragement  and  dangers  at 
first,  which  he  overcame  by  his  strong 
faith,  determination,  and  genial  humor.  It 
was  largely  due  to  him  that  the  work  of 
Livingstone,  his  son-in-law,  took  the  direc¬ 
tion  it  did.  On  his  return  to  England,  Mof¬ 
fat  received  a  testimonial  of  about  ,£6,000. 
He  died  at  Leigh,  near  Tunbridge  Wells, 
August  9,  1883.” — Ency.  Britannica. 

Mohammed,  Mohammedanism.  Neither 


Moh 


1  <>24  ) 


Moh 


Greek  nor  Roman  paganism  obtained  more 
sway  over  the  minds  of  the  desert  tribes 
than  the  military  power  of  those  nations 
acquired  over  their  bodies,  and  it  was 
among  these  that  the  greatest  of  all  op¬ 
ponents  of  Christianity  arose.  The  Ara¬ 
bians  preserved  a  tolerably  accurate  tra¬ 
dition  of  their  existence  as  a  free  nation 
from  the  day  of  Abraham  and  Ishmael;  and 
their  religion  appears  to  have  been  derived 
from  a  period  as  remote,  for  it  was  a  com¬ 
pound  of  the  ancient  Sabaean  religion  and 
of  the  patriarchal  religion,  of  which  we 
seem  to  have  a  new  founder  in  Abraham 
himself.  The  Sabaean  religion  consisted 
at  first  in  the  worship  of  the  ‘  ‘  host  of  heav¬ 
en,”  the  sun,  moon,  and  stars,  without  the 
use  of  idols;  but  afterward  images  were 
made  to  represent  them,  and  we  find  Terah 
mentioned  as  an  idolater.  (Joshua  xxiv.  2- 
14.)  Laban  also  used  idols  while  Jacob  was 
in  his  family;  and  idols  were  in  use  among 
the  descendants  of  Ishmael  until  the  time 
of  Mohammed.  Their  religion,  so  far  as 
it  was  true,  would  necessarily  be  that  of 
Abraham,  not  of  Moses,  and,  so  far  as  it 
was  false,  it  would  be  of  that  Sabaean  char¬ 
acter  which  has  just  been  mentioned.  A 
mixture  of  this  kind,  in  which  Abrahamic 
traditions  and  a  very  corrupt  form  of  Sa- 
baeanism  were  the  principal  elements,  ap¬ 
pears  to  have  been  the  actual  religion  of 
Arabia,  unaffected  in  the  mass  by  Chris¬ 
tianity,  at  the  time  when  Mohammed  arose. 
The  new  religion,  therefore,  sprang  up  in 
a  soil  which  had  already  given  birth  to  an 
Eclecticism  in  which  there  were  probably 
more  ancient  primeval  or  patriarchal  ingre¬ 
dients  than  in  any  of  the  known  pagan  sys¬ 
tems. 

Mohammed  (a.  d.  570-632)  wras  born  of 
parents  who  belonged  to  an  Arabian  tribe 
which  claimed  a  descent  from  Joktan,  the 
son  of  Eber  (Gen.  x.  25-29),  and  not  from 
Ishmael.  This  tribe  went  by  the  name  of 
the  Koreish,  and  they  were  considered 
“  Araba  el  Araba,”  as  St.  Paul  declared 
himself  a  “  Hebrew  of  the  Hebrews,”  on 
account  of  the  purity  of  their  blood.  Some 
years  before  the  time  of  Mohammed’s  pub¬ 
lic  life  there  had  been  signs  of  dissatisfac¬ 
tion  among  some  members  of  this  tribe 
with  the  religion  then  current,  and  they 
craved  after  one  more  in  accordance  with 
the  religion  of  Abraham.  Four  are  es¬ 
pecially  remembered  by  name — Waraca, 
Othman,  Obayd  Allah,  and  Zayd — who 
were  thus  seeking  for  some  higher  faith 
than  the  superstition  in  which  they  had 
been  brought  up.  The  first  two  of  these 
shortly  became  Christians;  the  third,  after 
he  had  been  for  a  time  seduced  into  being 
a  follower  of  Mohammed.  The  fourth, 
Zayd,  became  a  great  reformer  of  Arabian 


religion  at  Mecca,  proclaiming  the  Unity 
of  God,  and  denouncing  idolatry;  and  he 
probably  laid  the  foundation  of  the  better 
parts  of  Mohammedanism,  though  he  was 
murdered  before  he  could  obtain  an  inter¬ 
view  with  Mohammed  himself. 

It  was  in  the  year  570  of  the  Christian 
era  that  Mohammed  was  born,  and  about 
609  (five  years  after  the  death  of  St.  Au¬ 
gustine,  first  archbishop  of  Canterbury) 
that  he  declared  himself  to  be  the  Prophet 
of  God. 

Mohammed  belonged  to  the  family  of  the 
Hashemites,  who  were  considered  the 
most  illustrious  members  of  the  tribe,  and 
to  whom  the  care  of  the  temple  at  Mecca 
(ancient  when  Mohammed  was  born)  was 
entrusted.  His  father  dying  while  Mo¬ 
hammed  was  young,  the  boy  was  brought 
„  up  by  an  uncle,  named  Abu  Thaleb,  who 
was,  like  most  of  the  tribe,  a  merchant  en¬ 
gaged  in  exchanging  the  fruits,  spices,  and 
perfumes  of  Arabia  for  the  corn  and  other 
productions  of  more  temperate  lands.  It 
is  doubtful  whether  Mohammed  was  ever 
able  to  read  and  write,  but  it  is  on  record 
that  he  became  very  early  proficient  in  the 
kind  of  commerce  in  which  his  uncle  was 
engaged.  As  soon  as  he  reached  manhood, 
he  became  factor,  agent,  and  commercial 
traveler  to  a  rich  widow,  who  carried  on 
the  trade  of  her  deceased  husband;  and  the 
cleverness  of  Mohammed  in  this  occupa¬ 
tion  was  so  satisfactory  to  the  rich  Kadijah 
that  she  proposed  to  him  to  become  her 
husband.  They  married,  and  seem  to 
have  retired  from  business  with  an  im¬ 
mense  fortune,  the  age  of  the  adventurer 
being  now  twenty-five,  and  that  of  his  rich 
wife  forty.  Up  to  this  period  he  appears 
in  the  character  of  a  mere  adventurer  of  a 
very  ordinary  sort;  but  it  seems  probable 
that  his  rapid  accession  to  position  and  for¬ 
tune  aroused  an  ambition  for  still  greater 
success,  and  that  this,  combined  with  a 
certain  religiousness  of  disposition,  accord¬ 
ing  to  the  current  religion  of  Mecca  at  that 
time,  influenced  him  to  undertake  the  im¬ 
posture  on  which  his  subsequent  greatness 
was  founded.  As  Mohammedanism  is  a 
mixture  of  truth  and  error,  so  the  character 
of  its  founder  seems  to  have  been  far  from 
one  of  unmixed  evil;  and  at  the  beginning 
of  his  career  he  was  neither  the  voluptuary 
nor  the  impostor  that  he  afterward  be¬ 
came.  It  would  seem,  indeed,  that,  like 
Zayd,  he  began  by  looking  for  a  higher  and 
more  devotional  system  of  religion  than 
that  by  which  he  was  surrounded;  that  as¬ 
ceticism  and  excess  of  self-contemplation 
led  him  on  to  wild  notions  of  his  own  mis¬ 
sion  as  a  religious  reformer  within  the  limit¬ 
ed  circle  of  his  own  acquaintance  and  city; 
that  the  idea  of  religious  reformation  be- 


Moh 


(  f)25  ) 


Moh 


came  transmuted  by  success  into  that  of  a 
universal  new  religion;  and  that  the  neces¬ 
sities  of  his  advanced  movements  made 
Mohammed  far  more  of  an  impostor  than 
he  had  been  in  a  more  limited  sphere, 
while  his  asceticism  and  religious  charac¬ 
ter  broke  down  under  the  intoxication  of 
his  enormous  success. 

There  was  an  interval  of  some  years  be¬ 
tween  the  marriage  of  the  young  Moham¬ 
med  with  the  mature  Kadijah  and  his  as¬ 
sumption  of  the  office  of  prophet.  For 
thirteen  years,  in  fact,  we  have  little  or  no 
clue  to  his  mode  of  life,  and  he  is  thirty- 
eight  years  of  age  before  we  see  the  begin¬ 
ning  of  that  career  which  subsequently 
opened  out  for  him.  From  that  age  until 
forty  he  was  known  to  retire  frequently  to 
a  cave  near  Mecca,  called  the  Cave  of  Hira, 
where  it  is  said  that  he  practised  great 
mortifications  as  a  preparation  for  his  office ; 
and  at  the  end  of  that  time  he  declared 
himself  to  his  now  aged  wife  and  some 
others  of  his  family,  as  a  prophet  of  God. 
Three  years  more  passed,  and  the  circle  of 
his  adherents  was  widened  by  his  open 
proclamation  of  himself  as  a  prophet  en¬ 
trusted  with  a  great  mission  to  all  the  fam¬ 
ily  of  Hashem,  and  in  his  forty-fourth 
year  (a.  d.  613)  Mohammed  declared  pub¬ 
licly  to  the  people  of  Mecca  that  he  had 
been  sent  by  God  to  reform  their  religion, 
and  to  put  down  the  idolatry  of  the  city. 
At  first  he  was  met  by  ridicule  and  insult; 
but  a  religious  reformer  who  shows  him¬ 
self  to  be  in  earnest  will  not  long  want  ad¬ 
herents,  and  in  a  few  months  those  of  Mo¬ 
hammed  began  so  to  increase  that  the  sup¬ 
porters  of  the  old  religion  were  alarmed, 
and  became  fierce  opponents  of  him  and  his 
pretensions,  endeavoring  to  put  him  to 
death.  In  consequence  of  this  opposition 
he  sought  refuge  in  a  town  named  Tayef, 
not  very  far  distant  from  Mecca,  where  he 
continued  to  make  proselytes  by  preaching 
his  new  religion — for  it  was  now  develop¬ 
ing  into  this — to  his  neighbors,  and  to  the 
caravans  which  traveled  to  Mecca.  He 
afterward  returned  to  Mecca,  until  compel¬ 
led,  by  an  insurrection  which  his  preaching 
had  aroused,  to  fly  for  his  life  to  Yalreb,  or 
Medina.  This  flight  began  on  July  16,  622, 
and  that  day  has  been  the  era  from  which 
all  Mussulman  chronology  is  reckoned 
since  the  days  of  Mohammed,  so  that  an 
event  which  is,  by  our  computation,  Anno 
Domini  1886,  is  by  the  Mohammedans 
(after  July)  reckoned  in  the  1304th  year  of 
the  Hegira  or  Flight. 

There  are  only  354  days  in  the  Moham¬ 
medan  year,  which  accounts  for  the  dis¬ 
crepancy  in  the  number  of  years  between 
the  Christian  and  the  Mohammedan  reck¬ 
oning  of  the  interval  between  a.  d.  622  and 


the  present  time;  100  Christian  being 
equal  to  about  103  Mohammedan  years. 

The  city  to  which  Mohammed  fled  had 
been  in  no  small  degree  prepared  for  his 
reception.  Pilgrims  had  come  from  thence 
to  Mecca,  and  had  heard  of  the  fame  of 
Mohammed.  The  city  of  Medina  had  been 
originally  occupied  by  two  tribes,  one  of 
idolatrous  Arabs  and  one  of  Jews.  A  fierce 
war  arose  between  the  rival  races;  it  ter¬ 
minated  in  the  defeat  of  the  Jews,  who  were 
reduced  to  slavery.  Amid  their  sufferings 
they  were  frequently  heard  to  exclaim, 
“  Oh!  if  the  appointed  time  of  the  Messiah 
had  arrived,  we  would  seek  him,  and  he 
would  deliver  us  from  this  tyranny.” 
When  the  Medinese  pilgrims  heard  the  ac¬ 
count  of  the  new  prophet  at  Mecca,  they 
said  to  one  another,  “  Can  this  be  the 
Messiah  of  whom  the  Jews  are  constantly 
speaking  ?  Let  us  find  him  out,  and  gain 
him  over  to  our  interests.”  Mohammed 
at  once  saw  what  an  advantage  he  had 
gained  by  such  a  prepossession;  he  de¬ 
clared  he  was  the  person  whom  the  Jews 
expected,  but  that  his  mission  was  not  con¬ 
fined  to  a  single  people,  for  all  who  be¬ 
lieved  in  God  and  his  prophet  should  share 
its  advantages.  (Taylor’s  History  of  Ma- 
hommedanism ,  p.  105.) 

It  was  probably  from  this  time  that  Mo¬ 
hammed  began  to  be  an  intentional  impos¬ 
tor,  claiming  to  be  far  more  than  a  reformer 
of  religion ;  and  it  is  a  curious  fact  that  the 
chronology  of  the  great  antichristian  im¬ 
posture  which  he  founded  should  be  reck¬ 
oned,  not  from  the  time  when  he  showed 
himself  in  the  character  of  a  reforming  ser¬ 
vant  of  God,  but  from  a  period  thirteen 
years  later,  when  his  assumptions  were  of 
a  much  less  excusable  kind. 

It  was  about  this  period  of  Mohammed’s 
career  that  the  Koran  began  to  be  produced 
as  an  authority.  He  had  declared,  in  the 
first  instance,  that  he  had  received  a  mes¬ 
sage  from  God  by  Gabriel;  and  that  pre¬ 
tended  message  was  succeeded,  he  alleged, 
by  many  others.  These  were  taken  down 
from  the  lips  of  Mohammed,  and  written 
on  bones  or  on  palm-leaves,  and,  when  col¬ 
lected,  formed  the  Koran,  a  book  which 
holds  the  same  place  in  the  estimation  of 
the  Mohammedans  that  the  Holy  Bible 
does  among  Christians.  It  is  said  to  be 
very  beautiful  reading  in  the  original 
Arabic,  in  which  it  is  written,  but  in  English 
a  great  part  of  it  is  nonsense,  while  some 
of  it  is  grossly  immoral  and  profane.  This 
book  was  written  down  by  the  companions 
of  Mohammed  at  various  periods  during 
the  course  of  his  public  life;  and  portions 
of  it  show  that  he  had  an  imperfect  ac¬ 
quaintance  with  Old  Testament  history  and 
with  the  facts  of  the  Gospel;  but  all  is 


Moh 


(  626  ) 


Moh 


grossly  distorted,  and  ludicrous  fables  are 
added  on  to  some  of  the  most  solemn  his¬ 
tories  of  Holy  Writ.  The  great  burden  of 
the  book  is  that  Mohammed  is  the  prophet 
of  God.  Christ  is  named,  as  is  also  the 
Virgin  Mary;  but  the  miraculous  concep¬ 
tion  and  birth  of  Jesus  are  denied,  and  he 
is  declared  to  be  the  son  of  Joseph  as  well 
as  of  Mary.  To  win  the  support  of  igno¬ 
rant  Christians,  Mohammed  allowed  that 
Jesus  was  a  prophet,  but  only  in  a  very 
inferior  degree  to  himself;  the  latter  and 
not  the  former  being  set  forth  as  the  great 
centre,  next  to  God  himself,  of  the  religious 
system  inculcated  in  the  book.  (Koran.) 

The  flight  to  Yalreb  was  the  turning- 
point  of  Mohammed’s  career.  The  religion 
which  he  had  already  begun  to  found  now 
took  shape  as  a  form  of  doctrine,  worship, 
and  morals;  and  mosques  began  to  be 
erected  in  which  it  might  have  a  local 
habitation.  The  citizens  of  Yalreb  were 
predisposed  in  favor  of  Mohammed,  and 
showed  as  much  eagerness  to  receive  him 
as  those  of  Mecca  had  shown  to  get  rid  of 
him.  They  welcomed  him  to  their  city  in 
procession,  as  their  sovereign  and  religious 
head,  and  changed  its  name  from  Yalreb  to 
Medinet-al-Nabi,  the  City  of  the  Prophet, 
by  which  latter  name,  contracted  to  Medina 
among  ourselves,  it  has  ever  since  been 
known.  Then  began  the  military  charac¬ 
ter  of  the  new  religion,  a  character  which 
essentially  belonged  to  it  for  a  very  long 
period.  Christianity  mastered  the  world 
before  a  single  sword  even  was  drawn  in 
its  defence;  but  Mohammedanism  was  prop¬ 
agated  by  violence  from  the  beginning. 
At  first  the  new  “prophet”  had  but  a 
small  band  of  about  three  hundred  military 
followers,  but  with  these  he  made  a  suc¬ 
cessful  raid  on  a  caravan  of  the  rich  prod¬ 
uce  of  Arabia,  which  was  proceeding 
from  Mecca  to  Syria  under  the  escort  of  a 
thousand  soldiers,  headed  by  Abu  Sophian, 
the  successor  of  Abu  Taleb,  in  what  was 
practically  the  sovereignty  of  Mecca.  The 
small  force  of  Mohammed  was  on  the  point 
of  being  defeated,  when  he  pretended  to 
have  had  an  interview  with  the  angel 
Gabriel,  and  as  he  threw  a  handful  of  sand 
toward  the  Meccans,  with  the  exclamation, 
“  May  their  faces  be  confounded  !”  his 
followers  concluded  that  a  miracle  was 
being  wrought  in  their  favor,  and  with  the 
fierceness  which  such  a  persuasion  has 
always  given  men  in  battle,  they  made  a 
fresh  onslaught,  which  ended  in  the  total 
rout  of  those  who  had  opposed  them,  and 
the  capture  of  an  immense  boot)'.  This 
success  led  Mohammed  to  assume  a  much 
more  haughty  position,  and  he  now  pre¬ 
tended  to  be  guided  by  special  revelations 
from  heaven  in  all  his  undertakings.  A 


second  encounter  between  Abu  Sophian 
and  Mohammed  in  the  following  year 
ended  in  the  defeat  of  the  latter;  but  as 
the  advantage  was  not  followed  up,  each 
party  remained  in  strong  force,  and  for  a 
time  the  whole  of  Arabia  was  the  arena  of 
most  horrible  petty  warfare,  in  which 
plunder  and  murder  were  the  object  of 
both  sides.  Then  came  the  siege  of  Medina 
by  the  Meccans,  which  ended  in  a  truce 
between  Mohammed  and  his  opponents  for 
the  long  period  of  ten  years. 

The  prophet  then  began  to  plunder  and 
slay  the  rich  Jews  who  thronged  the  towns 
within  his  reach;  and  by  this  means  ob¬ 
tained  great  treasure  for  his  further  pro¬ 
ceedings.  Some  he  caused  to  be  privately 
assassinated  by  small  bands  of  his  follow¬ 
ers  who  presented  themselves  as  guests, 
and  became  the  murderers  of  their  enter¬ 
tainers.  By  this  means  Mohammed  grad¬ 
ually  advanced  toward  Mecca,  increasing 
his  numbers  and  his  wealth  without  act¬ 
ually  breaking  the  treaty  which  had  been 
made  between  him  and  the  army  of  Mecca. 
Then  he  found  a  pretense  for  invading  the 
city  itself,  declaring  that  the  truce  had 
been  broken  by  his  opponents;  but  as  he 
was  now  at  the  head  of  an  army  which 
numbered  ten  thousand  men,  the  city  sur¬ 
rendered  to  him  on  condition  of  his  not 
entering  it  for  a  year,  and  of  his  followers 
meanwhile  performing  their  pilgrimages 
to  the  Kaaba,  the  ancient  temple  of  the 
Arabians,  unarmed  with  any  weapon  but 
their  swords.  During  the  interval,  the 
false  prophet  employed  himself  in  extend¬ 
ing  his  conquests  over  neighboring  tribes, 
and  especially  in  subduing  and  plundering 
the  Jews;  and  he  also  sent  ambassadors  to 
Persia,  Constantinople,  and  Ethiopia,  in¬ 
viting  monarchs  and  people  to  adopt  the 
new  religion.  The  king  of  Ethiopia  was 
ready  to  become  a  convert;  the  emperor 
of  Constantinople,  Heraclius,  returned  a 
politic  but  indifferent  answer;  and  only  the 
Persian  sovereign  showed  indignation  at 
the  effrontery  of  the  adventurer.  He  tore 
in  pieces  the  letter,  and  denounced  the 
message  as  insolent.  “  Thus  may  Allah 
tear  his  kingdom  !”  was  the  reply  of  Mo¬ 
hammed. 

When  the  time  came  for  Mohammed  to 
visit  Mecca,  he  entered  the  city  in  the  two¬ 
fold  character  of  conqueror  and  religious 
reformer.  His  first  act  was  to  go  to  the 
Kaaba,  and  cause  all  the  three  hundred 
and  sixty  idols  to  be  destroyed,  laying  his 
hand  on  each,  and  saying:  “  Truth  has 
come,  let  falsehood  disappear.”  His  oppo¬ 
sition  to  idolatry  was  always  consistent 
and  energetic.  No  doubt  this  opposition 
to  idolatry  became  one  great  means  of 
gaining  over  most  of  the  Iconoclasts ,  who 


Moh 


(  627  ) 


Moh 


had  done  so  much  harm  to  Christianity  in 
the  East.  These  religionists  were  power¬ 
fully  impressed  with  the  evil  of  using 
images  of  saints  and  of  our  Lord,  and 
finding  the  new  imposture  agree  with  their 
-own  principles  in  this  particular,  they 
looked  on  such  a  basis  of  agreement  as  one 
which  they  could  adopt,  without  consider¬ 
ing  the  important  points  of  fundamental 
difference.  Certain  it  is  that  many  such 
Christians  were  gained  over  by  the  im¬ 
postor. 

The  personal  supremacy  of  Mohammed 
over  the  whole  of  Arabia  was  now  estab¬ 
lished,  and  he  began  to  carry  his  arms 
against  Palestine,  which  was  then  under 
the  dominion  of  Heraclius,  the  emperor 
of  Constantinople;  but  the  expedition  end¬ 
ing  without  any  engagement  between  the 
Christians  and  the  Moslems,  Mohammed 
returned  to  Medina.  His  mode  of  life  at 
this  time  was  of  the  most  sensual  descrip¬ 
tion.  One  of  his  rules  in  the  Koran  for 
all  his  followers  was,  that  they  were  to 
practice  polygamy  only  to  the  extent  of 
having  four  wives  each.  To  justify  him¬ 
self  in  possessing  a  much  larger  number, 
he  pretended  a  fresh  revelation,  by  which 
he  was  to  be  allowed  any  number  that  he 
pleased;  and  there  can  be  no  doubt  that 
sensual  excesses  shortened  his  days. 

The  death  of  Mohammed  took  place  on 
June  8,  632,  when  he  was  at  the  age  of 
sixty-three.  Poisoned  food  had  been  given 
him  some  years  before  by  a  Jewish  slave, 
but  before  he  had  partaken  of  it  in  sufficient 
quantity  to  cause  immediate  fatal  effects, 
the  woman’s  act  was  discovered.  The 
poison  remained,  however,  in  his  system, 
and  acting  upon  a  frame  exhausted  by  dis¬ 
sipation  carried  him  off  at  the  time  named, 
after  sixteen  days  of  raving  fanaticism. 
He  left  no  son,  and  only  one  daughter, 
Fatima,  behind  him.  His  body  was  buried 
in  a  grave  dug  under  the  bed  on  which  he 
had  died,  and  a  mosque  erected  over  the 
spot  has  become  the  scene  of  as  much  vir¬ 
tual  idolatry  in  Medina  as  ever  was  prac¬ 
ticed  in  the  Kaaba  at  Mecca. 

Mohammed  left  to  his  followers  a  new 
religion  and  the  germ  of  an  empire.  He 
was  succeeded  in  his  rule  over  the  latter 
by  Abu  Beke  (a.  d.  571-634),  the  father  of 
his  favorite  wife  Ayesha,  and  the  first  of 
the  four  Caliphs  by  whom  the  Moslem 
Empire  was  founded.  Within  thirty  years 
from  his  death,  his  followers  had  conquered 
the  whole  of  Syria,  Egypt,  and  Mesopo¬ 
tamia,  and  had  overthrown  the  empire  of 
the  Persians.  The  second  of  his  four  great 
successors,  the  Caliph  Omar  (582-644),  took 
Jerusalem  in  the  year  637,  and  built  on  the 
site  of  the  temple  the  mosque  which  has 
since  been  called  by  his  name.  It  was  he 


also  who  destroyed  the  great  library  of 
Alexandria  three  years  afterward,  declaring 
that  no  books  were  needed  besides  the 
Koran:  by  that  ignorant  and  savage  act  he 
deprived  the  world  of  some  of  its  greatest 
literary  treasures,  including  probably  many 
Christian  writings,  and  many  primitive 
manuscripts  of  the  Holy  Scriptures.  Omar 
was  also  the  first  of  the  Mohammedan 
rulers  who  assumed  the  title  of  “  Com¬ 
mander  of  the  Faithful;”  and  he,  in  fact, 
consolidated  that  which  Mohammed  him¬ 
self  had  founded,  and,  to  a  great  extent, 
completed  his  work.  “  During  the  reign 
of  Omar,”  says  the  Mohammedan  historian, 
“  the  Saracens  conquered  thirty-six  thou¬ 
sand  cities,  towns,  and  castles,  destroyed 
four  thousand  Christian,  Magian,  and  Pa¬ 
gan  temples,  and  erected  fourteen  hundred 
mosques.”  As  to  the  latter  item,  it  is  cer¬ 
tain  that  many  mosques  yet  exist — as  that 
of  St.  Sophia  at  Constantinople  —  which 
were  originally  Christian  churches.  The 
early  course  of  this  false  religion  was,  in¬ 
deed,  that  of  a  most  sanguinary  propagan- 
dism,  cruelties  and  acts  of  tyranny  being 
perpetrated,  under  the  plea  of  devotion  to 
God  and  his  prophet  Mohammed,  such  as 
no  civilized  conquerors  had  ever  been 
guilty  of. 

The  third  caliph,  Othman  (a.  d.  574-656), 
who  had  been  secretary  to  Mohammed,  ex¬ 
tended  the  conquests  of  Omar,  and  with 
them  the  new  religion.  Persia  was  entirely 
subdued,  the  north  of  Africa,  and  some  of 
the  islands  in  the  Mediterranean.  He  was 
murdered  by  his  own  people  in  the  mosque 
at  Medina,  and  succeeded  by  Ali  (a.  d. 
598-661),  a  first  cousin  of  Mohammed,  al¬ 
most  his  first  convert,  and  the  husband  of 
his  daughter  Fatima.  He,  too,  after  some 
years  of  civil  war,  was  stabbed  in  a  mosque 
(that  of  Cufa),  being  the  last  of  the  imme¬ 
diate  successors  of  Mohammed.  The  seat 
of  the  empire  was  then  removed  to  Damas¬ 
cus. 

It  is  not  necessary  to  go  into  much  de¬ 
tail  respecting  the  subsequent  history  of 
Mohammedan  conquest,  and  it  will  be  suf¬ 
ficient  just  to  sketch  out  in  a  few  words  the 
progress  which  it  made  between  the  time 
of  these,  its  great  founders,  and  the  period 
at  which  modern  history  begins.  Let  it  be 
said,  then,  that  almost  the  whole  of  Asia 
(Asia  Minor  excepted)  was  subdued  during 
the  time  of  the  first  four  caliphs,  and  that 
in  the  reign  of  the  first  caliph  of  Damascus 
(a.  d.  675)  the  empire  penetrated  as  far  as 
Tangier  and  the  Atlantic.  A  few  years 
later  the  entire  north  of  Africa  was  part  of 
the  empire,  as  far  as  the  Straits  of  Gibral¬ 
tar.  In  71 1  Spain,  on  the  north  of  those 
straits,  was  successfully  invaded  by  the 
Arab  conquerors,  who  retained  possession 


Moh 


(  62S  ) 


Moh 


of  that  part  of  Europe  until  1492.  Under 
Solyman  the  greater  part  of  Asia  Minor 
was  conquered  —  that  is,  in  A.  D.  717 
(though  Constantinople  was  not  conquered 
until  1453),  and  about  the  same  time  the 
northern  parts  of  India  were  subdued. 
The  armies  had  even  penetrated  into  the 
south  of  France,  and  it  was  not  until  the 
defeat  of  Abdurrahman  by  Charles  Martel 
in  732  that  there  seemed  any  hope  of 
preventing  that  which  Mohammed  had 
directed  his  followers  to  accomplish — the 
subjugation  of  the  whole  world  to  his  rule 
and  religion.  It  brings  home  the  fact  of 
Mohammed’s  conquest  very  vividly  to 
our  minds  to  remember  that  Spain  was  a 
Mohammedan  country  for  eight  hundred 
years  before  the  Reformation,  and  down  to 
the  reign  of  Henry  VII.,  and  also  that 
for  some  centuries  the  empire  founded  on 
the  basis  of  this  religion  covered  as  large 
a  surface  of  the  globe  as  the  Roman  Em¬ 
pire  had  done  in  the  most  prosperous  days 
of  the  Caesars.  When  it  is  remembered 
that  wherever  the  arms  of  the  invaders 
penetrated,  there  the  religion  of  the  false 
prophet  in  whose  name  they  fought  and 
ruled  was  propagated  and  enforced,  it  will 
be  conceived  how  mighty  an  enemy  Chris¬ 
tianity  had  to  contend  with  in  these  middle 
ages  of  its  history.  Even  now,  ninety-six 
millions  of  Mohammedans  occupy  some  of 
the  fairest  portions  of  the  Eastern  Hemi¬ 
sphere.  This  religion  has  almost  entire 
possession  of  the  northern  half  of  Africa, 
of  Turkey  in  Europe,  of  Arabia,  Persia, 
the  Holy  Land,  Asia  Minor,  and  some 
parts  of  India;  and  very  few  of  its  devotees 
have  ever  become  converts  to  Christianity. 

Principles  of  Mohammedanism. —  Let 
us  now  endeavor  to  sum  up  the  principles  of 
Mohammedanism,  as  it  has  been  exhibited 
to  the  world  for  twelve  centuries  and  a 
quarter. 

First  of  all,  it  must  be  noted  that  Mo¬ 
hammedanism  professes  an  unbounded 
veneration  for  the  doctrine  of  the  unity  of 
God.  “  Islamism,”  says  the  Moham¬ 
medan  doctor,  “  rests  on  five  foundations, 
of  which  the  first  is  the  confession  of  God, 
that  there  is  no  other  God  beside  him,  and 
that  Mohammed  is  his  prophet;  the  second 
is  the  offering  up  of  prayer  at  stated  inter¬ 
vals;  the  third,  the  giving  of  alms;  the 
fourth,  fasting  during  the  month  Rama¬ 
dan;  and  the  fifth  is  the  pilgrimage  to 
Mecca,  which  every  person  must  perform 
who  is  able.”  In  as  far  as  this  confession 
of  one  God  stands  by  itself,  it  may  be  taken 
as  the  truth,  just  as  it  was  the  truth  for  the 
Jews  to  confess,  “  Hear,  O  Israel,  the 
Lord  thy  God  is  one  Lord.”  But  the  Koran 
entirely  repudiates  the  doctrine  of  the 
Trinity,  and  says  distinctly,  “  Jesus  was  a 


mere  mortal,  and  not  the  Son  of  God.”  His 
birth  by  a  supernatural  conception  is  de¬ 
nied;  his  resurrection  and  ascension  are 
taken  no  account  of.  Our  Lord  is  allowed 
to  have  been  a  holy  man,  a  messenger  from 
God,  but  his  place  as  the  object  of  man’s 
worship,  love,  and  hope,  is  denied  him. 
Hence  some  hold  it  to  be  an  error  to  call 
Mohammedanism  a  heresy.  Dante  views 
it  as  such  in  the  Inferno  {xxv iii.  35),  where 
he  speaks  of  Mohammed  and  his  followers, 
who 

“  While  they  lived  did  sow 
Scandal  and  schism,  and,  therefore,  thus  are  rent.” 

Other  writers  have  also  taken  this  idea, 
and  in  a  lecture  on  the  subject  Dean  Stan¬ 
ley  has  said  that  “  Mohammedanism  must 
be  regarded  as  an  eccentric  heretical  form 
of  Eastern  Christianity  ”  {Led.  on  Eecl. 
Hist.  p.  308).  But  the  essence  of  Moham¬ 
medanism,  others  maintain,  is  rather  to  re¬ 
pudiate  Christianity — i.  e.y  the  system  of 
religion  in  which  Christ  is  the  centre — and 
to  substitute  a  system  in  which  he  holds  a 
very  inferior  place,  and  which  would  not 
be  one  iota  changed  if  its  partial  acknowl¬ 
edgment  of  Christ  were  left  out  altogether. 
So  in  the  creed,  which  was  lately  quoted, 
the  complement  of  the  truth  that  there  is 
one  God  is  the  assertion  that  Mohammed 
is  his  prophet,  and  the  whole  foundation 
of  the  system  at  large  is  that  all  personal 
messengers  from  God  culminated  in  the 
person  of  Mohammed,  and  all  revelations 
in  the  Koran.  It  is  contended,  therefore, 
to  be  a  mistake  to  suppose  that  there  is  any 
ground  of  agreement  between  Christianity 
and  Mohammedanism,  for  when  once  they 
are  brought  face  to  face,  they  must  be  as 
much  opposed  to  each  other  as  Christianity 
and  Paganism. — Benham:  Did.  of  Religion. 
See  Dollinger:  MuhammecT s  Religion  (183S); 
Washington  Irving:  Mahomet  and  His  Suc¬ 
cessors  (1850);  Bos  worth  Smith:  Mohammed 
and  Mohammedanism  (1874);  E.  A.  Free¬ 
man:  History  and  Conquests  of  the  Saracens 
(1876);  T.  P.  Hughes:  Did.  of  Islam  (1885). 

Mohler,  Johann  Adam,  “  Roman  Catho¬ 
lic  theologian,  was  b.  at  the  village  of 
Igersheim,  in  Wiirtemburg,  on  May  6, 
1796,  and  after  studying  philosophy  and 
theology  in  the  Lyceum  at  Ellwagen,  en¬ 
tered  the  Wilhelmstift  in  the  University  of 
Tubingen  in  1S17.  Ordained  to  the  priest¬ 
hood  in  1819,  he  was  appointed  to  a  curacy 
at  Reedlingen,  but  speedily  returned  as 
‘  repetent  ’  to  Tubingen,  where  he  became 
privat-docent  in  1822,  extraordinary  pro¬ 
fessor  of  theology  in  1826,  and  ordinary  in 
1828.  The  controversies  excited  by  his 
Symbolik  { 1832)  proved  so  unpleasant  that 
in  1835  he  accepted  a  call  to  the  University 
of  Munich.  In  1838  he  was  appointed  to  the 


Mol 


(  629  ) 


Mol 


deanery  of  Wurzburg,  but  died  shortly 
afterward  (April  12,  1838).  It  is  with  the 
Syntbolik  that  his  name  is  chiefly  associated ; 
the  interest  excited  by  it  in  prominent 
circles  is  shown  by  the  fact  that  within  two 
years  of  its  appearance  it  had  elicited  three 
replies  of  considerable  importance,  those, 
namely,  of  Baur,  Marheineke,  and  Nitzsch. 
But,  although  characterized  by  abundant 
learning  and  acuteness,  as  well  as  by  con¬ 
siderable  breadth  of  spiritual  sympathy, 
and  thus  a  stimulative  and  suggestive  work, 
it  cannot  be  said  to  have  been  accepted  by 
Catholics  themselves  as  embodying  an 
accurate  objective  view  of  the  actual  doc¬ 
trine  of  their  Church.  The  liberal  school  of 
thought,  of  which  Mohler  was  a  promi¬ 
nent  exponent,  was  discouraged  in  official 
circles,  while  Protestants,  on  the  other 
hand,  complain  that  the  author  has  failed 
to  grasp  the  vast  significance  of  the  Refor¬ 
mation  as  a  great  movement  in  the  spirit¬ 
ual  history  of  mankind,  while  expending 
needless  pains  on  an  exposition  of  the  doc¬ 
trinal  shortcomings,  inconsistencies,  and 
contradictions  of  the  individuals  who  were 
its  leaders.” — Ency.  Britannica. 

Mo'lech  ( the  ruler )  (Lev.  xviii.  21),  or 
Moloch  (Acts  vii.  43),  and  also  Milcom  (i 
Kings  xi.  5),  the  chief  idol -god  of  the 
Ammonites,  whose  worship  was  attended 
with  human  sacrifices,  especially  of  chil¬ 
dren.  Though  warned  against  this  idolatry 
it  was  again  and  again  adopted  by  the 
Israelites.  (2  Kings  xvii.  10;  Ezek.  xx.  26.) 
The  place  where  they  worshiped  and 
sacrificed  at  Jerusalem  was  Tophet,  in  the 
valley  of  Hinnom.  It  was  from  this  place 
that  the  word  “  Gehenna,”  designating  the 
lower  world,  was  derived. 

Molinos  ( mo-lee-nds ),  Michael  de,  “was 
b.  of  noble  parentage  at  Saragossa,  in  the 
kingdom  of  Aragon,  Dec.  21,  1627.  He  re¬ 
ceived  holy  orders,  and  was  educated  at 
Pampeluna,  and  afterward  at  Coimbra,  at 
which  university  he  obtained  his  theological 
degree.  After  a  career  of  considerable  dis¬ 
tinction  in  his  native  country,  Molinos  went 
to  Rome,  where  he  soon  acquired  a  high  rep¬ 
utation  as  a  director  of  conscience,  and  a 
master  of  the  spiritual  life.  His  private 
character  was  in  keeping  with  his  public 
reputation.  He  steadily  declined  all  ecclesi¬ 
astical  preferment, and  confined  himself  en¬ 
tirely  to  his  duties  in  the  confessional,  and 
in  the  direction  of  souls.  An  ascetical  treat¬ 
ise  which  he  published,  under  the  title  of 
The  Spiritual  Guide ,  added  largely  to  the 
popularity  which  he  had  acquired  in  his  per¬ 
sonal  relations;  but  there  were  not  want¬ 
ing  many  who,  in  the  specious,  but  vision¬ 
ary  principles  of  this  work,  discovered  the 


seeds  of  a  dangerous  and  seductive  error. 
Among  these,  the  celebrated  preacher,  F. 
Segneri,  was  the  first  who  ventured  pub¬ 
licly  to  call  them  into  question;  but  his 
strictures  were,  by  the  friends  of  Molinos, 
ascribed  to  jealousy  of  the  influence  which 
Molinos  had  acquired  with  the  people. 
By  degrees,  however,  reports  unfavorable 
to  the  practical  results  of  this  teaching, 
and  even  to  the  personal  conduct  and 
character  of  Molinos,  or  of  his  followers, 
began  to  find  circulation;  and  eventually, 
in  the  year  1685,  he  was  cited  before  the 
Holy  Office,  and  subjected  to  close  im¬ 
prisonment  and  examination.  In  addition 
to  the  opinions  contained  in  his  book,  a 
prodigious  mass  of  papers  and  letters,  to 
the  number,  it  is  said,  of  20,000,  found  in 
his  house,  were  produced  against  him,  and 
he  was  himself  rigorously  examined  as  to 
his  opinions.  The  result  of  the  trial  was 
a  solemn  condemnation  of  sixty-eight  prop¬ 
ositions,  partly  extracted  from  his  Spirit- 
tial  Guide ,  partly,  it  would  appear,  drawn 
from  his  papers  or  his  personal  profes¬ 
sions.  These  doctrines  Molinos  was  re¬ 
quired  publicly  to  abjure,  and  he  was  him¬ 
self  sentenced  to  close  imprisonment,  in 
which  he  was  detained  until  his  death  in 
1696,  when  he  had  entered  on  his  70th  year. 
The  opinions  imputed  to  Molinos  may  be 
described  as  an  exaggeration  of  the  worst 
and  most  objectionable  principles  of  Quiet¬ 
ism  ( q .  v.).  According  to  the  propositions 
which  were  condemned  by  the  Inquisition, 
Molinos  pushed  to  such  an  extreme  the 
contemplative  repose  which  is  the  common 
characteristic  of  Quietism,  as  to  teach  the 
utter  indifference  of  the  soul,  in  a  state  of 
perfect  contemplation,  to  all  external 
things,  and  its  entire  independence  of  the 
outer  world,  even  of  the  actions  of  the  very 
body  which  it  animates;  insomuch  that  this 
internal  perfection  is  compatible  with  the 
worst  external  excesses.  These  conse¬ 
quences  are  by  no  means  openly  avowed 
in  the  Spiritual  Guide ,  but  they  appear  to 
follow  almost  necessarily  from  some  of  its 
maxims,  and  they  are  said  to  have  been 
plainly  contained  in  the  papers  of  Molinos, 
which  were  produced  at  his  trial,  and  to 
have  been  admitted  by  himself.  After  the 
death  of  Molinos,  no  further  trace  of  his 
teaching  appears  in  Italy,  but  it  was  re¬ 
vived  in  more  than  one  form  in  France.” 
— Chambers:  Cyclopcedia.  See  Molinos  the 
Quietist,  by  John  Bigelow  (New  York 
1882). 

Molokani,  a  Russian  sect  confined  most¬ 
ly  to  the  province  of  Samara  and  the  Kir- 
ghis  Steppe.  They  oppose  image-worship 
and  reject  episcopacy.  They  have  no 
creed,  and  accept  the  Scripture  as  the  only 


Mom 


(  630  ) 


Mon 


rule  of  faith.  Holding  their  meetings  in 
private  houses,  they  have  no  paid  clergy. 
Exercising  a  severe  discipline  in  their  con¬ 
gregations,  their  religious  life  is  exem¬ 
plary.  They  are  first  mentioned  in  the 
reign  of  Catharine  II. 

Mombert,  Jacob  Isidor,  D.  D.  (Univer¬ 
sity  of  Pennsylvania,  1866),  Episcopal;  b. 
in  Cassel,  Germany,  Nov.  6,  1829.  He 
studied  at  Leipzig  and  Heidelberg  and 
took  orders  in  the  Church  of  England,  and 
in  1857  acted  as  curate  in  Quebec,  Canada; 
rector  of  St.  James’s  Church,  Lancaster, 
Pa.,  1859-70,  when  he  accepted  the  Amer¬ 
ican  chaplaincy  at  Dresden,  Saxony,  which 
he  held  till  1875.  He  was  rector  of  St. 
John’s,  Passaic,  N.  J.,  1880-82,  since  which 
time  he  has  devoted  himself  chiefly  to  lit¬ 
erary  work.  Among  his  publications  are 
translations  of  Tholuck’s  Commentary  on 
the  Psalms  (1856);  Commentary  on  the  Cath¬ 
olic  Epistles  in  the  Lange  series  (1867); 
Hand-book  of  the  English  Versions  of  the  Bi¬ 
ble  ( 1 883);  Great  Lives:  A  Course  of  History 
in  Biography  (1886);  Life  of  Charlemagne 
(1889).' 

Monarchians,  heretics  who  deny  the  dis¬ 
tinction  of  Persons  in  the  Divine  Nature. 
The  term  comes  from  the  Gr.  ?nonarchia 
(monos,  alone,  and  archo ,  to  govern),  lit¬ 
erally,  the  government  of  a  single  indi¬ 
vidual.  The  heresy  of  the  Monarchians 
may  be  traced  in  the  very  earliest  times  of 
Christianity:  they  are  mentioned  by  Ter- 
tullian.  The  opposite  views  to  be  found 
among  them  involved  them  in  more  violent 
disputes  with  each  other  than  with  the 
Church,  but  they  all  agreed  with  regard 
to  what  was  conveyed  by  this  term  of  Mon- 
archianism — a  zeal  to  preserve  the  unity-of 
the  consciousness  of  God,  which  made 
them  unwilling  to  acknowledge  any  other 
Divine  Being  than  the  one  God,  the  Father. 
Either  they  absolutely  rejected  the  doc¬ 
trine  of  the  Logos,  or  they  understood  by 
the  Logos  simply  a  Divine  energy,  the  Di¬ 
vine  wisdom  or  reason  which  illuminates 
the  souls  of  the  pious.  There  were 
amongst  them  two  great  classes.  With 
the  one  class,  the  dialectical,  critical  facul¬ 
ty  of  the  understanding  was  supreme;  with 
the  other,  the  practical  element  and  Chris¬ 
tian  feeling  predominated.  While  the  first 
class  saw  nothing  in  Christ  but  his  human 
nature,  and  kept  the  Divine  element  entire¬ 
ly  out  of  sight,  the  others  could  see  nothing 
but  the  Godhead,  and  wholly  suppressed 
or  overlooked  the  human  elements.  Ac¬ 
counts  of  the  various  sects  included  under 
the  comprehensive  term  of  Monarchians, 
will  be  found  under  their  respective  heads; 
viz.,  Alogi;  Patkipassians;  Sabellians; 


Paul  of  Samosata;  Theodotians. —  Ben- 
ham:  Diet,  of  Religion. 

Monastery.  See  Monasticism. 

Monasticism.  A  monastery  may  be  de¬ 
fined  as  a  house  of  religious  retirement,  or 
seclusion.  The  word  is  an  English  form 
of  the  Greek  word,  monasterion,  “a  seclud¬ 
ed  dwelling.”  The  popular  form  of  the 
word  was  “  minster,”  as  in  Westminster, 
or  Newminster. 

As  Christian  institutions,  monasteries 
took  their  rise  from  the  days  of  persecu¬ 
tion.  In  the  Decian  persecution  (a.  d. 
250-53),  and  again  in  that  of  Diocletian 
(a.  d.  303-13),  many  Christians  took  refuge 
in  the  deserts,  where  they  were  obliged  to 
lead  lives  of  great  privation.  Some  of  them 
became  so  attached  to  such  a  kind  of  life 
that  they  still  continued  to  pursue  it  after 
the  necessity  for  doing  so  had  passed  away. 
These  gradually  acquired  distinctive  names, 
some  being  called  Ascetics  (Gr.  asketai), 
“  men  training,  or  exercising,  or  disciplin¬ 
ing  themselves.”  As  St.  Paul  says, 
“  Herein  do  I  exercise  myself”  (Gr.  en 
touto  de  asko ).  Others  went  by  the  name 
of  Anchorites  (Gr.  anachbretai),  “  men 
who  had  retired  from  the  world;”  while 
others  again  were  named  Hermits  (Gr. 
eremitai),  “  men  of  the  desert.” 

After  persecution  had  ceased,  large 
numbers  of  the  hermits  formed  societies 
for  the  purpose  of  living  in  common,  call¬ 
ing  themselves  by  the  name  of  Coenobites 
(from  two  Greek  words,  koines,  common, 
and  bios,  life),  and  thus  were  formed  the 
first  actual  monasteries  among  Christians. 
They  were  of  a  simple  and  voluntary  char¬ 
acter  at  first,  but  when  St.  Basil  put  them 
into  a  more  definite  form,  he  probably  in¬ 
troduced  the  practice  of  vows,  which  in 
early  times  were  binding  upon  the  monks 
as  long  as  they  resided  in  the  monastery, 
but  permitted  them  to  leave  and  give  up 
the  monastic  life  when  they  pleased. 

It  was  by  St.  Athanasius,  the  friend  of 
St.  Antony,  that  the  system  was  intro¬ 
duced  in  Europe  (about  A.  d.  340),  and 
after  his  day  made  great  progress  under 
Augustine,  Gregory  of  Tours,  and  others 
of  a  similar  character,  and  by  them  monas¬ 
ticism  was  consolidated  into  a  much  better 
and  more  practical  form  than  that  which  it 
had  assumed  in  the  East. 

Formerly  the  monks  were  all  laymen. 
Not  only  were  monks  prohibited  the  priest¬ 
hood,  but,  as  appears  from  the  letters  of 
St.  Gregory,  priests  were  expressly  pro¬ 
hibited  from  becoming  monks.  Pope  Siric- 
ius  was  the  first  who  called  them  to  the 
clericate,  on  occasion  of  some  great  scarcity 
of  priests  that  the  Church  was  then  sup- 


Mon 


(  631  ) 


Mon 


posed  to  labor  under,  and  since  that  time 
the  priesthood  was  usually  united  to  the 
monastic  profession. 

Toward  the  close  of  the  fifth  century  the 
monks,  who  had  formerly  lived  only  for 
themselves  in  solitary  retreats,  found 
themselves  in  a  condition  to  claim  an  em¬ 
inent  station  among  the  pillars  and  sup¬ 
porters  of  the  Christian  community.  The 
fame  of  their  sanctity  was  so  great  that 
bishops  and  priests  were  often  chosen  out 
of  their  order,  and  their  learning  made 
them  useful  to  the  bishops  in  confuting 
heresies,  chiefly  in  the  great  Nestorian 
controversy;  but  many  abusing  their  au¬ 
thority,  it  was  ordered  at  the  Council  of 
Chalcedon  that  monks  should  be  wholly 
under  bishops,  and  should  build  no  mon¬ 
asteries  without  their  leave,  and  should  be 
removed  from  ecclesiastical  employments, 
except  called  thereto  by  their  bishops. 
From  this  jurisdiction  they  were  exempted 
by  the  pope  in  the  seventh  century,  and  in 
return  they  devoted  themselves  wholly  to 
advance  the  interest  and  maintain  the  dig¬ 
nity  of  the  bishop  of  Rome.  This  immu¬ 
nity  from  authority  was  a  fruitful  source 
of  licentiousness  and  disorder,  and  occa¬ 
sioned  the  greater  part  of  the  vices  with 
which  they  were  afterward  charged.  In 
the  eighth  century  the  monastic  discipline 
was  greatly  relaxed,  both  in  the  East  and 
West,  and  all  efforts  to  restore  it  were  in¬ 
effectual.  Nevertheless,  this  kind  of  in¬ 
stitution  was  in  the  highest  esteem,  and 
nothing  could  equal  the  veneration  paid  in 
the  ninth  century  to  those  who  thus  retired 
from  the  world;  they  were  called  to  Court 
and  employed  in  civil  affairs  of  the  great¬ 
est  moment.  At  the  Lateran  Council  in 
1215,  however,  a  decree  was  passed,  by 
the  advice  of  Innocent  III.,  to  prevent  any 
new  monastic  institutions. 

The  monastic  system  in  its  integrity  may 
be  best  represented  by  the  Benedictine 
monks.  A  monastery  of  this  character  was 
a  collegiate  institution,  in  which  a  number 
of  laymen  and  a  few  chaplains  dwelt  to¬ 
gether  for  the  purpose  of  living  a  religious 
life  and  doing  work  for  religion.  They 
took  three  vows:  the  first ,  to  remain  un¬ 
married,  and  to  observe  chaste  lives;  the 
second ,  to  be  obedient  to  the  regulations 
under  which  they  were  to  live,  and  to 
those  who  were  entrusted  with  the  gov¬ 
ernment  of  the  society;  and  the  third ,  to 
live  without  any  property  of  their  own. — 
Benham:  Diet,  of  Religion. 

Most  of  the  English  monasteries  were 
founded  during  the  twelfth  and  thirteenth 
centuries.  The  building  contained  rooms 
for  guests,  for  the  sick,  for  the  school, 
storerooms,  stables,  etc.  Both  for  defence 
and  seclusion  the  structure  was  surround¬ 


ed  with  a  wall.  On  the  ground  floor  were 
the  refectory  and  public  rooms;  and  on 
the  second,  the  cells.  In  some  cases  there 
were  no  cells,  but  only  one  large  dormi¬ 
tory,  in  the  centre  of  which  stood  the 
abbot’s  bed.  “  As,  for  centuries,  the  mon¬ 
astery  was  the  true  homestead  not  only  of 
science,  but  also  of  art,  artistic  ornaments 
— paintings  and  carvings — were  not  want¬ 
ing.  Some  monasteries — as,  for  instance, 
that  of  Certosa,  near  Pavia,  and  that  of  St. 
Marco,  at  Florence — are  overloaded  with 
the  most  exquisite  specimens  of  mediaeval 
art.  In  those  immense  beehives  life  went 
on  pretty  nearly  as  it  does  in  any  other 
household.  Between  the  canonical  hours 
the  exercises  of  the  school  and  the  labors 
in  the  garden  or  the  field  followed  with 
unbroken  regularity  ;  and  variation  was 
not  wanting,  as  guests — often  strange  ones, 
often  interesting  ones — might  come  in  at 
any  moment.  Some  institutions — as,  for 
instance,  that  of  St.  Gall — 'Stood  in  steady 
and  lively  communication  with  knights, 
merchants,  etc.” — Gass.  With  the  Refor¬ 
mation  the  monasteries  soon  disappeared 
in  the  countries  where  Protestantism  pre¬ 
vailed.  Their  revenues  were  diverted  to 
educational  and  scientific  purposes,  and 
the  buildings  were  utilized  as  hospitals, 
barracks,  etc.,  or  left  to  decay.  The  mon¬ 
astery  in  Roman  Catholic  countries  lost  its 
important  position.  In  1789311  monastic 
orders  were  dissolved  in  France,  and  the 
monasteries  closed.  Portugal,  in  1821, 
and  Spain,  in  1835,  took  similar  steps;  and 
while  a  reaction  in  their  favor  is  to  be 
noted,  the  institution  of  monasticism  is 
gradually  dying  out. 

Money,  Jewish.  The  following  table 
gives  the  value  of  the  Hebrew  money-sys¬ 
tem  in  American  money: 


Jewish.  American. 

dots.  cts. 

“  A  gerah  (Exod.  xxx.  13) . =  o  2.73 

iogerahs  =  1  bekah  (Exod.  xxxviii.  26)  =  o  27.37 

2  bekahs  =  1  shekel  (Exod.  xxx.  13; 

Isa.  vii.  23) ....  . =  o  54.74 

50  shekels  =  1  maneh . =  27  37.50 

6omanehs  =  1  kikkar  (talent) . =  1,642  50 

A  gold  shekel . =  S  76 

A  kikkar  of  gold .  -  26,280  00 


“  A  shekel  would  probably  purchase  near¬ 
ly  ten  times  as  much  as  the  same  nominal 
amount  will  now.  Remember  that  one 
Roman  penny  (8 fid.)  was  a  good  day’s 
wages  for  a  laborer.  The  Hebrew  maneh , 
according  to  1  Kings  x.  17,  compared  with 
2  Chron.  ix.  16,  contained  100  shekels: 
though  according  to  one  interpretation  of 
Ezek.  xlv.  12  it  contained  60,  but  more 
probably  50.  The  passage  reads  thus: — 
‘Twenty  shekels,  five  and  twenty  shekels, 
fifteen  shekels  shall  be  your  maneh.’  This 


Mon 


(  632  ) 


Mon 


is  variously  interpreted,  (1)  20-\-2S~hi 5= 
Co;  (2)  20,  25,  15  are  different  coins  in  gold, 
silver,  and  copper,  bearing  the  same  name. 
It  is  well  to  remark  the  meaning  of  these 
names:  Shekel  =  simply  weight ;  Bekah 
=  split,  i.  e.,  the  shekel  divided  into  two; 
Gerah  —  a  grain,  as  in  our  weight,  a  grain 
and  a  barley-corn,  the  original  standard 
weight;  Maneh  =  appointed,  equivalent  to 
sterling,  a  specific  sum;  Kikkar  =  a  round 
mass  of  metal,  i.  e.,  a  weight  or  coin. 
Hebrew  names  of  weights  and  coins  are 
not  found  in  the  New  Testament:  mna  in 
Luke  xix.  13  is  Greek,  though  possibly 
identical  with  the  Hebrew  maneh.” 

The  following  foreign  coins  are  mention¬ 
ed  in  the  Bible:  (1)  The  darie,  dram,  or 
drachm,  a  Persian  gold  coin  equal  to  about 
$5.50.  (2)  The  stater  or  piece  of  money 

(Matt.  xvii.  27),  a  Greek  or  Roman  silver 
coin  in  value  over  50  cents.  (3)  The  penny 
(Matt.  xxii.  19),  or  denarius,  a  Roman  sil¬ 
ver  coin,  equal  to  about  16  cents.  (4)  The 
farthing  (Matt.  x.  29),  a  Roman  silver  coin 
equal  to  one  cent  and  a  quarter.  (5)  An¬ 
other  piece  of  money,  equal  to  one-fourth 
of  a  farthing,  was  called  by  the  same  name 
(Matt.  v.  26),  and  the  mite  was  half  of  this 
coin,  and  about  equal  to  two  mills. 

Monica,  or  Monnica,  the  mother  of 
Augustine;  b.  about  332;  d.  at  Ostia,  May 
4,  387.  She  was  married  to  Patricius,  a 
pagan,  who  before  his  death  was  convert¬ 
ed  t@  Christianity  by  her  beautiful  Chris¬ 
tian  life.  After  the  death  of  his  father, 
Augustine,  who  gave  great  promise  as  a 
scholar,  abandoned  the  Catholic  faith,  to 
the  great  sorrow  of  his  mother.  Her 
prayers  were  finally  answered  in  his  con¬ 
version  and  baptism  at  Milan.  Soon  after 
this  they  set  out  together  for  Africa,  and 
on  the  way  Monica  fell  ill  and  died.  Her 
name  will  ever  have  a  tender  remembrance 
through  the  Confessions  of  her  distinguish¬ 
ed  son,  who  there  pours  out  the  grief  of 
his  heart  over  her  loss.  In  1430  her  re¬ 
mains  were  removed  by  Pope  Martin  V. 
from  Ostia  to  Rome,  and  buried  in  the 
Church  of  St.  Augustine. 

Monod,  Adolphe,  a  great  pulpit  orator 
of  the  Protestant  Church  of  France;  b.  in 
Copenhagen,  Jan.  21,  1802;  d.  in  Paris, 
April  6,  1856.  He  studied  first  in  Paris, 
where  his  father  was  pastor  of  the  French 
Church,  and  afterward  was  graduated  in 
theology  at  Geneva,  in  1S24.  During  the 
following  year,  while  on  a  journey  to  Italy, 
he  passed  through  a  spiritual  experience 
of  peculiar  interest.  He  founded  the  Prot¬ 
estant  Church  in  Naples,  and  remained 
there  as  a  pastor  until  1827,  when  he  was 
called  to  Lyons.  His  earnest  evangelical 


preaching  aroused  opposition,  and  he  was 
deposed  by  the  Catholic  Minister  of  Educa¬ 
tion.  He  still  continued  to  labor  in  the 
city,  and  gathered  a  large  congregation. 
In  1836  he  accepted  a  professorship  in  the 
Theological  Seminary  of  Montauban, where 
he  remained  until  1847,  when  he  was  called 
as  pastor  to  Paris,  where  his  reputation  as 
a  pulpit  oratordrew  great  audiences.  Mo¬ 
nod  was  a  man  of  saintly  and  devoted  life; 
an  earnest  student  of  the  Bible,  and  ever 
anxious  to  save  men.  It  was  said  of  him 
that  he  was,  “  twice  over,  the  first  of  Prot¬ 
estant  preachers  in  our  day — first  for  the 
excellency  of  his  oratorical  genius,  and 
then  for  the  holiness  of  his  life.” 

Monod,  Frederic,  elder  brother  of 
Adolphe  Monod;  b.  at  Monnaz,  Canton  de 
Vaud,  Switzerland;  d.  Dec.  30,  1863,  in 
Paris.  He  studied  theology  in  Geneva 
(1815-18),  and  in  1820  became  an  associate 
pastor  in  Paris  and  also  editor  of  the  Ar¬ 
chives  du  Christianisme.  In  1S48,  when  the 
synod  refused  to  make  a  definite  declara¬ 
tion  of  faith,  he  resigned  his  pastorate  and 
withdrew  from  the  State  Church.  With 
Count  Gasparin,  he  founded  the  Union  of 
the  Evangelical  Churches  of  France.  In 
1855  he  came  to  the  United  States  and  ob¬ 
tained  money  to  build  a  church  in  Paris. 
He  was  an  earnest  preacher  and  leader  of 
evangelical  faith. 

Monophysites  (from  monos,  alone,  and 
physis,  nature),  a  general  name  given 
to  all  those  sects  who  acknowledge 
only  one  nature  in  Christ.  Such  were 
the  Eutychians  ( q .  z>),  condemned  at  the 
Council  of  Chalcedon  in  451.  The  de¬ 
crees  of  that  Council,  however,  were  fierce¬ 
ly  opposed  by  the  followers  of  Cyril,  pa¬ 
triarch  of  Alexandria,  who  declared  that 
the  council  had  reinstated  the  Nestorian 
heresy.  Theodosius,  a  fanatical  monk, 
spread  the  seeds  of  discord  in  Palestine, 
and  procured  the  banishment  of  Juvenalis, 
bishop  of  Jerusalem,  and  his  own  election 
for  a  time  to  that  dignity.  In  Alexandria, 
Proterius  was  nominated  patriarch  in  the 
room  of  the  deposed  Dioscurus,  and  a 
great  schism  arose,  which  was  only  quelled 
by  military  force.  The  Monophysite  party 
was  headed  by  the  presbyter  Timotheus 
Ailurus,  and  on  the  death  of  the  Emperor 
Marcian  he  was  appointed  patriarch.  The 
Emperor  Leo  appealed  to  Pope  Leo  the 
Great  as  to  the  legitimacy  of  the  election 
of  Ailurus,  and  in  460  he  was  banished  to 
Cherson;  but  Timotheus  Salophaciolus,  a 
neutral  person,  was  appointed  in  his  place. 
In  Antioch,  Petrus  Fullensis  was  support¬ 
ed  by  Zeno,  son-in-law  and  successor  to 
the  emperor,  and  when,  in  476.  Basiliscus 


Mon 


(  633  ) 


Mon 


expelled  Zeno  and  secured  the  imperial 
throne  to  himself,  the  Monophysites  be¬ 
came  the  ruling  party  in  the  East.  In  477 
Zeno  once  more  made  himself  master  of 
the  empire,  and,  to  settle  the  manifold  dis¬ 
sensions  which  were  disturbing  Church 
and  State,  he,  in  482,  offered  to  the  dispu¬ 
tants  the  formula  of  concord  called  the 
Henoticon  (q.  v. ).  For  a  moment  it 
seemed  successful.  Petrus  Mongus,  the 
patriarch  of  Alexandria,  accepted  it,  and 
the  Monophysites,  who  had  looked  on  him 
as  their  leader,  separated  themselves  from 
him,  and,  having  no  principal  leader,  they 
were  designated  the  headless  sect  (Aceph- 
ali).  On  the  other  hand,  the  conviction 
grew  upon  the  Roman  pope  that  the  Henot¬ 
icon  was  really  in  favor  of  the  Monophy¬ 
sites,  and  then  the  schism  grew  worse  than 
ever.  Instead  of  two  parties,  there  were 
now  four — the  zealots  on  both  sides,  and 
the  moderates  of  the  two  parties  who  ac¬ 
cepted  the  compromise.  The  Roman 
Church  stigmatized  the  ruling  party  of  the 
Oriental  Church  as  heretical;  and  a  schism 
between  the  Eastern  and  Western  Church¬ 
es  was  the  consequence.  In  491  Zeno  died , 
and  was  succeeded  by  Anastasius,  whose 
partiality  for  the  Monophysites  caused 
riots  and  bloodshed  at  Constantinople. 
Then  two  men  of  vigorous  activity  took 
the  lead  of  the  Monophysites.  One  of  these 
was  Xenayas,  a  Persian,  whose  name  was 
changed  into  the  Greek  form,  Philoxenas, 
and  who  is  best  known  as  the  promoter  of 
the  Philoxenian  Syriac  translation  of  the 
New  Testament.  The  other  was  Severus, 
a  learned  monk  of  Palestine,  who  had  been 
made  patriarch  of  Antioch,  and  was  de¬ 
posed  about  520.  Severus  held  peculiar 
views  regarding  the  united  wills  in  the 
united  natures,  and  thus  prepared  the 
way  for  the  opinions  of  the  Monothelites 
(q.  v.).  One  of  his  deacons,  Themistius, 
invented  the  tenet  of  the  Agnoetae — that 
the  human  soul  in  Christ  was  like  ours  in 
everything,  even  in  ignorance.  Anastasius 
had  been  succeeded  by  Justin  in  518,  who 
was  a  tool  in  the  hands  of  his  nephew,  Jus¬ 
tinian,  and  was  persuaded  by  his  chief 
ministers  to  depose  all  the  Monophysite 
clergy.  Severus  fled  to  Egypt,  where  his 
party  was  strong,  and  here  he  headed  that 
portion  called  the  Phthartolatrae,  or  Cor- 
rupticolae,  who  maintained  that  Christ’s 
human  nature  was  corruptible,  all  qualities 
of  human  nature  being  retained  in  our  Lord 
after  his  Incarnation,  though  so  incorpo¬ 
rated  with  the  Divine  nature  as  to  have  no 
longer  any  identity  of  their  own. 

Justinian,  who  became  emperor  in  527, 
meant  to  be  orthodox,  but  his  wife  Theo¬ 
dora,  who  was  attached  to  Monophysitism, 
successfully  plotted  for  the  advantage  of 


that  party,  moved  by  hatred  of  Roman  as¬ 
cendancy.  Her  agent  in  these  schemes  was 
Anthimus,  who  had  once  been  a  bishop  in 
Pontus,  and  who  had  resigned  under  pre¬ 
text  of  living  a  more  Christian  life  as  a 
monk.  He  came  to  Constantinople,  drew 
around  him  all  the  most  important  men  of 
the  Monophysite  party,  and  amongst  them 
Severus,  and  was  made  patriarch  of  Con¬ 
stantinople  in  535.  Justinian  had  no  idea 
that  his  bishop  was  unorthodox  till  a  year 
later,  when  the  Pope  Agapetus  visited  Con¬ 
stantinople,  and  a  complaint  was  brought 
against  Anthimus  by  the  dissatisfied  clergy, 
which  ended  in  his  deposition,  and  the  elec¬ 
tion  of  Mennas  to  the  patriarchate.  Aga¬ 
petus  died  the  following  year,  and  Theo¬ 
dora,  with  Antonina,  wife  of  the  General 
Belisarius,  procured  that  a  deacon  named 
Vigilius,  who  had  accompanied  him  to  Con¬ 
stantinople,  should  be  his  successor,  on 
condition  of  joining  the  Monophysite  party. 
Vigilius,  however,  was  afraid  of  commit¬ 
ting  himself.  While  openly  professing  to 
submit  to  Chalcedon,  he  secretly  wrote 
letters  of  sympathy  to  Anthimus,  so  that 
Theodora  could  not  effect  much.  She  then 
endeavored  to  gain  her  point  by  inciting 
quarrels  amongst  the  opponents  of  Mo¬ 
nophysitism;  she  represented  to  Justinian 
that  the  chief  objection  of  the  Monophysites 
to  the  Council  of  Chalcedon  was  that  it  had 
approved  of  the  writings  of  Theodore  of 
Mopsuestia,  Theodoret,  and  Ibas  of  Edes- 
sa,  which  favored  Nestorianism ;  and 
that  if  these  writings  were  condemned,  an 
important  obstacle  would  be  removed  to 
the  recognition  of  the  Council  of  Chalcedon, 
and  that  the  object  he  was  striving  for 
would  be  secured,  viz.,  the  reuniting  of 
the  Monophysites  to  the  dominant  Church. 
The  result  was  that  Justinian  in  544  issued 
an  edict  condemning  the  writings  of  the 
three  obnoxious  writers  above-named, 
which  were  known  under  the  title  of  The 
Three  Chapters.  Now,  inasmuch  as  all  these 
writers  had  been  at  peace  with  the  divines 
of  Chalcedon,  the  condemnation  of  their 
writings  was  regarded  as  a  partial  con¬ 
demnation  of  that  council,  and  the  Latin 
Church  long  refused  acquiescence,  and 
seven  or  eight  years  were  spent  in  unfruit¬ 
ful  controversies.  Mennas,  the  patriarch 
of  Constantinople,  and  others,  agreed  in 
condemning  the  three  articles,  but  Jus¬ 
tinian  could  not  do  as  he  wished  with  the 
bishops  of  Illyria  and  North  Africa.  Vi¬ 
gilius,  thus  encouraged,  refused  to  sub¬ 
scribe,  and  in  551  was  obliged  to  abscond. 
Then  it  was  determined  that  a  General 
Council  for  the  determination  of  the  dis¬ 
pute  should  be  assembled  at  Constantinople 
in  553,  under  the  Patriarch  Eutychius,  who 
had  succeeded  Mennas;  Vigilius  was  invited 


Mon 


(  634  ) 


Mon 


to  take  part  in  this  council,  but  declined, 
and  the  council  therefore  decided  accord¬ 
ing  to  the  imperial  edict.  Several  bishops 
of  Illyria  and  North  Africa  were  deposed 
and  banished.  Still  the  object  sought,  of 
reconciling  the  Monophysites  to  the  domi¬ 
nant  party,  was  not  attained,  and  the  un¬ 
stable  character  of  the  Roman  bishop 
caused  a  schism  in  the  Western  Church,  the 
Churches  of  Istria,  with  others,  renounc¬ 
ing  fellowship  with  the  Roman  Church. 

A  party  among  the  Monophysites,  who 
followed  the  doctrines  of  Xenayas  and  of 
Julian,  bishop  of  Halicarnassus,  derived, 
as  a  consequence  from  the  union  of  the 
Deity  and  humanity  in  one  nature  in  Christ, 
the  proposition  that  the  body  of  Christ, 
even  during  his  earthly  life,  was  not  sub¬ 
jected,  by  any  necessity  of  nature,  to  wants 
such  as  hunger,  thirst,  and  pain;  but  that 
by  a  free  determination  of  his  own  will,  he 
subjected  himself  to  all  these  things  for 
the  salvation  of  man:  which  view  went 
under  the  name  of  Aphthartodocetism.  To 
this  branch  Justinian  allied  himself  toward 
the  close  of  his  reign,  and  was  preparing  to 
make  it  a  law  when  he  died,  in  565.  The 
Alexandrian  section  of  the  Aphthartodo- 
cetae  were  called  Gaianitae  from  their  leader 
Gaianus,  whom  they  made  patriarch  in  op¬ 
position  to  Theodosius,  who  had  been  ap¬ 
pointed  by  the  emperor. 

In  Egypt  the  Monophysite  party  con¬ 
tinued  to  exercise  an  important  influence. 
The  sect  was  revived  in  the  sixth  century 
by  Jacob  Baradaeus,  a  monk  of  Nisibis, 
who  became  bishop  of  Edessa,  and  at  his 
death  he  left  it  in  a  most  flourishing  state 
in  Syria,  Mesopotamia,  Armenia,  Egypt, 
Nubia,  Abyssinia,  and  other  countries. 
The  Syrian  Monophysites  were  called  from 
him  Jacobites  (q.  v.).  They  still  exist  in 
Egypt  under  the  name  of  Copts,  and  also 
in  Armenia.  From  the  fifteenth  century 
downwards,  all  the  patriarchs  of  the  Mo¬ 
nophysites  have  taken  the  name  of  Ignatius, 
to  show  that  they  are  the  lineal  successors 
of  Ignatius,  who  was  bishop  of  Antioch  in 
the  first  century,  and  consequently  the 
lawful  patriarch  of  Antioch.  In  the  seven¬ 
teenth  century  a  small  body  of  Asiatic 
Monophysites  joined  the  Church  of  Rome; 
but  the  Africans  have  resisted  all  attempts 
to  bring  them  under  the  papal  yoke.  —  Ben- 
ham:  Did.  of  Religion. 

Monothelites.  This  heretical  sect  arose 
in  the  Eastern  Church  in  the  seventh  cen¬ 
tury,  through  a  desire  to  bring  the  doc¬ 
trines  of  the  Monophysites  (</.  v. )  into 
harmony  with  the  orthodox  doctrines  of 
the  Church.  The  Emperor  Heraclius  was 
assured  by  one  Paul,  a  man  of  great  in¬ 
fluence  among  the  Armenian  Monophysites, 


that  the  peace  of  the  Church  might  be  re¬ 
stored  by  the  reaffirmation  of  the  decrees 
of  Chalcedon  with  the  addition  of  the 
proposition  that,  after  the  union  of  the  two 
natures,  there  was  in  Jesus  but  one  will 
and  one  operation,  which  was  partly 
Human,  and  partly  Divine.  Cyrus,  whom 
Heraclius  had  raised  from  the  bishopric 
of  Phasis  to  the  patriarchate  of  Alexandria, 
assembled  a  synod  at  Alexandria  in  633, 
whereat  this  doctrine  was  affirmed,  and,  in 
consequence,  vast  numbers  of  the  Eutych- 
ians  became  reconciled  to  the  Church. 
The  patriarch  of  Jerusalem  opposed,  and 
appealed  to  the  bishop  of  Rome,  Honorius, 
who  declared  in  favor  of  the  Monothelite 
doctrine.  In  639  Heraclius  issued  his 
Ilc thesis,  or  “  exposition  of  the  faith.”  It 
was  accepted  by  the  Eastern  Church,  but 
condemned  by  Pope  John  IV.,  successor 
of  Honorius.  This  was  followed  by  the 
“  Type,”  issued  by  the  Emperor  Constans 
II.,  forbidding  all  controversy  concerning 
the  Will  of  Christ.  But  both  parties  were 
too  embittered  now  to  keep  silence,  and  a 
council,  called  by  Pope  Martin  in  649,  con¬ 
demned  the  heresy,  heretics,  and  both 
edicts  together — an  act  which  caused  the 
emperor  to  condemn  Pope  Martin  to 
death,  though  the  sentence  was  commuted 
to  banishment  to  Cherson.  The  Monothe¬ 
lite  doctrine  was  finally  condemned  at  the 
Sixth  Lateran  Council  at  Constantinople 
(6So-Si),and  it  was  decided  that  Christ  has 
“  two  natural  wills,  and  two  natural  opera¬ 
tions,  without  division,  without  conversion 
or  change,  with  nothing  like  antagonism 
or  confusion,”  but  that  the  Human  will  is 
subject  to  the  Divine.  Anathemas  were 
also  pronounced  on  the  leaders  of  the 
heresy,  and  repeated  for  three  centuries 
by  the  successors  of  Pope  Honorius. — 
Benham:  Did.  of  Religion. 

Monstrance  was  the  name  originally 
given  to  any  repository  of  relics.  After 
the  doctrine  of  transubstantiation  was  de¬ 
fined  in  the  thirteenth  century,  the  name 
was  restricted  to  the  receptacle  that  con- 
tamed  the  consecrated  host.  At  first  it 
was  made  in  the  form  of  a  Gothic  tower, 
afterwards  in  that  of  a  radiant  sun.  In 
the  Greek  Church  it  was  shaped  like  a 
coffin.  Only  ordained  priests  were  allowed 
to  touch  it,  and  the  crime  of  stealing  it  was 
punished  with  death. 

Montalembert,  Charles  Forbes,  Comte 
de,  b.  in  London,  April  15,  1810;  d.  in 
Paris,  March  12,  1S70.  He  was  a  brilliant 
writer  and  astute  politician,  distinguished 
alike  for  his  advocacy  of  the  cause  of  polit¬ 
ical  liberty,  and  for  his  attachment  to  the 
Roman  Catholic  Church.  He  earnestly 


Mon 


(  635  ) 


Mon 


opposed  the  dogma  of  papal  infallibility,  for 
which  action  he  was  severely  treated  by  the 
Church  which  he  had  served  with  such 
faithfulness.  See  his  Memoir,  by  Mrs. 
Oliphant  (London,  1872),  2  vols. 

Montanism.  See  Montan  us. 

Monta'nus,  “  a  celebrated  heresiarch  of 
the  early  Christian  Church,  was  a  Phrygian 
by  birth,  and  made  his  first  public  appear¬ 
ance  about  160  A.  d.  ,  in  the  village  of  Ar- 
dabar,  on  the  confines  of  Phrygia  and 
Mysia.  He  was  brought  up  in  heathenism, 
but  embraced  Christianity  with  all  the 
fanatical  enthusiasm  for  which  his  country¬ 
men  were  noted. 

“  Montanus’s  standpoint  was,  in  theory, 
the  exact  opposite  of  that  occupied  by  the 
Gnostic  sects;  yet,  in  practice,  it  led  to  a 
similar  exclusiveness  and  sectarianism. 
He  believed  in  the  constancy  of  supernat¬ 
ural  phenomena  within  the  Church.  The 
miraculous  element,  particularly  the  pro¬ 
phetic  ecstasy,  was  not  removed;  on  the 
contrary,  the  necessity  for  it  was  greater 
than  ever.  He  considered  those  only  to 
be  true  or  perfect  Christians  who  possess¬ 
ed  the  inward  prophetic  illumination  of  the 
Holy  Spirit — they  were  the  true  Church; 
and  the  more  highly  gifted  were  to  be 
looked  upon  as  the  genuine  successors  of 
the  apostles,  in  preference  to  the  mere 
outwardly  consecrated  bishops.  Thus,  they 
form  a  religious  aristocracy,  as  arrogant 
as  the  Gnostics:  the  difference  between  the 
two  simply  being  that  the  Montanists 
prided  themselves  on  a  kind  of  inflamed 
inspiration,  and  the  Gnostics  on  a  calm 
and  serene  illumination  of  the  reason. 
Neither  party  wished  to  recede  from  the 
Catholic  Church,  but  rather  to  exist  as  an 
esoteric  body  within  its  pale.  It  was  per¬ 
secution,  caused;  no  doubt,  by  their  own 
insolent  obstinacy,  that  forced  them  into  a 
sectarian  course.  Montanus  did  not  med¬ 
dle  directly  with  the  creed  of  the  Church; 
in  fact,  he  was  not  a  thinker,  nor  a  man  of 
almost  any  importance,  intellectually.  His 
efforts  were  confined  to  stirring  up  the 
Christians  generally  to  fresh  religious  life 
— to  a  belief  in  a  fresh  outpouring  of  the 
Holy  Ghost  !  At  first  Montanus  contented 
himself  with  predicting  fresh  persecutions, 
exhorting  men  to  greater  strictness  and 
holiness  of  life,  and  announcing  judgments 
to  come  upon  the  persecutors;  but  his 
idea  of  his  own  mission  afterward  became 
more  exalted,  and  he  claimed  to  be  in  a 
very  special  sense  a  prophet  of  God — the 
organ  chosen  by  the  Holy  Ghost  to  purify, 
enlighten,  and  advance  the  Church.  Among 
the  things  on  which  the  Montanists  laid 
stress  was  an  ascetic  mode  of  life,  scorn 


of  persecution,  and  love  of  martyrdom; 
connected  with  these,  and,  indeed,  flowing 
from  them,  was  an  aversion  to  second 
marriages,  and  to  the  restoration  of  the 
Lapsed.  Like  other  enthusiasts,  they  also 
were  firm  believers  in  the  near  approach  of 
the  millennium,  and  in  the  personal  advent 
of  Christ.  Two  ‘  prophetesses,’  Priscilla 
and  Maximilla,  were  associated  with  Mon¬ 
tanus  in  his  work.  A  decree  for  the  expul¬ 
sion  of  Montanus  and  his  followers  from 
the  communion  of  the  Catholic  Church 
was  issued  by  Eleutherus,  bishop  of  Rome. 
The  Montanists  at  once  proceeded  to  or¬ 
ganize  themselves  as  a  distinct  sect.  They 
found  a  singularly  able  apologist  in  Ter- 
tullian  (who  became  a  Montanist  about  200 
A.  D.),  and  continued  to  exist  till  the  sixth 
century.” — Chambers:  Cyclopcedia. 

M  onte  Casino,  a  famous  monastery, 
situated  on  a  mountain  of  the  same  name, 
fifty-five  miles  northwest  of  Naples.  It 
was  founded  by  Benedict  of  Nursia  in  528, 
and  destroyed  by  the  Lombards  in  580. 
Restored  in  720  by  Gregory  II.,  it  became 
the  centre  of  great  literary  activity.  In 
856-884  a  hospital  and  medical  school  was 
established  here  that  was  the  most  famous, 
for  many  centuries,  of  any  in  the  world. 
Plundered  by  the  Saracens  in  the  ninth 
century,  it  was  reestablished  near  the  close 
of  the  tenth  century,  and  the  place  became 
“one  of  the  centres  of  civilization.”  The 
buildings  were  partially  destroyed  by  an 
earthquake  in  1349.  The  monastery  was 
secularized  in  1866. 

Montenegrin  Church,  a  sect  of  the 
Greek  Church  in  the  south  of  Albania,  that 
rejects  images,  crucifixes,  and  pictures. 
It  is  connected  with  the  Russian  Church. 

Montfort,  Simon  de,  one  of  the  leaders 
of  the  fourth  crusade.  Innocent  III.  com¬ 
missioned  him  to  destroy  the  Albigenses, 
and  with  fiendish  cruelty  he  engaged  in 
this  work.  He  was  killed  at  the  siege  of 
Toulouse,  June  25,  1218. 

Montgomery,  James,  a  religious  poet 
and  journalist;  b.  at  Irvine,  Ayrshire, 
Nov.  4,  1771;  d.  at  Sheffield,  April  30, 
1S54.  The  son  of  a  Moravian  preacher,  he 
was  educated  at  their  school  at  Fulneck, 
near  Leeds.  Resisting  the  efforts  made  to 
induce  him  to  study  for  the  ministry,  he 
found  employment  as  a  shop-boy  at  Waith. 
From  here  he  went  to  London,  and  after  a 
time  settled  in  Sheffield  (1792),  where  he 
became  proprietor  and  editor  of  a  paper. 
The  Iris.  He  was  twice  imprisoned  for 
publishing  certain  political  articles.  Be¬ 
tween  1806  and  1812  he  published  his 


Mon 


(  636) 


Moo 


poems,  The  Wanderer  of  Switzerland;  The 
West  Indies;  The  World  before  the  Flood. 
From  this  time  he  wrote  many  religious 
hymns  and  minor  poems,  some  of  which 
have  had  a  wide  circulation.  “  All  his 
thoughts,  sentiments,  and  feelings,”  says 
Professor  Wilson,  “are  moulded  and 
colored  by  religion.  A  spirit  of  invoca¬ 
tion,  prayer  and  praise  pervades  all  his 
poetry;  and  it  isas  sincere  as  it  is  beautiful.” 

Monumental  Theology  “designates  the 
scientific  study  of  theological  opinion  and 
feeling  as  unconsciously  expressed  in 
works  of  art.  While,  in  written  language, 
thought  is  presented  by  the  discursive  fac¬ 
ulty  in  elements  which  are  gradually  ap¬ 
prehended,  a  work  of  art  as  a  completed 
object  existing  in  space,  may  produce  at 
once  its  grand  impression  on  the  mind. 
Rut  as  the  Christian  Church  took  its  rise 
in  the  midst  of  Judaism  and  of  heathen 
worship,  and  as  its  first  members  had  been 
trained  under  the  influence  of  one  or  both 
of  these  conflicting  systems.  Christian 
monuments  as  well  as  early  Church  doc¬ 
trine  and  practice  often  present  a  mixed 
’  character.  In  the  progress  of  the  Church 
it  was  also  frequently  attacked  by  errors 
within  and  hostile  influences  without,  the 
effect  of  which  would  be  exhibited  in  its 
works  of  art.  A  complete  consideration  of 
monumental  theology,  would,  therefore, 
require  careful  attention  to  these  modify¬ 
ing  agencies  as  they  show  themselves  in 
works  of  art.  The  principles  of  Christian¬ 
ity,  from  its  origin  to  the  present  day, 
have  influenced  human  art  as  well  as 
thought  and  life.  While  this  influence  has 
sometimes  been  disastrously  exerted,  it  has 
generally  been  in  some  degree  beneficial. 
After  the  revival  of  classical  learning  and 
the  infusion  of  new  elements  into  modern 
life,  art  was  indeed  partly  liberated  from 
that  subjection  to  the  Church  which  in  the 
xMiddle  Ages  had  been  complete.  Yet  it 
must  always  find  its  noblest  inspiration  in 
Christian  themes.  Consequently  its  mon¬ 
uments  may  be  expected  to  exhibit  much 
of  the  Christian  thought  and  feeling  of  each 
successive  age.  Hence  recent  writers  on 
theological  encyclopaedia  continue  the 
study  of  Christian  monuments  to  the  pres¬ 
ent  time.” — International  Cyclopedia,  s.  v. 

Monuments  “  are  found  among  all  peo¬ 
ples  and  in  all  ages.  They  are  generally 
very  simple — a  stone  set  up,  or  a  heap  of 
stones.  Many  such  reminders  of  impor¬ 
tant  events  are  mentioned  in  the  Bible. 
Thus,  Jacob  and  Laban  made  a  heap  of 
stones  to  ‘  witness  ’  their  covenant.  (Gen. 
xxxi.  45-48.)  Moses  ordered  their  elders 
to  set  up  stones  on  Mount  Ebal,  upon 


which  the  ‘law’  was  inscribed.  (Deut. 
xxvii.  2-4.)  Joshua  fulfilled  the  request. 
(Josh.  viii.  32.)  Twelve  stones  out  ot  the 
midst  of  Jordan,  and  twelve  stones  in  the 
midst  of  Jordan,  commemorated  the  pas¬ 
sage.  (Josh.  iv.  3,  9.)  Samuel  and  Saul 
erected  stones  in  memory  of  victories. 
(1  Sam.  vii.  12;  xv.  12.)  Monuments  were 
also  erected  in  memory  of  the  dead.  (Gen. 
xxxv.  20;  2  Kings  xxiii.  17.)  In  old  times, 
as  now  in  the  East,  stones  were  thrown 
upon  the  graves  of  enemies.  (Josh.  vii.  26; 
viii.  29;  2  Sam.  xviii.  17.)  Heaps  of  stones 
also  marked  the  way.  (Jer.  xxxi.  21.)” — 
Wolf  Baudissen  in  Schaff- Herzog:  Ency., 
vol.  ii.,  p.  1565. 

Moody,  Dwight  Lyman,  evangelist;  b. 
in  Northfield,  Mass.,  Feb.  5,  1837.  He 
worked  on  a  farm  until  he  was  seventeen, 
when  he  became  a  clerk  in  a  shoe  store  in 
Boston.  Not  long  after  this  he  was  con¬ 
verted,  and  united  with  a  Congregational 
church.  In  1856  he  went  td  Chicago,  where 
he  engaged  in  mission  and  Sunday-school 
work  with  great  enthusiasm.  During  the 
civil  war  he  was  employed  by  the  Chris¬ 
tian  Commission,  and  afterward  by  the 
Young  Men’s  Christian  Association  in  Chi¬ 
cago.  A  church  was  built  to  accommodate 
his  work  and  he  became  its  unordained 
pastor.  In  the  fire  of  1871  the  church  was 
destroyed,  but  a  much  larger  one  has  been 
erected.  In  1873  he  visited  England,  and 
entered  upon  the  evangelistic  labors,  since 
continued  in  this  country,  that  have  made 
his  name  so  widely  known.  Through  his 
efforts  a  seminary  for  boys  and  girls  has 
been  founded  at  Northfield,  Mass.  He  has 
published:  The  Second  Coming  of  Christ 
(1877);  The  Way  and  the  Word  (1877);  Se¬ 
cret  Power ;  or.  The  Secret  of  Success  in  Chris¬ 
tian  Life  and  Work  (1881);  The  Way  to 
God  and  Hozu  to  Find  It  (1884).  Of  his  col¬ 
lected  sermons  there  have  been  published: 
Glad  Tidings  (1876);  Great  foy  (1877);  To 
all  People  { 1877);  Best  Thoughts  and  Dis¬ 
courses  (1876),  and  Arrows  and  Anecdotes, 
with  sketch  of  his  life  (1877). 

Moore,  Clement  Clarke,  LL.  D.,  b.  in 
New  York,  July  15,  1779;  d.  in  Newport, 
R.  I. ,  July  10,  1863.  A  graduate  of  Colum¬ 
bia  College  in  1798,  he  was  professor  in 
the  General  Seminary  of  the  Protestant 
Episcopal  Church,  New  York,  from  1821 
to  1850,  first  of  Hebrew  and  Greek,  then 
of  Oriental  and  Greek  literature.  He  gave 
the  land  upon  which  the  seminary  now 
stands.  He  prepared  the  first  Hebrew 
lexicon  published  in  this  country  (N.  Y., 
1809),  2  vols.  He  was  the  author  of  the 
famous  children’s  poem  beginning  w'ith  the 
lines  “  ’Twas  the  night  before  Christmas, 


Mor 


(  &37  ) 


Mor 


when  all  through  the  house.”  His  father, 
Benjamin  Moore,  was  bishop  of  the  diocese 
of  New  York  (b.  1748;  d.  1816),  and  the 
son  edited  a  collection  of  his  sermons 
(1824)  in  2  vols. 

Moral  Law  is  distinguished  from  (1) 
Natural  and  (2)  Judicial  Law.  By  the 
former  we  mean  the  laws  of  nature,  which 
we  are  compelled  by  necessity  to  obey, 
seeing  that  they  are  out  of  our  control. 
Judicial  Law  is  law  made  by  a  State,  the 
infraction  of  which  involves  penalties  or¬ 
dained  by  that  State,  and  to  which  a  man 
may  be  said  to  be  bound  by  the  fear  of 
those  penalties  only,  seeing  that  he  may, 
in  his  conscience,  doubt  whether  the  law 
is,  in  the  abstract,  right.  Thus  a  man  who 
pays  his  tithe  or  poor-rate,  or  refrains  from 
his  business  on  Sundays,  may  consider,  in 
any  of  these  cases,  that  the  law  ought  to 
be  altered;  but,  so  long  as  it  is  not,  he  has 
no  choice  but  to  obey.  But  Moral  Law 
begins  with  the  human  will — does  not  say 
to  it,  “You  must  recognize  the  necessity 
of  obedience,  whether  you  agree  with  the 
commands  or  not;”  but  says,  instead, 
“  Gbey,  because  obedience  is  right  in.  it¬ 
self.”  The  moment  external  compulsion 
comes  in,  Moral  Law  ceases  to  be  of  effect. 
The  basis  of  Moral  Law,  then,  is  religion, 
ihe  sense  in  the  soul  of  duty  toward  its 
Creator,  and  the  purpose  for  which  he 
created  it.  And  the  enemy  of  Moral  Law 
is  selfishness.  Mere  self-seeking  may  as¬ 
sume  many  forms,  without  making  a  man 
absolutely  repulsive  as  a  hardened  ruffian, 
or  apparently  contemptible  as  one  living 
only  for  enjoyment  and  idleness;  but  its 
essence  is  the  same,  and  it  is  opposed  to 
the  idea  of  duty.  On  the  other  hand,  the 
man  who  recognizes  that  he  is  under  Moral 
Law  recognizes  that  he  is  a  member  of  a 
great  community;  that  he  is  sinful,  but  can 
be  holy;  is  weak,  but  can  find  strength; 
can  assert  the  Divine  element  in  himself 
by  taking  voluntary  service  under  him  who 
made  him,  by  crying  to  the  Creator  of  the 
whole  universe,  “  I  am  Thine;  O  save  me, 
for  I  do  not  forget  thy  commandments.” 
The  recognition  that  all  created  things, 
from  the  lowest  organism  upwards,  fulfill 
their  part,  is  an  incentive  to  him  to  fulfill 
his;  andTherefore  Moral  Law  comes  to  him 
with  an  authority  which  the  mere  law  of  the 
land  could  not  have,  bidding  him  be  pure 
and  gentle,  truthful  and  high-minded,  brave 
and  able,  courteous  and  generous,  dutiful 
and  useful,  through  Jesus  Christ,  whose 
very  appearance  in  this  world  was  in  order 
that  he  “  might  fulfill  all  righteousness.” 
— Benham:  Did.  of  Religion. 

Moravians,  or  United  Brethren.  After 


the  expulsion  of  the  Protestants  from  Bo¬ 
hemia,  many  of  them  met  secretly  for  de¬ 
votion,  and  from  time  to  time  fled  into  the 
Protestant  States  of  Germany.  In  1722 
they  were  permitted  by  Count  Zinzendorf 
to  settle  in  his  territory,  and  he  ultimately 
became  the  head  of  their  Church.  It  was 
in  contemplation  to  affiliate  themselves  to 
the  Lutheran  Church,  but  on  casting  lots 
it  was  decided  to  remain  a  separate  body 
under  the  name  of  Unitas  Fratrum.  They 
at  once  began  to  send  out  missionaries  to 
preach  the  Gospel  in  distant  lands,  Count 
Zinzendorf,  who  had  been  banished  from 
Germany,  himself  taking  the  leadership  of 
the  “Congregation  of  Pilgrims,”  as  he 
termed  his  fellow-laborers.  Their  first  field 
of  work  was  in  the  West  Indies,  then  in 
Greenland,  and  since  that  in  South  Africa, 
Australia,  and  among  the  North  American 
Indians.  Their  first  establishment  in  Eng¬ 
land  was  in  1742;  where  they  now  have 
about  thirty-four  chapels. 

The  Moravian  doctrines  are  in  accordance 
with  the  Confession  of  Augsburg.  The 
following  Declaration  was  adopted  in  1775 
at  a  General  Synod  held  at  Barby,  near 
Rugby: 

“  The  chief  doctrine  to  which  the  Church 
of  the  Brethren  adheres,  and  which  we 
must  preserve  as  an  invaluable  treasure 
committed  unto  us,  is  this — that  by  the 
sacrifice  for  sin  made  by  Jesus  Christ ,  and 
by  that  alone ,  grace  and  deliverance  from 
sin  are  to  be  obtained  for  all  mankind.  We 
will  therefore,  without  lessening  the  im¬ 
portance  of  any  other  article  of  the  Chris¬ 
tian  faith,  steadfastly  maintain  the  follow¬ 
ing  five  points: 

“(1)  The  doctrine  of  the  universal  de¬ 
pravity  of  man:  that  there  is  no  health  in 
man,  and  that,  since  the  Fall,  he  has  no 
power  whatever  left  to  help  himself. 

“(2)  The  doctrine  of  the  Divinity  of 
Christ:  that  God,  the  Creator  of  all  things, 
was  manifest  in  the  flesh,  and  reconciled  us 
to  himself;  that  he  is  before  all  things,  and 
that  by  him  all  things  consist. 

“  (3)  The  doctrine  of  the  atonement  and 
satisfaction  made  for  us  by  Jesus  Christ: 
that  he  was  delivered  for  our  offences,  and 
raised  again  for  our  justification,  and  that, 
by  his  merits  alone  we  receive  freely  the 
forgiveness  of  sin  and  sanctification  in  soul 
and  body. 

“(4)  The  doctrine  of  the  Holy  Spirit, 
the  operations  of  his  grace:  that  it  is  he 
who  worketh  in  us  conviction  of  sin,  faith 
in  Jesus,  and  pureness  in  heart. 

“(5)  The  doctrine  of  the  fruits  of  faith: 
that  faith  must  evidence  itself  by  willing 
obedience  to  the  commandments  of  God, 
from  love  and  gratitude.” 

The  Moravian  Church  is  in  form  episco- 


Mor 


(  638  ) 


Mor 


pal,  its  bishops  claiming  direct  descent 
from  those  of  the  old  Church  of  Bohemia. 
They  have  also  presbyters  and  deacons. 
The  Church  is  governed  by  a  board  of 
elders,  who  are  chosen  at  the  general 
synods  held  at  periods  varying  from  seven 
to  twelve  years.  One  of  these,  which  has 
the  general  supervision  of  the  whole  soci¬ 
ety,  is  held  at  Herrnhut,  the  cradle  of  the 
Moravian  Church,  for  which  reason  the 
Moravians  are  sometimes  called  Herrnhut- 
ers.  There  are  female  elders,  but  they 
have  no  vote  at  the  conference.  The  Sac¬ 
raments  of  Baptism  and  the  Lord’s  Supper 
are  administered  much  in  the  same  way  as 
in  other  Protestant  churches.  In  some  set¬ 
tlements  the  latter  ordinance  is  celebrated 
on  every  fourth  Saturday  evening;  in  oth¬ 
ers,  on  every  fourth  Sunday.  The  deacons 
distribute  the  consecrated  bread  to  all  the 
communicants,  standing,  who  then  kneel 
down  and  eat  it  all  together ;  they  then  stand, 
and  receive  the  cup  in  turn.  Formerly, 
foot-washing  was  observed  before  partak¬ 
ing  of  the  Communion,  but  now  this  cere¬ 
mony  is  confined  to  Maundy  Thursday. 
They  use  a  great  deal  of  music,  both  vocal 
and  instrumental,  and  at  their  morning 
service  they  have  a  litany  and  extemporary 
prayers.  Occasionally  they  hold  love- 
feasts,  in  imitation  of  the  agapce  of  the 
early  Church.  The  desirability  of  a  mar¬ 
riage  is  often  decided  by  lot,  and  previous 
to  marriage  the  sexes  in  many  places  oc¬ 
cupy  separate  establishments,  called  the 
“  Single  Brethren’s  Houses”  and  the  “Sin¬ 
gle  Sisters’  Houses.”  Several  elders  usu¬ 
ally  attend  the  death-bed  of  a  brother,  and 
prepare  him  for  the  end  by  prayer,  singing, 
and  laying-on  of  hands.  The}’’  have  a 
custom  on  Easter  Day  of  the  whole  con¬ 
gregation  meeting  at  sunrise  in  the  burial- 
ground,  where  they  hold  a  solemn  service, 
commemorating  by  name  all  those  who 
have  died  during  the  previous  year.  In 
England  they  have  schools  at  Fulneck  in 
Yorkshire,  Fairfield  in  Lancashire,  and 
Ockbrook  in  Derbyshire  ;  in  Ireland,  at 
Gracehill,  Antrim.  On  the  continent 
Herrnhut  is  still  their  centre,  and  they 
have  separate  communities  in  Silesia, 
Konigsfeld  in  Baden,  Neuwied  on  the 
Rhine,  Christianfeld  in  Holstein,  Zeyst, 
near  Utrecht,  and  Sarepta,  on  the  borders 
of  Asiatic  Russia,  besides  organized  soci¬ 
eties  at  Berlin,  Potsdam,  Copenhagen, 
Stockholm,  St.  Petersburg,  Moscow,  etc. 
In  the  United  States  they  have  separate 
communities  at  Bethlehem  (which  ranks  in 
size  next  to  Herrnhut),  Nazareth,  and  Litiz 
in  Pennsylvania,  and  at  Salem  in  North 
Carolina.  Besides  these,  there  are  congre¬ 
gations  at  Newport  in  Rhode  Island,  Phil¬ 
adelphia,  New  York,  etc.,  and  several 


country  congregations  scattered  through 
Pennsylvania,  the  members  of  which  gen¬ 
erally  dwell  on  their  plantations,  but  have 
a  common  place  of  worship.  In  their 
separate  communities  they  do  not  allow 
the  permanent  residence  of  any  persons  as 
householders  who  are  not  members  in  full 
communion,  and  who  have  not  signed  the 
written  instrument  of  brotherly  agreement 
upon  which  their  constitution  and  disci¬ 
pline  rest;  but  they  freely  admit  of  the 
temporary  residence  among  them  of  such 
other  persons  as  are  willing  to  conform  to 
their  external  regulations.  Each  commu¬ 
nity  has  to  provide  for  the  erection  and 
maintenance  of  a  church,  the  support  of  its 
ministers  and  schools;  but  the  individuals 
are  as  entirely  independent  in  their  private 
property  as  other  persons,  and  do  not  have, 
as  has  often  been  stated,  a  community  of 
goods.  Their  schools  have  sustained  a 
very  considerable  reputation  in  Europe 
and  America;  there  is,  especially,  one  at 
Niesky,  in  Upper  Lusatia,  where  they 
maintain  a  higher  classical  institution, 
where  those  receive  a  preparatory  educa¬ 
tion  who  intend  to  embrace  the  liberal  pro¬ 
fessions,  or  be  prepared  for  the  ministry. 

The  Moravians  have  been  particularly 
active  in  missionary  work  ;  among  their 
principal  missions  are  those  among  the 
negro  slaves  in  the  three  Danish  West 
Indian  Islands;  in  Jamaica,  St.  Kitts,  An¬ 
tigua,  Barbadoes,  Tobago,  and  Surinam; 
in  Greenland;  in  Labrador,  among  the 
Esquimaux;  at  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope, 
among  the  Caffres  and  Hottentots;  and  in 
North  America,  among  the  Indians  and 
Cherokees. 

It  is  a  general  principle  of  the  society 
that  their  social  organization  is  in  no  way 
to  interfere  with  their  duties  as  citizens,  or 
as  subjects  of  Governments  under  which 
they  live,  and  wherever  they  are  settled. 
— Benham:  Did  of  Religion.  The  Mora¬ 
vians  number  not  far  [from  108,000  souls, 
besides  about  80,000  persons  connected 
with  their  foreign  missions.  See  Schwei- 
nitz:  The  History  of  the  Unitas  Fratrum 

(1885). 

More,  Hannah,  was  b.  at  Stapleton, 
Gloucestershire,  Feb.  2,  1745;  d.  in  Clifton, 
Sept.  7,  1833.  She  was  educated  at  Bris¬ 
tol,  by  her  father,  who  was  a  village  school¬ 
master.  When  but  sixteen  she  wrote  a 
pastoral  drama,  The  Search  after  Happi¬ 
ness,  and  in  the  following  year  a  tragedy, 
called  The  Inflexible  Captive ,  founded  on 
the  story  of  Regulus.  Removing  to  Lon¬ 
don,  she  became  a  favorite  in  society,  but 
on  account  of  religious  scruples  gave  up 
writing  for  the  stage,  and  retired  to  the 
country,  living  with  her  sisters  at  Wring- 


Mor 


(  639  ) 


Mor 


ton,  near  Bristol  (1786),  then  at  Barley 
Wood  (1802),  and  making  her  final  home  at 
Clifton  (1828).  Her  works  were  numerous 
and  popular,  and  had  a  marked  influence 
on  English  manners.  “  Her  poetry  is  not 
much  prized.  Her  prose  is  justly  admired 
for  its  sententious  wisdom,  its  practical 
good  sense,  its  masculine  vigor,  and  the 
dignified  religious  and  moral  fervor  that 
pervades  it.”  Two  American  editions  of 
her  works  have  appeared,  Phila. :  Lippin- 
cott;  New  York:  Harpers. 

More,  Henry,  the  Cambridge  Platonist; 
b.  at  Grantham,  Oct.  12,  1614;  d.  at  Cam¬ 
bridge,  Sept.  1,  1687.  He  was  educated  at 
Eton  and  Cambridge,  and  while  acting  as 
private  tutor,  he  devoted  his  life  to  the 
study  of  philosophy.  He  declined  the 
mastership  of  his  college  in  1654,  a  bishop¬ 
ric,  and  other  preferments.  “  More  was 
of  opinion  that  the  Hebrews  had  transmit¬ 
ted  their  wisdom  to  Pythagoras,  and  he  to 
Plato,  and  that  therefore  Platonism  con¬ 
tains  the  principle  of  Divine  philosophy. 
His  writings,  though  tinctured  with  mysti¬ 
cism,  show  great  piety  and  a  liberal  spirit. 
His  chief  works  are:  Philosophical  Poems, 
which  were  published  in  1647,  and  contain 
the  germ  of  most  of  his  speculations;  Con¬ 
fect  ur  a  Cabalistica  ;  The  Mystery  of  Iniquity ; 

A  Key  to  the  Revelation;  An  Apology  for 
Des  Cartes;  The  Immortality  of  the  Sonl, etc.” 

Morganatic  Marriage,  a  form  of  marriage 
between  a  man  of  high  rank  and  a  woman 
of  inferior  standing,  quite  common  among 
the  princely  houses  and  the  higher  nobility 
of  Germany.  In  the  ceremony  the  left 
hand  is  given  to  the  bride  instead  of  the 
right.  Neither  the  wife  nor  her  children 
can  enjoy  the  rank  of  the  husband. 

Mori'ah  ( appearance  of  Jehovali),  (1)  the 
land  where  Abraham  was  directed  to  go 
and  offer  Isaac  as  a  sacrifice.  (Gen.  xxii. 
2.)  (2)  A  mount  in  the  eastern  part  of 

Jerusalem  where  Solomon  built  the  tem¬ 
ple.  (eChron.  iii.  1.)  Most  authorities  iden¬ 
tify  it  as  the  place  where  Abraham  went 
to  offer  Isaac. 

Mormons,  or  Latter-Day  Saints.  Mor- 
monism  is  one  of  the  most  remarkable  re¬ 
ligious  movements  of  modern  times.  The 
word  is  derived  from  the  Gaelic  mor , 

“  great,”  and  the  Egyptian  mon ,  “  good,” 
thus  meaning  “  great  good.”  The  founder 
of  this  sect  was  Joseph  Smith,  born  of 
humble  parentage  at  Sharon,  Windsor  Co., 
Vt.,  Dec.  23,  1805.  In  1S15  he  removed, 
with  his  parents,  to  Palmyra,  New  York. 
His  father  was  a  man  of  a  peculiar  tempera¬ 
ment,  a  visionary,  who  spent  much  time  in  | 


searching  for  hidden  treasure,  and  his  son 
seems  to  have  inherited  his  eccentricities  in 
an  intensified  form.  When  about  fourteen 
years  of  age,  Joseph  Smith  says  that  he  was 
pondering  on  the  importance  of  preparing 
for  a  future  state;  he  was  perplexed  by  the 
variety  of  opinions  held  by  different  de¬ 
nominations  of  Christians,  and  betook  him¬ 
self  to  prayer  that  he  might  see  his  way 
out  of  the  difficulty.  He  thus  describes 
what  happened:  “  I  retired  to  a  secret 
place  in  a  grove  and  began  to  call  upon  the 
Lord.  While  fervently  engaged  in  suppli¬ 
cation,  my  mind  was  taken  away  from  the 
objects  with  which  I  was  surrounded,  and 
I  was  enwrapt  in  a  heavenly  vision, and  saw 
two  glorious  personages,  who  exactly  re¬ 
sembled  each  other  in  features  and  likeness, 
surrounded  with  a  brilliant  light,  which 
eclipsed  the  sun  at  noonday.  They  told  me 
that  all  the  religious  denominations  were 
believing  in  incorrect  doctrines,  and  that 
none  of  them  was  acknowledged  of  God  as 
his  Church  and  kingdom.  And  I  was  ex¬ 
pressly  commanded  to  ‘  go  not  after  them,’ 
at  the  same  time  receiving  a  promise  that 
the  fullness  of  the  Gospel  should  at  some 
future  time  be  made  known  to  me.  On  the 
evening  of  the  21st  of  September,  1823, 
while  I  was  praying  unto  God  and  endeav¬ 
oring  to  exercise  faith  in  the  precious 
promises  of  Scripture,  on  a  sudden,  a  light 
like  that  of  day,  only  of  a  far  purer  and 
more  glorious  appearance  and  brightness, 
burst  into  the  room;  indeed,  the  first  sight 
was  as  though  the  house  was  filled  with 
consuming  fire.  The  appearance  produced 
a  shock  that  affected  the  whole  body.  In  a 
moment  a  personage  stood  before  me,  sur¬ 
rounded  with  a  glory  yet  greater  than  that 
with  which  I  was  already  surrounded. 
This  messenger  proclaimed  himself  to  be 
an  angel  of  God,  sent  to  bring  the  joyful 
tidings  that  the  covenant  which  God  made 
with  ancient  Israel  was  at  hand  to  be  ful¬ 
filled;  that  the  preparatory  work  for  the 
second  coming  of  the  Messiah  was  speedily 
to  commence;  that  the  time  was  at  hand 
for  the  Gospel  in  all  its  fullness  to  be 
preached  in  power  unto  all  nations,  that  a 
people  might  be  prepared  for  the  millen¬ 
nial  reign. 

“  I  was  informed  that  I  was  chosen  to  be 
an  instrument  in  the  hands  of  God  to  bring 
about  some  of  his  purposes  in  this  glorious 
dispensation. 

“  I  was  informed,  also,  concerning  the 
aboriginal  inhabitants  of  this  country,  and 
shown  who  they  were  and  from  whence  they 
came;  a  brief  sketch  of  their  origin,  prog¬ 
ress,  civilization,  laws,  governments,  of 
their  righteousness  and  iniquity,  and  the 
blessings  of  God  being  finally  withdrawn 
i  from  them  as  a  people,  was  made  known 


Mor 


(  640  ) 


Mor 


unto  me.  I  was  also  told  where  there  were 
deposited  some  plates,  on  which  was  en¬ 
graven  an  abridgment  of  the  records  of 
the  ancient  prophets  that  had  existed  on 
this  continent.  The  angel  appeared  to  me 
three  times  the  same  night  and  unfolded 
the  same  things.  After  having  received 
many  visits  from  the  angels  of  God,  unfold¬ 
ing  the  majesty  and  glory  of  the  events 
that  should  transpire  in  the  last  days,  on 
the  morning  of  the  22d  of  September,  1827, 
the  angel  of  the  Lord  delivered  the  records 
into  my  hands.  These  records  were  en¬ 
graven  on  plates  which  had  the  appearance 
of  gold;  each  plate  was  six  inches  wide  and 
eight  inches  long,  and  not  quite  so  thick  as 
common  tin.  They  were  filled  with  en¬ 
gravings  in  Egyptian  characters,  and  bound 
together  in  a  volume,  as  the  leaves  of  a 
book,  with  three  rings  running  through  the 
whole.  The  volume  was  something  near 
six  inches  in  thickness,  apart  of  which  was 
sealed.  The  characters  on  the  unsealed 
part  were  small  and  beautifully  engraved. 
The  whole  book  exhibited  many  marks  of 
antiquity  in  its  construction, and  much  skill 
in  the  art  of  engraving.  With  the  records 
was  found  a  curious  instrument  which  the 
ancients  called  4  Urim  and  Thummim,’ 
which  consisted  of  two  transparent  stones 
set  in  the  rim  on  a  bow  fastened  to  a 
breastplate. 

“  Through  the  medium  of  the  Urim  and 
Thummim  I  translated  the  record  by  the 
gift  and  power  of  God.” 

This  translation,  it  is  said,  constitutes 
the  Book  of  Mormon ,  which  is  considered 
by  its  disciples  as  revealed  Scripture. 

The  news  of  his  alleged  discovery  at¬ 
tracted  much  attention,  and  Smith  was  so 
persecuted  that  he  had  to  take  refuge  in 
Pennsylvania,  carrying  away  his  precious 
book  in  a  barrel  of  beans.  Mormon  was 
said  to  be  a  prophet  in  the  fourth  or  fifth 
century,  who  had  engraved  on  plates  the 
history  of  the  troubles  of  the  American 
Israelites,  and  his  son  Moroni  concealed 
them  in  a  hill  called  Cumorae,  about  a.  d. 
420.  They  are  said  to  contain  many  proph¬ 
ecies  concerning  the  colonizing  of  America 
by  a  direct  tribe  of  Jews,  for  which  reason 
the  Mormons  claim  direct  Jewish  descent. 
The  Mormons  urge  in  favor  of  the  authen¬ 
ticity  of  the  Book  of  Mormon,  that  it  was 
an  impossibility  for  it  to  have  been  written 
and  invented  by  an  uneducated  man  like 
Smith;  and  to  account  for  the  non-produc¬ 
tion  of  the  engraved  plates  they  say  that 
Smith  was  forbidden  by  distinct  revelation 
to  show  them  to  any  of  his  disciples.  It  is 
alleged,  on  the  other  hand,  that  about 
1809-12  Solomon  Spaulding,  who  had  once 
been  a  clergyman,  wrote  a  tale  on  the  sup¬ 
position  that  the  American  Indians  were 


the  lost  ten  tribes  of  Israel,  in  which  the 
names  Mormon  and  Moroni  frequently  oc¬ 
cur;  and  that  the  MS.  found  its  way  into 
the  hands  of  Sidney  Rigdon,  one  of  Smith’s 
earliest  followers. 

The  Book  of  Mormon  was  followed  by  a 
Book  of  Doctrine  and  Covenants,  which 
contained  the  further  revelations  which  it 
was  supposed  were  made  to  Smith  as  the 
Church  needed  them. 

The  “  Church  of  Jesus  Christ  of  Latter- 
Day  Saints  ”  was  organized  on  April  6, 
1830,  at  Manchester,  in  the  State  of  New 
York.  There  were  about  thirty  members. 
Churches  were  formed  in  the  States  of  New 
York,  Pennsylvania,  Ohio,  Indiana,  and 
Missouri,  notably  in  the  last-named  State, 
in  Jackson  County.  Here  they  made  large 
purchases  of  land;  but  popular  hostility 
was  so  great  that,  in  1833,  they  were  driv¬ 
en  from  their  settlement,  and  they  removed 
to  Clay  County.  But  they  were  not  to  be 
left  unmolested.  In  1838  Joseph  Smith 
and  his  brother  Hiram  were  imprisoned, 
and  the  Mormons  sought  a  new  resting- 
place  at  Commerce,  in  the  State  of  Illinois. 
This  place  they  at  once  enlarged  and  called 
Nauvoo,  or  “  Beautiful.”  Their  prophet 
was  made  “  Mayor  ”  of  the  city,  and  “Gen¬ 
eral  ”  of  a  body  of  militia.  In  1841  they 
were  commanded  by  a  “  revelation  ”  to 
build  a  superb  temple,  toward  which  each 
member  should  give  a  tithe  of  his  proper¬ 
ty.  In  a  few  years  they  numbered  20,000 
inhabitants.  But  suspicion  and  hatred  fol¬ 
lowed  the  Mormons;  every  crime  com¬ 
mitted  in  the  neighborhood  was  charged  on 
them;  their  doctrine  of  polygamy  made 
them  a  public  scandal;  and  at  length  the 
editors  of  a  newspaper, which  had  been  sup¬ 
pressed  for  publishing  some  scandal  about 
Smith,  in  revenge  got  a  warrant  against 
him  and  his  brother  Hiram,  and  they  were 
thrown  into  prison  at  Carthage,  where 
they  were  shot  by  the  mob,  June  27,  1844. 
This  act  of  lynch-law  made  a  martyr  of  one 
who  otherwise  would  have  been  detected 
as  an  impostor  or  fanatic,  for  his  own  fol¬ 
lowers  had  become  suspicious  of  him,  and 
the  folly  of  the  revelations  was  becoming 
more  and  more  apparent.  But  now  all  was 
changed. 

Sidney  Rigdon  and  Brigham  Young  were 
competitors  for  the  supremacy:  the  latter 
was  chosen  to  be  the  44  Lord’s  Prophet  and 
Seer  to  the  Saints,”  under  the  title  of  First 
President.  He  lived  till  1877.  The  Mor¬ 
mons  now'  determined  to  seek  a  home  far 
from  the  haunts  of  men;  and  in  February, 
1846,  a  pioneering  party  went  beyond  the 
Rocky  Mountains  to  the  basin  of  the  Great 
Salt  Lake;  the  rest  followed  in  detach¬ 
ments,  and  through  great  hardships;  and  at 
length,  in  iS4S,rthey  founded  a  State  under 


Mor 


(  641  ) 


Mor 


the  name  of  Deseret,  a  word  from  the  Mor¬ 
mon  book,  signifying  the  “  Land  of  the 
Honey-bee.”  Here  they  have  made  great 
progress,  and  founded  several  cities.  Utah 
Territory  hasan  areaof  84,476  square  miles, 
and  a  population  of  about  150,000,  of 
which  not  above  20,000  are  non-Mormons. 

The  following  is  the  printed  “  Creed  ” 
given  to  the  Mormons  by  their  founder, 
Joseph  Smith: 

“  We  believe  in  God  the  Eternal  Father,  and  his  Son 
Jesus  Christ,  and  in  the  Holy  Ghost. 

“  We  believe  that  men  will  be  punished  for  their  own 
sins,  and  not  for  Adam’s  transgressions. 

“  We  believe  that  through  the  atonement  of  Christ  all 
men  may  be  saved,  by  obedience  to  the  laws  and  or¬ 
dinances  of  the  Gospel. 

“We  believe  that  these  ordinances  are: — 1st,  Faith 
in  the  Lord  Jesus  Christ;  2d,  Repentance;  3d,  Baptism 
by  immersion  for  the  remission  of  sins;  4th,  Laying-on 
of  hands  for  the  gift  of  the  Holy  Ghost. 

“We  believe  that  a  man  must  be  called  of  God  by 
'  prophecy  and  by  laying-on  of  hands,’  by  those  who  are 
in  authority,  to  preach  the  Gospel  and  administer  in  the 
ordinances  thereof. 

“  We  believe  in  the  same  organization  that  existed  in 
the  primitive  Church,  viz.,  apostles,  prophets,  pastors, 
teachers,  evangelists,  etc. 

“We  believe  in  the  gift  of  tongues,  prophecy,  revela¬ 
tion,  visions,  healing,  interpretation  of  tongues,  etc. 

“  We  believe  the  Bible  to  be  the  Word  of  God,  as  far 
as  it  is  translated  correctly;  we  also  believe  the  Book  of 
Mormon  to  be  the  Word  of  God. 

“  We  believe  all  that  God  has  revealed,  all  that  he 
does  now  reveal,  and  we  believe  that  he  will  yet  reveal 
many  great  and  important  things  pertaining  to  the 
Kingdom  of  God. 

“  We  believe  in  the  literal  gathering  of  Israel,  and  in 
the  restoration  of  the  Ten  Tribes;  that  Zion  will  be 
built  upon  this  continent;  that  Christ  will  reign  person¬ 
ally  upon  the  earth;  and  that  the  earth  will  be  renewed 
and  receive  its  paradisal  glory. 

“We  claim  the  privilege  of  worshipping  Almighty 
God  according  to  the  dictates  of  our  conscience,  and 
allow  all  men  the  same  privilege,  let  them  worship  how, 
where,  or  what  they  may. 

“  We  believe  in  being  subject  to  kings,  presidents, 
rulers,  and  magistrates;  in  obeying,  honoring,  and  sus¬ 
taining  the  law. 

“  We  believe  in  being  honest,  true,  chaste,  benevo¬ 
lent,  virtuous,  and  in  doing  good  to  all  men;  indeed,  we 
may  say  that  we  follow  the  admonition  of  Paul — *  We 
believe  all  things,  we  hope  all  things  ’  We  have  en¬ 
dured  many  things,  and  hope  to  be  able  to  endure  all 
things.  If  there  is  anything  virtuous,  lovely,  or  of  good 
report,  or  praiseworthy,  we  seek  thereafter.” 

This  is  not,  however,  the  whole  of  their 
creed.  Instead  of  believing  in  a  Trinity, 
they  hold  a  duality  of  Persons  in  the  God¬ 
head,  the  Holy  Ghost  being  merely  a  spirit¬ 
ual  soul.  They  also  believe  that  God  has 
parts  resembling  the  body  of  man,  and  not 
materially  differing  from  him  in  size.  They 
hold  a  twofold  priesthood,  the  Melchis- 
edec  and  the  Aaronic;  they  believe  in  a 
“  baptism  for  the  dead,”  i.  e.,  that  a  living 
person  may  save  a  dead  friend  by  being 
immersed  for  him,  unless  he  has  committed 
the  unpardonable  sin.  Polygamy  is  not  so 
much  tolerated  as  enjoined  as  a  positive 
duty,  a  man’s  rank  in  heaven  being  alleged 
to  be  largely  dependent  upon  the  number 
of  his  children.  Children  are  baptized  at 
the  age  of  eight,  never  before. 


Mr.  Gunnison  gives  the  following  ac¬ 
count  of  their  Church  government: — “  The 
hierarchy  of  the  Mormon  Church  has  many 
grades  of  offices  and  gifts.  The  first  is  the 
presidency  of  three  persons,  which,  we 
were  led  to  understand,  answered  to  the 
Trinity  in  heaven,  but  more  particularly  to 
Peter,  James,  and  John,  the  first  presidents 
of  the  Gospel  Church. 

“  Next  in  order  is  the  traveling  High 
Apostolic  College  of  twelve  apostles,  after 
the  primitive  Church  model,  who  have  the 
right  to  preside  over  affairs  in  any  foreign 
country,  according  to  seniority;  then  the 
High  -  Priests,  Priests,  Elders,  Bishops, 
Teachers,  and  Deacons,  together  with 
Evangelists  and  Missionaries  of  the  ‘  Three 
Seventies.’  Each  order  constitutes  a  full 
quorum  for  the  discipline  of  its  members, 
and  transacting  business  belonging  to  its 
action;  but  appeals  lie  to  higher  orders, 
and  the  whole  Church  is  the  final  appellate 
court  assembled  in  general  council. 

“  Their  prophets  arise  out  of  every 
grade,  and  a  patriarch  resides  at  head¬ 
quarters  to  bless  particular  members,  after 
the  manner  of  Jacob  and  his  sons,  and  that 
of  Isaac  toward  Esau  and  his  brother. 

“  A  High  Council  is  selected  out  of  the 
high-priests,  and  consists  of  twelve  mem¬ 
bers,  which  is  in  perpetual  session  to  ad¬ 
vise  the  presidency,  in  which  each  is  free 
to  give  and  argue  his  opinion.  The  presi¬ 
dent  sums  up  the  matter,  and  gives  the 
decision,  perhaps  in  opposition  to  a  great 
majority,  but  to  which  all  must  yield  im¬ 
plicit  obedience;  and  probably  there  has 
never  been  known,  under  the  present  head, 
a  dissent  when  the  *  awful  nod  ’  has  been 
given,  for  it  is  the  ‘  stamp  of  fate  and  sanc¬ 
tion  of  a  god.’  ” 

The  Mormons  have  been  wonderfully 
energetic  in  sending  their  missionaries  all 
over  the  globe,  and  they  have  made  very 
many  converts  among  the  working-classes 
of  Great  Britain,  notably  in  Wales.  Many 
yearly  emigrate  to  Salt  Lake  City. 

Their  polygamy  exposes  them  to  the  ab¬ 
horrence  of  Christian  civilization,  and  will 
finally  bring  them  to  naught.  Yet  for  the 
present  it  forces  them  into  unity.  Ostra¬ 
cised  by  the  world,  they  hold  together  for 
mutual  protection. — Benham:  Did.  of  Re¬ 
ligion.  In  1882  the  Edmunds  Bill,  to  legis¬ 
late  polygamy  out  of  existence,  passed 
Congress,  and  since  that  time  the  power  of 
the  Government  has  steadily  been  asserting 
itself  against  this  criminal  part  of  the  social 
life  of  the  Mormons.  The  development  of 
the  material  resources  of  Utah,  and  the 
consequent  increase  of  a  non-Mormon  pop¬ 
ulation  and  influence,  are  also  aiding  to 
break  down  the  ascendancy  of  Mormon 
power. 


Mor 


(  6 42  ) 


Mos 


Morris,  Thomas  Asbury,  a  bishop  of  the 
Methodist  Episcopal  Church;  b.  in  Kana¬ 
wha  County,  Va. ,  April  2S,  1794;  d.  in 
Springfield,  O.,  Sept.  2,  1874.  He  was  re¬ 
ceived  into  the  Ohio  Conference,  1816;  and 
labored  in  Ohio,  Kentucky,  and  Tennessee 
until  1S34,  when  he  became  the  first  editor 
of  the  Western  Christian  Advocate.  He  was 
elected  bishop  in  1S36,  in  which  office  he 
showed  great  skill  in  presiding,  and  rare 
practical  wisdom  and  judgment  in  decision. 
In  1868  he  was  compelled  to  retire,  by  the 
infirmities  of  age  and  health.  He  published 
a  volume  of  Sermons;  Miscellany  (1837),  and 
Church  Polity  (1859).  See  Marlay:  Life  of 
Bishop  Morris  (N.  Y. ,  1875). 

Morrison,  Robert,  “  the  first  Protestant 
missionary  to  China,  was  born  of  Scottish 
parents  at  Morpeth,  Northumberland,  on 
Jan.  5,  1782.  After  receiving  an  element¬ 
ary  education  in  Newcastle,  he  was  ap¬ 
prenticed  to  a  lastmaker,  but  his  spare 
hours  were  devoted  to  studies  connected 
with  theology,  and  in  1803  he  was  received 
into  the  Independent  Academy  at  Hoxton. 
In  the  following  year  he  offered  his  ser¬ 
vices  to  the  London  Missionary  Society, 
by  which,  after  he  had  attended  the  mis¬ 
sion  college  of  Gosport,  and  studied 
Chinese  under  a  native  teacher,  he  was 
sent  to  Canton  in  1807.  He  was  appointed 
translator  to  the  East  India  Company’s 
factory  there  in  1808,  and,  in  addition  to  his 
official  duties  connected  with  this  port,  la¬ 
bored  with  intense  application  at  a  Chinese 
Grammar,  and  a  translation  of  the  New 
Testament,  both  of  which  were  published  in 
1814.  In  1817  he  published  A  View  of  China 
for  Philological  Purposes ,  and  his  translation 
of  the  entire  Bible  was  completed  in  the  fol¬ 
lowing  year.  His  next  enterprise  was  the 
establishment  of  an  Anglo-Chinese  college 
at  Malacca  for  ‘  the  reciprocal  cultivation 
of  Chinese  and  European  literature’  which 
was  opened  in  1820.  In  1821  -his  Chinese 
Dictionary  was  published  by  the  East  In¬ 
dia  Company  at  an  expense  of  ^15,000. 
Leaving  China  at  the  close  of  1823  he 
spent  two  years  in  England,  where  he  ad¬ 
vocated  Chinese  missions  before  large  and 
enthusiastic  audiences,  and  was  elected  a 
fellow  of  the  Royal  Society.  Returning 
to  China  in  1826  he  set  himself  to  promote 
education,  and  to  prepare  a  Chinese  com¬ 
mentary  on  the  Bible,  and  other  Christian 
literature.  He  died  at  Canton  on  Aug.  1, 
1834.  His  Memoirs,  compiled  by  his 
widow,  were  published  in  London,  1839.” 
— Ency .  Britannica . 

Morse,  Jedediah,  D.  D.,  b.  at  Wood- 
stock,  Conn.,  Aug.  23,  1761;  d.  in  New 
Haven,  June  9,  1S26.  After  graduating  at 


Yale  College,  1783,  where  he  remained  as 
tutor  for  a  time,  he  was  called  to  the  pas¬ 
torate  of  the  First  Congregational  Church 
of  Charlestown,  Mass.,  where  he  remained 
from  1789  to  1820.  He  took  a  prominent 
part  in  the  Unitarian  controversy,  and 
founded  the  Panoplist,  which  he  edited 
from  1806  to  1 81 1.  He  prepared  the  first 
geography  ever  published  in  this  country 
for  use  in  schools  (1784).  He  also  wrote 
A  Compendious  History  of  New  England 
(Cambridge,  1804);  Annals  of  the  Af/ierican 
Revolution  (Hartford,  1824).  See  Life  of 
Jedediah  Morse,  by  William  B.  Sprague 
(New  York,  1875). 

Mortmain  (from  the  French  mort, 
dead,  and  main,  hand).  In  the  twelfth 
and  thirteenth  centuries  nearly  one- 
half  of  the  national  wealth  in  Germany, 
and  more  than  one-third  of  all  the  real 
estate  in  England  was  in  the  possession  of 
the  Roman  Catholic  Church.  In  order  to 
prevent  this  undue  growth  of  ecclesiasti¬ 
cal  property,  statutes  of  mortmain  were 
enacted  in  Germany  in  the  thirteenth  cen¬ 
tury,  and  in  England  from  the  time  of 
Magna  Charta,  limiting  the  right  of  an 
institution  to  hold  and  acquire  landed 
property.  In  England  no  landed  property 
can  be  devised  by  will  for  charitable  pur¬ 
poses  unless  the  gift  has  been  made  twelve 
months  before  the  death  of  the  donor. 
This  mortmain  statute  was  made  to  pre¬ 
vent  improper  solicitations  on  the  part  of 
priests  or  others,  under  fear  or  expectation 
of  death. 

Moses.  “  Of  the  life  of  Moses  we  have 
few  certain  details,  though  the  history  of 
Israel  bears  witness  to  the  importance  of 
his  work.  His  origin  and  the  history  of 
his  childhood  can  be  read  in  Exodus  i.,  ii. 
(comp.  vi.  16  sq .);  the  statements  there 
given  are  enlarged  and  modified  in  the 
Jewish  Midrash,  particularly  as  we  find  it 
in  Josephus  and  Philo.  The  daughter  of 
Pharaoh,  we  are  told,  was  Thermutis  ( Ant . 
ii.  9,  5),  or  Merris  (Euseb. :  Praep.  Ev.  ix. 
27):  she  named  the  boy  Mouses ,  not  be¬ 
cause  she  used  the  Hebrew  verb  to  ex¬ 
press  the  fact  that  he  was  drawn  out 
of  the  water,  but  because  the  Egyptian 
word  for  water  was  mo,  and  uses  applied  to 
those  who  have  been  delivered  from  it 
(Ant.  ii.  9,  6;  comp.  Philo ,  ed.  Mangey,  ii. 
83;  Euseb.  1.  c.,  ix.  28).  She  took  care  to 
have  him  trained  in  all  the  wisdom  of  the 
Egyptians  (Acts  vii.  22),  and  in  that  of  the 
Greeks,  Assyrians,  and  Chaldeans  as  well 
(Philo,  ii.  84).  To  his  great  intellectual 
endowments  corresponded  his  personal 
beauty,  of  which  Josephus  speaks  in  ex¬ 
travagant  terms  (Ant.  ii.  9,  6-7).  It  was 


Mos 


(  643  ) 


Mos 


•on  account  of  this  beauty  that  when,  on 
one  occasion,  as  a  young  man,  he  led  an 
Egyptian  army  against  Meroe,  the  Ethio¬ 
pian  Princess  Sharbis  opened  the  gates  of 
the  capital  to  him,  in  order  to  make  him 
her  husband  (Ant.  ii.  10;  comp.  Num. 
xii.  1).  For  reasons  explained  in  Exod.  ii. 
11  sq. ,  Moses  left  the  land  of  Pharaoh,  and 
came  to  Midian,  to  the  Kenite  priest,  Jethro 
(also  called  Hobab  Ben  Raguel  and  Raguel), 
whose  daughter  Zipporah  he  married,  be¬ 
coming  by  her  the  father  of  two  sons, 
Gershom  and  Eliezer.  (Exod.  ii.  21  sq. ; 
xviii.  2  sq. )  During  his  stay  in  Midian  he 
received  at  the  foot  of  Sinai  (Horeb)  the 
divine  revelation  at  the  burning  bush, 
whereby  he  was  called  to  become  the  lib¬ 
erator  of  Israel  from  Egyptian  bondage. 
With  much  reluctance  he  at  last  accepted 
this  vocation,  and,  already  expected  by  his 
brother  Aaron,  and  the  eiders,  returned  to 
his  people.  Arrived  in  Egypt,  he  asso¬ 
ciated  Aaron  with  him  as  his  interpreter, 
being  himself  no  orator,  but  a  man  of  coun¬ 
sel  and  action,  and  appeared  before  Pha¬ 
raoh  to  demand  of  the  king,  in  Jehovah’s 
name,  permission  for  the  people  to  go  with 
flocks  and  herds  into  the  wilderness  to  cele¬ 
brate  there  a  festival  (the  spring  festival 
of  the  Passover)  in  honor  of  their  God.  Je¬ 
hovah  gave  emphasis  to  the  demand  by 
great  signs  and  wonders — the  plagues  of 
Egypt,  which  have  their  explanation,  for 
the  most  part,  in  evils  to  which  Egypt  is 
periodically  liable,  but  are  treated  by 
Israelite  tradition  as  the  weapons  of  Je¬ 
hovah  in  his  ever-intensifying  conflict  with 
the  king  and  the  gods  of  Egypt.  At  length, 
by  the  slaying  of  the  first-born,  the  stub¬ 
bornness  of  Pharaoh  was  broken,  so  that 
he  consented  to,  and  even  urged,  the  de¬ 
parture  of  the  Hebrews.  By  and  by,  how¬ 
ever,  he  changed  his  mind,  and  setting 
out  in  pursuit  of  the  Hebrews  overtook 
them  at  the  Red  Sea;  but  Jehovah  fought 
for  them,  and  annihilated  Pharaoh’s  char¬ 
iots  and  all  his  host.  In  order  to  present 
themselves  in  proper  festal  array  at  the 
celebration,  for  the  sake  of  which  they 
were  going  into  the  wilderness,  the  Hebrew 
women  had  borrowed  dresses  and  orna¬ 
ments  from  those  of  Egypt.  The  Egyptians 
could  now  only  blame  themselves  and  their 
hostile  conduct  if  those  articles  were  not 
returned.  By  the  miracle  wrought  at  the 
Red  Sea,  Moses  was  pointed  out  to  the 
Hebrews  as  the  man  of  God,  to  whom  ac¬ 
cordingly  they  now  committed  the  task  of 
caring  for  their  outward  life,  as  well  as 
their  spiritual  guidance.  He  led  them  first 
to  Sinai,  where  the  law  was  revealed,  and 
the  worship  in  connection  with  the  ark  of 
the  covenant  instituted.  When  he  had  com¬ 
muned  face  to  face  with  the  Godhead  for 


forty  days  on  the  holy  mountain,  the  skin 
of  his  face  shone  so  that  he  had  to  wrear  a 
veil  (hence  the  horns,  properly  rays,  on 
his  forehead).  Driven  from  Sinai,  in  con¬ 
sequence  of  their  worship  of  the  golden 
calf,  the  Israelites  removed  to  Kadesh  with 
the  view  of  entering  Palestine.  But  this 
plan  was  defeated  by  their  unbelief  and 
faintheartedness,  and,  as  a  punishment, 
they  were  compelled  to  sojourn  forty  years 
in  the  wilderness  of  Kadesh  (Paran,  Sin). 
It  was  here  and  now  that  the  people  went 
to  school  with  Moses;  here,  at  the  sanc¬ 
tuary  of  the  camp,  he  declared  law  and 
judgment;  and  here,  according  to  the  view 
of  the  oldest  tradition,  the  foundations  of 
the  Torah  were  laid.  (Exod.  xviii.)  The 
region  of  Kadesh  was  also  the  scene  of  al¬ 
most  all  the  miracles  and  other  circum¬ 
stances  we  read  about  Moses.  Here  he 
showed  himself  to  be  at  once  the  father  and 
mother  of  the  people,  their  judge,  priest, 
and  seer.  It  was  not  till  toward  the  very 
close  of  his  life  that  he  led  the  Israelites 
from  Kadesh  into  Northern  Moab,  which 
he  wrested  from  the  Amorite  king,  Sihon 
of  Heshbon.  Here  he  died  on  Mount 
Pisgah  or  Nebo,  after  taking  leave  of  the 
people  in  the  great  legislative  address  of 
Deuteronomy.  According  to  Deuteronomy 
xxxiv.  6,  he  ‘  was  buried  in  a  valley  in  the 
land  of  Moab,  ....  but  no  man  knoweth 
of  his  sepulchre  unto  this  day.’  As  his 
successor  in  the  leadership,  Moses  had 
named  Joshua  ben  Nun,  but  the  real  heirs 
to  his  position  and  influence  were  the 
priests  at  the  sanctuary  of  the  ark  of  the 
covenant.” — J.  Welhausen  in  Ency.  Britan¬ 
nic  a. 

Mosheim,  Johann  Lorenz  von,  “  well 
known  as  a  church  historian,  but  also  dis¬ 
tinguished  in  his  day  as  a  master  of  elo¬ 
quence,  was  born  at  Liibeck  on  the  9th  of 
October.  There  is  some  uncertainty  as  to 
the  year,  but  the  probability  is  in  favor  of 
1693  or  1694.  He  received  a  somewhat 
irregular  education  at  the  gymnasium 
of  his  native  place,  and  afterward  entered 
the  University  of  Kiel,  where  he  took  his 
master’s  degree  in  1718.  His  first  appear¬ 
ance  in  the  field  of  literature  was  in  a 
polemical  tract  against  Tolland,  Vindicice 
Antiques  Christianorum  Disciplines  (1720), 
which  was  soon  followed  by  a  volume  of 
Observationes  Sacrcs  (1721).  These  works, 
along  with  the  reputation  he  had  acquired 
as  a  lecturer  on  philosophy,  and  also  as  a 
fervent  and  eloquent  preacher  while  acting 
as  assistant  to  Albrecht  Zuno  Felde,  his 
teacher  and  future  father-in-law,  secured 
for  him  a  call  to  a  theological  chair  at  Helm- 
stadt,  in  1723.  The  Institutionum  His¬ 
tories  Ecclesiasticcs ,  libri  IV.,  appeared  in 


Mos 


(  644  ) 


Mos 


1726  (2  vols.,  i2mo),  and  in  the  same 
year  he  was  appointed  by  the  Duke  of 
Brunswick  abbot  of  Marienthal,  to  which 
dignity  and  emolument  the  abbacy  of 
Michaelstein  was  added  in  the  following 
year.  Mosheim  was  much  consulted  by 
the  authorities  when  the  new  University  of 
Gottingen  was  being  formed;  especially 
had  he  to  do  with  the  framing  of  the  stat¬ 
utes  of  the  theological  faculty,  and  with 
the  provisions  for  making  the  theologians 
independent  of  the  ecclesiastical  courts. 
But.having  signed,  in  1726,  a  promise  to  re- 


tion  of  a  new  and  greatly  improved  edition; 
of  his  Church  History .” — Ency.  Britannica. 

Mosque,  a  Mohammedan  place  of  wor¬ 
ship.  The  word  is  derived,  through  the 
Italian  moschea ,  from  the  Arabic  mesjidy 
a  place  of  prayer.  The  form  of  the  old¬ 
est  mosques  in  Jerusalem  and  Cairo  is 
evidently  derived  from  that  of  the  Chris¬ 
tian  basilica,  the  narthex  being  the  origin 
of  the  court  with  its  arcade,  and  the  eastern 
apses  representing  the  principal  buildings 
of  the  mosque  facing  Mecca.  The  original 


MOSQUE. 


main  in  Helmstadt  he  was  unable  to  ac¬ 
cept  the  call  to  Gottingen,  which  was 
urgently  pressed  upon  him,  until  the  year 
1747,  when  the  Duke  of  Brunswick  at  last 
released  him  from  obligation.  He  so  en¬ 
hanced  the  dignity  he  already  possessed  as 
a  learned  and  brilliant  theological  professor 
that  a  new  office  was  specially  created  for 
him,  that  of  chancellor,  which,  however, 
proved  somewhat  burdensome,  exciting 
the  jealousy  of  the  nobles  whom  he  gov¬ 
erned.  He  died  at  Gottingen  on  the  9th  of 
September,  1755,  shortly  after  the  comple- 


forms  became,  however,  obliterated.  They 
vary  considerably  in  style  in  different 
countries,  but  in  many  points  are  always 
the  same.  They  are  all  square,  and  built 
of  good  stones.  Before  the  chief  gate 
there  is  a  square  court  paved  with  white 
marble,  and  low  galleries  round  about, 
whose  roof  is  supported  with  marble  col¬ 
umns,  and  in  the  centre  of  which  is  a  tank 
or  fountain  for  ablution.  The  walls  are 
generally  whitewashed,  and  on  them  are 
engraved  God’s  name  and  also  sentences 
from  the  Koran,  but  no  device  of  any  living 


Mou 


(  645  ) 


Mo  z 


being.  The  floors  are  covered  with  mats 
or  carpets;  there  are  no  seats.  In  the 
southeast  there  is  a  pulpit,  and,  in  the  di¬ 
rection  in  which  Mecca  lies,  a  niche  toward 
which  all  the  faithful  turn  when  they  pray. 
Opposite  the  pulpit  is  a  platform,  from 
which  parts  of  the  Koran  are  read  to  the 
congregation.  The  whole  congregation 
say  the  five  daily  prayers  in  the  mosques 
on  Friday,  the  Moslem  Sunday.  Women 
are  not  allowed  to  enter,  but  stay  in  the 
porch.  On  entering  the  mosque  the  Mos¬ 
lem  takes  off  his  shoes  and  carries  them  in 
his  hand.  Most  of  the  mosques  have  hos¬ 
pitals  attached  to  them,  where  travelers  of 
all  religions  are  entertained  for  three  days. 
— Benham:  Diet .  of  Religion.  As  a  rule, 
every  mosque  has  a  minaret.  See  Muezzin. 

Mourning.  “  Eastern  peoples  are  ex¬ 
ceedingly  demonstrative  in  their  expres¬ 
sions  of  grief  over  departed  friends.  In 
all  periods  down  to  the  present  day  it  has 
been  customary  to  hire  professional  mourn¬ 
ers — generally  women — to  join  their  lam¬ 
entations  with  those  of  the  family  circle. 
The  mourning  begins  at  the  moment  of 
death,  and  is  kept  up,  with  little  intermis¬ 
sion,  until  after  the  funeral.  Grief  is 
expressed,  not  alone  by  weeping  and  loud 
cries,  but  by  beating  the  breast,  plucking 
out  the  hair,  and  scattering  dust  upon  the 
head.  Male  members  of  the  household 
rend  their  garments,  put  on  sackcloth, 
pluck  out  the  beard,  throw  themselves 
upon  the  earth,  and  go  about  shoeless  and 
with  veiled  faces.  David,  on  the  occasion 
of  Abner’s  assassination,  refused  to  eat 
bread  until  the  day  was  over.  (Gen.  xxxvii. 
34.)  In  some  cases  the  tears  of  mourners 
were  caught  in  bottles  and  buried  with  the 
departed,  as  a  token  of  affection.  This 
practice  is  still  kept  up  in  Persia  ;  the 
tears,  however,  instead  of  being  buried 
with  the  dead,  are  carefully  preserved  as  a 
charm.  Tear-bottles  are  one  of  the  most 
common  objects  found  in  ancient  tombs. 
The  Israelites  were  forbidden  in  the  book 
of  Deuteronomy  to  cut  themselves,  or 
‘  make  any  baldness  ’  between  the  eyes 
for  the  dead.  (Deut.  xiv.  1.)  The  law 
!seems  to  be  but  a  repetition  of  one  found 
for  both  priests  and  people  in  an  earlier 
book.  (Lev.  xix.  27,  28;  xxi.  5.)  It  is  ev¬ 
ident,  however,  that  the  heathen  custom 
against  which  it  was  directed  did  not 
wholly  disappear,  since  we  find  it  still  in 
vogue  in  Jeremiah’s  time.  (Jer.  vii.  29; 
xvi.  6;  xli.  5.)  Rending  the  garment  as  a 
token  of  grief  became  at  a  later  period 
largely  a  matter  of  form,  the  master  of 
ceremonies  ripping  down  the  outer  robe  a 
few  inches  on  the  breast,  where  there  was 
a  seam.  The  usual  period  of  mourning 


lasted  seven  days;  but  on  extraordinary 
occasions  it  was  extended.  During  the 
period  of  the  second  Jewish  commonwealth 
feasts  were  often  given  at  funerals,  which 
were  occasions  of  great  extravagance  and 
display.  There  is  no  valid  evidence  that 
it  was  customary  in  the  times  covered  by 
the  canonical  books  of  the  Old  Testament. 
Certain  passages  quoted  in  proof  of  it  have 
another  meaning.  They  simply  show  that 
food  was  frequently  sent  by  friends  to  the 
house  of  mourning,  that  the  claims  of 
hospitality,  which  were  greatly  enlarged 
on  such  occasions,  might  be  properly  met. 
This  seems  to  be  the  meaning  of  that 
passage  in  Deuteronomy,  also,  where  wor¬ 
shipers  at  the  altar  say  that,  so  faithfully 
have  they  discharged  their  obligations  re¬ 
specting  the  tithes,  that  no  part  of  them 
has  been  expended  even  in  such  seasons  of 
special  need  as  the  funerals  of  neighbors 
and  friends:  ‘  I  have  not  eaten  thereof  in 
my  mourning,  ....  nor  given  thereof 
for  the  dead.’  (Ezek.  xxiv.  17;  Hos.  ix.  4.) 
The  custom  of  making  an  offering  for  the 
dead  appears  first  in  an  apocryphal  book 
in  the  century  preceding  the  Christian  era. 
(2  Macc.  xii.  43.)  Naturally,  much  em¬ 
phasis  is  laid  on  this  passage  by  Roman 
Catholic  writers  in  justification  of  their 
practice  of  praying  for  *  souls  in  purga¬ 
tory.’  ” — Bissell:  Biblical  Antiquities. 

Movable  Feasts  are  those  which  do  not 
occur  on  a  fixed  day,  as  Easter  and  the 
feasts  calculated  from  Easter.  Tables  for 
the  calculation  of  movable  feasts  are  found 
in  the  Book  of  Common  Prayer. 

Mozarabic  Liturgy,  an  ancient  form  of 
service  once  used  in  some  of  the  churches 
of  Spain.  Its  origin  is  unknown,  although 
some  Roman  Catholic  authors  affirm  that 
it  was  prepared  by  the  apostles  who  first 
founded  Christianity  in  Spain.  In  matter 
it  is  Scriptural,  and  marked  by  a  reverent 
and  earnest  spirit. 

Mozley,  James  Bowling,  D.  D.,  an  emi¬ 
nent  English  theologian  and  writer;  b.  at 
Gainsborough,  Lincolnshire,  Sept.  15, 
1813;  d.  in  Oxford,  Jan.  4,  1878.  He  was 
graduated  at  Oriel  College,  Oxford,  in 
1834,  and  from  1840  to  1856  resided  as 
fellow  at  Magdalen  College  when  he  be¬ 
came  vicar  of  Old  Shoreham,  Sussex.  He 
was  made  canon  of  Worcester  in  1869,  and 
in  1871  Regius  professor  of  divinity,  at  the 
same  time  retaining  his  vicarage.  He  was 
appointed  Bampton  Lecturer  for  1865,  and 
his  work  on  the  Miracles  gave  him  a  fore¬ 
most  place  among  English  thinkers.  In 
the  early  part  of  his  life  he  was  deeply  in¬ 
terested  in  the  Tractarian  movement,  but 


Mos 


(  644  ) 


Mos 


1726  (2  vols. ,  i2mo),  and  in  the  same 
year  he  was  appointed  by  the  Duke  of 
Brunswick  abbot  of  Marienthal,  to  which 
dignity  and  emolument  the  abbacy  of 
Michaelstein  was  added  in  the  following 
year.  Mosheim  was  much  consulted  by 
the  authorities  when  the  new  University  of 
Gottingen  was  being  formed;  especially 
had  he  to  do  with  the  framing  of  the  stat¬ 
utes  of  the  theological  faculty,  and  with 
the  provisions  for  making  the  theologians 
independent  of  the  ecclesiastical  courts. 
But.having  signed,  in  1726,  a  promise  to  re- 


tion  of  a  new  and  greatly  improved  edition 
of  his  Church  History." — Ency.  Britannica. 

Mosque,  a  Mohammedan  place  of  wor¬ 
ship.  The  word  is  derived,  through  the 
Italian  mo  sc  he  a ,  from  the  Arabic  mesjid , 
a  place  of  prayer.  The  form  of  the  old¬ 
est  mosques  in  Jerusalem  and  Cairo  is 
evidently  derived  from  that  of  the  Chris¬ 
tian  basilica,  the  narthex  being  the  origin 
of  the  court  with  its  arcade,  and  the  eastern 
apses  representing  the  principal  buildings 
of  the  mosque  facing  Mecca.  The  original 


MOSQUE. 


main  in  Helmstadt  he  was  unable  to  ac¬ 
cept  the  call  to  Gottingen,  which  was 
urgently  pressed  upon  him,  until  the  year 
1747,  when  the  Duke  of  Brunswick  at  last 
released  him  from  obligation.  He  so  en¬ 
hanced  the  dignity  he  already  possessed  as 
a  learned  and  brilliant  theological  professor 
that  a  new  office  was  specially  created  for 
him,  that  of  chancellor,  which,  however, 
proved  somewhat  burdensome,  exciting 
the  jealousy  of  the  nobles  whom  he  gov¬ 
erned.  He  died  at  Gottingen  on  the  9th  of 
September,  1755,  shortly  after  the  comple- 


forms  became,  however,  obliterated.  They 
vary  considerably  in  style  in  different 
countries,  but  in  many  points  are  always 
the  same.  They  are  all  square,  and  built 
of  good  stones.  Before  the  chief  gate 
there  is  a  square  court  paved  with  white 
marble,  and  low  galleries  round  about, 
whose  roof  is  supported  with  marble  col¬ 
umns,  and  in  the  centre  of  which  is  a  tank 
or  fountain  for  ablution.  The  walls  are 
generally  whitewashed,  and  on  them  are 
engraved  God’s  name  and  also  sentences 
from  the  Koran,  but  no  device  of  any  living 


Mou 


(  645  ) 


Mo  z 


being.  The  floors  are  covered  with  mats 
or  carpets;  there  are  no  seats.  In  the 
southeast  there  is  a  pulpit,  and,  in  the  di¬ 
rection  in  which  Mecca  lies,  a  niche  toward 
which  all  the  faithful  turn  when  they  pray. 
Opposite  the  pulpit  is  a  platform,  from 
which  parts  of  the  Koran  are  read  to  the 
congregation.  The  whole  congregation 
say  the  five  daily  prayers  in  the  mosques 
on  Friday,  the  Moslem  Sunday.  Women 
are  not  allowed  to  enter,  but  stay  in  the 
porch.  On  entering  the  mosque  the  Mos¬ 
lem  takes  off  his  shoes  and  carries  them  in 
his  hand.  Most  of  the  mosques  have  hos¬ 
pitals  attached  to  them,  where  travelers  of 
all  religions  are  entertained  for  three  days. 
— Benham:  Did .  of  Religion.  As  a  rule, 
every  mosque  has  a  minaret.  See  Muezzin. 

Mourning.  “  Eastern  peoples  are  ex¬ 
ceedingly  demonstrative  in  their  expres¬ 
sions  of  grief  over  departed  friends.  In 
all  periods  down  to  the  present  day  it  has 
been  customary  to  hire  professional  mourn¬ 
ers — generally  women — to  join  their  lam¬ 
entations  with  those  of  the  family  circle. 
The  mourning  begins  at  the  moment  of 
death,  and  is  kept  up,  with  little  intermis¬ 
sion,  until  after  the  funeral.  Grief  is 
expressed,  not  alone  by  weeping  and  loud 
cries,  but  by  beating  the  breast,  plucking 
out  the  hair,  and  scattering  dust  upon  the 
head.  Male  members  of  the  household 
rend  their  garments,  put  on  sackcloth, 
pluck  out  the  beard,  throw  themselves 
upon  the  earth,  and  go  about  shoeless  and 
with  veiled  faces.  David,  on  the  occasion 
of  Abner’s  assassination,  refused  to  eat 
bread  until  the  day  was  over.  (Gen.  xxxvii. 
34.)  In  some  cases  the  tears  of  mourners 
were  caught  in  bottles  and  buried  with  the 
departed,  as  a  token  of  affection.  This 
practice  is  still  kept  up  in  Persia  ;  the 
tears,  however,  instead  of  being  buried 
with  the  dead,  are  carefully  preserved  as  a 
charm.  Tear-bottles  are  one  of  the  most 
common  objects  found  in  ancient  tombs. 
The  Israelites  were  forbidden  in  the  book 
of  Deuteronomy  to  cut  themselves,  or 
‘  make  any  baldness  ’  between  the  eyes 
for  the  dead.  (Deut.  xiv.  1.)  The  law 
'seems  to  be  but  a  repetition  of  one  found 
for  both  priests  and  people  in  an  earlier 
book.  (Lev.  xix.  27,  28;  xxi.  5.)  It  is  ev¬ 
ident,  however,  that  the  heathen  custom 
against  which  it  was  directed  did  not 
wholly  disappear,  since  we  find  it  still  in 
vogue  in  Jeremiah’s  time.  (Jer.  vii.  29; 
xvi.  6;  xli.  5.)  Rending  the  garment  as  a 
token  of  grief  became  at  a  later  period 
largely  a  matter  of  form,  the  master  of 
ceremonies  ripping  down  the  outer  robe  a 
few  inches  on  the  breast,  where  there  was 
a  seam.  The  usual  period  of  mourning 


lasted  seven  days;  but  on  extraordinary 
occasions  it  was  extended.  During  the 
period  of  the  second  Jewish  commonwealth 
feasts  were  often  given  at  funerals,  which 
were  occasions  of  great  extravagance  and 
display.  There  is  no  valid  evidence  that 
it  was  customary  in  the  times  covered  by 
the  canonical  books  of  the  Old  Testament. 
Certain  passages  quoted  in  proof  of  it  have 
another  meaning.  They  simply  show  that 
food  was  frequently  sent  by  friends  to  the 
house  of  mourning,  that  the  claims  of 
hospitality,  which  were  greatly  enlarged 
on  such  occasions,  might  be  properly  met. 
This  seems  to  be  the  meaning  of  that 
passage  in  Deuteronomy,  also,  where  wor¬ 
shipers  at  the  altar  say  that,  so  faithfully 
have  they  discharged  their  obligations  re¬ 
specting  the  tithes,  that  no  part  of  them 
has  been  expended  even  in  such  seasons  of 
special  need  as  the  funerals  of  neighbors 
and  friends:  ‘  I  have  not  eaten  thereof  in 
my  mourning,  ....  nor  given  thereof 
for  the  dead.’  (Ezek.  xxiv.  17;  Hos.  ix.  4.) 
The  custom  of  making  an  offering  for  the 
dead  appears  first  in  an  apocryphal  book 
in  the  century  preceding  the  Christian  era. 
(2  Macc.  xii.  43.)  Naturally,  much  em¬ 
phasis  is  laid  on  this  passage  by  Roman 
Catholic  writers  in  justification  of  their 
practice  of  praying  for  ‘  souls  in  purga¬ 
tory.’  ” — Bissell:  Biblical  Antiquities . 

Movable  Feasts  are  those  which  do  not 
occur  on  a  fixed  day,  as  Easter  and  the 
feasts  calculated  from  Easter.  Tables  for 
the  calculation  of  movable  feasts  are  found 
in  the  Book  of  Common  Prayer. 

Mozarabic  Liturgy,  an  ancient  form  of 
service  once  used  in  some  of  the  churches 
of  Spain.  Its  origin  is  unknown,  although 
some  Roman  Catholic  authors  affirm  that 
it  was  prepared  by  the  apostles  who  first 
founded  Christianity  in  Spain.  In  matter 
it  is  Scriptural,  and  marked  by  a  reverent 
and  earnest  spirit. 

Mozley,  James  Bowling,  D.  D.,  an  emi¬ 
nent  English  theologian  and  writer;  b.  at 
Gainsborough,  Lincolnshire,  Sept.  15, 
1813;  d.  in  Oxford,  Jan.  4,  1878.  He  was 
graduated  at  Oriel  College,  Oxford,  in 
1834,  and  from  1840  to  1856  resided  as 
fellow  at  Magdalen  College  when  he  be¬ 
came  vicar  of  Old  Shoreham,  Sussex.  He 
was  made  canon  of  Worcester  in  1869,  and 
in  1871  Regius  professor  of  divinity,  at  the 
same  time  retaining  his  vicarage.  He  was 
appointed  Bampton  Lecturer  for  1865,  and 
his  work  on  the  Miracles  gave  him  a  fore¬ 
most  place  among  English  thinkers.  In 
the  early  part  of  his  life  he  was  deeply  in¬ 
terested  in  the  Tractarian  movement,  but 


Miin 


(648) 


Mus 


but  the  army  at  his  disposal  proved  utter¬ 
ly  insufficient.  Not  until  an  imperial  army 
had  besieged  the  city  for  several  weeks, 
and  famine  and  dissension  reduced  the 
strength  of  the  fanatics,  were  the  walls 
forced,  and  the  rioters  overwhelmed,  June 
25,1535-  See  Anabaptists.” — 0.  Theleman 
in  Schaff-Herzog:  Ency.,  vol.  ii. ,  p.  1595. 

Miinzer,  Thomas,  a  leader  of  the  Ana¬ 
baptists;  b.  at  Stolberg  in  the  Harz  region 
about  1490.  He  studied  theology  at  Halle, 
and  in  1520  became  preacher  of  St.  Mary 
in  Zwickau.  Here  he  entered  upon  the 
active  career  of  fanaticism  which  led  him 
finally  to  wander  through  Germany, 
preaching  socialistic  and  religious  opinions 
that  added  fuel  to  the  flames  that  were 
kindled  in  the  Peasants’  War.  After  the 
defeat  of  those  engaged  #n  this  insurrec¬ 
tion  (1525),  he  was  taken  prisoner  and  be¬ 
headed. 

Murdock,  James,  D.  D.,  b.  in  Westbrook, 
Conn.,  Feb.  16,  1776;  d.  in  Columbus, 
Miss.,  Aug.  10,  1856.  He  was  graduated  at 
Yale  College,  1797;  pastor  of  Congrega¬ 
tional  Church,  Princeton,  Mass.,  1802-15; 
professor  of  ancient  languages  in  the  Uni¬ 
versity  of  Vermont,  1815-19;  professor  of 
sacred  rhetoric  and  ecclesiastical  history  in 
Andover  Theological  Seminary,  1819-28. 
He  then  retired  to  New  Haven,  and  de¬ 
voted  the  remainder  of  his  life  to  scholarly 
research.  He  translated  from  the  Latin 
Mosheim’s  Institutes  of  Ecclesiastical  His¬ 
tory ,  and  The  New  Testament ,  a  literal 
translation  from  the  Syriac  Peshito  version 
(New  York/  1852),  besides  other  works. 
He  wrote:  The  Nature  of  the  Atonement 
(Andover,  1823);  and  Sketches  of  Modern 
Philosophy ,  especially  among  the  Germans 
(Hartford,  1842). 

Murray,  John,  founder  of  the  Universal- 
ist  denomination  in  America;  b.  in  Alton, 
Hampshire,  Eng.,  Dec.  10,  1741;  d.  in 
Boston,  Mass.,  Sept.  3,  1815.  He  was  first 
brought  under  the  influence  of  Whitefield’s 
preaching,  but  afterward  accepted  the 
views  of  James  Relly,  a  Universalist,  and 
was  excommunicated  from  the  church  to 
which  he  belonged.  Coming  to  this  coun¬ 
try  in  1770,  he  began  his  labors  as  a  Uni¬ 
versalist  preacher  at  Good  Luck,  N.  Y., 
Sept.  30.  He  preached  both  in  New  Jersey 
and  New  York,  but  afterward  almost  en¬ 
tirely  in  New  England.  From  1793  to  1809 
he  was  pastor  of  the  Universalist  Society 
in  Boston.  He  endured  persecution  with 
unfaltering  courage.  See  his  Letters ,  and 
Sketches  of  Sermons  (1812);  and  Autobiog¬ 
raphy,  centenary  edition  by  Rev.  G.  L. 
Demarest  (Boston,  1870). 


Murray,  Nicholas,  D.  D.,  b.  at  Bally- 
nasloe,  Ireland,  Dec.  25,  1803;  d.  at  Eliza¬ 
bethtown,  N.  J.,  Feb.  4,  1861.  He  came 
to  this  country  in  1818;  and  was  first  a 
printer’s  boy  in  the  Harper  &  Brothers 
establishment.  Converted  from  the  Roman 
Catholic  faith ,  he  was  graduated  at  Williams 
College,  1826,  and  after  studying  theology 
at  Princeton  was  pastor  of  the  Presbyterian 
church  at  Wilkesbarre,  Pa.,  1829-34,  and 
from  that  time  until  his  death  at  Elizabeth¬ 
town,  N.  J.  Under  the  signature  of  “  Kir- 
wan”  he  published  in  the  New  York  Ob¬ 
server  a  series  of  Letters  to  the  Right  Rev. 
John  Hughes ,  Roman  Catholic  Bishop  of  New 
York ,  that  attracted  wide  attention,  and 
were  afterward  translated  into  several  lan¬ 
guages.  He  published  in  1852  another 
series  to  Chief-Justice  Taney,  under  the 
title,  Romanism  at  Ho?ne.  He  also  wrote 
Men  and  7' kings  as  I  saw  them  in  Europe 
(1853). 

Musgrave,  George  Washington,  D.  D., 
LL.  D.,  b.  in  Philadelphia,  Oct.  19,  1804; 
d.  there,  Aug.  24,  1882.  He  was  graduated 
at  Princeton  Theological  Seminary  in 
1828;  pastor  of  the  Third  Presbyterian 
Church,  Baltimore,  1830-52;  corresponding 
secretary  of  the  Presbyterian  Board  of 
Publication,  1852-53,  and  of  the  Board  of 
Home  Missions,  1853-61,  1868-70;  pastor 
of  the  North  Tenth  Street  Church,  Phila¬ 
delphia,  1862-68.  He  held  many  positions 
of  influence,  and  was  prominent  in  the  re¬ 
union  movement  of  1867-69. 

Music.  That  music  has  been  in  use  in 
the  Church  from  its  very  foundation  is 
perfectly  clear  from  the  notices  we  have  in 
the  New  Testament  (Matt.  xxvi.  30;  Acts 
xvi.  25;  Col.  iii.  16;  James  v.  13),  as  well 
as  in  the  writings  of  the  early  Fathers. 
But  we  know  very  little  of  the  character  of 
it.  The  first  great  name  in  the  history  of 
church  music  is  that  of  Ambrose,  after 
whom  Ambrosian  Chant  ( q .  v. )  is  named; 
the  next  is  that  of  St.  Gregory  the  Great, 
after  whom  Gregorian  music  is  named. 
The  traditional  belief  is  that  four  of  the 
chants  known  as  Gregorian,  viz.,  the  first, 
third,  fifth,  and  eighth  tones,  date  from  St. 
Ambrose,  and  that  the  rest  are  due  to  St. 
Gregory.  The  scales  out  of  which  these 
tones  are  formed  differ  from  the  modern 
scales  in  the  varying  positions  of  the  semi¬ 
tones.  They  consist,  of  course,  of  eight 
natural  notes;  and  one  octave,  known  as 
the  Hvpo-Lydian,  is  that  which  we  know 
as  the  natural  scale,  with  the  semitones  be¬ 
tween  the  third  and  fourth  and  seventh  and 
eighth  notes.  A  favorite  scale,  adopted  by 
some  of  the  earliest  of  English  anthem 
writers,  was  the  Dorian,  starting  from  D  as 


Mus 


(  649  ) 


Mus 


the  key-note,  and,  therefore,  like  a  minor 
scale  in  the  place  of  its  first  semitone,  but 
not  in  that  of  the  second.  Tallis  and  Bat¬ 
ten  both  composed  services  and  anthems  in 
this  mode. 

The  music  of  the  Middle  Ages  all  rested 
on  the  Gregorian  mode  as  a  basis.  Instru¬ 
mental  accompaniments  date  back  from  the 
days  of  St.  Ambrose,  and  some  also  ac¬ 
credit  him  with  the  introduction  of  antiph- 
onal  singing,  while  others  give  it  to  St. 
Hilary  of  Poitiers,  who  borrowed  it  from 
the  practice  of  the  Eastern  Church.  The 
instruments  were  “  viols,”  and,  later,  “  or¬ 
gans,”  but  originally  these  were  in  unison 
only  with  the  voices.  Of  course  the  ten¬ 
dency  was  more  and  more  to  richer  and 
smoother  melody,  but  an  outcry  was  raised 
from  time  to  time  that  the  ancient  methods 
were  being  departed  from,  and  the  sim¬ 
plicity  of  the  music  destroyed  by  too  much 
elaboration,  as  well  as  by  the  introduction 
of  “  lewd  ”  and  secular  melodies.  The 
great  reformer  of  church  music  was  Gio¬ 
vanni  Palestrina  (d.  1594),  the  Master  of  the 
Pope’s  Choir,  first  at  the  Lateran  Church, 
then  at  St.  Maria  Maggiore,  then  at  the 
Vatican.  He  found  not  only  the  singers 
demoralized,  but  the  sacred  service,  even 
the  most  solemn  parts  of  it,  set  to  music 
which  only  seemed  to  have  for  its  object 
the  display  of  the  artifices  of  the  composers, 
and  the  pleasing  of  the  ear  by  utterly  secu¬ 
lar  and  frivolous  melodies.  The  masses 
and  other  compositions  of  Palestrina  mark¬ 
ed  the  beginning  of  a  new  epoch  in  sacred 
music.  Pope  Gregory  XIII.  commissioned 
him  to  revise  and  reform  the  whole  sys¬ 
tem,  and  although  he  died  before  this 
commission  was  fully  completed  there  was 
sufficient  done  to  enable  the  reform  to  be 
carried  on.  He  was  a  splendid  melodist, 
but  he  never  used  his  art  for  the  purpose 
of  display,  subjugated  it  all  to  the  sense  of 
the  words,  and  aimed  at  purity  and  beauty. 
His  works,  which  are  astonishing  in  quan¬ 
tity,  are  still  admired  as  keenly  as  ever 
they  were. 

The  rise  of  the  English  School  of  Music 
synchronises  with  the  dawning  of  the 
Reformation.  The  first  anthem  in  Boyce’s 
Cathedral  Music  is  by  King  Henry  VIII., 
who  was  originally  intended  by  his  father 
for  Holy  Orders  with  a  view  to  his  ap¬ 
pointment  to  the  Primacy.  Consequently, 
all  the  greatest  English  sacred  composi¬ 
tions  were  written  with  a  view  to  their 
performance  in  the  service  of  the  Anglican 
Church.  The  first  great  ecclesiastical 
writer  of  the  first  period  was  John  Mar- 
becke,  organist  of  St.  George’s  Chapel  (d. 

1 585),  whose  Te  Deum,  adapted  from  the 
Ambrosian,  is  very  popular  in  our  own  day. 
His  Booke  of  Cotnmon  Praier ,  Noted ,  an 


adaptation  of  the  old  plainsong  of  the 
Church  to  the  English  Liturgy,  is  the  basis 
of  the  English  Choral  Service,  and  was  re¬ 
published  by  Mr.  Dyce  in  1844,  and  there 
have  been  many  editions  since.  Marbecke, 
having  written  a  theological  treatise,  would 
have  been  burned  as  a  heretic  for  Calvin¬ 
ism,  had  he  not  hidden  himself.  He  was 
followed  by  Redford,  the  author  of  the 
beautiful  anthem  “  Rejoice  in  the  Lord,” 
Christopher  Tye,  Thomas  Tallis  (d.  1585), 
William  Byrd  (d.  1623),  and  Richard  Far- 
rant  (1580).  The  choral  responses  and 
liturgy  of  Tallis  have  never  been  super¬ 
seded.  His  anthem,  “  If  ye  love  Me,”  and 
Byrd’s  sublime  “  Bow  Thine  ear,”  are 
among  our  first-class  anthems:  Farrant’s 
“  Lord,  for  Thy  tender  mercies’  sake,”  is 
also  deservedly  popular,  and  his  service  in 
G  Minor,  though  heavier  than  suited  to 
modern  taste,  has  some  passages  beauti¬ 
fully  pathetic  and  sweet.  The  service  in 
F,  by  Orlando  Gibbons,  is  reckoned  by 
many  musicians  the  finest  ever  written  for 
the  English  ritual,  and  his  eight-part  set¬ 
ting  of  the  47th  Psalm  as  an  anthem  is  al¬ 
most  unrivalled  for  its  majestic  swing. 
He  died  in  1625,  and  is  buried  in  Canter¬ 
bury  Cathedral.  The  great  Rebellion  for 
a  while  put  a  complete  stop  to  the  prog¬ 
ress  of  English  Cathedral  music.  Organs 
were  burned  and  music  books  torn  up. 
At  the  Restoration,  so  great  had  been  the 
destruction,  there  was  difficulty  in  reviv¬ 
ing  the  choral  services  of  the  Church, 
and  the  taste  of  the  king  and  his  court  was 
toward  more  florid  melodies  than  those  of 
the  old  masters.  But  a  new  school  slow¬ 
ly  arose,  not  unworthy  of  its  predeces¬ 
sors.  Among  its  members  were  Child, 
Michael  Wise,  Blow,  Lawes,  and  Henry 
Purcell,  the  last  being  the  greatest  com¬ 
poser  which  Great  Britain  has  produced. 
Under  this  school  “verse”  anthems  be¬ 
gan;  i.  e.,  anthems  with  passages  for  solo 
voices,  ending,  and  generally  beginning, 
with  a  chorus,  and  with  interludes  for  the 
organ  only.  One  of  the  most  curious  of 
verse  anthems  is  Purcell’s,  “  They  that  go 
down  to  the  sea  in  ships,”  which  opens 
with  a  bass  solo  beginning  on  upper  D,  - 
and  running  down  two  octaves.  It  was 
written  for  a  singer  of  exceptional  voice 
compass.  Such  performances  are  hardly  - 
consistent  with  the  solemn  dignity  which 
should  characterize  the  service  of  the 
Church,  and  it  is  due  to  Purcell  to  say 
that  such  forgetfulness  is  not  a  mark  of  his 
writing  in  general. 

Among  the  great  composers  who  fol¬ 
lowed,  we  must  name  Jeremiah  Clarke, 
Nares,  Charles  King,  Drs.  Greene  and 
Boyce,  Goldwin,  Weldon.  Quite  worthy 
of  being  named  with  them  are  the  amateurs 


Mus 


(  650  ) 


Mus 


Creyghton  and  Aldrich,  both  cathedral  dig¬ 
nitaries.  The  graceful  service  in  G  by  the 
latter  never  fails  to  delight  when  well  sung. 
The  arrival  of  Handel  in  England  in  1711 
must  not  pass  unmentioned,  but  the  his¬ 
tory  of  the  oratorio  hardly  falls  within  our 
province.  It  created  much  opposition  when 
it  was  first  started  in  England.  Cowper 
and  Newton  both  wrote  fiercely  against  it. 
But  the  opposition  was  not  unreasonable, 
considering  that  the  performances  in  church 
were,  as  far  as  it  could  be  done,  divested 
of  all  religious  character:  payment  at  the 
doors,  and  fashionable  lounging  stood  in 
the  way  of  all  idea  of  worship.  The  anthem 
music  of  later  times  in  England  is,  some  of 
it,  very  beautiful.  Such  names  as  Att- 
wood,  Walmisley,  S.  S.  Wesley,  Goss, 
Sterndale  Bennett,  Turle,  to  say  nothing 
of  living  masters,  are  an  honor  to  any  na¬ 
tional  school  of  composers. 

We  have  said  nothing  of  the  use  of  hymn¬ 
singing  in  public  worship.  It  had  been  the 
intention  of  Cranmer  to  translate  some  of 
the  grand  mediaeval  hymns  for  the  use  of 
the  Church,  but  he  only  carried  it  out  with 
respect  to  the  Veni  Creator ,  which  is  in¬ 
serted  in  the  Ordination  Service.  Conse¬ 
quently,  the  metrical  singing  of  the  Church 
was  long  confined  to  the  translation  of  the 
Psalms  by  Sternhold  and  Hopkins,  known 
as  the  Old  Version.  This  was  largely  sup¬ 
planted  by  the  New  Version  of  Tate  and 
Brady  in  the  days  of  Charles  II.  Nearly 
all  the  metres  were  either  8.  8.  8.  8. 

(“  Long  Metre  ”);  or  8.  6.  8.  6.  (“Com¬ 
mon  Metre  ”);  or  6.  6.  8.  6.  (“  Short 
Metre”). 

But  the  Evangelical  movement  of  the 
eighteenth  century  made  large  use  of 
hymn-singing,  and  this  was  greatly  ob¬ 
jected  to  by  the  old-fashioned  church  folk; 
e.  g.,  Bishop  Mant  preached  against  it,  and 
fifty  years  ago  it  was  a  distinguishing  mark 
of  “  Low-Church  men  ”  to  find  hymns  sung 
in  churches.  Now,  however,  this  is  all 
changed.  When  there  is  a  good  choir  in  a 
parish  church  one  anthem  is  generally 
sung  in  the  day,  but  the  hymns  form  one 
of  the  most  popular  portions  of  the  service. 
In  England  there  has  been  also  a  remark¬ 
able  revival  of  the  ancient  Gregorian  chant¬ 
ing,  partly  from  a  dislike  of  the  florid 
styles  into  which  chant  music  had  fallen  at 
the  beginning  of  the  century,  partly  from 
the  revived  love  of  mediaevalism  which  has 
been  the  outgrowth  of  the  Oxford  move¬ 
ment.  The  use  of  choral  services  again, 
which  formerly  was  confined  to  cathedrals 
and  college  chapels,  is  now  common  in 
places  where  a  choir  can  be  gathered  to¬ 
gether.  This  is  largely  owing  to  the  ex¬ 
tended  knowledge  of  music  among  the  peo¬ 
ple.  The  objection  which  was  formerly 


made  to  the  chanting  of  the  Psalms,  that 
the  unlettered  could  not  follow  it,  is  ob¬ 
viated  now  that  everybody  can  read. — 
Ben  ham:  Diet,  of  Religion. 

The  history  of  church  music  in  America 
is  of  interest.  The  Puritans  brought  with 
them  to  New  England  Ainsworth' s  Version 
of  the  Psalms.  In  1640  The  Bay  Psalm- 
Book  was  published.  It  was  not  until  about 
1690  that  music  was  first  printed  in  this 
country.  Early  in  the  eighteenth  century 
the  Rev.  John  Tufts  published  A  Very 
Plain  and  Easy  Introduction  to  the  Art  of 
Singing  Psalm- Times.  This  was  followed 
by  Dr.  Cotton  Mather’s  Psalterium  Arner- 
icynum  (1718),  and  Walter’s  singing-book, 
The  Grounds  and  Rules  of  Musick  Explained 
(1741).  There  was  great  opposition  at  first, 
on  the  part  of  many  in  the  New  England 
churches  against  singing  by  note,  but  this 
prejudice  died  away,  choirs  became  gener¬ 
al,  and  considerable  advance  was  made  in 
the  singing  of  simple  melodies.  Early  in 
this  century  there  was  a  great  revival  of 
interest  in  musical  knowledge.  Lowell 
Mason  and  Thomas  Hastings  were  especial¬ 
ly  prominent  in  this  movement.  Singing- 
schools  and  musical  conventions  multiplied 
under  their  enthusiastic  and  able  leader¬ 
ship.  More  than  seventy  musical  publica¬ 
tions  were  issued  by  these  writers.  In 
recent  years  the  “  hymn-tune  book  ”  has 
taken  the  place  of  the  tune-books.  A  vast 
amount  of  music,  good,  bad,  and  indiffer¬ 
ent,  has  been  prepared  for  the  use  of  Sun¬ 
day-schools,  prayer-meetings,  and  revival 
services.  The  choral  music  of  Germany 
and  England  has  never  been  popular  here, 
but  there  are  signs  that  a  reaction  may 
take  place  in  its  favor.  See  George  Grove: 
A  Dictionary  of  Music  and  Musicians  (Lon¬ 
don  and  New  York,  1879-S3),  3  vols.,  with 
supplement;  N.  E.  Cornwall:  Afusic  as  it 
was  and  as  it  is  (New  York,  1851);  Hood: 
History  of  Music  in  New  England  (Boston, 
1846). 

Music  Among  the  Hebrews.  “  Vocal  mu¬ 
sic  occupies  an  important  place  in  Script¬ 
ure,  both  in  religious  worship  (1  Chron.  vi. 
32),  public  rejoicings  (1  Sam.  xviii.  6),  and 
social  festivities.  (Isa.  v.  1;  liv.  1.)  It  is 
mentioned  among  the  earliest  expressions 
of  joy  (Exod.  xv.  21),  and  was  accompa¬ 
nied  by  dancing  (2  Sam.  vi.  16)  and  clap¬ 
ping  of  hands,  especially  in  the  ‘  chorus.’ 
(Psa.  xlvii.  1.)  For  worship  David  chose 
a  body  of  singers  (1  Chron.  xvi.  41); 
Jehoshaphat  appointed  a  band  of  singers 
to  praise  God  in  front  of  his  army.  (2 
Chron.  xx.  21.)  After  the  Captivity  we 
find  an  equal  number  of  male  and  female- 
voices  (Ezra  ii.  65),  who  sang  alternately. 
They  formed  a  distinguished  class,  had  a 


Myr 


(  651  ) 


Mys 


separate  maintenance  (Neh.  xi.  23),  had 
cities  assigned  to  them  (Neh.  vii.  73),  and 
chambers  for  those  in  attendance  at  the 
temple.  (Ezek.  xl.  44.)  From  the  dedica¬ 
tion  of  some  Psalms  there  would  seem  to 
have  been  a  written  musical  notation,  but 
no  certain  record  of  it  is  extant.  Musical 
instruments  are  among  the  earliest  record¬ 
ed  human  inventions.  (Gen.  iv.  21.)  In 
Scripture  their  use  seems  to  be  confined  to 
religious  worship  and  social  festivities, 
except  that  the  sound  of  the  trumpet 
served  as  a  battle-call.  The  earliest  kinds 
were  a  tabret,  a  stringed  instrument  (in¬ 
cipient  harp),  cymbals,  and  pipe.  From 
these  germs  all  others  are  developments. 
As  the  Hebrew  names  were  obscure,  or 
unintelligible  to  the  translators  of  our  Bi¬ 
ble,  one  general  term  expressing  a  well- 
known  instrument  often  does  duty  for  sev¬ 
eral  species  of  the  same  genus;  while  the 
same  Hebrew  generic  word  is  sometimes 
translated  by  different  English  specificones, 
and  in  other  cases  the  translation  is  erro¬ 
neous.” — “  Oxford  ”  Bible  Helps . 

Myrrh  “  is  the  aromatic  gum  or  sap  of 
a  low,  thorny  tree,  which  grows  chiefly  in 
Arabia  and  Ethiopia,  but  not  in  Palestine. 
The  gum  is  first  oily,  then  fluid;  first  yel¬ 
low-white,  then  reddish,  hardening  into 
small  globules  of  a  peculiar  balsamic  smell, 
and  bitter  taste.  There  are  several  ways 
of  collecting  it  :  the  best  is  to  allow  it 
to  exude  of  itself;  another  way  is  to  cut 
the  bark  of  the  tree.  Myrrh  was  used 
for  incense  (Cant.  iii.  6),  perfume  for 
clothing  and  beds  (Psa.  xiv.  8;  Prov.  vii. 
17;  c.  Cant.  v.  1),  as  an  oil  (Esth.  ii.  12), 
an  ointment  (Cant.  v.  5),  in  the  holy  anoint¬ 
ing  oil  (Exod.  xxx.  23),  and,  as  to-day,  in 
medicine,  and  for  embalming.  (John  xix. 
39.)  The  root  was  also  put  in  wine,  to 
give  it  a  spicy  taste  and  smell;  and  this 
unintoxicating  wine  was  a  favorite  with 
the  ladies.  Jesus,  before  his  crucifixion, 
was  offered  wine  mingled  with  myrrh 
(Mark  xv.  23),  probably  the  sour  wine  of 
the  Roman  soldiers.” — Riietschi. 

Mystics,  a  class  of  theologians  who 
profess  to  be  able  to  see  mysteries  hidden 
from  the  uninitiated.  They  are  to  be  found 
in  every  religion,  and  in  every  age.  There 
are  said  to  be  three  kinds:  those  who  re¬ 
sign  themselves  to  an  imagined  Divine 
manifestation,  those  who  form  a  theory  of 
God  based  on  their  own  inspiration,  and 
those  who  claim  converse  with  spirits. 
The  first  Christian  mystics  seem  to  have 
arisen  toward  the  close  of  the  third  century. 
They  held  that  they  must  remain  in  a  state 
of  inaction  while  the  Divine  Spirit  guided 
them;  that  if  they  turned  their  eyes  from 


the  world  the  soul  would  return  to  God, 
and  they  would  enjoy  not  only  communion 
with  him  but  would  see  truth  undisguised 
and  pure.  Mysticism  was  thus  a  reaction 
against  stiff  formalism,  a  cry  of  the  spirit 
for  freedom.  In  the  sixth  century  mysti¬ 
cism  received  a  strong  impetus  from  the 
publication  of  some  writings  alleged  to  be 
by  Dionysius  the  Areopagite,  as  Mystical 
Theology ,  The  Heavenly  Hierarchy ,  The 
Ecclesiastical  Hierarchy.  They  certainly 
are  not  his,  but  probably  date  from  the 
time  when  they  first  appeared.  The  writer 
endeavored  to  apply  to  Christianity  the 
theosophy  of  the  Neo-Platonist  school,  and 
to  show  that  by  means  of  an  intermediate 
and  mediatorial  hierarchy  man  may  hold 
communion  with  the  higher  powers,  even 
rising  higher  till  he  can  contemplate  God 
himself.  These  works  were  translated  by 
John  Scotus  Erigena;  afterward  a  com¬ 
mentary  was  made  on  them  by  Maximus  of 
Constantinople,  who,  in  addition  to  his 
works  against  the  Monothelites,  wrote  a 
great  number  of  mystical  tracts  on  the 
Scriptures,  the  Trinity,  and  the  ceremonies 
of  the  Church,  all  thoroughly  saturated 
with  the  allegorizing  principles  of  the 
Alexandrian  school. 

The  encouragement  given  to  mysticism 
by  Louis  the  Meek  in  the  ninth  century 
caused  it  to  spread  over  Europe,  especially 
in  France.  St.  Bernard  of  Clair vaux  was 
deeply  impressed  with  it;  and  St.  Hugo 
and  Richard  of  St.  Victoire  in  the  twelfth 
century  did  much  in  opposing  the  material¬ 
ism  of  the  Schoolmen.  The  mysticism, 
however,  of  the  West  did  not  rush  into 
heresy,  as  that  of  the  East  seemed  fated  to 
do.  Gnosticism,  Montanism,  Manichaeism, 
all  had  their  origin  in  the  cry  for  spirit  as 
against  letter.  In  the  West,  in  course  of 
time,  errors  had  their  origin  in  the  same 
root.  Thus  Bonaventura  in  the  thirteenth, 
and  Gerson  in  the  fifteenth,  labored  to 
reconcile  the  two  elements.  In  the  Nether¬ 
lands  and  Germany  mystical  pantheism 
developed  in  the  sect  of  the  Brethren  of 
the  Free  Spirit  ( q .  v. ).  In  the  fourteenth 
century  Henry  Eckhart  revived  the  pan¬ 
theism  of  Scotus,  and  united  it  with  the 
severest  asceticism.  Ruysbroeck  caused  a- 
complete  revolution  in  mysticism,  which 
he  based  on  Theism.  He  states  that 
“  man,  having  proceeded  from  God,  is  des¬ 
tined  to  return  and  become  one  with  him 
again.  This  oneness,  however,  is  not  to 
be  understood  as  meaning  that  we  become 
wholly  identified  with  him,  and  lose  our 
own  being  as  creatures,  for  that  is  an  im¬ 
possibility.  What  it  is  to  be  understood 
as  meaning  is,  that  we  are  conscious  of  be¬ 
ing  wholly  in  God,  and  at  the  same  time, 
also,  wholly  in  ourselves;  that  we  are  unit- 


Mys 


(  652  ) 


Nab 


ed  with  God,  and  yet  at  the  same  time  re¬ 
main  different  from  him.”  Mysticism  was 
further  developed  by  Gerhard  in  the 
Netherlands,  and  by  John  Tauler  in  Ger¬ 
many.  Tauler,  a  Dominican  of  Strasburg, 
and  a  great  preacher,  who  was  called  Doc¬ 
tor  Illuminatus,  was  very  practical  in  his 
mysticism,  and  held  the  school  of  thought 
which  was  afterwards  developed  in  the 
Reformation.  His  great  friend,  Henry 
Suso,  of  Ulm,  a  pupil  of  Eckhart,  thus  ex¬ 
pressed  his  views:  “  A  meek  man  must 
be  deformed  from  the  creature,  conformed 
to  Christ,  and  transformed  to  Deity.” 
Thomas  a  Kempis’s  works  are  pervaded  by 
the  longing  for  annihilation  of  self  and 
oneness  with  God,  common  to  all  the 
mediaeval  mystics.  In  the  fourteenth  cen¬ 
tury  appeared  a  little  book,  named  German 
Theology ,  to  which  no  name  is  appended, 
but  which  is  attributed  to  the  Custos  of  the 
Herrn  Haus,  at  Frankfort,  one  of  the 
■“  Friends  of  God”  ( q .  v.).  This  book  re¬ 
mained  comparatively  unnoticed  till 
brought  forward  by  Luther,  who  ranks  it 
third  among  his  favorite  books,  next  to  the 
Bible  and  St.  Augustine.  In  1621  it  was 
prohibited  in  the  Roman  Church,  but  the 
edition  published  by  Luther  in  1518  met 
with  great  favor. 

The  Reformation,  which  had  thus  been 
aided  by  mysticism,  almost  caused  its 
downfall  when  Luther  proved  the  fallibility 
of  oral  tradition  and  individual  intuition, 
and  proclaimed  the  Scriptures  the  standard 
of  Christian  faith.  But  it  soon  broke  out 
in  more  extravagant  modes,  especially 
among  the  Anabaptists,  though  under  a 
different  form.  The  first  reformers  who 
professed  mysticism  were  Paracelsus  of 
Hohenheim  (d.  1541),  and  Weigel  of  Meis¬ 
sen,  in  Saxony  (d.  1588);  but  the  leader  of 
the  movement  was  Jacob  Bohme,  whose 
views  show  a  mixture  of  Gnostic  theos¬ 
ophy  and  naturalism.  (Bohme,  Jacob.) 
Arndt  (d.  1621),  a  Lutheran  of  Anhalt,  who 
gave  up  his  post  when  his  province  adopt¬ 
ed  Calvinism,  was  also  a  mystic,  but  his 
mysticism  took  the  form  of  a  spiritual  re¬ 
ligion.  He  wrote  Trite  Christianity ,  and 
The  Paradise  of  Christian  Virtues,  which 
are  still  read  in  Germany.  Gerhard’s 
Sacred  Meditations  and  School  of  Piety  are 
of  the  same  tone  as  Arndt’s  works.  Tow¬ 
ard  the  close  of  the  seventeenth  century, 
Michael  de  Molinos,  of  Saragossa,  publish¬ 
ed  The  Guide  to  a  Spiritual  Life ,  the  sub¬ 
stance  of  which  is  that,  in  pursuance  of 
good,  the  mind  must  be  withdrawn  from 
all  worldly  objects,  and  be  wholly  merged 
in  God;  therefore  his  followers  are  called 
Quietists  (q.  v.).  This  book  was  con¬ 
demned  by  Innocent  XI.,  and  Molinos  was 
imprisoned,  Among  the  most  famed  of 


the  Quietists  in  the  seventeenth  century 
were  Madame  Guyon,  Madame  Bourignon, 
Peter  Poiret,  and  Madame  de  Krtidener. 
In  modern  times  the  chief  mystics  have 
been  Emanuel  Swedenborg  and  William 
Law  ( q .  v. ).  In  the  same  category  we 
must  place  the  Hutchinsonians,  the  Jansen- 
ists,  and  those  who  substitute  the  subject¬ 
ive  revelation  of  consciousness  for  the  ob¬ 
jective  revelation  of  the  written  Word. — 
Benham:  Did.  of  Religion. 

Mythical  Theory,  The,  and  The  Legend¬ 
ary  Theory,  both  agree  in  considering  the 
miraculous  and  supernatural  features  of 
the  gospel  narrative  as  poetical  fiction. 
The  mythical  theory  was  applied  to  the 
gospel  history  by  D.  F.  Strauss,  in  his 
Leben  Jesu  (1835).  Admitting  the  historical 
personality  of  Jesus,  and  his  remarkable 
genius  as  a  religious  leader,  he  attempted 
to  prove  that  the  miracles  ascribed  to  him 
were  the  outgrowth  of  myths,  which  had 
their  origin  in  the  Messianic  conceptions 
and  hopes  then  prevalent  in  the  minds  of 
the  Jews.  The  legendary  theory,  represent¬ 
ed  by  E.  Renan,  in  his  Life  of  Jesus ,  dis¬ 
cards  the  mythical  view,  and  gives  prom¬ 
inence  to  the  legends  and  legendary 
narratives  which,  it  is  asserted,  gathered 
about  the  life  and  acts  of  Jesus  through 
the  imaginative  conceptions  of  his  enthusi¬ 
astic  disciples.  These  theories  have  been 
fully  refuted  by  Christian  scholars. 

N. 

Na'aman  ( agreeableness ),  a  distinguished 
Syrian  general,  whose  restoration  from 
leprosy  is  one  of  the  most  remarkable  in¬ 
cidents  in  the  life  of  Elisha.  The  story  is 
found  in  2  Kings  v.  Its  lessons,  teaching 
the  goodness  of  God,  the  pride  of  man  and 
the  necessity  of  obedience  are  strikingly 
enforced.  There  is  now  a  leper-hospital 
on  the  traditionary  site  of  Naaman’s  house 
at  Damascus.  Our  Lord  referred  to  the 
cure  of  the  Syrian  general  in  his  sermon  to 
the  Nazarenes.  (Luke  iv.  27.) 

Na'bal,  (fool)  a  wealthy  citizen  of  Maon 
near  Hebron,  whose  wife  Abigail,  after  his 
death,  was  married  to  David.  Selfish  and 
churlish,  he  refused  to  provide  food  for 
David  and  his  men.  This  aroused  the  anger 
of  David, whose  plans  for  the  destruction  of 
Nabal  were  turned  aside  by  the  prudent 
forethought  and  gifts  of  Abigail.  Upon  her 
return  home  she  found  her  husband  at  a 
feast  and  drunk,  and  did  not  inform  him  of 
her  action  until  the  following  day.  When 
told  of  her  gifts  he  was  seized  with  a  vio¬ 
lent  sickness,  and  died  in  ten  days.  The 
story  is  related  in  1  Sam.  xxv.  2-42. 


Nah 


(  653  ) 


Nat 


Na'hor,  oi\Na'chor  (Josh.  xxiv.  2),  (1) 
the  name  of  Abraham’s  grandfather.  (Gen. 
xi.  22,  24.)  (2)  Abraham’s  brother.  (Gen. 

xi.  26.)  One  of  his  sons  was  Bethuel,  the 
father  of  Rebekah.  (Gen.  xxii.  23.)  He 
lived  at  Haran  which  is  known  as  the  “  city 
of  Nahor.”  (Gen.  xxiv.  10.) 

Nahum.  “  The  author  of  this  prophecy 
was  a  native  of  a  place  called  Elkosh, 
which  some  identify  with  a  village  on  the 
banks  of  the  Tigris,  and  others,  who  are 
more  probably  correct,  with  a  place  in  the 
region  of  Galilee.  He  appears  to  have  been 
a  contemporary  of  Isaiah,  and  to  have 
prophesied  after  the  destruction  of  Samaria 
and  the  defeat  of  Sennacherib  before  Jeru¬ 
salem  in  the  reign  of  Hezekiah.  His  mis¬ 
sion  was  to  comfort  the  Jew  in  the  near 
presence  of  so  formidable  a  foe  as  Assyria, 
and  to  announce  the  destruction  of  that 
overbearing  power,  and  especially  of  its 
capital  city,  Nineveh,  an  event  which  hap¬ 
pened  under  Cyaxares  the  Mede,  623  b.  c. 
The  style  of  the  prophet  is  as  classical  as 
that  of  Isaiah,  and  is  not  inferior  to  his  in 
force  and  originality  of  thought,  clearness 
of  expression,  and  purity  of  diction.  His 
prophecy  is  divisible  into  three  strophes, 
which  are  coincident  with  the  chapters. 

“  Contents. — Chap.  i.  announces  the  Di¬ 
vine  purpose  to  inflict  judgment  on  the 
Assyrian  oppressor  of  his  people.  Chap, 
ii.  anticipates  the  glad  tidings  of  the  con¬ 
quest,  sack,  and  destruction  of  Nineveh. 
Chap.  iii.  represents  the  guilt  of  the  city, 
and  depicts  its  inevitable  ruin.” — Bagster: 
Bible  Helps. 

Na'in  {beauty),  a  town  in  Galilee,  now 
called  Nein ,  six  miles  southeast  of  Naza¬ 
reth.  It  was  here  that  Christ  raised  the 
widow’s  dead  son  to  life.  (Luke  vii.  11-18.) 
Its  ruins  indicate  that  it  was  once  a  town 
of  considerable  size  with  walls  and  gates. 
It  is  now  a  Mohammedan  hamlet  of  about 
twenty  mud  and  stone  houses.  On  the  west 
side  of  the  village  the  rock  is  full  of  se¬ 
pulchral  caves. 

Nantes,  Edict  of,  a  decree  issued  by 
Henry  IV.  of  France,  in  1598,  which  se¬ 
cured  freedom  of  conscience  to  the  Prot¬ 
estants.  Restrictions  were,  however,  laid 
upon  them  as  to  the  times  and  places 
where  they  might  worship,  and  they  were 
obliged  to  observe  the  festivals  and  fasts 
of  the  Roman  Catholic  Church.  In  1685 
the  edict  was  revoked  by  Louis  XIV.  on 
the  ground  that  there  were  no  Protestants 
in  France.  Over  one  hundred  ^thousand 
among  the  Huguenots  were  driven  from 
the  country  in  the  persecutions  that  fol¬ 
lowed.  See  Huguenots. 


Naph'tali.  See  Tribes  of  Israel. 

Narthex  designated  the  ante-chapel  of  an 
ancient  church,  in  which  the  catechumens 
and  penitents  gathered.  In  some  churches 
an  outside  corridor  or  cloister  was  called 
the  exterior  narthex,  and  was  occupied  by 
the  “  mourners,”  the  name  given  the  pen¬ 
itents  who  were  in  the  first  stage  of  their 
penance. 

Na'than  {given),  { i)a  celebrated  prophet 
of  Judaea  who  exerted  a  marked  influence 
during  the  reigns  of  David  and  Solomon. 
Through  him  came  the  divine  message  to 
David  that  the  building  of  the  temple  was 
to  be  the  work  of  his  posterity.  (2  Sam. 
vii.)  Nathan  was  the  bearer  of  the  mes¬ 
sage  which  awakened  the  conscience  of 
David  after  his  sin  against  Uriah  (2  Sam. 
xii.);  and  his  influence  did  much  to  declare 
Solomon  the  heir-apparent.  (1  Kings  i.) 
(2)  One  of  the  sons  of  David  by  Bathsheba. 
(1  Chron.  iii.  5.)  (3)  Father  of  one  of  Da¬ 

vid’s  warriors.  (2  Sam.  xxiii.  36.)  (4)  One 
of  the  chief  men  who  returned  to  Jerusa¬ 
lem  with  Ezra.  (Ezra  viii.  16.) 

Nathan'ael.  See  Bartholomew. 

Nativity  of  Christ.  See  Christmas. 

Natural  Ability.  See  Inability. 

Natural  Laws,  or  Laws  of  Nature,  are 
simply  statements  of  the  orderly  condition 
of  things  in  nature.  They  state  what  is 
found  in  nature  by  a  sufficient  number  of 
competent  observers.  Thus  it  has  been 
found  that  specimens  of  air  in  different 
parts  of  the  world  have  possessed  about 
the  same  weight;  hence  it  is  inferred  that 
the  air  everywhere  has  weight,  and  this  is 
called  a  law  of  nature.  Again,  Newton 
observed  that  bodies  fall  to  the  ground  at 
a  certain  rate,  and  from  this  and  many  like 
observations  flowed  the  great  law  of  gravi¬ 
tation,  another  law  of  nature;  and  from 
this,  again,  three  others,  the  three  laws  of 
motion.  Sometimes  the  term  Law  of  Na¬ 
ture  is  applied  to  the  condition  which  is 
observed  when  several  simple  laws  of  nat¬ 
ure  act  together;  thus  Darwin  noticed 
that  those  species  of  plants  and  animals 
which  could  live  and  thrive  on  the  plainest 
food,  which  could  get  their  food  most 
easily,  and  which  could  withstand  the  acci¬ 
dents  of  weather,  and  of  the  attacks  of  their 
neighbors,  with  the  least  harm,  would,  in 
the  long  run,  overpower  and  exterminate 
less  hardy  species,  and  this,  the  “  survival 
of  the  fittest,”  is  sometimes  called  a  law  of 
nature.  As  an  illustration — it  has  been 
found  that  the  common  English  fly,  because 


Nat 


(  ^54  ) 


Nat 


it  is  more  thrifty  and  less  dependent  on 
surrounding  circumstances,  will,  in  time, 
exterminate  the  great  blue-bottle  of  New 
Zealand.  The  laws  of  nature,  collectively, 
are,  briefly,  then,  the  fewest  and  simplest 
assumptions,  which,  being  granted,  the 
whole  existing  order  of  nature  would  re¬ 
sult. 

The  further  that  scientific  research  is 
carried  the  more  exactly  is  this  “  reign  of 
law  ”  found  to  prevail,  so  that  we  never 
look  for  any  deviations  from  laws  of  nat¬ 
ure:  given  certain  conditions,  we  know 
that  they  will  be  followed  by  certain  other 
conditions;  the  former  we  call  cause,  the 
latter,  effect. 

To  these  laws  of  nature  there  are,  in 
Christian  doctrine,  apparently  two  great 
classes  of  exceptions — miracles  and  the  re¬ 
sults  of  prayer.  Thus  we  are  brought  face 
to  face  with  the  questions — Can  we  believe 
in  miracles,  which  seem  to  contradict  these 
laws  ?  Can  we  believe  that  prayer  will 
produce  any  effect,  when  everything  is 
regulated  by  law?  The  Deist,  who  be¬ 
lieves  that  God  created  the  universe  and 
arranged  it  once  for  all,  but  does  not  now 
interfere  in  its  concerns,  would  say  that 
the  Laws  of  Nature,  as  we  call  them,  are 
the  expression  of  God’s  mind  and  will,  and 
that  hence  any  interference  with  them, 
such  as  a  miracle  supposes,  is  impossible. 
The  world,  like  a  vast  and  perfect  clock, 
has  been  wound  up  once  for  all,  and  not 
the  slightest  deviation  in  its  working  is  to 
be  looked  for.  But  how  stands  the  case 
with  those  who  believe  in  the  beneficent 
rule  of  a  Personal  God,  whose  tender 
mercies  are  over  all  his  works  ?  (The 
general  question  of  the  credibility  of  mira¬ 
cles  will  be  found  discussed  in  the  article 
Miracles.)  In  considering  the  relation 
of  miracles  to  the  laws  of  nature,  it  should 
be  remembered  that  sin  is  always  rep¬ 
resented  as  having  brought  misery  and 
disorder  into  the  fair  order  of  nature, 
whilst  the  effect  of  nearly  all  the  mir¬ 
acles  recorded  in  the  Bible  was  to  re¬ 
lieve  misery  or  to  restore  some  degree  of 
order.  Again,  many  miracles  were  but 
extensions  or  intensifications  of  natural  oc¬ 
currences;  e.  g. ,  some  of  the  “  plagues  ”  of 
Egypt — the  flies,  the  frogs,  the  locusts — 
and  even  our  Lord’s  miracles  of  healing. 
We  cannot,  then,  regard  them  as  contrary 
to  nature.  Perhaps  the  simplest  way  of 
looking  at  miracles,  in  regard  to  natural 
laws,  is  to  compare  them  with  our  own  or¬ 
dinary  power  of  modifying  the  effects  of 
those  laws.  We  cannot  violate  these,  but 
we  can  control,  or  alter  the  direction  of  the 
action  of  many  of  them  at  pleasure;  thus, 
a  ball  thrown  into  the  air  would,  by  the 
law  of  gravitation,  fall  to  the  earth,  but  we 


can  arrest  the  action  of  the  law  by  catching 
the  ball  in  our  hands,  and,  against  the 
same  law,  we  can  throw  it  up  into  the  air 
again.  No  law  has  been  “  violated;”  in¬ 
telligent  will  has  merely  brought  other 
forces  into  play,  which  have  temporarily 
suspended  the  most  conspicuous  effect  of 
the  law  of  gravity.  Much  of  our  life,  as 
animals,  is  consumed  in  struggling  against 
and  modifying  laws  of  nature,  which 
would,  left  to  themselves,  work  our  death. 
Thus,  we  clothe  our  bodies  to  prevent  that 
continual  radiation  of  heat  which,  in  win¬ 
ter  at  least,  would  be  fatal  to  life.  Now, 
in  our  case  the  interference  is  exactly 
known;  but  if  God  should  see  fit  to  sus¬ 
pend  or  counteract  laws  of  nature,  though 
he  might  employ  means  or  other  laws  in  a 
similar  way,  the  means  being  unknown  to 
us,  what  we  call  miracles  .would  be  pro¬ 
duced.  Such  considerations  may  prevent 
us  from  falling  into  the  mistake  of  looking 
upon  miracles  as  violent  interruptions  to 
the  course  of  nature.  But  whether  God 
actually  has  thus  modified  and  controlled 
the  laws  of  nature  is,  of  course,  a  different 
inquiry,  and  in  the  present  day  the  ques¬ 
tion  of  the  reality  of  miracles  practically 
centres  in  the  greatest  of  them,  the  Resur¬ 
rection  of  Christ.  Accepting  this,  as  the 
Church  does,  all  the  others  naturally  fol¬ 
low. 

Similar  remarks  will  apply  in  the  case  of 
Prayer ,  since  answers  to  many  prayers 
must  be  of  a  miraculous  nature — special 
providences,  as  they  are  called.  If  we  can 
so  much  control  and  modify  the  action  of 
natural  laws,  why  is  it  not  possible  to  God? 
But  the  question  is,  Will  God  thus  inter¬ 
fere  at  our  request?  Some  reply,  No. 
God  has  foreordained  everything;  and  to 
suppose  that  he  would  make  any  change 
because  we  asked  him  would  be  to  admit 
that  his  arrangements  were  faulty  and 
needed  amendment;  prayer,  therefore,  can 
only  be  useful  to  the  one  who  prays,  by 
making  him  dwell  on  the  goodness  of  God, 
arousing  his  faith,  etc.  It  may,  however, 
be  replied  that  although  God  foresees  all 
things,  he  has  yet  given  us  freewill,  and 
has  made  us  responsible  for  the  use  of  our 
wills,  so  that,  in  a  manner  never  explained 
to  us,  we  have  the  ordering  of  our  lives 
and  conduct  largely  in  our  own  hands,  and 
that  hence  there  must  be  room  for  prayer 
in  the  providential  arrangements  of  God. 
Besides  this,  the  promises  that  prayer  shall 
be  heard  and  answered  are  so  emphatic  and 
so  varied  (Matt.  vii.  7,  8:  Jas.  i.  5;  1  John  v. 
14,  15),  that  we  cannot  doubt  that  God  de¬ 
sires  us  to  pray  in  the  full  belief  that,  tin¬ 
der  the  conditions  he  lays  down,  we  shall 
obtain  our  requests.  (Prayer.)  One  con¬ 
dition  of  rightful  prayer  is  that  we  should 


Nat 


(  655  ) 


Naz 


not  put  any  hindrance  in  the  way  of  its  ful¬ 
filment;  indeed,  we  ourselves  are  to  fur¬ 
ther  it  as  far  as  we  can.  It  follows  from  this 
that  we  cannot  expect  an  answer  to  our 
prayer  if  we  are  wilfully  doing  that  which 
would  make  our  desire  impossible  by  a 
law  of  nature;  for  instance,  natural  laws 
tell  us  that  a  few  grains  of  arsenic  will  de¬ 
stroy  life;  it  would  then  be  clearly  useless 
to  pray  for  deliverance  from  death  if  we 
deliberately  took  what  we  knew  to  be  a 
fatal  dose  of  the  poison.  Again,  it  would 
be  improper,  and  probably  useless,  to  pray 
for  protection  when  amongst  the  sufferers 
in  an  epidemic  of  cholera,  if,  knowing  and 
understanding  the  precautions  to  be  used 
{i.  e.,  the  natural  laws  of  the  disease),  we 
yet  neglected  them  all  when  we  might  have 
observed  them.  God  expects  us  to  show 
our  faith  by  using  the  reason  he  has  given 
us,  and  conforming,  as  far  as  we  know 
them,  to  the  laws  of  nature,  which  are  the 
general  expression  of  his  will,  and  therefore 
to  be  obeyed. 

A  very  interesting  question  arises  with 
regard  to  Natural  Law:  Have  we  any  rea¬ 
son  for  supposing  that  laws  of  nature  rule 
in  the  spiritual  as  well  as  in  the  natural 
world,  or  do  they  cease  to  have  effect  at 
the  boundary  line  of  Matter  and  Spirit  ? 
From  time  to  time  analogies  have  been 
traced  between  natural  laws  and  spiritual 
laws,  but  Professor  Drummond,  in  a  re¬ 
markable  book,  Natural  Law  in  the  Spirit¬ 
ual  World,  takes  up  the  position  that 
spiritual  laws  are  the  same  laws  as  natural 
laws;  that  the  spiritual  world  is  arranged 
on  a  like  principle  to  the  natural  world, 
and  that  it  is  under  a  like  governmental 
scheme.  One  example  of  Professor  Drum¬ 
mond’s  method  must  suffice:  Numerous 
and  exact  experiments  have  conclusively 
proved  that  life  can  only  originate  from 
pre-existing  life;  that  under  no  conditions 
can  particles  of  dead  matter,  whether  organ¬ 
ized  or  not,  acquire  life  by  themselves. 
This  fact  of  life  only  from  life  is  known  as 
the  Law  of  Biogenesis  in  the  natural  world. 
Professor  Drummond  maintains  that  the 
same  law  holds  good  in  the  spiritual  world. 
Except  a  ?nan  be  born  again.  .  .  .  Except  a 
man  be  born  of  70a ter  and  of  the  Spirit ,  he 
cannot  enter  into  the  Kingdo?n  of  God. 
That  which  is  born  of  the  flesh  is  flesh,  and 
that  which  is  born  of  the  Spirit  is  spirit. 
(John  iii.  3,  5,  6.)  As  in  the  natural,  so 
in  the  spiritual  world,  there  is  life  only 
from  life.  The  general  argument  is  very 
interesting,  and  the  analogies  suggested 
are  in  many  points  striking,  and  in  some 
cases  seem  of  real  value;  but,  as  a  whole, 
the  contention  not  only  does  not  seem  to 
be  made  out,  but  very  weighty  reasons 
have  been  advanced,  both  from  science  and 


theology,  against  Professor  Drummond’s 
cardinal  conclusion.  —  Benham:  Diet,  of 
Religion. 

Natural  Theology,  the  belief  concern¬ 
ing  the  existence  and  the  character  of  God 
which  we  derive  from  our  observation  of 
the  phenomena  of  nature.  Thus  Paley, 
in  his  work  bearing  this  title,  argues  for 
the  belief  (1)  i n  design,  i.  e.,in  an  intelli¬ 
gent  Creator;  and  (2)  in  the  goodness  of  the 
Creator,  judging  from  the  arrangements 
observable  in  the  Creation  for  promoting 
the  happiness  of  the  creatures.  See  God. 

Nave,  in  modern  churches,  the  central 
division  of  the  body  of  the  church,  as  dis¬ 
tinguished  from  the  aisles  on  either  side. 
In  ancient  churches,  the  central  portion 
as  distinguished  from  the  narthex  or  ante- 
chapel  at  the  end,  and  the  bema  or  chancel 
at  the  other.  It  was  occupied  by  those 
worshippers  who  were  in  full  communion 
with  the  Church,  and  also  by  the  penitents 
of  the  third  and  fourth  grades.  In  it  stood 
the  ambo,  or  reading  desk.  —  Benham: 
Diet,  of  Religion. 

Naylor  {na-ler ),  James,  b.  in  Yorkshire, 
Eng.,  about  1616;  d.  1660.  He  was  a 
quartermaster  in  the  army  for  some  time. 
Converted  under  the  preaching  of  George 
Fox,  he  became  a  teacher  of  Quaker  doc¬ 
trines.  His  eccentric  actions  led  to  his 
trial  by  Parliament  for  blasphemy, ‘and  he 
was  condemned  to  be  whipped  twice,  to  be 
branded,  and  have  his  tongue  bored  with 
a  hot  iron.  Besides  this  cruel  punishment, 
he  was  imprisoned  for  two  years.  Upon 
his  release,  his  mind  having  regained  san¬ 
ity,  he  was  received  into  the  Society  of 
Friends,  and  labored  among  them  with  pen 
and  voice  until  his  death.  His  Writings 
were  published  in  1716. 

Nazarenes.  See  Ebionites. 

Nazareth  “  in  Galilee,  now  al-Nasira, 
the  city  of  Mary  and  Joseph,  and  the  place 
where  our  Lord  spent  his  youth,  is  pleas¬ 
antly  situated  in  a  hollow  on  the  south 
slope  of  the  hills  (J.  al-Sekh)  which  bound 
the  plain  of  Esdraelon  on  the  north. 
Though  it  had  a  synagogue  (Matt.  xiii.  54; 
Luke  iv.  16),  and  is  called  in  the  Gospels  a 
city,  Nazareth  must  have  been  an  obscure 
place  in  the  time  of  Jesus,  for  we  find  no 
mention  of  it  outside  of  the  New  Testament 
till  Eusebius  and  Jerome  identify  it  with  a 
‘  village  ’  which  undoubtedly  occupied  the 
place  of  the  modern  Nasira.  In  Jerome’s 
time  it  was  already  visited  by  pilgrims,  but 
as  yet  we  hear  nothing  of  relics,  or  places 
associated  with  special  incidents  in  the  life 


(  656  ) 


NAZARETH, 


Naz 


(  657  ) 


Nea 


land  that  met  with  much  favor,  but  his 
fame  rests  chiefly  upon  his  History  of  the 
Puritans ,  or  Protestant  Nonconformists , 
from  the  Reformation  in  iyij  to  the  Revolu¬ 
tion  in  16SS  (1793-95).  An  American  edi¬ 
tion  of  this  work,  edited  by  J.  O.  Choules, 
was  published  in  New  York,  1844,  2  vols. 

Neale,  John  Mason,  b.  in  London,  Jan. 
24,  1818;  d.  at  East  Grinstead,  Aug.  6, 
1866.  He  was  graduated  at  Trinity  College, 
Cambridge,  1840,  and  from  1846  until  the 
time  of  his  death  was  warden  of  Sackville 
College,  East  Grinstead.  He  was  an  ex¬ 
treme  High  -  Churchman,  and  his  views 
made  him  for  many  years  the  subject  of 
much  ridicule  and  persecution.  He  was  a 
prolific  writer,  and  showed  great  ability  in 
defending  his  opinions.  As  a  writer  for  the 
young,  he  holds  an  enviable  rank,  and  as  a 
poet  he  gained  the  Seatonian  prize  eleven 
times.  The  work  by  which  he  is  best 
known  is  his  translations  of  Mediaeval 
Hymns,  and  his  own  contributions  as  a 
hymn-writer. 

Neander,  Johann  August  Wilhelm, 
“  by  far  the  greatest  of  ecclesiastical  his¬ 
torians,  was  born  at  Gottingen,  Jan.  16, 
1789,  of  Jewish  parentage.  His  name  prior 
to  baptism  was  David  Mendel.  By  the 
mother’s  side,  he  was  related  to  the  eminent 
philosopher  and  philanthropist,  Mendels¬ 
sohn.  Plato  and  Plutarch  were  his  fa¬ 
vorite  classics  as  a  boy;  and  he  was  pro¬ 
foundly  stirred  by  Schleiermacher’s  famous 
Discourses  on  Religion  (1799).  Finally,  in 
1806,  he  publicly  renounced  Judaism,  and 
was  baptized,  adopting,  in  allusion  to  the 
religious  change  which  he  had  experienced, 
the  name  of  Neander  (Gr.  neos ,  new;  aner , 
a  man),  and  taking  his  Christian  names 
from  several  of  his  friends.  His  sisters 
and  brothers,  and,  later,  his  mother  also, 
followed  his  example.  He  now  proceeded 
to  Halle,  where  he  studied  theology  with 
wonderful  ardor  and  success  under  Schlei- 


of  Jesus.  The  population  was  mainly  Jew¬ 
ish — exclusively  so,  we  are  told  by  Epi- 
phanius,  down  to  the  time  of  Constantine — 
and  the  Jews,  after  their  manner  in  modern 
as  in  ancient  times,  seem  to  have  been  the 
inventors  of  various  marvellous  relics  and 
identifications  which  were  palmed  off  upon 
Christian  pilgrims  in  the  sixth  century. 
Such  at  least  is  the  natural  inference  from 
what  Antonius  Martyr  tells  of  these  won¬ 
derfully  friendly  and  communicative  He¬ 
brews.  A  century  later,  Arculphus  de¬ 
scribes  two  great  churches,  corresponding 
to  the  modern  Greek  church  over  the  Vir¬ 
gin’s  Well,  and  the  Latin  church  of  the 
Franciscan  monastery  over  the  Grotto  of 
the  Annunciation.  The  place  has  since 
passed  through-  various  vicissitudes;  it 
was  most  flourishing  in  the  time  of  the 
Crusaders,  who  transferred  to  it  the  bish¬ 
opric  of  Scythopolis.  The  Ottomans  at 
length  expelled  the  Christians;  but  the 
Franciscans  established  themselves  under 
the  protection  of  Fakhr  al-Din  in  1620.  The 
town  has  now  a  Greek,  a  Latin,  and  a  Mos¬ 
lem  quarter,  as  well  as  a  Protestant  mis¬ 
sion  and  orphanage.  The  population  is 
variously  estimated  at  from  6,000  to  10,- 
000.” — Ency.  Brilannica. 

Naz'arites  “  (from  Heb.  nazar ,  to  sepa¬ 
rate),  denoted  among  the  Jews  those  per¬ 
sons,  male  or  female,  who  had  consecrated 
themselves  to  God  by  certain  acts  of  ab¬ 
stinence,  which  marked  them  off,  or  ‘  sep¬ 
arated  them,’  from  the  rest  of  the  commu¬ 
nity.  In  particular,  they  were  prohibited 
from  using  wine  or  strong  drink  of  any 
kind,  grapes,  whether  moist  or  dry,  or  from 
shaving  their  heads.  The  law  in  regard  to 
Nazarites  is  laid  down  in  the  book  of  Num¬ 
bers  (vi.  1-21).  The  only  examples  of  the 
class  recorded  in  Scripture  are  Samson, 
Samuel,  and  John  the  Baptist,  who  were 
devoted  from  birth  to  that  condition,  though 
the  law  appears  to  contemplate  temporary 
and  voluntary  rather  than  perpetual  Naza- 
riteship.” — Chambers:  Cyclopedia.  “  That 
Paul,  according  to  Acts  xviii.  18,  took  the 
Nazarite  vow,  is  a  mere  conjecture:  the 
vow  could  be  taken  in  a  foreign  country, 
but  not  fulfilled  outside  of  Palestine;  and 
there  is  nothing  which  indicates  that  Paul 
ever  fulfilled  a  vow  at  Jerusalem.  ” — Oehler. 

Neal,  Daniel,  author  of  the  History  of 
the  Puritans ;  b.  in  London,  Dec.  14,  1678; 
d.  at  Bath,  April  4,  1743.  He  was  educat¬ 
ed  at  Merchant  Taylors’  School,  London, 
and  then  in  1700  went  to  Holland,  and 
studied  at  Utrecht  and  Leyden.  Having 
served  as  assistant  to  Dr.  Singleton,  Al- 
dersgate  Street,  he  succeeded  him  in  1706. 
He  published  in  1720  a  History  of  Neva  Eng- 


ermacher,  and  concluded  his  academic 
course  at  his  native  town  of  Gottingen, 
where  Planck  was  then  in  the  zenith  of  his 
reputation  as  a  church  historian.  Iri  1811 
he  took  up  his  residence  at  Heidelberg 
University  as  a  privat-docent ;  in  1812  he 
was  appointed  there  extraordinary  profess¬ 
or  of  theology;  and  in  the  following  year 
was  called  to  the  newly  established  uni¬ 
versity  of  Berlin  as  professor  of  church 
history.  Here  he  labored  till  his  death, 
July  14,  1850.  Neander  enjoyed  immense 
celebrity  as  a  lecturer.  Students  flocked 
to  him  not  only  from  all  parts  of  Germany, 
but  from  the  most  distant  Protestant  coun¬ 
tries.  Many  Roman  Catholics,  even,  were 
among  his  auditors,  and  it  is  said  that  there 


Nea 


(658) 


Neb 


is  hardly  a  great  preacher  in  Germany  who 
is  not  more  or  less  penetrated  with  his 
ideas.  His  character,  religiously  consid¬ 
ered,  is  of  so  noble  a  Christian  type  that  it 
calls  for  special  notice.  Ardently  and  pro¬ 
foundly  devotional,  sympathetic,  glad- 
hearted,  profusely  benevolent,  and  without 
a  shadow  of  selfishness  resting  on  his  soul, 
he  inspired  universal  reverence,  and  was 
himself,  by  the  mild  and  attractive  sanctity 
of  his  life,  a  more  powerful  argument  on 
behalf  of  Christianity  than  even  his  writ¬ 
ings  themselves.  Perhaps  no  professor 
was  ever  so  much  loved  by  his  students  as 
Neander.  He  used  to  give  the  poorer 
ones  tickets  to  his  lectures,  and  to  supply 
them  with  clothes  and  money.  The  great¬ 
er  portion  of  what  he  made  by  his  books 
he  bestowed  upon  missionary,  Bible,  and 
other  societies,  and  upon  hospitals.  As  a 
Christian  scholar  and  thinker  he  ranks 
among  the  first  names  in  modern  times,  and 
is  believed  to  have  contributed  more  than 
any  other  single  individual  to  the  over¬ 
throw,  on  the  one  side,  of  that  anti-histor¬ 
ical  rationalism,  and  on  the  other  of  that 
dead  Lutheran  formalism,  from  both  of 
which  the  religious  life  of  Germany  had  so 
long  suffered.  To  the  delineation  of  the 
development  of  historical  Christianity  he 
brings  one  of  the  broadest,  one  of  the  most 
sagacious  (in  regard  to  religious  matters), 
one  of  the  most  impartial  yet  generous  and 
sympathetic  intellects.  His  conception  of 
church  history  as  the  record  and  portrait¬ 
ure  of  all  forms  of  Christian  thought  and 
life,  and  the  skill  with  which,  by  means  of 
his  sympathy  with  all  of  these,  and  his  ex¬ 
traordinary  erudition,  he  elicits,  in  his 
Kirchengeschichte ,  the  varied  phenomena  of 
a  strictly  Christian  nature,  have  placed 
him  far  above  any  of  his  predecessors.” — 
Chambers  :  Cyclopedia.  The  General  History 
of  the  Christian  Religion  and  Church  was 
his  main  life-work.  This  work,  admirably 
translated  by  Prof.  Torrey ,  has  had  a  large 
sale  (12th  ed.,  N.  Y.,  1882,  6  vols.). 
Among  his  works  that  have  been  translated 
into  English  are:  History  of  the  Planting 
and  Training  of  the  Christian  Church  by  the 
Apostles  (N.  Y. ,  1869);  Julian,  the  Apostate 
(N.  Y.,  1850);  The  Life  of  Jesus  Christ  j 
<N.  Y.,  1848). 

Neap  olis  ( new  city),  memorable  as  the 
first  place  in  Europe  visited  by  Paul.  (Acts 
xvi.  ir.)  He  probably  landed  here  on  his 
second  missionary  tour,  and  it  was  from 
here  he  embarked  on  his  last  journey  to 
Jerusalem.  (Acts  xx.  1,  6.)  The  town  is 
eight  or  ten  miles  from  Philippi  in  North¬ 
ern  Greece.  It  is  now  known  as  Ka- 
ralla,  and  numerous  ruins  are  in  the 
vicinity. 


Neba'ioth,  son  of  Ishmael  (1  Chron.  i. 
29),  whose  descendants,  supposed  to  have 
settled  in  Arabia,  are  identified  with  the 
Nabat heans.  Petra  was  their  chief  city. 

Ne'bo,  one  of  the  Assyrian  deities.  He 
is  described  as  “  the  far-hearing,”  “  he  of 
intelligence.”  The  cuneiform  arrow-head 
is  his  emblem.  The  Assyrian  monarch, 
Pul,  made  the  worship  of  Nebo  very  prom¬ 
inent.  A  statue  of  Nebo,  with  his  names 
written  across  the  body,  is  in  the  British 
Museum.  The  fact  that  the  name  occurs 
in  so  many  compound  words  shows  the 
esteem  in  which  the  god  was  held. 

Ne'bo,  a  city  of  Moab,  taken  possession 
of  by  the  Reubenites.  Also  a  mountain 
of  the  Abarim  range  in  Moab,  from  which 
Moses  viewed  the  promised  land,  and 
where  he  died.  (Deut.  xxxii.  49;  xxxiv.  1- 
5.)  The  majority  of  explorers  identify 
Nebo  with  the  northern  end  of  the  Abarim 
range,  Jebel  Neba. 

Nebuchadnez'zar  ( Nebo  protect  the  crown), 
the  son  and  successor  of  Nabopolassar, 
and  the  most  famous  of  the  Babylonian 
kings.  (2  Kings  xxiv.  1;  Dan.  i.-iv.)  As 
co-regent  and  general  under  his  father,  he 
led  an  army  against  Necho,  king  of  Egypt, 
and  defeated  him  at  Carchemish  on  the 
Euphrates  (b.  C.  605).  Tidings  of  the 
death  of  his  father  called  him  back  to 
Babylon  to  take  the  throne.  In  the  eighth 
year  of  his  reign  he  again  invaded  Pales¬ 
tine  and  carried  Jehoiachin  and  the  best 
of  his  people  as  captives  to  Babylon.  (2 
Kings  xxiv.  10-16.)  At  the  same  time  he 
placed  Mattaniah,  the  uncle  of  Jehoiachin, 
on  the  throne,  and  changed  his  name  to 
Zedekiah.  (2  Kings  xxiv.  17.)  In  the 
eighth  year  of  his  reign  Zedekiah  revolted, 
and  the  following  year  Jerusalem  was 
again  besieged  by  Nebuchadnezzar,  and, 
after  many  months  (b.  c.  586).  was  taken, 
and  the  king  of .  Judah,  after  seeing  his 
sons  slain  before  his  eyes,  was  carried 
to  Babylon.  Nebuchadnezzar  now  began 
the  siege  of  Tyre,  which  lasted  for  thirteen 
years.  (Ezek.  xxix.  18.)  In  the  thirty-third 
year  of  his  reign  he  led  his  army  against 
Egypt,  pushing  on  as  far  as  the  borders  of 
Ethiopia,  where  he  was  repelled  by  Hoph- 
ra.  Ten  years  later  he  sent  an  army 
against  Amasis,  who  was  probably  the 
successor  of  Hophra.  A  record  of  this 
campaign  is  found  in  the  cuneiform  in¬ 
scriptions.  There  are  other  inscriptions 
that  give  an  account  of  his  work  at  home 
in  restoring  and  building  temples  and  con¬ 
structing  a  magnificent  palace.  See  G. 
Rawlinson:  Five  Great  Monarchies  of  An¬ 
cient  Eastern  World  (1879).  See  Daniel. 


Neb 


(  659  ) 


Neh 


Nebuzar-a'dan,  captain  of  the  body¬ 
guard  of  Nebuchadnezzar.  (2  Kings  xxv.  8.) 
He  was  chief  in  command  at  the  siege  and 
capture  of  Jerusalem.  (2  Kings  xxv.  8-21.) 
Five  years  later,  when  Tyre  was  besieged, 
he  came  again  to  Jerusalem,  and  carried 
away  more  captives.  (Jer.  lii.  30.)  By  com¬ 
mand  of  Nebuchadnezzar  he  treated  Jere- 
jruah  with  great  consideration.  (Jer.  xxxix. 
11 ;  lx.  1.) 

Necessity,  Moral,  is  the  real  and  certain 
connection  between  moral  acts  and  their 
causes. 

Ne'cho,  king  of  Egypt,  and  successor  of 
Psammetichus  the  Great,  who  reigned  over 
Egypt  from  609  to  595  B.  c.  “  He  sent  out 
an  expedition  of  Phoenician  sailors,  who 
successfully  circumnavigated  Africa  in 
three  years.  He  also  continued  his  father’s 
work  on  the  great  canal,  but  gave  it  up 
without  completing  it,  probably  on  account 
of  his  campaign  against  Assyria.  With  a 
great  army  he  landed  in  Syria,  and  defeated 
Josiah  at  Megiddo,  608  b.  c.  ,  but  was  him¬ 
self  completely  routed  by  Nebuchadnezzar 
at  Carchemish,  605  b.  c.  ;  and  in  597  b.  c. 
the  Egyptians  were  again  completely  driven 
out  of  Asia.” — Ruetschi.  See  2  Kings  xxiii. 

sqq.\  xxiv.  7;  2  Chron.  xxxv.  20-xxxvi. 
4;  Jer.  xxii.  10;  xv.  7;  xlvi;  Josephus: 
Ant.  2,  5. 

Necromancy  (Gr.  nekros.  dead,  and  tu an¬ 
te  ia  ,  divination),  the  art  of  revealing  fu¬ 
ture  events  by  conversing  with  the  dead. 
It  originated  in  the  East,  and  amongst  the 
Greeks  it  was  said  to  have  been  the  inven¬ 
tion  of  Orpheus.  Thessaly  was  the  chief 
place  where  it  was  practiced,  and  it  was 
connected  there  with  many  horrible  rites. 
A  distinct  class  of  people  called  Psychago- 
goi,  “  evokers  of  spirits,”  made  it  their  pro¬ 
fession.  Its  practice  is  condemned  in  the 
Old  Testament,  where  we  have  a  singular 
instance  of  it  in  the  story  of  the  witch  of 
Endor.  With  the  establishment  of  Chris¬ 
tianity  by  Constantine,  necromancy  was 
strictly  forbidden.  It  is  still  practiced  by 
some  of  the  negro  tribes  in  Western  Africa. 
Traces  of  it  are  to  be  found  in  old  Scandi¬ 
navian  and  Teutonic  poems. — Benham: 
Diet,  of  Religion. 

Neff,  Felix,  b.  at  Geneva,  Oct.  8,  1798; 
d.  there,  April  12,  1S29.  In  early  life  a 
soldier  in  the  garrison  of  his  native  city, 
he  was  converted  during  a  religious  re¬ 
vival,  and  was  active  in  Christian  service 
among  his  comrades.  Leaving  the  army 
in  1819  he  came  to  London,  and  in  1823  was 
ordained  to  the  ministry,  and  soon  after 
entered  upon  his  labors  in  the  Ilautes- 


A(pes.  The  Waldenses  who  had  sought 
refuge  in  these  lonely  valleys  had  degener¬ 
ated  sadly,  both  in  faith  and  morals.  With 
heroic  courage  Neff  endured  hardships  that 
cost  him  his  life  in  this  missionary  work; 
but  he  was  eminently  successful,  and  when 
in  1827  he  returned  to  Geneva  to  die,  he 
had  the  joy  of  knowing  that  the  homes  scat¬ 
tered  among  these  secluded  valleys  were 
homes  of  faith  and  prayer. 

Nehemi'ah,  “son  of  Hachaiiah,  prob¬ 
ably  of  royal  descent,  is  first  mentioned  in 
the  Bible  as  cup-bearer  to  Artaxerxes 
Longimanus,  in  his  palace  at  Shushan, 
about  444  B.  c.  Having  learned  the  sad 
fate  of  the  returned  colonists  in  Jerusalem, 
he  prevailed  upon  the  king  to  send  him  to 
his  brethren  there,  with  full  powers  ‘  to 
seek  their  welfare.’  For  twelve  years 
(444-432)  he  was  untiringly  engaged  as 
‘governor’  in  works  for  their  safety 
from  within  and  without;  re-fortifying  the 
city  walls,  notwithstanding  the  hindrances 
and  dangers  that  beset  him  on  all  sides; 
inducing  people  from  the  country  to  take 
up  their  permanent  abode  in  the  city,  thus 
promoting  its  prosperity;  and  finally,  and 
above  all,  rekindling  the  flame  of  ancient 
piety  and  enthusiasm  for  the  observance 
of  the  law  in  the  hearts  of  the  rough  im¬ 
migrants.  He  then  returned  to  Persia, 
trusting  to  the  new  vitality  which  his  re¬ 
forms  had,  as  he  thought,  infused  into  the 
Jewish  commonwealth.  But  not  long 
afterwards — within  a  period  which  it  is  ex¬ 
tremely  difficult  now  to  fix — he  had  again 
to  obtain  leave  from  the  king,  for  the  pur¬ 
pose  of  abolishing  the  many  abuses  that 
had  crept  in  during  his  brief  absence  from 
Jerusalem.  His  energies  now  were  chiefly 
directed  against  the  foreign  elements 
mixed  up  with  the  people,  both  privately 
and  publicly.  He  enforced  the  rigorous 
observation  of  feast  and  Sabbath,  and  re¬ 
arranged  the  temple  service  in  accordance 
with  its  primeval  purity,  procuring  at  the 
same  time  the  means  for  its  proper  support , 
by  inducing  the  people  to  offer  the  tithes 
as  of  old.  His  second  stay  at  Jerusalem 
seems  to  have  lasted  between  ten  and  fif¬ 
teen  years;  but  the  dates,  as  gathered 
from  circumstantial  evidence  only,  are  ex¬ 
ceedingly  vague.  He  seems  to  have  lived 
to  an  old  age,  but  the  place  and  year  of  his 
death  are  unknown.  What  was  the  part  he 
took  in  the  formation  and  redaction  of  the 
biblical  canon  cannot  be  investigated  in 
this  place.  But  there  can  hardly  be  a 
doubt  that,  among  the  reformatory  works 
undertaken  by  him,  the  collection  and  per¬ 
haps  the  edition  of  some  of  the  books  of 
the  Old  Testament  must  be  included. 

“  The  book  known  under  his  name  (in 


Neh 


(  660  ) 


Neo 


13  chapters),  is  believed  only  partly  his 
own  work.  Recent  investigation  ascribes 
to  him  only  the  first  six  chapters,  part  of 
the  seventh,  and  the  last  chapter  and  half; 
the  rest  being  a  compilation  of  other 
hands.  Its  style  and  character  are  very 
simple,  free  from  anything  supernatural 
or  prophetic.  Its  language  resembles 
much  that  of  Chronicles  and  Ezra,  and  is 
replete  with  Aramaisms  and  other  foreign, 
partly  Persian,  words.  Originally  consid¬ 
ered  a  mere  continuation  of  the  Book  of 
Ezra,  it  was  by  the  Greeks  and  Latins  at 
first  called  ‘The  Second  Book  of  Ezra.’ 
Gradually,  however,  it  assumed  its  present 
independent  position  in  the  canon  after 
Ezra.  It  is  supposed  to  have  been  written 
or  compiled  towards  the  end  of  Nehemiah’s 
life.” — Chambers:  Cyclopedia.  See  Raw- 
linson,  in  Speaker  s  Commentary',  Crosby 
in  Lange’s  Com.  (New  York,  1873). 

Nehush'tan  ( brazen  thing),  the  contempt¬ 
uous  name  which  King  Hezekiah  gave  to 
the  brazen  serpent  (Num.  xxi.  8),  when  he 
ordered  it  to  be  destroyed,  because  the 
people  burned  incense  to  it  as  an  idol. 

(2  Kings  xviii.  4.) 

Nelson,  David,  Presbyterian  clergyman; 
b.  near  Jonesborough,  Tenn.,  Sept.  24, 
1793;  d.  at  Oakland,  Ill.,  Oct.  17,  1844. 
After  graduating  at  Washington  College, 
Va. ,  in  1810,  he  first  practised  medicine. 
Converted  from  infidel  views,  he  then  stud¬ 
ied  for  the  ministry,  and  was  licensed  to 
preach  in  1825.  In  1830  he  founded  Marion 
College,  in  Missouri,  and  for  six  years  was  1 
its  president.  His  strong  anti-slavery 
sentiments  compelled  his  resignation,  and 
in  1836  he  opened  a  school  at  Oakland  for 
the  training  of  ministe/s,  especially  for 
missionary  service.  He  is  best  known  by 
his  work,  Cause  and  Cure  of  Infidelity ,  pub¬ 
lished  in  1S36,  which  has  passed  through 
many  editions. 

Neonomians,  a  name  applied  near  the 
close  of  the  seventeenth  century  to  Daniel 
Williams  and  those  who  accepted  his 
views.  They  asserted  that  the  old  law  was 
entirely  abolished,  and  that  the  new  law 
was  embodied  in  Christianity,  which  had 
taken  its  place. 

Neophytes  ( nedphutoi ,  the  newly  planted) 

“  denoted,  in  the  primitive  Church,  such  as 
had  been  recently  baptized;  see  1  Tim.  iii. 

6,  where  it  is  rendered  ‘  novice.’  The 
term  was  retained  by  the  Fathers,  though 
with  various  modifications.  According  to 
.  I  post.  Canon,  50,  a  neophyte  could  hold  no 
office  in  the  Church,  except  under  peculiar 
circumstances.  Neophytes  of  the  Roman 


Catholic  Church — that  is  non-Christians, 
or  Christians  of  other  denominations,  enter¬ 
ing  the  Church  of  Rome — receive  many 
privileges  from  the  pope.” — Schaff-Her- 

zog:  Ency. 

Neo-Platonism,  a  system  of  philosophy, 
which  became  prominent  in  Alexandria 
about  the  end  of  the  second  century.  Am- 
monius  Saccas  (i.  e.,  the  sack-bearer),  so 
called  from  his  having  been  in  former  years 
a  carrier,  was  at  that  time  the  chief  teacher 
of  this  school.  But  long  before  this,  Philo 
Judaeus,  a  contemporary  of  Christ,  had  pre¬ 
pared  the  way,  and  by  some  is  regarded  as 
the  first  of  the  Neo-Platonists.  The  chief 
aim  of  this  school  was  to  popularize  and  re¬ 
vive  the  doctrines  of  Plato,  by  showing  that 
all  that  was  true  in  current  systems  of  phi¬ 
losophy  was  in  harmony  with  Platonism. 
At  Alexandria  every  system  of  philosophy 
and  every  religious  sect  had  its  represent¬ 
atives;  Ammonius  Saccas  taught  that  all 
these  were  derived  from  one  original  and 
perfect  standard  of  philosophy,  which 
had  been  delivered  to  the  Egyptians  by 
Hermes,  and  had  been  preserved  in  its 
purity  by  Plato.  The  amalgamation  of 
the  mysticism  of  Egypt  with  the  specula¬ 
tions  of  Plato,  formed  the  basis  of  Neo-Pla¬ 
tonism;  and  with  it  were  blended  many  of 
the  doctrines  of  Aristotle,  and  of  the  exist¬ 
ing  philosophies.  Ammonius,  who  had  been 
brought  up  as  a  Christian,  held  that  Christ 
was  a  great  and  wise  teacher;  but  that 
his  followers  were  misled,  and  had  cor¬ 
rupted  his  teaching  by  spurious  additions, 
such  as  the  Divinity  of  Christ,  and  other 
doctrines. 

Christ,  he  said,  would  be  favorable  to 
Neo- Platonism,  for  he  came  to  check  error, 
but  not  to  abolish  the  true  standard  of 
philosophy.  Hence,  Neo-Platonism,  as 
taught  by  Ammonius, was  hostile  to,  and  be¬ 
came  the  powerful  rival  of,  Christianity. 
Other  prominent  teachers  in  this  school 
were  Numenius,  a  Jew,  Longinus  and 
Plotinus,  and  a  powerful  patron  was  found 
in  Julian  the  Apostate.  Plotinus  consoli¬ 
dated  Neo-Platonism,  and  reduced  it  to  a 
definite  system.  The  Supreme  Being,  ac¬ 
cording  to  this  school,  was  a  mystical  Trin¬ 
ity,  consisting  of  unity,  or  Primitive  Light, 
the  source  of  all  things;  intelligence,  and 
soul,  from  which  emanated  all  the  souls  of 
men  and  animals.  The  souls  of  men  were 
considered  to  be  kept  in  their  bodies  as  in 
a  prison,  and  hence  self-denial  and  asceti¬ 
cism  were  enjoined  as  a  means  towards  the 
release  of  the  soul,  and  its  rise  above 
earthly  things.  The  most  distinguished 
pupil  of  Plotinus  was  Porphyry;  in  his 
time  Neo-Platonism  became  strongly  hos¬ 
tile  to  Christianity.  Their  last  great 


Ner 


(  6bi  ) 


Nes 


teacher  was  Proclus,  a  man  of  great  learn¬ 
ing,  who  lived  about  450.  In  519  the  Em¬ 
peror  Justinian  arbitrarily  closed  their 
school  at  Alexandria,  and  dispersed  their 
followers,  and  by  about  the  middle  of  the 
century  they  had  disappeared  altogether. 
But  their  system  has  greatly  influenced 
Christianity  in  all  ages.  Origen  was  a 
pupil  of  Ammonius  Saccas.  Clement  of 
Alexandria,  and  other  divines,  may  be 
styled  Christian  Neo-Platonists,  in  that 
they,  like  Ammonius,  sought  to  find  out 
what  was  true  in  Platonism  and  in  every 
philosophy;  and  then  to  show  that  it  was 
in  harmony  with  the  Christian  faith. 
Truth,  it  was  recognized,  was  not  confined 
to  any  one  sect  or  system.  Thus  Clement, 
in  his  Strom,  i.  7,  writes:  “  By  philosophy, 
I  mean  not  Stoic,  Platonic,  Epicurean,  or 
Peripatetic  theories,  but  all  sound  teach¬ 
ing  of  the  collective  schools,  all  precepts 
of  virtue  that  have  connection  with  relig¬ 
ious  knowledge.”  At  the  Reformation 
Neo-Platonism  flourished  for  a  time,  espe¬ 
cially  in  Florence. — Benham:  Diet,  of  Re¬ 
ligion. 

Ner'gal,  an  Assyrian  deity.  In  the  Baby¬ 
lonian  star-worship,  the  planet  Mars  is 
assigned  to  Nergal.  A  human-headed  lion 
with  eagle’s  wings  was  his  symbol.  His 
name,  with  various  titles,  has  been  found 
upon-the  monuments. 

Ner  gal-Share'zer  {prince  of  fire),  the 
name  of  two  Babylonian  noblemen  who 
accompanied  Nebuchadnezzar  at  the  cap¬ 
ture  of  Jerusalem.  (Jer.  xxxix.  3,  13.)  One 
has  the  title  Rabmag,  and  on  Babylonian 
bricks  he  is  called  Nergal-shar-uzar ,  Ru- 
bucemga,  the  same  as  Neriglissar,  who 
married  the  daughter  of  Nebuchadnezzar, 
and  succeeded  him  on  the  throne.  His 
palace  has  been  discovered  on  the  right 
bank  of  the  Euphrates. 

Neri  (nd’ree),  Philip  (Filippo  de), 
founder  of  the  Congregation  of  the  Ora¬ 
tory,  and  a  saint  of  the  Roman  Catholic 
Church;  b.  at  Florence,  July  22,  1515;  d. 
at  Rome,  May  25,  1595.  He  was  ordained 
priest  in  the  Lateran  Church,  Rome,  in 
1551,  and  the  society  which  he  founded 
grew  out  of  evening  gatherings  which  he 
held  in  a  hall — the  Oratory  for  prayer, 
song,  and  readings  from  the  Bible,  the 
Fathers,  etc.  Special  attention  was  given 
to  the  music,  and  the  pieces  chosen  were 
called  “  oratorios.”  The  members  of  the 
Congregation  of  the  Oratory ,  which  was  rec¬ 
ognized  by  papal  decree  in  1575,  are  not 
monks,  and  do  not  renounce  their  private 
fortune,  nor  take  vows.  In  1S47  Cardinal 
Newman  founded  a  Congregation  of  the 


Oratory  at  Birmingham,  Eng.,  and  in  1849 
F.  W.  Faber  organized  a  Congregation  in 
London,  of  which  he  was  superior.  Neri 
is  described  as  a  man  of  singular  piety  and 
cheerful  disposition.  He  was  canonized 
in  1622. 

Nero,  Roman  Emperor,  54-68.  The  per¬ 
secution  of  the  Christians  under  this  cruel 
and  despotic  ruler  took  place  A.  u.  64.  In 
July  of  that  year  a  fire  broke  out  on  the 
southern  side  of  the  Palatine  Hill,  which 
lasted  for  three  or  more  days,  and  destroy¬ 
ed  ten  out  of  the  fourteen  wards  of  the 
city.  It  has  been  the  common  belief  that 
the  fire  was  kindled  by  the  orders  of  Nero, 
with  the  purpose  of  rebuilding  the  city 
with  special  reference  to  his  own  fame, 
and  in  the  excitement  caused  by  the  great 
disaster  he  sought  to  allay  suspicion  by 
charging  the  Christians  with  the  deed. 
The  persecution  that  followed  was  terrible 
in  the  extreme. 

Nestorians,  followers  of  Nestorius,  who 
was  bishop  of  Constantinople  from  428  to 
431.  Formerly  a  monk  of  Antioch,  who 
had  gained  some  reputation  as  a  scholar 
and  orator,  he  was  nominated  to  the  see  of 
Constantinople  by  the  Emperor  Theodo¬ 
sius,  and  readily  elected  by  the  clergy 
and  people,  to  put  an  end  to  the  distrac¬ 
tions  caused  by  the  claims  of  the  two  rival 
Constantinopolitan  candidates,  Proclus  and 
Philip  of  Lide.  He  began  his  episcopal 
career  by  showing  himself  extremely  zeal¬ 
ous  for  the  extirpation  of  heresy.  After 
denouncing  heretics  in  no  moderate  terms 
in  a  sermon  preached  on  the  day  of  his  in¬ 
stallation,  he  proceeded  to  active  persecu¬ 
tion  of  the  Arians  and  other  sects,  atod 
prevailed  on  the  emperor  to  publish  a 
severe  edict  against  them.  But  it  was  not 
long  before  Nestorius  himself  was  accused 
of  heretical  views  concerning  the  nature 
of  our  Lord.  Many  eminent  divines,  espe¬ 
cially  those  of  the  school  of  Alexandria, 
in  their  zeal  against  Arianism,  had  been 
led  to  insist  so  strongly  upon  the  divine 
nature  of  the  Saviour  as  almost  to  exclude 
the  idea  of  his  human  nature  ,and  to  assert  of 
him  as  God  that  which  could  strictly  only 
be  said  of  him  as  man.  For  example,  God 
was  said  to  have  been  born;  to  have  suf¬ 
fered  and  died.  This  tendency  was  strong¬ 
ly  condemned  in  a  sermon  preached  at 
Constantinople  by  Anastasius,  a  presbyter, 
whom  Nestorius  had  brought  with  him 
from  Antioch.  Anastasius  particularly 
attacked  the  use  of  the  term  Theotokos 
(Bearer  or  the  Mother  of  God),  which  had 
been  applied  to  the  Virgin  Mary  by  Atha¬ 
nasius  and  others,  and  was  then  in  general 
use.  Nestorius  supported  these  views  of 


Nes 


(  662  ) 


Nes 


Anastasius  in  numerous  sermons,  in 
which,  among  other  things,  he  maintained 
that  it  was  not  allowable  to  affirm  that  God 
was  born,  or  that  man  may  be  worshiped, 
and  proposed  to  replace  the  word  Theot¬ 
okos  (which,  however,  he  admitted  in  a  cer¬ 
tain  sense)  by  Christotokos ,  i.  e. ,  Mother 
of  Christ;  urging  that  since  both  natures 
were  united  in  Christ,  this  term  would  ex¬ 
press  all  the  meaning  that  the  older  term 
was  meant  to  convey.  These  sermons 
caused  a  great  commotion  in  Constantino¬ 
ple.  Proclus  and  others  vehemently  op¬ 
posed  Nestorius;  some  even  going  so  far 
as  to  threaten  to  throw  him  into  the  sea. 
The  bishop,  for  his  part,  retaliated  by 
deposing,  banishing,  or  whipping  such  of 
his  opponents  as  were  under  his  authority. 
The  controversy  spread,  and  soon  reached 
Egypt,  where  a  number  of  monks  adopted 
Nestorian  views.  Cyril  of  Alexandria, 
becoming  aware  of  the  dispute,  entered 
the  lists  as  the  opponent  of  Nestorius, 
and  the  controversy  between  the  two 
bishops,  inflamed  by  the  standing  rivalry 
of  their  sees,  assumed  very  much  the 
complexion  of  a  personal  quarrel.  Cyril 
enlisted  the  aid  of  Celestine,  bishop  of 
Rome,  and  addressed  several  letters  to 
Nestorius,  the  most  important  of  which 
contained  twelve  anathemas,  to  which  the 
bishop  of  Constantinople  was  called  upon 
to  subscribe.  Nestorius  answered  by  send¬ 
ing  back  twelve  counter  anathemas.  At 
length  a  General  Council  was  called  at 
Ephesus  by  the  Emperor  Theodosius  to 
settle  the  vexed  questions,  A.  D.  431.  John 
of  Antioch  and  other  Eastern  bishops  were 
unable  to  reach  Ephesus  at  the  time  ap¬ 
pointed,  owing  to  the  bad  state  of  the 
roads.  Nevertheless,  the  Anti-Nestorians 
determined  to  open  the  council,  and  a 
session  was  held  under  the  presidency  of 
Cyril.  Nestorius  was  three  times  cited  to 
appear;  but,  with  his  suffragans,  he  re¬ 
fused  to  obey,  in  the  absence  of  the  Ori¬ 
entals.  After  the  third  citation  the  ques¬ 
tion  was  discussed  in  his  absence,  and 
Nestorius  condemned  and  deposed,  “  in 
the  name  of  our  Lord  Jesus  Christ,  whom 
he  hath  blasphemed.”  The  emperor  at 
first  refused  to  ratify  this  sentence,  but 
extensive  bribery  brought  his  court  over 
to  the  side  of  Cyril,  and  he  was  at  last  pre¬ 
vailed  upon  to  confirm  the  deposition,  and 
consent  to  the  consecration  of  Maximian, 
a  monk,  to  the  bishopric  of  Constantino¬ 
ple.  Nestorius  was  banished  to  his  mon¬ 
astery  at  Antioch,  where  he  remained  till 
434.  Maximian  dying  in  that  year,  the 
Nestorian  party  urged  the  restoration  of 
their  leader,  and  the  disturbance  thus 
caused  became  so  serious  that  he  was  sen¬ 
tenced  to  be  banished  for  life  to  the  Great 


j  Oasis.  Here  he  was  taken  captive  by  a 
wild  people  called  the  Blemmyae,  who  dev¬ 
astated  the  Oasis.  On  being  released  by 
these  captors,  he  gave  himself  up  to  an 
officer  of  the  emperor  in  Egypt,  under 
whose  treatment  he  died,  about  a.  d.  440. 

The  followers  of  Nestorius,  being  driven 
from  the  empire,  wandered  eastward,  and 
settled  in  Persia,  Ceylon,  and  on  the  Mala¬ 
bar,  and  other  parts  of  the  coast  of  India. 
In  the  sixth  century  Nestorianism  became 
the  established  religion  of  Persia,  and  all 
other  forms  of  Christianity  were  forbidden. 
The  absence  of  continuous  written  history 
prevents  us  from  knowing  accurately  the 
course  of  the  Nestorian  Church.  That 
they  existed  in  China,  in  the  8th  century, 
is  proved  by  the  fact  that  the  Jesuits,  in  the 
17th  century,  found  there  a  monument  set 
up  by  them  in  781.  In  125S  twenty-five 
Metropolitans  acknowledged  the  authority 
of  the  Nestorian  patriarch  of  Bagdad.  In 
the  primacy  of  Archbishop  Tait,~of  the 
Church  of  England,  repeated  applications 
having  been  made  by  the  Nestorian  Chris¬ 
tians  for  instruction  and  help  under  isola¬ 
tion  and  oppression,  Dr.  Cutts  was  sent 
out  to  report  on  their  condition.  They 
have  had,  at  least,  the  courage  of  their 
faith,  however  ignorant  they  may  have 
been.  Education  has  been  more  than  once 
offered  them  by  other  Churches  which  had 
a  purpose  behind — namely,  to  proselytize 
them  to  their  own  views — a  somewhat  un¬ 
generous  method,  and  one  which  they 
greatly  resent.  The  wisest  suggestion 
which  appears  to  have  been  made  with  re¬ 
spect  to  them  is,  that  means  should  be  af¬ 
forded  of  procuring  their  union  with  the 
Eastern  Church,  as  represented  by  the  or¬ 
thodox  patriarchs.  If  Eastern  Christians 
could  be  brought  to  understand  one  an¬ 
other  better,  and  to  see  that  their  separa¬ 
tion  is  largely  owing  to  misrepresentations 
and  misunderstandings,  a  great  benefit 
would  accrue  to  Christianity.  It  would 
present  an  unbroken  front  to  the  reviving 
fanaticism  of  Islam,  which  threatens  even 
yet  to  disturb  very  seriously  the  course  of 
civilization. — Benham:  Diet,  of  Religion. 
The  first  American  mission  among  the 
Nestorians  was  founded  by  Rev.  Justin 
Perkins  (</.  v. ),  who  sailed  from  Boston. 
Sept.  21,  1833.  The  name  of  Dr.  Asahel 
Grant  (t/.  v.)  is  also  connected  with  the 
early  development  of  this  mission.  The 
work  among  the  Nestorians  was  in  charge 
of  the  American  Board  until  1870,  when 
it  Avas  transferred  to  the  care  of  the  Pres¬ 
byterian  Church.  The  headquarters  of 
the  mission  is  at  Oroomiah,  where  an  im¬ 
portant  school  is  doing  a  noble  work  among 
a  number  of  self-supporting  churches. 
The  New  Testament  was  printed  in  the 


Net 


(  663  ) 


New 


modern  Syriac  in  1846,  and  the  entire  Bible 
in  1852. 

Neth'inim.  See  Levites. 

Nettleton,  Asahel,  an  American  Cal- 
vinistic  revivalist  preacher;  b.  at  Killing- 
worth,  Conn..  April  21,  1783;  d.  at  East 
Windsor,  Conn.,  May  16,  1844.  He  was 
graduated  at  Yale  College  in  1809,  and  was 
licensed  to  preach  in  1811.  From  1811  to 
1822  he  engaged  in  active  evangelistic 
work  in  Connecticut,  Massachusetts  and 
New  York.  In  1822  he  was  prostrated  by 
an  attack  of  typhus  fever,  which  left  him, 
ever  after,  a  partial  invalid.  In  1830-31  he 
held  meetings  in  New  York  City,  and  in 
1831  visited  Europe.  As  a  preacher  his 
ministrations  were  attended  with  great  suc¬ 
cess.  Extremely  conservative  in  his  views, 
he  opposed  in  many  respects  the  methods 
of  Mr.  Finney  and  others.  He  published 
Village  Hymns  (1824),  which  had  a  large 
circulation.  See  Memoir  of  Rev.  A.  Nettle- 
ton ,  D.  D.,  by  Bennet  Tyler  (Hartford, 
1844). 

Nevins,  William,  D.  D.,  a  distinguished 
Presbyterian  clergyman;  b.  in  Norwich, 
Conn.,  Oct.  13,  1797;  d.  in  Baltimore, 
Sept.  14,  1835.  He  was  graduated  at  Yale 
College  in  1816,  and  after  studying  at 
Princeton  Seminary  was  installed  as  pas¬ 
tor  of  the  First  Presbyterian  Church,  Bal¬ 
timore.  His  ministry  here  was  eminently 
successful.  He  wrote  a  series  of  articles 
in  the  New  York  Observer ,  that  were  pub¬ 
lished  under  the  title,  Thoughts  on  l^opery 
(N.  Y. ,  1836).  See  Select  Remains  of  W. 
Nevins ,  D.  D . ,  with  a  Memoir  (N.  Y.  1836). 

New  Birth.  See  Regeneration. 

Newell,  Harriet,  b.  at  Haverhill,  Mass., 
Oct.  10,  1793;  d.  on  the  Isle  of  France, 
Nov.  30,  1812.  She  was  married  to  the 
Rev.  Samuel  Newell  in  1812,  and  the  same 
year  sailed  for  Calcutta.  They  were  not 
allowed  to  land  here,  and  went  to  the  Isle 
of  France.  Her  early  death,  with  the 
story  of  her  devotion  to  Christ,  did  much 
to  quicken  sympathy  in  the  cause  of  mis¬ 
sions.  Her  Memoirs ,  by  her  husband,  and 
a  Life  with  her  Letters,  and  a  Memorial 
Sermon,  by  Dr.  Woods,  had  a  large  circu¬ 
lation. 

Newell,  Samuel,  one  of  the  first  in  Amer¬ 
ica  to  engage  in  the  work  of  foreign  mis¬ 
sions;  b.  at  Durham,  Me.,  July  24,  17S4; 
d.  in  Bombay,  India,  March  30,  1S21.  He 
was  graduated  at  Harvard  in  1807,  and  at 
Andover  Seminary  in  1809.  Me  was  one  of 
the  four  young  men  whose  petition  for  aid 


to  enter  upon  missionary  service  hastened 
the  organization  of  the  American  Board. 
He  was  ordained,  Feb.  6,  1812,  at  Salem, 
with  Judson,  Nott,  Rice  and  Gordon  Hall. 
With  Judson  he  first  went  to  Calcutta, 
but  not  being  allowed  to  remain  there 
he  sailed  for  the  Isle  of  France;  from 
there  joined  Hall  and  Nott  at  Bombay  in 
1814.  He  published,  with  Hall,  The  Con¬ 
version  of  the  World;  or.  The  Claims  of  Six 
Hundred  Millions;  and  a  Memoir  of  Harriet 
Newell. 

New  England  Theology  is  the  name  giv¬ 
en  to  theological  tenets  that  have  been 
widely  accepted  and  have  had  a  marked  in¬ 
fluence,  especially  in  shaping  the  present 
theological  views  held  by  Presbyterians 
and  Congregationalists  in  the  United 
States.  The  name  is  derived  from  the  fact 
that  the  men  who  promulgated  these  tenets 
were  New  Englanders.  “  The  starting- 
point  in  this  new  development  of  the  Re¬ 
formed  faith  is  with  Jonathan  Edwards 
(q.  v.),  who  fortified  the  Calvinistic  theol¬ 
ogy  against  Arminian  objections,  in  his 
works  on  the  Will  and  on  Original  Sin. 
The  central  idea  of  his  system  is  that  of 
spiritual  life  (holy  love)  as  the  gift  of  di¬ 
vine  grace.  Samuel  Hopkins  gave  to  Ed¬ 
wards’s  theory  of  virtue  (love  to  being),  the 
form  of  disinterested  benevolence;  held 
that  sin  (overruled)  was  an  advantage  to 
the  universe;  and  equally  enforced  the  di¬ 
vine  sovereignty  and  the  obligation  of  im¬ 
mediate  repentance.  (See  Horkinsianism). 
The  younger  Edwards  modified  the  theory 
of  the  atonement.  Nathaniel  Emmons 
(q.  v.)  pressed  the  doctrine  of  divine  ef¬ 
ficiency,  and  the  necessity  of  unconditional 
submission,  to  their  sharpest  statement, 
and  matured  the  Exercise  Scheme,  i.  e. , 
that  no  moral  quality  belongs  to  the  soul 
apart  from  its  exercises — denying  all  orig¬ 
inal  sin,  and  making  justification  to  consist 
in  pardon.  Other  Hopkinsians,  Asa  Bur¬ 
ton,  Leonard  Woods,  advocated  the  Taste 
Scheme,  i.  e.,  that  the  essence  of  virtue  or 
vice  is  not  in  exercises,  but  in  the  antece¬ 
dent  taste  or  disposition.  The  Connecti¬ 
cut  theologians  (Smalley ,  Dwight,  Strong), 
and  other  New  England  divines,  preferred 
a  less  extreme  statement  of  the  main  points 
of  the  Calvinistic  system.  The  New  Ha¬ 
ven  theology  (see  Taylor,  N.  W.)  planted 
itself  in  direct  opposition  to  the  old  Hop- 
kinsian  theories  on  three  points,  viz.,  di¬ 
vine  efficiency,  sin  as  the  necessary  means 
of  the  greatest  good,  and  the  nature  of 
virtue,  while  agreeing  with  Emmons  in  the 
position  that  all  that  is  moral  is  in  exer¬ 
cises  (interpreted  as  acts  of  the  will).”— 
Hagenbach:  Hist,  of  Doctrine,  vol.  ii.,  pp. 
435~3^*  See  art.  by  Edwards  A.  Park  in 


New 


(  664  ) 


New 


Schaff- Herzog:  Ency.,\ ol.  ii. ,  pp.  1634-38; 
works  of  Edwards,  Bellamy,  Hopkins, 
Smalley,  President  Dwight,  especially  his 
Theology  Explained  and  Defended  in  a  Se¬ 
ries  of  Sermons ,  4  vols. ;  works  of  Woods, 
N.  VV.  Taylor,  Bennet  Tyler  ( Lectures  on 
7'heology)\  Albert  Barnes  on  the  Atonement; 
G.  P.  Fisher:  Discussions  in  History  and 
Theology. 

New  Haven  Divinity.  See  Taylor, 
N.  W. 

New  Jerusalem  Church,  a  society  that 
was  founded  by  the  followers  of  Sweden¬ 
borg  (1/.  v.),  and  so  called  because  they 
hold  that  their  Church  is  the  “  New  Jeru¬ 
salem  ”  spoken  of  in  the  Apocalypse. 

In  December,  1783,  five  persons  met  to¬ 
gether  in  London  in  answer  to  an  adver¬ 
tisement  for  admirers  of  Swedenborg’s 
writings,  and  these  continued  to  meet  at 
intervals,  and  by  April,  1787,  they  had  in¬ 
creased  their  number  to  thirty,  and  resolved 
to  form  a  society.  Amongst  the  first  dis¬ 
ciples  were  two  clergymen  of  the  Church 
of  England,  Thomas  Hartley  and  John 
*  Clowes,  also  two  Wesleyan  preachers.  The 
following  is  a  copy  of  the  Articles  of  Faith 
held  by  the  New  Church,  not  indeed  writ¬ 
ten  by  Swedenborg,  but  drawn  up  at  the 

Annual  Conference  of  Ministers  and  Lav- 

* 

men. 

The  Articles  of  Faith  of  the  New  Church, 
signified  by  the  New  Jerusalem  in  the 
Revelation,  are  these: 

“  1.  That  Jehovah  God,  the  Creator,  and  Preserver 
of  heaven  and  earth,  is  Love  Itself,  and  Wisdom  Itself, 
or  Good  Itself,  and  Truth  Itself ;  that  he  is  one  both  in 
Fssence  and  in  Person,  in  whom,  nevertheless,  is  the 
Divine  'trinity  of  Father,  Son,  and  Holy  Spirit,  which 
are  the  essential  Divinity,  the  Divine  Humanity,  and 
the  Divine  Proceeding,  answering  to  the  soul,  the  body, 
and  the  operative  energy  in  man.  And  that  the  Lord 
and  Saviour  Jesus  Christ  is  that  God. 

“  2.  That  Jehovah  God  himself  descended  from 
heaven  as  Divine  Truth,  which  is  the  Word,  and  took 
upon  him  Human  nature  for  the  purpose  of  removing 
from  man  the  powers  of  hell,  and  restoring  to  order  all 
things  in  the  Spiritual  world,  and  all  things  in  the 
Church.  That  he  removed  from  man  the  powers  of  hell, 
by  combats  against  and  victories  over  them,  in  which 
consisted  the  great  work  of  Redemption.  That  by  the 
same  acts,  which  were  his  temptations,  the  last  of  which 
was  the  Passion  of  the  Cross,  he  united,  in  his  Human¬ 
ity,  Divine  truth  to  Divine  good,  or  Divine  wisdom  to 
Divine  love,  and  so  returned  into  his  Divinity  in  which 
he  was  front  eternity,  together  with  and  in  his  Glorified 
Humanity  ;  whence  he  for  ever  keeps  the  infernal  pow¬ 
ers  in  subjection  to  himself.  And  that  all  who  believe 
in  him  with  the  understanding  from  the  heart,  and  live 
accordingly,  will  be  saved. 

“  3.  That  the  sacred  Scripture,  or  Word  of  God,  is 
Divine  Truth  Itself  containing  a  Spiritual  sense  hereto¬ 
fore  unknown,  whence  it  is  Divinely  inspired  and  holy 
in  every  syllable,  as  well  as  a  literal  sense,  which  is  the 
basis  of  its  spiritual  sense,  and  in  which  Divine  Truth 
is  in  its  fulness,  its  sanctity,  and  its  power.  Thus,  that 
it  is  accommodated  to  the  apprehension  both  of  angels 
and  men.  That  the  spiritual  and  natural  senses  are 
united  by  correspondences,  like  soul  and  body,  every 
natural  expression  and  image  answering  to,  and  includ¬ 


ing,  a  spiritual  and  Divine  idea.  And  thus,  that  the 
Word  is  the  medium  of  communication  with  heaven, 
and  of  conjunction  with  the  Lord. 

“4.  That  the  government  of  the  Lord’s  Divine  Love 
and  Wisdom  is  the  Divine  Providence;  which  is  univer¬ 
sal,  exercised  according  to  certain  fixed  laws  of  order, 
and  extending  to  the  minutest  particulars  of  the  life  of 
all  men,  both  of  the  good  and  of  the  evil.  That  in  all 
its  operations  it  has  respect  to  what  is  infinite  and  eter¬ 
nal,  and  makes  no  account  of  things  transitory  but  as 
they  are  subservient  to  eternal  ends;  thus,  that  it  main¬ 
ly  consists,  with  man,  in  the  connection  of  things  tem¬ 
poral  with  things  eternal ;  for  that  the  continual  aim  of 
the  Lord,  by  his  Divine  Providence,  is  to  join  man  to 
himself,  and  himself  to  man,  that  he  may  be  able  to 
give  him  the  felicities  of  eternal  life.  And  that  the  laws 
of  permission  are  also  the  laws  of  the  Divine  Provi¬ 
dence  ;  since  evil  cannot  be  prevented  without  destroy¬ 
ing  the  nature  of  man  as  an  accountable  agent ;  and 
because,  also,  it  cannot  be  removed  unless  it  be  known, 
and  cannot  be  known  unless  it  appear.  Thus,  that  no 
evil  is  permitted  but  to  prevent  a  greater  ;  and  all  is 
overruled  by  the  Lord’s  Divine  Providence  for  the 
greatest  possible  good. 

“  5.  That  man  is  not  life,  but  only  a  recipient  of  life 
from  the  Lord,  who,  as  he  is  Love  Itself,  and  Wisdom 
Itself,  is  also  Life  Itself;  which  life  is  communicated 
by  influx  to  all  in  the  spiritual  world,  whether  belong¬ 
ing  to  heaven  or  to  hell,  and  to  all  in  the  natural  world  ; 
but  is  received  differently  by  every  one,  according  to 
his  quality  and  consequent  state  of  reception. 

“6.  That  man,  during  his  abode  in  the  world,  is,  as 
to  his  spirit,  in  the  midst  between  heaven  and  hell,  act¬ 
ed  upon  by  influences  from  both,  and  thus  is  kept  in  a 
state  of  spiritual  equilibrium  between  good  and  evil ;  in 
consequence  of  which  he  enjoys  freewill,  or  freedom 
of  choice,  in  spiritual  things  as  well  as  in  natural,  and 
possesses  the  capacity  of  either  turning  himself  to  the 
Lord  and  his  kingdom,  or  turning  himself  away  from 
the  Lord,  and  connecting  himself  with  the  kingdom  of 
darkness.  And  that,  unless  man  had  such  freedom  of 
choice,  the  Word  would  be  of  no  use,  the  Church  would 
be  of  no  use  ;  the  Church  would  be  a  mere  name,  man 
would  possess  nothing  by  virtue  of  which  he  could  be 
conjoined  to  the  Lord,  and  the  cause  of  evil  would  be 
chargeable  on  God  himself. 

‘  ‘  7.  That  man  at  ttlis  day  is  born  into  evil  of  all  kinds, 
or  with  tendencies  toward  it.  That,  therefore,  in  order 
to  his  entering  the  kingdom  of  heaven,  he  must  be  regen¬ 
erated  or  created  anew ;  which  great  work  is  effected 
in  a  progressive  manner,  by  the  Lord  alone,  by  charity 
and  faith  as  mediums  during  man’s  cooperation.  That 
as  all  men  are  redeemed,  all  men  are  capable  of  being 
regenerated,  and  consequently  saved,  every  one  ac¬ 
cording  to  his  state.  And  that  the  regenerated  man  is 
in  communion  with  the  angels  ofheaven,  and  the  unre¬ 
generate  with  the  spirits  of  hell.  But  that  no  one  is 
condemned  for  hereditary  evil,  any  further  than  as  he 
makes  it  his  own  by  actual  life ;  whence  all  who  die  in 
infancy  are  saved,  special  means  being  provided  by  the 
Lord  in  the  other  life  for  that  purpose. 

“8.  That  repentance  is  the  first  beginning  of  the 
Church  in  man  ;  and  that  it  consists  in  a  man’s  examin¬ 
ing  himself,  both  in  regard  to  his  deeds  and  his  inten¬ 
tions,  in  knowing  and  acknowledging  his  sins,  confessing 
them  before  the  Lord,  supplicating  him  for  aid,  and  be¬ 
ginning  a  new  life.  That  to  this  end,  all  evils,  whether 
of  affection,  of  thought,  or  of  life,  are  to  be  abhorred 
and  shunned  as  sins  against  God,  and  because  they 
proceed  from  infernal  spirits,  who  in  the  aggregate  are 
called  the  Devil  and  Satan  ;  and  that  good  affections, 
good  thoughts,  and  good  actions  are  to  be  cherished 
and  performed  because  they  are  of  God  and  from  God. 
That  these  things  are  to  be  done  by  man  as  of  himself; 
nevertheless,  under  the  acknowledgment  and  belief 
that  it  is  from  the  Lord,  operating  in  him  and  by  him. 
That  so  far  as  man  shuns  evils  as  sins,  so  far  they  are 
removed,  remitted,  or  forgiven  ;  so  far  also  he  does 
good,  not  from  himself,  but  from  the  Lord  ;  and  in  the 
same  degree  he  loves  truth,  has  faith,  and  is  a  spiritual 
man.  And  that  the  Decalogue  teaches  what  evils  are 
sins. 

“  q.  That  Charity.  Faith,  and  Good  Works  are  unit- 


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ediy  necessary  to  man’s  salvation;  since  charity  with¬ 
out  faith  is  not  spiritual  but  natural;  and  faith  without 
charity  is  not  living  but  dead;  and  both  charity  and 
faith,  without  good  works,  are  merely  mental  and  per¬ 
ishable  things,  because  without  use  or  fixedness.  And 
that  nothing  of  faith,  of  charity,  or  of  good  works  is  of 
man,  but  that  all  is  of  the  Lord,  and  all  the  merit  is  his 
alone. 

“  io.  That  Baptism  and  the  Holy  Supper  are  sacra¬ 
ments  of  Divine  institution,  and  are  to  be  permanently 
observed;  Baptism  being  an  external  medium  of  intro¬ 
duction  into  the  Church,  and  a  sign  representative  of 
man’s  purification  and  regeneration;  and  the  Holy  Sup¬ 
per  being  an  external  medium,  to  those  who  receive  it 
worthily,  of  introduction,  as  to  spirit,  into  heaven,  and 
of  conjunction  with  the  Lord,  of  which  also  it  is  a  sign 
and  seal. 

“  1 1.  That  immediately  after  death,  which  is  only  a 
putting  off  of  the  material  body,  never  to  be  resumed, 
man  rises  again  in  a  spiritual  or  substantial  body,  in 
which  he  continues  to  live  to  eternity;  in  heaven,  if  his 
ruling  affections,  and  thence  his  life,  have  been  good; 
and  in  hell,  ifhis  ruling  affections,  and  thence  his  life, 
have  been  evil. 

“  12.  That  now  is  the  time  of  the  Second  Advent  of 
the  Lord,  which  is  a  coming,  not  in  Person,  but  in  the 
power  and  glory  of  his  Holy  Word.  That  it  is  attend¬ 
ed,  like  his  first  coming,  with  the  restoration  to  order  of 
all  things  in  the  spiritual  world,  where  the  wonderful 
Divine  operation,  commonly  expected  under  the  name 
of  the  Last  Judgment,  has  in  consequence  been  per¬ 
formed;  and  with  the  preparing  of  the  way  for  a  New 
Church  on  the  earth,  the  first  Christian  Church  having 
spiritually  come  to  its  end  of  consummation,  through 
evils  of  life  and  errors  of  doctrine,  as  foretold  by  the 
Lord  in  the  Gospels.  And  that  this  New  or  Second 
Christian  Church,  which  will  be  the  Crown  of  all 
Churches,  and  will  stand  for  ever,  is  what  was  represent¬ 
atively  seen  by  John,  when  he  beheld  the  holy  city, 
New  Jerusalem,  descending  from  God  out  of  heaven, 
prepared  as  a  bride  adorned  for  her  husband.” 

The  general  affairs  of  the  New  Church 
are  administered  by  a  conference  of  minis¬ 
ters  and  laymen.  Itfc  principal  societies 
for  spreading  its  doctrines  are  the  “  Swe¬ 
denborg  Printing  Society,”  established  in 
iSio,  and  the  Missionary  and  Tract  Society, 
established  in  1S21.  Its  disciples  are  found 
now  in  all  parts  of  Christendom;  its  first 
minister  in  America  was  ordained  in  1798, 
since  which  time  it  has  made  great  prog¬ 
ress. 

At  the  present  time  there  are  in  England 
about  seventy  -  five  societies,  twelve  of 
which  are  in  London  or  its  neighborhood; 
they  are  governed  by  a  Conference,  which 
meets  annually,  and  is  composed  of  minis¬ 
ters  and  representatives  of  the  societies. 
In  America,  where  there  is  a  still  greater 
number  of  societies,  they  have  a  general 
convention  composed  of  eleven  associations 
and  six  societies.  They  have  also  societies 
in  Germany,  Austria,  France,  Switzerland, 
Italy,  Norway  and  Sweden,  Australia,  and 
Africa. — Benham;  Diet,  of  Religion.  See 
works  of  Swedenborg,  and  biographies  of 
him  by  White,  Wilkinson,  Hobart,  and 
Worcester. 

Newman,  John  Henry,  Cardinal  of  the 
Roman  Catholic  Church;  b.  in  London, 
Feb.  21,  1801;  d.  at  Birmingham,  Aug.  ir, 
1890.  Educated  at  Trinity  College,  Ox¬ 


ford,  he  was  graduated  with  honors  in 
1822,  and  two  years  later  became  fellow  of 
Oriel  College,  and  in  1826  vice-principal 
of  St.  Alban’s  Hall,  and,  soon  after,  tutor 
of  his  college.  In  1828  he  was  appointed 
incumbent  of  St.  Mary’s,  Oxford,  and 
chaplain  of  Littlemore.  In  the  years  that 
followed,  up  to  1843,  he  was,  with  Dr. 
Pusey  ( q .  v. ),  a  recognized  leader  of  the 
High-Church  party  in  the  Church  of  Eng¬ 
land,  and  by  his  brilliant  intellectual  qual¬ 
ities  and  moral  worth  exerted  a  great  in¬ 
fluence  upon  the  under-graduates  of  the 
University.  With  Dr.  Pusey,  he  undertook 
the  editorship  of  the  now  famous  Tracts 
for  the  Ti?nes ,  and  personally  prepared 
twenty-four  of  the  entire  series.  He  wrote 
No.  90  (the  last  of  the  series),  which  ap¬ 
peared  March,  1841,  and  was  an  argument 
in  behalf  of  the  position  that  the  Thirty- 
nine  Articles  may  be  interpreted  in  the 
Roman  Catholic  sense.  This  tract  roused 
such  a  tempest  of  opposition,  that  New¬ 
man,  after  avowing  its  authorship,  retired 
to  Littlemore,  where,  for  three  years,  with 
a  few  kindred  spirits,  he  lived  in  seclusion. 
In  1845  he  severed  his  connection  with  the 
Church  of  England,  and  united  with  the 
Church  of  Rome.  Entering  the  priesthood, 
he  was,  in  1847,  appointed  to  found  the 
Oratory  of  St.  Philip  Neri,  in  England, 
and,  in  1854,  was  appointed  rector  of  the  re¬ 
cently  founded  Roman  Catholic  University 
at  Dublin,  a  position  which  he  resigned  in 
1858,  and  returned  to  Birmingham  to  take 
charge  of  a  school  for  the  sons  of  Roman 
Catholic  gentry  at  Edgbaston,  near  that 
city.  He  was  created  a  cardinal  by  Pope 
Leo  XIII.,  May  12,  1879,  and  from  this 
time  the  life  of  the  eminent  prelate  was 
spent,  for  the  most  part,  in  the  Birming¬ 
ham  Oratory.  Besides  his  influence  on  re¬ 
ligious  thought,  Newman  wasa  consummate 
master  of  English  style,  and  left  a  perma¬ 
nent  impress  upon  the  literature  of  this 
century.  A  collected  edition  of  his  works 
appeared  in  London,  1870-79,  36  vols.*  Pa¬ 
rochial  and  Plain  Sermons,  8  vols. ;  and  three 
other  volumes  of  sermons;  five  volumes 
of  miscellanies  and  two  religious  novels; 
his  autobiography,  Apologia  pro  Vita  Sua 
( 1 864) ;  A rians  of  the  Fourth  Century  ( 1 833) ; 
Essay  on  the  Development  of  Christian 
Doctrine  (1845);  Difficulties  of  Anglicans 
(1850),  2  vols.;  Essays  in  Aid  of  the  Grarn- 
mar  of  Assent  (1870).  He  was  the  author 
of  the  beautiful  hvmn,  “  Lead,  Kindlv 
Light.” 

Newman,  John  Philip,  D.  D.  (Rochester 
Seminary,  N.  Y.,  1864),  LL.  D.  (Wesleyan 
University,  Athens,  Tenn.,  1882),  Metho¬ 
dist;  b.  in  New  York  City,  Sept.  1,  1826; 
was  graduated  at  Cazenovia  Seminary. 1848; 


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Nic 


entered  the  ministry  of  the  Methodist 
Episcopal  Church,  1848;  was  editor  of  the 
New  Orleans  Advocate,  1866—69;  pastor  of 
the  Metropolitan  Methodist  Episcopal 
Church,  Washington,  D.  C.,  1869-72,  1S75- 
78;  and  chaplain  to  the  United  States  Sen¬ 
ate,  1869-75;  elected  bishop  in  1888.  He 
is  the  author  of:  Fro?n  Dan  to  Beer-sheba; 
or,  The  Land  of  Promise ,  as  it  now  Appears 
(New  York,  1864);  The  Thrones  and  Palaces 
of  Babylon  and  Nineveh,  from  the  Persian 
Gulf  to  the  Mediterranean  (1876);  Sermons 
Preached  in  the  Metropolitan  Church  (Wash¬ 
ington,  D.  C.,  1876);  Christianity  Trium¬ 
phant  (New  York,  1884). 

Newton,  John,  b.  in  London,  July  24, 
1725;  d.  there,  Dec,  31,1807.  In  early  life 
he  was  a  sailor  and  for  a  time  he  was  in 
charge  of  an  African  slave-ship.  Between 
1750  and  1754  a  great  change  came  in  his 
life  and  purposes,  and  having  decided  to 
take  orders  in  the  Church  of  England  he 
was  finally  ordained  in  1764.  He  became 
curate  of  Olney  in  Buckinghamshire, where 
he  formed  an  intimate  friendship  with  the 
poet  Cowper.  From  Olney  he  became  rec¬ 
tor  of  St.  Mary  Woolnoth,  where  he  la¬ 
bored  until  an  advanced  age.  He  was  a 
recognized  leader  of  the  Evangelical  wing 
of  the  Church  of  England.  He  contributed 
many  of  the  best  of  the  famous  Olney 
Hymns,  and  his  letters,  published  under 
the  titles  of  Omicron  and  Cardiphonia  ( 1816), 
were  very  popular.  The  epitaph  upon  his 
monument,  written  by  himself,  reads  as 
follows:  “  John  Newton,  clerk,  once  an  in¬ 
fidel  and  libertine,  a  servant  of  slaves  in 
Africa,  was,  by  the  rich  mercy  of  our  Lord 
and  Saviour  Jesus  Christ,  preserved,  re¬ 
stored,  pardoned,  and  appointed  to  preach 
the  faith  he  had  long  labored  to  destroy.” 

Newton,  Richard,  D.  D.  (Kenyon  Col¬ 
lege,  Gambier,  O.,  1845),  (Low-Church), 
Episcopal;  b.  in  Liverpool,  Eng.,  July  25, 
1813;  was  graduated  at  the  University  of 
Pennsylvania,  Philadelphia,  1836,  and  at 
General  Theological  Seminary,  New  York 
City,  1839;  became  rector  of  St.  Paul’s 
Church,  Philadelphia,  1840;  of  Church  of 
the  Epiphany,  1862;  of  Church  of  the  Cove¬ 
nant,  1882.  He  has  gained  a  world-wide 
reputation  as  the  author  of  volumes  of  ser¬ 
mons  for  children  and  youth.  Among  other 
books  he  has  written  are:  Pearls  from  the 
East:  Stories  and  Incidents  from  Bible  His¬ 
tory  (Philadelphia,  1881);  Covenant  Names 
and  Privileges  (New  York,  1882);  A  Bible 
Portrait-Gallery  (Philadelphia,  1SS5);  He¬ 
roes  of  the  Reformation  (1885). 

Newton,  Robert,  a  distinguished  Wes¬ 
leyan  minister;  b.  at  Roxbv,  Yorkshire, 


Sept.  8,  1780;  d.  April  30,  1854.  He  be¬ 
came  a  member  of  the  British  Conference, 
in  1799,  and  soon  gained  wide  reputation 
as  a  pulpit  orator.  He  was  elected  presi¬ 
dent  of  the  British  Conference  four  times, 
and  in  1839  was  sent  as  a  delegate  to  the 
General  Conference  of  the  Methodist  Epis¬ 
copal  Church  of  the  United  States.  A  vol¬ 
ume  of  his  sermons  was  published  in  1856. 
See  his  Life,  by  Jackson  (London,  1855). 

Nicaea,  Council  of.  This  was  the  first 
council  in  which  East  and  West  met  to¬ 
gether,  and  hence  it  is  the  first  of  the  four 
General  Councils  of  the  Church.  The 
peace  of  the  Church  had  been  greatly  dis¬ 
turbed  by  the  teaching  of  Arius  and  his 
followers  concerning  the  Divinity  of  Christ, 
whereupon  the  Emperor  Constantine,  be¬ 
ing  anxious  to  see  the  Church  united  and 
at  peace,  summoned  a  General  Council  to 
meet  at  Nicaea,  in  Bithynia,  in  June,  325,  to 
settle  the  questions  at  issue.  Nicaea  was 
chosen  as  the  place  of  assembly  partly  be¬ 
cause  of  its  healthy  situation,  and  partly 
on  account  of  its  nearness  to  the  seat  of 
government,  Nicomedia,  twenty  miles 
distant. 

The  number  of  bishops  who  attended 
the  council  has  been  generally  received  as 
318;  and  each  bishop  had  two  presbyters 
and  other  attendants,  so  that  the  whole  as¬ 
sembly  numbered,  according  to  some  ac¬ 
counts,  over  2,000.  As  Arianism  was  of 
Eastern  growth,  and  unknown  in  the  WTest, 
the  great  majority  of  the  council  were 
Eastern  bishops,  only  about  ten  coming 
from  the  West.  The  composition  of  the 
assembly  was  of  a  very  mixed  character. 
There  were  deputies  from  Egypt,  headed 
by  Alexander,  the  aged  bishop  of  Alexan¬ 
dria;  in  attendance  upon  him  was  a  young 
deacon,  twenty-five  years  of  age,  repre¬ 
sented  as  small  and  insignificant,  but  who 
was  none  other  than  the  great  Athanasius, 
the  champion  of  the  orthodox;  from  Alex¬ 
andria  also  came  Arius,  the  leader  of  the 
opposite  party.  There  were  also  bishops 
from  Syria,  including  Eustathius  of  An¬ 
tioch;  Eusebius,  the  historian,  of  Csesarea, 
who  was  suspected  of  being  an  Arian;  one 
bishop  came  from  Persia,  another  from 
Armenia,  others  from  Asia  Minor,  Greece, 
and  Cyprus.  Another  conspicuous  bishop 
was  Eusebius,  of  Nicomedia,  a  strong 
Arian.  It  was  from  his  hands  that  the 
Emperor  Constantine,  on  his  deathbed,  re¬ 
ceived  the  rite  of  Baptism.  Alexander,  a 
presbyter,  and  Acesius  the  Novatian,  rep¬ 
resented  Byzantium;  and  Marcellus, 
bishop  of  Ancyra,  was  a  prominent  speak¬ 
er  on  the  orthodox  side;  all  these  came 
from  the  East.  The  West  was  represented 
by  deputies  from  France,  Calabria,  SicHy, 


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Nic 


and  Milan.  Rome  sent  two  presbyters, 
Victor  and  Vincentius,  her  bishop,  Sylves¬ 
ter,  being  too  aged  to  be  present.  From 
Carthage  came  Ciecilian,  and  from  Spain 
Hosius,  bishop  of  Cordova,  who  is  repre¬ 
sented  as  holding  the  chief  place  in  the 
council,  at  the  emperor’s  right  hand.  The 
sight  of  these  Fathers  of  the  Church  was 
rendered  deeply  impressive  by  the  fact 
that  the  majority  of  them  bore  traces  of 
the  severe  persecutions  through  which 
they  had  passed.  They  were  truly  an  ar¬ 
my  of  confessors;  and  for  this  reason  they 
were  peculiarly  qualified  to  testify  what 
was  the  true  faith  of  the  Church.  Many 
heathen  philosophers  were  attracted  to 
Nicaea,  and  discussed  with  the  bishops  out¬ 
side  the  council. 

On  the  arrival  of  Constantine,  the  coun¬ 
cil  was  formally  opened;  first,  an  address 
to  the  emperor  was  recited  by  Eusebius 
of  Caesarea,  and  a  thanksgiving  to  God  for 
the  emperor’s  victory  over  Licinius.  Con¬ 
stantine,  from  his  throne  in  the  midst  of 
the  council,  then  addressed  the  assembled 
bishops,  exhorting  them  to  unity  and  con¬ 
cord;  and  then,  in  order  to  promote  this 
desirable  end,  he  openly  in  their  presence 
burnt  all  the  written  complaints  and  accu¬ 
sations  that  various  bishops  had  laid  before 
him,  adding  these  words:  “  It  is  the  com¬ 
mand  of  Christ  that  he  who  desires  to  be 
himself  forgiven  must  first  forgive  his 
brother.”  Coming  now  to  the  main  pur¬ 
pose  for  which  the  council  was  assembled, 
viz.:  the  determining  of  the  faith  that  had 
been  attacked  by  Arius,  it  seems  certain 
that  Arius  was  heard  in  defence  of  his 
opinions,  and  that  he  boldly  adhered  to 
them;  whereupon  the  assembled  bishops 
raised  their  hands  and  closed  their  ears  in 
horror  at  such  blasphemous  words.  Arius 
was  expelled,  and  the  council  set  them¬ 
selves  to  issue  the  result  of  their  deliber¬ 
ations  in  the  form  of  a  creed,  setting  forth 
the  true  faith.  First  of  all,  Eusebius  of 
Caesarea  presented  a  creed  which  had  been 
long  in  use  in  Caesarea;  the  Arian  bishops, 
about  eighteen  or  twenty  in  number,  were 
willing  to  sign  it;  but  as  this  creed  evaded 
the  very  points  at  issue,  a  very  important 
phrase  was  inserted,  viz:  homoousion  to 
patri — “  of  one  substance  with  the  Father,” 
and  other  alterations.  The  creed  of  Caesa¬ 
rea  was  then  adopted  as  the  faith  or  creed 
of  the  Council  of  Nicaea.  The  emperor 
acquiesced  in  the  decision  of  the  council, 
banished  Arius  and  his  followers,  and  or¬ 
dered  all  the  heretic’s  writings  to  be  burnt. 
He  further  decreed  to  banish  any  who  re¬ 
fused  to  subscribe  the  Nicene  Creed.  The- 
onas  and  Secundus  were  the  only  two  bish¬ 
ops  who  persevered  in  refusing  to  subscribe 
to  the  Creed,  and  they  were  banished. 


The  following  anathema  was  added  to 
the  Creed: 

“But  those  that  say  ‘there  was  when  he  was  not,’ 
and  ‘before  he  was  begotten  he  was  not,’  and  that  ‘  he 
came  into  existence  from  what  was  not,’  or  who  profess 
that  the  Son  of  God  is  of  a  different  ‘  person  ’  or  ‘  sub¬ 
stance,’  or  that  he  was  created,  or  changeable,  or  vari¬ 
able,  the  Catholic  and  Apostolic  Church  anathematizes 
them.” 

Another  question  was  settled  by  this 
council,  viz.,  the  date  for  keeping  Easter. 
The  council  decreed  by  common  consent 
(i)  to  discard  the  custom  of  keeping  the 
Christian  Passover  on  the  same  day  as  the 
Jewish,  viz.,  the  14th  of  Nisan,  and  (2)  to 
keep  it  on  the  Sunday  that  came  next  after 
the  full  moon  of  the  vernal  equinox. 

The  council,  before  breaking  up,  passed 
twenty  canons  for  the  correction  of  abuses, 
and  for  regulating  the  discipline  and  gov¬ 
ernment  of  the  Church.  Of  these  twenty 
Nicene  canons,  the  1st,  2d,  3d,  and  17th  re¬ 
fer  to  the  morals  and  behavior  of  the  cler¬ 
gy;  the  17th,  forbidding  usury;  the  other 
three  restraining  abuses  now  happily  ex¬ 
tinct.  The  4th,  5th,  Cth,  7th,  15th,  16th, 
and  18th  refer  to  clerical  discipline.  The 
4th  is  still  observed  throughout  the  great¬ 
er  part  of  Christendom,  and  orders  three 
bishops,  at  least,  to  be  present  at  the  con¬ 
secration  of  a  bishop.  The  5th  limits  the 
power  of  the  bishop,  by  ordering  a  synod 
to  meet  twice  a  year  in  order  to  investigate 
the  cases  of  those  excommunicated.  The 
6th  and  7th  preserved  to  the  Metropolitans 
of  Alexandria,  Antioch,  and  Caesarea  their 
ancient  privileges.  The  15th  has  been  gen¬ 
erally  disregarded  throughout  the  Church; 
it  forbids  the  translation  or  promotion  of 
ecclesiastics  from  one  city  to  another. 
The  18th  restrains  the  powers  of  deacons, 
who,  in  that  age,  practiced  a  kind  of  tyran¬ 
ny,  which  has  been  imitated  by  the  other 
orders  of  the  ministry  in  later  times.  The 
16th  forbids  bishops  to  ordain  outside  their 
own  dioceses.  Other  canons  refer  to  the 
cases  of  those  who  have  “  lapsed  ”  in  times 
of  persecution,  laying  down  on  what  con¬ 
ditions  such  are  to  be  received  back  into 
the  Church.  The  last  canon,  the  20th,  di¬ 
rects  prayers  to  be  offered  up,  the  people 
standing. 

Another  question,  of  local  interest  only, 
was  settled,  viz.,  the  Melitian  schism  in  the 
Church  in  Egypt. 

The  work  of  the  council  was  now  com¬ 
pleted.  The  emperor,  in  a  letter  to  the 
Churches  throughout  the  empire,  set  forth 
the  settlement  of  the  Arian  and  Paschal 
controversies;  and,  having  entertained  the 
whole  of  the  bishops  present  at  the  coun¬ 
cil,  dismissed  them  to  their  dioceses,  ex¬ 
horting  them  to  prize  concord  above  all 
things,  and  begging  them  to  pray  for  him. 


Nic 


(  668  ) 


Nim 


The  council,  which  had  commenced  prob¬ 
ably  in  June,  closed  with  the  banquet  on 
July  25. — Benham:  Did.  of  Religion 

Nicseno-Constantinopolitan  Creed,  The, 
used  in  all  the  Greek  and  Roman  churches, 
and  recognized  by  most  of  the  denomina¬ 
tions  of  Protestantism,  is,  according  to  the 
generally  received  opinion,  a  recension, 
made  at  the  Council  of  Constantinople  in 
381,  of  the  creed  formulated  by  the  Coun¬ 
cil  of  Nicaea,  in  325.  Recent  investiga¬ 
tions,  however,  have  led  scholars  to  con¬ 
sider  the  Constantinopolitan  Creed  “an 
apocryphal  work,  like  the  Apostle’s  Creed 
and  the  Athanasian.  It  is  at  once  older 
and  younger  than  the  Council  of  381.  The 
historical  student  will  compare  its  contents 
with  the  theology  of  Cyril  and  Athanasius. 
After  the  middle  of  the  fifth  century,  the 
Fathers  regarded  it  as  an  enlarged  form  of 
the  Nicene,  and  used  it  against  Apollinaris, 
Nestorius,  and  Eutyches.”  See  art.  by 
Prof.  Harnack  in  Schaff- Herzog:  Ency. — 
Schaff:  Creeds  of  Christendom. 

Nicene  Creed.  See  Creed,  Nicene. 

Nicholas,  the  name  of  five  popes.  See 
Popes. 

Nicode'mus,  “  a  Pharisee,  a  ruler  of  the 
Jews,  and  teacher  of  Israel  (John  iii.  1,  10), 
whose  secret  visit  to  our  Lord  was  the  oc¬ 
casion  of  the  discourse  recorded  only  by 
St.  John.  The  high  station  of  Nicodemus 
as  a  member  of  the  Jewish  Sanhedrim,  and 
the  avowed  scorn  under  which  the  rulers 
concealed  their  inward  conviction  (John  iii. 
2)  that  Jesus  was  a  teacher  sent  from  God, 
are  sufficient  to  account  for  the  secrecy  of 
the  interview.  A  constitutional  timidity 
is  discernible  in  the  character  of  the  in¬ 
quiring  Pharisee.  Thus  the  few  words 
which  he  interposed  against  the  rash  injus¬ 
tice  of  his  colleagues  are  cautiously  rested 
on  a  general  principle  (John  vii.  50),  and 
betray  no  indication  of  his  faith  in  the  Ga¬ 
lilean  whom  his  sect  despised.  And  even 
when  the  power  of  Christ’s  love,  mani¬ 
fested  on  the  cross,  had  made  the  most 
timid  disciples  bold,  Nicodemus  does  not 
come  forward  with  his  splendid  gifts  of  af¬ 
fection  until  the  example  had  been  set  by 
one  of  his  own  rank  and  wealth,  and  station 
in  society  (xix.  39).  In  these  three  no¬ 
tices  of  Nicodemus,  a  noble  candor  and  a 
simple  love  of  truth  shine  out  in  the  midst 
of  hesitation,  and  fear  of  man.  We  can 
therefore  easily  believe  the  tradition,  that 
after  the  resurrection  he  became  a  pro¬ 
fessed  disciple  of  Christ,  and  received  bap¬ 
tism  at  the  hands  of  Peter  and  John.” — 
Smith:  Diet,  of  the  Bible. 


Nicolaitans,  a  heretical  sect,  holding  the 
doctrines  of  Antinomianism,  and  condemn¬ 
ed  in  the  Book  of  Revelation  as  holding 
“  the  doctrine  of  Balaam  ....  to  eat 
things  sacrificed  unto  idols,  and  to  commit 
fornication.”  Probably  it  was  these  whom 
St.  Paul  described  as  “glorying  in  their 
shame,  minding  earthly  things.”  The 
Nicolaitans  are  thought  by  some  to  derive 
their  name  from  Nicolas  the  proselyte; 
others  believe  that  the  name  is  only  the 
Greek  form  of  Balaam,  “destroyer  of  the 
people,”  of  whom  they  were  supposed  to 
be  symbolical.  They  are  spoken  of  by 
Irenaeus,  Tertullian,  and  Clement  of  Alex¬ 
andria,  as  being  in  existence  in  the  second 
century;  and  Epiphanius  says  that  the  sect 
became  merged  in  that  of  the  Gnostics. 

Nicop'olis.  There  are  several  cities  of 
this  name,  but  the  Nicopolis  in  which  Paul 
determined  to  winter  (Tit.  iii.  12)  was, 
with  little  doubt,  the  city  in  Epirus  founded 
by  Augustus  to  celebrate  his  victory  at 
Actium,  b.  c.  31. 

Niedner,  Christian  Wilhelm,  an  emi¬ 
nent  church  historian;  b.  in  Oberwinkel, 
Saxony,  Aug.  9,  1797;  d.  in  Berlin,  Aug. 
13,  1865.  He  studied  theology  at  Leipzig, 
where  he  became  professor  extraordinary 
in  1829,  and  doctor  of  theology  and  ordinary 
professor  in  1838.  This  position  he  retain¬ 
ed  until  the  revolution  of  1848,  when  he  re¬ 
tired  to  Wittenberg,  and  remained  till  1859, 
when  he  accepted  a  professorship  in  Berlin. 
His  Church  history,  Gcschichte  der  Christ - 
lichen  Kirche,  was  published  in  1846. 
“  Niedner  at  once  took  a  place  at  the  side 
of  Neander,  Gieseler,  and  Hase,  and  is  dis¬ 
tinguished  by  his  philosophical  treatment 
of  the  details,  but  falls  behind  them  in  the 
vivid  portrayal  of  character,  clear  sum¬ 
marization,  and  skill  of  arrangement. 
Niedner  held  a  middle  position  in  theology, 
and  had  as  little  sympathy  with  Strauss 
and  Baur,  as  with  strict  confessional  ortho¬ 
doxy.  ” —  Tzschirner. 

Nile.  See  Egypt,  p.  275. 

Nimbus,  The,  or  Glory,  a  ring  or  disk 
of  gold  or  some  bright  color  placed  back  of 
the  head  of  a  person,  and  symbolizing  the 
radiant  glory  that  emanated  from  a  divine 
being.  Among  the  Romans  it  came  finally 
to  signify  power, and  in  the  fifth  century  was 
adopted  by  Christians  as  a  symbol  of  sanc¬ 
tity.  First  applied  to  Christ,  it  was  after¬ 
ward  used  with  representations  of  the  an¬ 
gels,  and  finally  of  Mary  and  the  saints. 

Nim'rod  (firm,  strong),  the  son  of  Cush 
and  grandson  of  Ham.  (Gen.  x.  8.)  He  is 


Nin 


(  9  ) 


Nin 


described  as  a  “  mighty  hunter  before  the 
Lord,”  and  became  a  great  ruler  and  the 
founder  of  the  kingdom  of  Babylon.  He 
built  Nineveh,  and  the  immediate  region 
was  known  as  the  land  of  Nimrod.  (Mic. 
V,  6.) 


east  bank  of  the  Tigris,  where  gigantic 
tells  or  artificial  mounds,  and  the  traces  of 
an  ancient  city  wall  bore  evident  witness 
of  fallen  greatness.  The  walls  enclose  an 
irregular  trapezium,  stretching  in  length 
about  two  and  a  half  miles  along  the  Tigris, 


Nineveh,  “the  famous  capital  of  the  As¬ 
syrian  Empire,  called  Ni-na-a  or  Ni-nu-a  on 
the  monuments.  Though  the  city  appears 
to  have  been  entirely  destroyed  in  the  fall 
of  the  empire  the  name  of  Nineveh  con¬ 
tinued,  even  in  the  Middle  Ages,  to  be 
applied  to  a  site  opposite  Mosul  on  the 


which  protected  the  city  on  the  west.  The 
greatest  breadth  is  over  a  mile.  The  most 
elaborate  defences,  consisting  of  outworks 
and  moats  that  can  still  be  traced,  were  on 
the  southern  half  of  the  east  side,  for  the 
deep  sluggish  Khauser,  which  protects  the 
northern  half  of  this  face,  then  bends  round 


Nin 


(  67(J  ) 


Nit 


toward  the  Tigris  and  flows  through  the 
middle  of  the  town,  so  as  to  leave  the 
southeast  of  the  city  more  open  to  attack 
than  any  other  part.  The  principal  ruin 
mounds  within  the  walls  are  that  of  Kuy¬ 
unjik  north  of  the  Khausar,  and  that  of  the 
prophet  Jonah  (Nebi  Tunus)  south  of  that 
stream.  The  latter  is  the  traditional  site 
of  Jonah’s  preaching,  and  is  crowned  by  an 
ancient  and  famous  Mohammedan  shrine. 

“  The  systematic  exploration  of  these 
ruins  is  mainly  due  to  Layard  (1845-46), 
whose  work  has  been  continued  by  subse¬ 
quent  diggers.  These  researches  leave  no 
doubt  as  to  the  correctness  of  the  local 
tradition.  Not  only  have  magnificent  re¬ 
mains  of  Assyrian  architecture  and  sculp¬ 
ture  been  laid  bare,  but  the  accompanying 
cuneiform  inscriptions  throw  much  light 
on  the  history  of  the  city  and  its  buildings. 
The  mound  of  Kuyunjik  covers  palaces  of 
Sennacherib  and  Assur-banipal,  that  of 
Jonah,  a  second  palace  of  Sennacherib,  and 
one  of  Esar-haddon.  Of  other  remains, 
the  most  striking  is  the  gateway  near  the  j 
centre  of  the  north  wall,  consisting  of  two 
halls,  seventy  feet  by  twenty-three,  the  en¬ 
trance  to  which,  toward  the  town,  was 
flanked  by  colossal  man-headed  bulls  and 
winged  human  figures.  Nineveh  proper 
was  only  one  of  a  group  of  cities  and  royal 
residences  whose  ruins  still  mark  the  plain 
between  the  Tigris,  the  Great  Zab,  and  the 
Khazio.  The  chief  of  these  are  at  Khorsa- 
bad  or  Khurustabad,  five  hours  by  cara¬ 
van  northeast  of  Mosul,  on  a  tributary  of 
the  Khausar,  and  at  Nimrud  on  the  left 
bank  of  the  Tigris,  eight  caravan  hours 
(eighteen  miles)  southeast  from  Kuyunjik. 
The  former  site  was  mainly  explored  by 
the  Frenchmen,  Botta  and  Place.  The  city 
was  almost  square,  each  face  of  the  walls 
a  little  more  than  a  mile  in  length.  The 
vast  T-shaped  palace  of  Sargon  (722-705 
K.  C.),  whose  name  the  town  bore  (Dur- 
Sarrukin),  stood  near  the  northern  angle. 
Its  main  frontage  was  nearly  a  quarter  of 
a  mile  long;  it  had  thirty-one  courts,  and 
more  than  two  hundred  apartments.  The 
ruins  of  Nimrud,  identical  with  the  ruin 
Athur,  of  Arabic  geographers  (Takut,  s. 
vv.  ‘Athur,’  ‘Salamiya’),  and  first  ex¬ 
cavated  by  Layard,  represent  the  ancient 
city  of  Kalhu,  the  biblical  Calah.  The 
enclosure,  protected  on  the  west  by  the  old 
bed  of  the  Tigris,  is,  according  to  Layard’s 
measurements,  a  quadrangle  of  2,331  yards 
by  2,095  at  the  widest  part,  and  was  sur¬ 
rounded  by  walls  with  towers  and  moats. 
The  chief  architectural  remains  belong  to 
a  group  of  palaces  and  temples  which  oc¬ 
cupied  the  southwest  quarter  of  the  city. 
The  principal  palace  (northwest  palace), 
was  built  by  Assur-nasir-pal  (SS5-S60B.  c. ), 


and  besides  it  he  raised  a  temple  with  a 
great  tower  (falsely  called  the  tomb  of  Sar- 
danapalus),  built  in  narrowing  stages. 
The  so-called  central  palace  is  that  of  his 
son,  Shalmaneser  II.;  the  unfinished  south¬ 
west  palace  was  the  work  of  Esar-haddon. 
Of  the  so-called  southeast  palace  the  chief 
part  is  really  a  temple  of  Nebo;  a  statue 
of  the  god  from  this  temple  is  in  the  Brit¬ 
ish  Museum.  See  the  works  of  Layard, 
Botta,  Oppert,  and  G.  Smith.” —  IV.  Robert¬ 
son  Smith  in  Ency.  Britannica. 

Ninian,  St.,  the  apostle  of  the  Southern 
Piets,  said  to  have  visited  Rome  in  370,  and 
was  ordained  in  394.  Returning  to  Britain, 
he  built  a  stone  church  at  what  is  now  the 
modern  Whithorn.  Here  he  established  his 
see.  He  is  reputed  to  have  converted  the 
Piets  as  far  as  the  Grampians. 

Nirvana.  See  Buddhism. 

Nisan.  See  Year,  Hebrew. 

Nis'roch,  an  Assyrian  deity,  in  whose 
temple  Sennacherib  was  assassinated  by  his 
sons.  (2  Kings  xix.  37;  Isa.  xxxvii.  38.) 
The  derivation  of  the  name  is  uncertain. 
Some  are  of  the  opinion  that  Nisroch  is 
represented  in  the  eagle-headed,  winged 
figure,  with  cone  in  one  hand  and  basket  in 
the  other,  taken  from  the  ruins  of  Nineveh. 

Nitschmann,  David,  first  bishop  of  the 
Moravian  Church  ;  b.  at  Zauchtenthal, 
Moravia,  Dec.  27,  1696;  d.  at  Bethlehem, 
Penn.,  Oct.  8,  1772.  Compelled  to  find 
refuge  from  persecution,  he  fled  to  Herrn- 
hut  (1724),  and  became  prominent  among 
the  Moravians.  With  a  single  companion 
he  started  on  foot  for  Copenhagen  in  Au¬ 
gust,  1732,  and  from  there  he  sailed  to  St. 
Thomas,  where  he  began  missionary  work 
among  the  negroes.  Returning  to  Europe 
the  following  year  he  was  consecrated  at 
Berlin  in  1735,  and  soon  after  sailed  with  a 
company  of  Moravians  for  Georgia:  in  the 
same  vessel  with  them  were  John  and 
Charles  Wesley.  Bishop  Nitschmann  la¬ 
bored  in  Germany,  Denmark,  Sweden,  Nor¬ 
way,  Great  Britain,  and  in  Georgia,  North 
Carolina,  New  York,  and  Pennsylvania. 
See  Schweinitz:  Fathers  of  the  American 
Moravian  Church  (1881). 

Nitzsch  (nitsh),  Karl  Immanuel,  “  the¬ 
ologian,  was  born  at  the  small  Saxon  town 
of  Borna,  on  September  21,  1787.  After  re¬ 
ceiving  his  elementary  education  at  home, 
he  was  sent  to  Schulpforta  in  1803,  whence 
he  proceeded  to  the  University  of  Witten¬ 
berg  in  1806.  In  1809  he  was  graduated. 
Having  been  ordained  deacon  in  iSn.he 


No 


(  67i  ) 


Non 


showed  remarkable  energy  and  zeal  during 
the  bombardment  and  siege  of  the  city  in 
1813;  and  in  1817  he  was  appointed  one  of 
the  preceptors  in  the  preacher’s  seminary, 
which  had  been  established  after  the  sup¬ 
pression  of  the  university.  From  1820  to 
1822  he  was  superintendent  in  Kemberg, 
and  in  the  later  years  he  was  appointed 
professor  ordinarius  of  systematic  and 
practical  theology  at  Bonn.  Here  he  re¬ 
mained  until  called  to  succeed  Marheineke 
at  Berlin  in  1847;  subsequently  he  became 
university  preacher,  provost  of  St.  Nicolai 
(in  1855),  and  member  of  the  supreme  coun¬ 
cil  of  the  Church,  in  which  last  capacity  he 
was  one  of  the  ablest  and  most  active  pro¬ 
moters  of  the  Evangelical  Union.  He  died 
Aug.  21,  1868.  Nitzsch  still  stands  out  as 
one  of  the  ablest  and  most  genial  and  ac¬ 
complished  representatives  of  the  ‘  media¬ 
tion  theology,’  or  what  may  be  called  the 
broad  evangelical  school  of  modern  Ger¬ 
many.”  — Ency.  Brit  a  n  11  ica . 

No  (Ezek.  xxx.  14),  or,  in  full,  No  A'mon 
-(Nah.  iii.  8),  the  biblical  name  of  Thebes. 
It  was  situated  on  both  sides  of  the  Nile 
from  400  to  500  miles  from  its  mouth,  and 
was  one  of  the  oldest  cities  in  Egypt.  Ac¬ 
cording  to  Strabo,  it  covered  an  area  five 
miles  in  length  and  three  miles  in  breadth. 
The  ruins  reveal  the  wonderful  splendor  of 
this  great  city. 

Noah,  one  of  the  most  remarkable  char¬ 
acters  in  Bible  history.  The  great  events 
of  his  life  are  given  in  outline  in  the  book 
of  Genesis.  The  Flood  took  place  when  he 
was  six  hundred  years  old.  (Gen.  vii.  11.) 
“  Many  peoples  have  preserved  a  tradition 
of  this  event.  And  not  only  do  we  find 
traditions  to  this  effect  on  the  tablets  of 
Assyria  and  in  the  literature  of  Greece, 
but  also  among  the  Chinese  and  among  the 
aborigines  of  North  and  South  America  and 
Mexico.  The  prevalence  of  a  belief  in  the 
occurrence  of  a  great  deluge  confirms  the 
account  of  Genesis.  It  is  not  necessary  to 
assume  that  the  Flood  extended  over  all  the 
earth,  although  it  did  most  likely  destroy 
all  human  life  except  the  family  of  Noah. 
Such  expressions  as  ‘  all  the  high  hills.  .  . 
were  covered  ’  (Gen.  vii.  19)  do  not  oblige 
us  to  go  beyond  those  portions  of  the  earth 
which  were  then  inhabited  by  men.  Sim¬ 
ilar  expressions  are  used  where  the  event 
referred  to  was  only  partial  in  extent.  See, 
for  example,  Gen.  xli.  57  ;  Luke  ii.  1. 
Opinions  still  differ  as  to  whether  the  Flood 
was  universal  or  only  partial.  The  Deluge 
is  referred  to  in  the  New  Testament.  (Matt, 
xxiv.  37;  2  Pet.  ii.  5;  iii.  6.)”— Schaff: 
Bible  Did.  The  ark  which  Noah  was  com¬ 
manded  to  build  was  divided  into  three 


stories  and  was  300  cubits  long,  50  cubits 
broad,  and  30  cubits  high:  allowing,  ac¬ 
cording  to  prominent  authorities,  21  inches 
for  a  cubit,  the  ark  was  525  feet  long,  87 
feet  wide,  and  52  feet  high.  The  Great 
Eastern  was  691  feet  long,  83  feet  wide, 
and  58  deep.  This  comparison  will  help 
to  give  an  approximate  idea  of  the  size  of 
the  great  vessel  built  by  Noah. 

Nob  ( height ),  a  city  of  the  priests  in  Ben¬ 
jamin,  a  little  north  of  Jerusalem.  (1  Sam. 
xxii.  19;  Isa.  x.  32.)  It  was  here  in  the 
time  of  Saul  that  the  tabernacle  and  ark 
rested,  and  it  was  here  that  Ahimelech 
gave  David  the  shewbread  and  the  sword 
of  Goliath.  This  act  so  enraged  Saul 
that  he  destroyed  all  of  the  inhabitants 
of  the  city,  with  the  exception  of  Abia- 
thar,  who  escaped.  (1  Sam.  xxi;  xxii.)  It 
has  proved  difficult  to  identify  the  site  of 
the  city. 

Nocturns.  See  Canonical  Hours. 

Nod  {flight ),  the  region  east  of  Eden 
where  Cain  fled  from  the  presence  ofjeho- 
vah.  (Gen.  iv.  14,  16.)  It  is  impossible  to 
locate  the  place. 

Noel,  Hon.  and  Rev.  Baptist  Wriothes- 
ley,  a  brother  of  the  first  Earl  of  Gains¬ 
borough ;  b.  at  Leithmont,  Scotland,  July 
10,  1799;  d.  at  Stanmore,  Middlesex,  Jan. 
20,  1873.  He  was  graduated  at  Trinity 
College,  Cambridge,  and  became  a  queen’s 
chaplain,  and  incumbent  of  St.  John’s, 
Bedford  Row,  London.  Withdrawing  from 
the  Church  of  England  he  entered  the 
Baptist  ministry,  and  labored  with  suc¬ 
cess.  Among  his  published  works  are:  Es¬ 
say  on  Christian  Baptis?n  (1849);  Letters  on 
the  Church  of  Rome  (1851);  A  Selection  of 
Psalms  and  Hymns  (1832,  enlarged,  1853), 
and  Hymns  about  Jesus  (1869).  These 
volumes  contain  several  hymns  of  his  com¬ 
position. 

Noetius.  See  Monarchianism, 

! 

Nominalism.  See  Scholasticism. 

( 

I 

Nonconformists.  This  term,  as  now  in 
use,  includes  all  who  absent  themselves 
from  the  worship  of  the  Established 
Church  of  England  on  the  ground  of  con¬ 
science,  and  in  this  sense  is  synonymous 
with  the  word  Dissenters  {q.  v.).  But  in 
a  stricter  sense  it  is  applied  to  those  min¬ 
isters  who  were  ejected  from  their  livings 
on  their  refusal  to  submit  to  the  Act  of 
Uniformity  passed  by  Charles  II.  in  1662. 
The  number  of  these  was  about  2,000,  and 
their  burdens  were  increased  by  the  pass- 


Non 


(  672  ) 


Nor 


ing  of  the  Conventicle  Act  in  1664,  by 
which  they  were  prohibited  from  meeting 
in  any  number  greater  than  five,  in  any 
other  manner  than  was  allowed  by  the 
liturgy  or  practice  of  the  Church  of  Eng¬ 
land.  This  was  followed  in  1665  by  the 
Five-Mile  Act  ( q .  v.),  and  in  1673  by  the 
Test  Act  ( q .  v.).  This  last  act  was  in¬ 
tended  to  deprive  them  of  all  political 
power  and  religious  influence.  Amongst 
the  ejected  clergy  were  some  of  the  most 
pious  and  learned  divines  of  the  day,  Bax¬ 
ter,  Howe,  Flavel,  Philip  Henry,  etc. 
lames  II.  showed  a  decided  disposition  at 
first  to  crush  the  Nonconformists,  as  evi¬ 
denced  in  the  trial  of  Baxter,  but  he  after¬ 
ward  relaxed  the  laws,  hoping  to  gain 
toleration  for  the  Roman  Catholics,  and 
published  his  Declaration  of  liberty  of  con¬ 
science.  Soon  after  the  accession  of  Will¬ 
iam  III.  the  Toleration  Act  was  passed, 
which  granted  to  the  Nonconformists  a 
partial  relief,  and  in  George  I.’s  reign  the 
laws  against  them  were  never  enforced. 
The  Bill  of  1829  removed  Parliamentary 
disabilities,  not  only  from  the  Noncon¬ 
formists,  but  also  from  the  Roman  Catho¬ 
lics. — Benham:  Diet.  of  Religion. 

Nonjurors,  in  English  history,  are  the 
small  minority  of  the  beneficed  clergy  who 
incurred  the  penalties  of  suspension  and 
deprivation  for  refusing  to  swear  alle¬ 
giance  to  William  and  Mary,  in  1689.  The 
party,  which  was  headed  by  Archbishop 
Sancroft  and  Bishop  Ken,  with  five  other 
members  of  the  Episcopal  bench,  included 
such  men  as  Jeremy  Collier,  George 
Hickes,  William  Sherlock,  Charles  Leslie, 
and  Henry  Dodwell. 

Non-residence,  the  absence  of  an  incum- 
Dent  from  his  parish  or  benefice,  who  en¬ 
joys  the  revenues,  while  a  substitute  is 
entrusted  with  his  duties.  This  evil  has 
often  been  the  subject  of  prohibitive  laws 
in  the  Roman  Church,  and  it  is  forbidden 
in  the  Church  of  England  by  statutes  pass¬ 
ed  in  1837-38. 

Noph  (Isa.  xix.  13),  the  biblical  name  of 
the  great  Egyptian  city  of  Memphis.  The 
city  is  said  to  have  had  an  area  of  about 
19  miles,  and  was  situated  about  10  miles 
south  of  Cairo  and  5  miles  from  the  Great 
Pyramids.  The  monuments  of  Memphis 
are  considered  by  many  scholars  as  of  a 
higher  antiquity  than  those  of  Thebes. 
Recent  explorations  have  brought  to  light 
many  of  its  relics.  The  materials  with 
which  Cairo  was  built  were  largely  brought 
from  the  ruins  of  Memphis. 

Norbert.  See  Premonstrants. 


North,  Browni.ow,  a  distinguished  evan¬ 
gelist  of  the  Free  Church  of  Scotland;  b.  at 
Chelsea,  Jan.  6,  1810;  d.  at  Tullichewan, 
near  Edinburgh,  Nov.  9,  1875.  His  early 
life  was  one  of  careless  pleasure-seeking, 
although  at  one  time  he  purposed  to  take 
holy  orders,  and  studied  with  this  view. 
In  November,  1854,  while  visiting  at  Dal¬ 
las  Moors,  Scotland,  he  passed  through  an 
experience  that  in  a  single  night  left  him  a 
changed  man.  After  long  struggle  and 
reading  of  the  Bible  he  found  peace,  and 
began  to  distribute  tracts  among  the  desti¬ 
tute  class  in  Elgin,  Scotland.  His  gifts  as 
an  earnest  and  forcible  speaker  were  soon 
recognized,  and  from  1856  until  his  death 
he  labored  with  great  success  as  an  evan¬ 
gelist  in  all  the  leading  cities  of  England 
and  Scotland,  and  in  Ireland  in  the  great 
revivals  of  1859.  See  his  Life,  by  K. 
Moody-Stuart  (London,  1878). 

Norton,  Andrews,  a  distinguished  Uni¬ 
tarian  scholar  and  theologian;  b.  at  Hing- 
ham,  Mass.,  Dec.  31,  1786;  d.  at  Newport, 
R.  I.,  Sept.  18,  1853.  After  his  graduation 
at  Harvard,  in  1804,  he  was  tutor  in  Bow- 
doin  College,  1809-11;  tutor  in  mathemat¬ 
ics  at  Harvard,  1811-13;  librarian,  1813-21 ; 
and  lecturer  on  biblical  interpretation, 
1813-19.  From  1819-30  he  was  the  Dex¬ 
ter  professor  of  sacred  literature  in  the 
Harvard  Divinity  School.  “  Dr.  Norton 
was,  after  Dr.  Channing,  the  most  dis¬ 
tinguished  exponent  of  Unitarian  theology, 
a  clear  and  perspicuous  lecturer,  an  able 
critic  and  voluminous  writer.  Rejecting 
the  doctrine  of  the  Trinity,  and  protesting 
against  Calvinism,  he  also  opposed  the 
school  of  Theodore  Parker  and  the  nat¬ 
uralistic  theology.  Besides  his  contribu¬ 
tions  to  the  General  Repository  and  Review, 
North  American  Review,  and  Christian  Ex¬ 
aminer,  he  published :  A  Statement  of  Rea¬ 
sons  for  not  Believing  in  the  Doctrine  of  the 
Trinity  (1833);  The  Genuineness  of  the  Gos¬ 
pels  (1837);  On  the  Latest  Forms  of  Infidel¬ 
ity  (1839).”  Prof.  Norton  was  a  poet  of 
considerable  merit. 

Norway.  Out  of  a  population  of  i,So2,- 
172  the  Lutheran  Church  claims  1,794,934 
adherents.  Christianity  was  introduced 
into  the  country  by  Olaf  Trygvason  (995- 
1000)  and  St.  Olaf  (1014-31),  in  the  tenth 
and  eleventh  centuries.  From  1387  to 
1814  Norway,  in  its  connection  with  Den¬ 
mark,  has  a  church  history  in  common 
with  the  latter  country.  The  Reformation 
gained  a  hold  in  Norway  in  1536.  The 
Norwegian  Church  is  a  State  Establish¬ 
ment.  It  is  only  since  1845  that  the  free¬ 
dom  of  worship  has  been  extended  to  other 
denominations. 


Nor 


(  673  ) 


Not 


Norwich  Cathedral.  This  beautiful  cathe¬ 
dral  was  commenced  in  1094  by  Bishop 
Herbert  Losinga,  and  completed  by  Bishop 
Perry  in  1361.  It  is  chiefly  of  Norman 
architecture.  The  tower  was  restored  in 
1858. 


Nott,  Eliphalet,  b.  in  Ashford,  Conn., 
June  25,  1773;  d.  at  Schenectady,  Jan.  29, 
1866.  After  studying  at  Brown  University 
he  entered  the  ministry,  and  after  a  brief 
service  at  Cherry  Valley  he  was  called  in 
1795  to  the  pastorate  of  the  Presbyterian 


NORWICH  CATHEDRAL. 


Notre  Dame(o«r  fady), the  old  French  ap¬ 
pellation  of  the  Virgin  Mary,  and  the  name 
therefore  given  to  many  churches  dedicated 
to  her.  The  cathedral  of  Notre  Dame  in 
Paris  is  one  of  the  most  magnificent  speci¬ 
mens  of  Gothic  architecture  in  the  world. 


Church  in  Albany,  N.  Y.  He  was  elected 
president  of  Union  College  in  1804,  and 
under  his  management  it  became  one  of 
the  leading  institutions  of  the  country. 
Through  inventions  which  he  secured  for 
improved  methods  of  heating,  by  the  use  of 


Nov 


( 674 ) 


Nun 


stoves,  he  secured  a  large  fortune,  of  which 
he  gave  liberally  to  endow  the  college. 
He  was  prominent  in  the  councils  of  the 
Presbyterian  Church,  and  was  noted  for 
his  eloquence  as  an  orator  on  special  occa¬ 
sions.  The  cause  of  temperance  has  had 
but  few  more  able  and  sturdy  advocates. 
His  Counsels  to  Young  Men,  and  Lectures  on 
Temperance  have  had  a  wide  circulation. 
He  wrote  the  Resurrection  of  Christ  (new 
edition,  N.  Y.,  1872),  with  notes  by  Prof. 
Tayler  Lewis.  See  Memoirs  of  Elifhalet 
Mott,  by  Van  Santvoord,  revised  by  Prof. 
Lewis  (N.  Y.,  1876). 

Novalis,  the  name  assumed  by  Fried¬ 
rich  von  Hardenberg,  who  was  born  at 
Wiedestedt,  in  Mansfeld,  in  1772.  His 
father  and  mother  belonged  to  the  Herrn- 
huters..  He  was  educated  at  Jena,  whence 
he  passed  to  Leipzig  and  Wittenberg.  He 
assisted  his  father  for  a  time  as  auditor  of 
the  Saxon  Salt-works,  but  was  obliged  to 
give  up  his  post  through  ill-health,  and  de¬ 
voted  himself  wholly  to  literature.  He 
.became  acquainted  with  Schlegel  and  with 
Tieck,  the  Romantic  writer,  who  wrote  a 
biography  of  Novalis,  and  who  seems  to 
have  had  a  great  influence  over  him.  He 
died  in  1801. 

Novalis’s  best  works  are  his  Spiritual 
Songs,  which  show  a  beautiful  simplicity 
and  pure  spirit  of  devotion.  His  other 
works,  Heinrich  von  Ofterdingen,  The 
Pupils  at  Sais,  and  Hymns  of  the  ATight,  are 
remarkable  for  the  imagination  and  enthu¬ 
siasm  which  they  display. — Benham:  Diet . 
of  Religion. 

Novatian,  the  founder  of  the  Novatianist 
sect  in  the  third  century,  was  a  man  of 
learning  and  eloquence,  but  of  ascetic  ten¬ 
dency.  Educated  as  a  philosopher,  he  was 
baptized  on  a  sick-bed,  but  omitted  after 
his  recovery  to  present  himself  to  the 
bishop  for  the  laying-on  of  hands.  Not¬ 
withstanding  this,  and  in  the  face  of  some 
opposition,  he  was  ordained  priest  by 
Bishop  Fabian  of  Rome,  who  wished  to 
enlist  his  talents  for  the  Church,  and  he 
acquired  great  influence  at  Rome.  After 
the  Decian  persecution,  a  dispute  arose  as 
to  the  treatment  of  the  lapsed.  Navatian 
headed  a  party  which  maintained  that  the 
Church  had  no  power  to  re-admit  apostates, 
and  that,  by  receiving  such  into  commun¬ 
ion,  it  would  forfeit  its  Christian  character. 
The  lapsed,  they  said,  must  be  left  to  the 
mercy  of  God.  At  the  election  of  Corne¬ 
lius,  a  man  of  milder  views,  as  Fabian’s 
successor,  a.  d.  251,  Novatian,  with  his 
party,  seceded  from  the  Church,  and  three 
obscure  bishops,  obtained  on  false  pre¬ 
tences,  consecrated  him  to  the  See  of 


Rome.  Intimation  of  this  consecration 
was  sent  to  the  great  Churches,  but  these 
refused  to  acknowledge  him,  and  many  of 
his  followers,  alarmed  at  the  schism,  re¬ 
turned  to  orthodoxy.  Nevertheless,  the 
numbers  of  the  sect  increased,  and  the 
members  swore,  at  the  reception  of  the 
Eucharist,  that  they  would  never  desert 
him  or  return  to  Cornelius.  They  now 
assumed  the  name  of  Cathari  (i.  e.,  Puri¬ 
tans),  and  adopted  still  harsher  views. 
Not  only  the  lapsed,  but  also  those  who 
had  been  guilty  of  any  of  the  greater  sins 
after  baptism,  were  excommunicated  for 
life.  They  declared  the  Church  to  have 
become  impure,  and  its  ministrations  to  be 
of  no  effect,  and  second  marriages  were 
forbidden  as  adulterous.  The  Novatian 
sect  continued  for  a  considerable  time. 
They  were  perfectly  orthodox  as  to  the 
fundamental  doctrines  of  Christianity,  and 
suffered,  with  the  Catholics,  from  the  Ari- 
ans.  An  attempt  was  made  at  the  Council 
of  Nicaea  to  bring  them  back  to  the  Church, 
and  they  were  generally  unmolested  by 
the  Catholics  until  the  time  of  Nestorius 
and  Cyril  of  Alexandria. — Benham:  Diet, 
of  Religion. 

Novices,  a  name  given  to  those  who  are 
in  a  state  of  probation,  prior  to  their  en¬ 
tering  a  religious  society.  This  period 
is  termed  the  novitiate.  During  this  time 
of  trial  no  promises  are  given,  and  if  they 
so  desire  they  can  return  to  the  world. 

Novitiate.  See  Novices. 

Nowell,  Alexander,  b.  at  Whalley, 
Lancaster,  1507  or  1508;  d.  in  London, 
Feb.  13,  1602.  He  became  head-master  of 
Westminster  School  in  1543,  and  gained  an 
extended  reputation  as  a  preacher.  Ac¬ 
cepting  the  principles  of  the  Reformation, 
on  the  accession  of  Mary  he  fled  to  the 
Continent,  but  returned  when  Elizabeth 
came  to  the  throne,  and  was  made  arch¬ 
deacon  of  Middlesex  and  canon  of  Canter¬ 
bury  in  1560.  He  was  prominent  in 
ecclesiastical  affairs,  and  noted  for  his  learn¬ 
ing  and  piety.*  See  his  Life ,  by  Churton 
(Oxford,  1809). 

Numbers.  See  Pentateuch. 

Nun,  Nunnery  (derived  probably  from 
the  Coptic  nonnos ,  holy).  Early  in  the  his¬ 
tory  of  the  Christian  Church  females  who 
sought  religious  retirement,  and  desired  to 
devote  themselves  to  labors  of  piety  among 
the  poor  and  sick,  were  consecrated  by  the 
bishop,  and  received  from  him  the  mantle, 
veil,  and  head-dress  which  were  their  pe¬ 
culiar  garments.  This  life  of  asceticism 


Nun 


(  ^75  ) 


Oba 


was  changed  to  monasticism  at  the  same 
time,  and  under  the  influences  that  created 
communities  of  monks.  These  bands  of 
nuns  were  under  the  care  of  the  bishops, 
and  received  their  rules  from  them.  In  the 
sixth  century  they  gained  a  right  to  their 
own  cloister-churches,  in  which  special 
priests  officiated.  At  the  head  of  the  nun¬ 
nery  was  an  abbess,  a  prioress,  or  a  mother- 
superior.  See  Abbess;  Monastery. 

Nuncio*  See  Legate. 

Nuremberg,  The  Religious  Peace  of. 

It  was  evident  after  the  Diet  of  Augsburg 
(Nov.  19,  1530)  that  Charles  V.  was  de¬ 
termined  to  control  the  religious  affairs  of 
Germany.  In  1531  the  Protestant  princes 
met  at  Smalcald,  and  arranged  an  alliance 
for  armed  defence.  The  promised  support 
of  France,  and  the  threatened  invasion  of 
Hungary  and  Austria  by  the  Turks  soon 
placed  the  emperor  in  such  a  position  that 
in  the  spring  of  1 532  he  opened  negotiations 
with  the  Protestant  princes.  These  nego¬ 
tiations  resulted  in  the  so-called  “Religious 
Peace  of  Nuremberg”  (July  23,  1532), 
which  guaranteed  the  Protestants  the  posi¬ 
tion  and  privileges  they  then  held  until  a 
general  council  could  be  held.  This  was  a 
substantial  victory  for  the  Protestant 
cause. 

o. 

Oaks.  There  are  six  Hebrew  words  thus 
rendered,  from  a  root  which  means  strong . 

In  some  passages  it  probably  designates 
the  terebinth,  elm,  or  any  strong,  flourish¬ 
ing  tree.  Three  species  of  the  oak  are 
found  in  Palestine.  They  are  often  men 
tioned  in  the  Bible  to  designate  the  locality 
of  important  events.  (Gen.  xxxv.  8;  Josh, 
xxiv.  26.)  Idols  were  made  of  oak  (Isa. 
xliv.  14);  and  they  marked  places  of  sacri¬ 
fice  (Hos.  iv.  13;  Isa.  i.  29);  and  of  burial. 

(1  Sam.  xxxi.  13.)  The  Druids  of  Britain 
venerated  the  oak,  and  it  was  to  them  the 
symbol  of  the  Supreme  Being.  The  mistle¬ 
toe  which  grew  upon  the  oak  represented 
the  dependent  state  of  man,  and  it  was  cut 
with  special  ceremonies  in  December  of 
each  year. 

Oaths.  The  custom  of  appealing  to  God  to 
affirm  the  truth  of  statements,  with  an  im¬ 
precation  of  his  vengeance,  or  a  renuncia¬ 
tion  of  his  favor  if  they  prove  false,  has 
been  common  to  all  nations.  The  Romans 
and  Greeks  used  many  forms  of  swearing, 
with  ceremonies.  The  Jews  at  first  used 
to  swear  by  God  only,  but  in  later  times 
they  swore  by  Jerusalem,  the  temple,  the  j 
altar,  etc.,  and  that  it  was  against  this  that  j 


our  Lord  warns  Christians,  and  not  against 
swearing  at  all,  appears  from  the  fact  that 
St.  Paul  calls  God  to  witness  the  truth  of 
his  affirmations  several  times.  This  view 
was  taken  by  the  early  Christians,  and  in 
several  passages  in  the  Fathers  and  coun¬ 
cils  it  appears  that  swearing  upon  solemn 
occasions  was  held  lawful.  It  then  became 
a  custom  to  lay  their  hands  on  the  Gospels 
when  they  swore,  and  to  conclude  with 
“  So  help  me,  God,  and  the  contents  of  this 
Book,”  to  which,  in  the  Roman  Church, 
“all  the  saints”  was  sometimes  added. 
These  oaths  were  called  corporal  oaths. 
Others  swore  by  some  particular  saint, 
relics,  cross,  or  altar.  In  the  Middle  Ages 
an  oath  was  frequently  called  a  canonical 
purgation,  to  distinguish  it  from  the  other 
modes  of  declaring  innocence,  as  duels,  or¬ 
deals,  etc.  By  the  Council  of  Meaux  the 
clergy  were  forbidden  to  take  corporal 
oaths,  it  being  held  that  all  ought  to  trust 
their  word. — Benham:  Did.  of  Religion. 

Obadiah  ( worshiper  of  JehovaJi)  “  proph¬ 
esied,  it  has  been  conjectured,  before  the 
destruction  of  Jerusalem  (b.  c.  588),  and 
the  conquest  of  Edom  (583).  As  Nahum 
had  foretold  the  downfall  of  Assyria,  and 
Habakkuk  that  of  Chaldaea,  so  Obadiah 
predicts  that  of  the  implacable  foe  of  Is¬ 
rael,  Edom,  warning  the  Edomites  not  to 
rejoice  in  the  day  of  their  brother’s  calam¬ 
ity  (for  the  Hebrew  tenses  are  future ,  not 
past,  as  in  our  translation).  He  foretells 
the  utter  annihilation  of  Edom,  and  con¬ 
trasts  it  with  the  future  restoration  of  Is¬ 
rael,  which  should  also  possess  the  land  of 
Edom  and  Philistia,  and  enjoy  the  promises 
of  her  offspring,  the  Messiah. 

“  Verses  1  to  8  are  extremely  similar  to 
a  passage  in  Jeremiah  (xlix.  14  foil.).  This 
similarity  has  caused  a  doubt  which  of  the 
two  prophets  repeated  the  denunciations 
of  the  other;  and  therefore  the  exact  date 
of  this  book  is  rendered  uncertain,  some 
advocating  its  priority  to  that  of  Jeremiah, 
others  ascribing  it  to  a  later  date.  Dr. 
Pusey  maintains  that  the  Hebrew  future 
determines  the  question  in  favor  of  the 
priority  of  the  Book  of  Obadiah.  Those 
who  take  the  opposite  view  conjecture  that 
the  occasion  of  this  prophecy  was  the  hos¬ 
tility  shown  by  the  sons  of  Esau  to  their 
brethren,  the  Israelites,  at  the  time  of  the 
Babylonish  invasion.  They  seem  to  have 
rejoiced  in  the  downfall  of  Jerusalem, 
and  to  have  cut  off  those  Jews  who  at¬ 
tempted  to  flee  through  Idumaea  into  Egypt. 
Hence  arose  the  prayer  of  the  Jewish  cap¬ 
tives  in  Babylon  (Psa.  cxxxvii.  7),  and  the 
answer  to  it  in  the  denunciations  of  Oba¬ 
diah,  who  predicts  the  Divine  retribution 
on  Edom,  and  the  future  glory  of  Israel  in 


Obe 


(  676  ) 


Obe 


the  occupation  of  Idumaea.  This  prophecy 
was  partially  fulfilled  by  Nebuchadnezzar, 
and  further  by  the  entire  subjugation  of 
Edom  by  John  Hyrcanus,  which  thence¬ 
forth  vanishes  from  history;  but  its  com¬ 
pletion,  in  the  possession  of  Idumaea  by  the 
Israelites,  must  still  be  anticipated  after 
the  final  return  of  that  people  to  their 
promised  inheritance;  and  therefore  this 
book  is  the  favorite  study  of  the  Jews  to 
this  day. 

“  Summary. — (1)  The  Edomites  fancied 
themselves  secure  in  the  fastness  of  their 
rocks  (ver.  3).  (2)  The  spoiler  should  ut¬ 
terly  destroy  them  (vers.  4-16).  (3)  The 

chastisement  inflicted  on  the  Jews  should 
be  but  temporary;  and,  after  their  return 
from  captivity,  they  should  possess  Edom 
and  Philistia,  and  at  length  rejoice  in  the 
glorious  reign  of  the  Messiah  (17-21).” — 
“  Oxford  ”  Bible  Helps.  See  Lange’s  Com¬ 
mentary  (N.  Y.,  1875);  Pusey:  Commentary 
of  the  Minor  Prophets  (N.  Y.,  1885). 

Oberammergau,  a  village  situated  in 
the  highlands  of  Bavaria,  made  famous  by 
the  Passion  Play  which  is  acted  there  every 
ten  years.  The  following  traditional  ac¬ 
count  is  given  of  its  origin:  A  plague 
broke  out  in  the  neighborhood  in  1633, 
which,  in  spite  of  all  the  efforts  of  the  vil¬ 
lagers,  was  introduced  into  Ammergau  by 
a  peasant,  Caspar  Schuchle,  who  had  been 
working  at  Eschelohe,  one  of  the  plague- 
stricken  villages,  and  wished  to  visit  his 
family.  In  a  day  or  two  he  died,  and 
within  a  month  eighty-four  persons  had 
perished.  Then  the  villagers  assembled, 
and  vowed  that  if  God  would  take  away 
the  pestilence  they  would  perform  the 
Passion  Play  every  tenth  year.  From  that 
time  no  one  died  of  the  plague.  The  play 
was  first  performed  in  1634,  and  has  been 
enacted  every  tenth  year  since  1680.  This 
is  the  tradition,  but  the  play  is  of  much 
older  date.  They  now  speak  of  it  as 
something  already  well  known,  and  it  is 
only  the  acting  it  every  tenth  year  that  is 
new.  The  oldest  text-book  of  the  play 
bears  the  date  1662,  and  refers  to  a  still 
older  book.  Since  the  year  1634  the  play 
has  undergone  many  improvements.  Thus, 
Lucifer,  Prince  of  Hell,  who,  with  his 
retinue,  used  to  play  a  prominent  part,  has 
been  banished.  Father  Ottmar  Weiss,  of 
Jesewang,  ex-conventual  of  the  Benedict¬ 
ine  monastery  at  Ettal  (d.  1843),  revised 
the  play,  and  the  improvements  were  car¬ 
ried  on  by  Anton  A.  Daisenberg,  the 
former  pastor  of  the  village.  Up  to  1830 
the  play  took  place  in  the  churchyard,  but 
since  then  a  theatre  has  been  built  for  it. 
This  is  built  entirely  of  boards,  and  is 
partly  open  to  the  sky.  The  auditorium 


is  1 18  feet  wide  and  168  deep.  It  comprises 
an  area  of  20,000  square  feet,  and  is  ca¬ 
pable  of  conveniently  seating  50,000  to  60,- 
000  persons.  Some  say  the  stage  resem¬ 
bles  those  of  ancient  classical  Greek  thea¬ 
tres,  while  others  find  more  resemblance 
to  the  mystery  theatre  of  the  Middle  Ages. 
There  are  five  distinct  places  of  action  for 
the  players:  The  proscenium  for  the  chor¬ 
us,  processions,  etc.;  the  central  stage  for 
the  tableaux-vivants  and  the  usua^  dramatic 
scenes;  the  palace  of  Pilate;  the  palace  of 
Annas,  and  the  streets  of  Jerusalem.  The 
prices  of  the  seats  are  from  one  to  eight 
marks. 

The  great  training-school  for  the  Passion 
Play  has  been  the  village  church,  with  its 
ceremonies,  processions,  music,  and  song. 
Thus,  the  dramatic  scene  of  Christ’s  entry 
into  Jerusalem  is  a  repetition  of  the  Church 
procession  on  Palm  Sunday,  even  to  the 
singing  of  the  chorale,  “  All  hail  !  all  hail  ! 
O  David’s  Son  !”  In  the  school  the  chil¬ 
dren  are  taught  to  learn  by  heart  and  sing 
passages  from  the  great  drama.  The  se¬ 
lection  of  the  actors  takes  place  there.  The 
more  talented  are  given  parts  for  perform¬ 
ance  on  the  stage  of  the  theatre,  which 
remains  up  during  the  nine  intervening 
years,  though  the  rest  is  taken  down. 
During  these  years  minor  plays,  religious 
and  secular,  are  acted,  especially  during 
the  winter.  Almost  all  the  principal  actors 
are  wood-carvers.  Josef  Maier,  who  rep¬ 
resented  the  “  Christus  ”  in  1870-71  and  in 
1880,  and  who  has  since  died,  also  Schauer, 
who  took  the  part  in  i860,  devoted  them¬ 
selves  chiefly  to  crucifixes.  Jacob  Hett, 
the  “Petrus”  of  1880,  and  Lechner,  the 
“  Judas,”  are  also  skilful  carvers. 

At  five  o’clock  on  the  mornings  when  the 
play  is  to  take  place  a  cannon  is  fired  to 
summon  the  villagers  and  visitors  to  attend 
mass.  The  performance  begins  at  eight 
and  lasts  till  five,  with  an  interval  of  an 
hour  and  a  half.  It  consists  of  eighteen 
acts,  beginning  with  the  entry  into  Jerusa¬ 
lem,  and  ending  with  the  Ascension.  Each 
act  is  preceded  by  one  or  more  tableaux 
taken  from  the  Old  Testament,  which  de¬ 
lineate  symbols  or  prophecies  of  the  scenes 
from  the  life  of  Christ.  These  types  are 
explained  by  the  chorus  of  eighteen  schutz- 
geister,  or  guardian  angels,  headed  by  a 
leader  called  the  prologue  or  choragus. 
The  shutzgeister  greatly  resemble  the  cho¬ 
rus  of  the  ancient  Greek  plays.  The  play 
was,  in  1880,  given  more  than  thirty 
times,  from  May  17  to  Sept.  26;  it  always 
takes  place  on  Sundays  and  festivals. 
Though  many  look  upon  the  play  as  irrev¬ 
erent,  it  is  acted  with  so  much  earnestness 
and  piety  that  it  is  evident  to  all  spectators 
that  it  is  regarded  by  the  people  as  a  relig- 


Obe 


(677) 


Och 


ious  duty.  It  would,  however,  certainly 
not  be  so  in  any  other  place,  as  the  attempts 
to  introduce  it  into  New  York  in  1881-82 
clearly  show. — Benham:  Did.  of  Religion. 

Oberlin  (o' ber-li/i) ,  Jean  Frederic,  “  pas¬ 
tor  and  philanthropist,  was  the  son  of  a 
teacher,  and  was  b.  Aug.  31,  1740,  at 
Strasburg,  where  he  studied  theology.  In 
1766  he  became  Protestant  pastor  of  Wald- 
bach,  a  remote  and  poverty-stricken  region 
in  the  Steinthal (Ban  de  la  Roche)  in  Alsace. 
At  once  he  set  himself  to  better  the  mate¬ 
rial  equally  with  the  spiritual  condition  of 
the  inhabitants.  He  began  by  constructing 
roads  through  the  valley  and  erecting 
bridges,  inciting  the  peasantry  to  the  en¬ 
terprise  by  himself  taking  a  mattock  and 
commencing  operations.  His  example 
proved  equally  effectual  in  introducing  an 
improved  system  of  agriculture,  with  the 
results  that  the  sterile  Waldbach  soon  ‘  be¬ 
gan  to  blossom  as  the  rose.’  Substantial 
cottages  were  erected,  various  industrial 
arts  were  introduced,  and  activity  and  com¬ 
fort  began  to  prevail  in  homes  formerly 
tenanted  by  listless  and-  ignoble  poverty. 
Regarding  the  intellectual  needs  of  his 
parishioners,  Oberlin  was  also  keenly  so¬ 
licitous.  He  founded  a  circulating  library, 
originated  infant  -  schools — the  first  that 
have  existed — and  established  an  ordinary 
school  at  each  of  the  five  villages  in  the 
parish.  In  the  work  of  education  he  re¬ 
ceived  great  assistance  from  Louis  Schep- 
pler,  who  lived  in  his  house  in  the  capacity 
of  servant  and  housekeeper.  By  his  un¬ 
selfish  devotion  to  their  interests,  Oberlin 
won  so  entirely  the  confidence  of  his  par¬ 
ishioners  that  he  was  consulted  in  the  most 
minute  domestic  affairs,  and  his  word  be¬ 
came  the  recognized  unwritten  law  of  the 
district.  He  died,  June  1,  1826,  and  was 
interred  with  great  manifestations  of  honor 
and  affection  at  the  village  of  Fonday.  Since 
his  death  the  Steinthal  has  suffered  no  in¬ 
terruption  to  its  prosperity.  When  he  began 
his  labors  its  inhabitants  did  not  number 
more  than  500;  in  the  beginning  of  the  cen¬ 
tury  they  had  increased  to  about  3,000;  and 
now  they  are  supposed  to  number  about 
6,000. ” — Ency.  Britannica. 

Oblations,  by  special  usage,  signifies  the 
bread  and  wine  offered  upon  the  altar  for 
consecration  at  the  Holy  Eucharist.  It 
was  an  early  custom  for  all  communicants 
who  could  afford  it,  to  offer  bread  and  wine 
at  the  altar,  and  what  was  needed  was 
taken  for  the  Eucharist  and  the  rest  for  a 
common  meal.  None  were  allowed  to  make 
these  offerings  but  communicants. 

Occam,  or  Ockham,  William  oe,  one 


of  the  great  Schoolmen,  called  Doctor  Sing- 
ularis  et  Invincibilis;  b.  at  Ockham,  Surrey, 
about;  1270  d.  at  Munich,  April  7,  1347. 
He  was  educated  at  Merton  College,  Ox¬ 
ford,  but,  having  joined  the  Order  of  the 
Franciscans,  went  to  France  to  study  under 
Duns  Scotus.  He  afterward  opposed  the 
Realism  of  his  teacher,  and  formed  a  sect 
of  Occamists  among  his  followers,  holding 
the  doctrine  of  Nominalism  (see  Realism), 
of  which  he  became  the  most  vigorous  and 
logical  advocate.  He  constituted  himself 
defendant  of  Philippe  le  Bel  of  France  when 
the  latter  was  excommunicated  by  Pope 
Boniface  VIII. ;  and  some  years  later  he 
attacked  Pope  John  XXII.,  who  had  con¬ 
demned  one  Berenger  Talon  for  saying 
that  ecclesiastical  possessions  were  unlaw¬ 
ful  and  contrary  to  the  example  of  Christ 
and  his  disciples.  For  this,  William  of  Oc¬ 
cam  was  imprisoned  at  Avignon,  but  es¬ 
caped  with  one  of  his  companions  to  the 
Mediterranean,  and  thence  to  Munich, 
where  he  spent  the  remainder  of  his  life. 
He  ranked  high  among  the  Schoolmen  as  a 
logician,  and  was  engaged  throughout  his 
life  in  continual  ecclesiastical  controversies. 
Among  his  works  may  be  mentioned,  Dis- 
pntatio  inter  Clericu)n  et  Mililem ,  Expositio 
Aurea  (containing  a  summary  of  his  Nom¬ 
inalist  views);  Decisiones  Octo  Questionum 
de  Pot  estate  summi  Pontifcis  (based  on  the 
Sententice  of  Peter  the  Lombard),  and  many 
other  controversial  works. — Benham:  Did. 
of  Religion. 

Occum,  Sampson,  a  converted  Indian; 
b.  at  Mohegan,  near  New  London,  Conn., 
about  1723;  d.  at  New  Stockbridge,  N.  Y. , 
July  14,  1792.  He  made  a  Christian  con¬ 
fession  in  1739,  and  was  ordained  in  1759 
by  the  Suffolk  Presbytery,  Long  Island. 
He  visited  England  in  1766  to  raise  money 
for  Dr.  Wheelock’s  Indian  school  at  Leba¬ 
non,  Conn.  As  the  first  Indian  preacher 
who  had  visited  that  country  he  received 
much  attention.  His  labors  as  a  mission¬ 
ary  were  confined  mostly  to  the  tribes  in 
New  York. 

Ochino,  Bernardino,  an  Italian  reform¬ 
er;  b.  in  Siena,  1487;  d.  at  Schlackau, 
Mahren,  1565.  He  joined  the  Franciscans, 
and  in  1534  the  still  stricter  order  of  the 
Capuchins.  His  fame  as  a  preacher  became 
very  great,  but  he  was  accused  of  heresy 
at  Naples  in  1540,  for  laying  emphasis  upon 
justification  by  faith,  and  ignoring  indul¬ 
gences,  purgatory,  etc.  In  the  following 
year,  however,  he  was  again  elected  gen¬ 
eral  of  the  Capuchins.  Driven  from  Italy 
by  the  persecutions  of  Rome,  he  found  a 
refuge  in  Geneva,  where  he  won  the  regard 
of  Calvin.  In  1545  he  preached  to  an  Ital- 


Oct 


(  678  ) 


Oet 


ian  congregation  in  Augsburg;  two  years 
later  an  effort  was  made  to  take  him  pris¬ 
oner,  but  he  escaped  to  England,  where  he 
remained  until  the  accession  of  Queen 
Mary.  Returning  to  Geneva,  he  spoke  in 
disapproval  of  the  burning  of  Servetus, 
and  was  compelled  to  leave.  He  went  to 
Zurich,  where  he  published  several  works 
which  contained  Socinian  views  and  also 
brought  him  under  the  charge  of  favoring 
polygamy.  He  was  banished  from  the  city, 
and  went  to  Cracow,  only  to  meet  there  a 
decree  (1564)  banishing  all  foreigners  from 
Poland  who  were  not  Catholics.  He  died 
on  the  way  to  Germany.  Ochino  has  been 
regarded  by  some  as  the  founder  of  Anti- 
Trinitarianism.  See  his  Life,  by  Benrath 
(Eng.  trans.  N.  Y.,  1877). 

Octave,  a  liturgical  term,  denoting  the 
celebration  in  the  Roman  Catholic  Church 
of  the  great  Christian  festivals  during  eight 
consecutive  days.  All  the  days  of  octaves 
in  the  Roman  Church  are  kept  very  strictly. 
The  missal  prescribes  a  special  prayer  for 
each  day,  and  for  the  last  a  special  service. 
The  Anglican  Church  retains  this  arrange¬ 
ment  to  some  extent. 

CEcolampadius  (ek'o-lam -pa ' di-us) ,  Joan¬ 
nes,  the  companion  of  Zwingli  in  carrying 
forward  the  work  of  the  Reformation  in 
Switzerland,  was  b.  in  Weinsberg,  Wiir- 
temberg,  in  1482;  d.  at  Basel,  1531.  He 
studied  for  the  law  at  Bologna,  but  return¬ 
ed  home  and  decided  to  study  theology  at 
Heidelberg.  He  received  his  degree  in 
1503,  and  not  long  after  returned  to  Weins¬ 
berg,  where  he  delivered  a  series  of  ser¬ 
mons  which  were  published  in  1512.  In 
order  to  become  more  proficient  in  the  an¬ 
cient  languages  he  studied  at  Freiburg  and 
Tubingen,  and  Heidelberg.  Soon  after  his 
return  to  Weinsberg  he  was  called  to  Basel 
as  cathedral  preacher,  and  here  assisted 
Erasmus  in  the  preparation  of  his  Annota¬ 
tions  on  the  New  Testament.  He  published 
a  Greek  grammar  in  1520,  in  connection 
with  his  labors  as  preacher  of  the  cathe¬ 
dral  church  of  Augsburg.  At  this  time  he 
identified  himself  with  those  who  favored 
the  cause  of  Luther.  After  a  period  of 
two  years  spent  in  a  convent  near  Augs¬ 
burg,  he  again  settled  in  Basel.  He  here 
denounced  many  of  the  doctrines  of  the 
Roman  Church,  and  held  controversies 
with  the  Anabaptists.  He  supported 
Zwingli  in  his  disputes  with  Luther  con¬ 
cerning  the  Lord’s  Supper.  He  wrote  a 
treatise  on  this  subject,  besides  commen¬ 
taries  and  other  books.  “  (Eolampadius 
was  not  as  original  and  able  a  theologian 
as  Zwingli  and  others;  but  he  held  an  in¬ 
dependent  position  over  against  Zwingli, 


as  is  clear  from  his  views  on  predestination. 
He  did  not  enter  into  Zwingli’s,  Luther’s, 
and  Calvin’s  minute  analysis  of  this  doc¬ 
trine.  His  views  were  well  expressed  in 
his  reply  to  the  Waldensian,  Morel  (1530), 
‘  Our  salvation  is  of  God;  our  perdition  of 
ourselves.’  He  was  moderate  and  irenic 
in  his  spirit.  His  earlier  views  on  the 
Lord’s  Supper  gave  way  to  sounder  views, 
which  regarded  it  as  a  means  of  grace  for 
the  Christian  life.”  See  art.  by  Herzog  in 
Schaff-Herzog:  Ency.,  vol.  ii.,  pp.  1681-83. 

(Ecumenical  Councils  (Greek  oikoutnene, 
the  world)  are  distinguished  from  diocesan 
or  provincial  synods,  by  being  gathered 
from  all  parts,  and  therefore  representative 
of  the  entire  church. 

Oehler,  Gustav  Friedrich,  a  distin¬ 
guished  Old  Testament  theologian  and 
commentator;  b.  June  10, 1812,  at  Ebingen, 
Wiirtemberg;  d.  Feb.  19,  1872,  at  Tubing¬ 
en.  He  studied  theology  at  Tubingen, 
and  from  1834  taught  for  three  years  at 
Basel,  when  he  returned  to  Tubingen.  In 
1840  he  became  pastor  at  Schflnthal  and 
professor  in  the  seminary.  In  1845  he  was 
chosen  a  member  of  the  theological  faculty 
at  Breslau,  and  continued  there  until  1852, 
when  he  accepted  the  position  of  director 
of  the  seminary  at  Tubingen.  He  was  a 
man  of  great  industry,  and  devoted  him¬ 
self  to  the  study  of  the  Old  Testament. 
“  His  conception  of  the  Old  Testament 
was  that  of  a  progressive  and  growing 
revelation  toward  the  standard  of  the  New 
Testament;  the  Old  and  New  Testaments 
are  parts  of  one  organic  history  by  reason 
of  an  inherent  plan  of  the  Divine  Mind. 
The  Old  Testament  was  to  him  a  record  of 
revelation,  in  which  the  plan  of  God  was 
realized  in  part,  the  New  Testament  form¬ 
ing  the  consummation.  He  adopted  some 
of  the  results  of  modern  criticism,  and  ac¬ 
knowledged  the  existence  of  several  differ¬ 
ent  hands  in  the  composition  of  the  Penta¬ 
teuch,  and  two  authors  for  Isaiah.” 
Oehler’s  Theology  of  the  Old  Testament 
(Eng.  trans.  N.  Y.,  1883)  is  considered  by 
the  ablest  scholars  the  best  work  on  the 
subject. 

Oetinger  (o'ting-er),  Friedrich  Christo¬ 
pher,  a  German  theological  writer  of  the 
Mystical  school;  b.  at  Goppingen,  Wiirtem- 
berg,  May  6,  1702;  d.  at  Murrhard,  Wiir- 
temberg,  Feb.  10,  1782.  His  position  in 
German  theology  is  analogous  to  that  of 
the  Hutchinsonians  with  respect  to  the 
English  Deists.  He  endeavored  to  meet 
the  Rationalism  and  Materialism  of  his 
country  by  philological  investigations,  by 
means  of  which  he  constructed  a  system 


Off 


(  6 79  ) 


Ola 


of  philosophy  which  was  to  unite  subject 
and  object,  matter  and  spirit,  in  the  living 
Christ.  Much  of  his  doctrine  was  derived 
from  Swedenborg.  His  writings  were 
voluminous  and  not  without  effect.  The 
Pietists  (q.  v.)  set  a  large  value  upon 
them  on  account  of  the  careful  spirit  of  in¬ 
vestigation  and  industry  which  they  dis¬ 
play.  For  though  his  mind  was  inclined 
to  everything  fanciful  and  mysterious,  yet 
he  was  learned,  and,  moreover,  practical 
and  full  of  good  sense;  above  all,  he  was 
earnest  and  pious,  and  the  people  of  Berlin 
recognized  in  him  a  genuine  desire  to  give 
the  mysteries  of  God  a  bearing  on  their 
daily  life. — Benham:  Diet,  of  Religion. 

Offerings  formed,  in  connection  with 
sacrifices,  an  essential  part  of  religious 
worship  among  the  Jews.  These  “  were 
made  regularly  or  occasionally,  some  in 
self  -  dedication,  some  propitiatory,  and 
some  eucharistic,  and  consisted  of  (i) 
burnt-offerings,  (2)  meat-offerings,  (3) 
peace-offerings,  and  (4)  sin  and  trespass 
offerings. 

“  (1)  The  burnt-offering. — This  consisted 
of  an  offering  to  God  in  fire  taken  from  the 
altar,  where  it  burned  continually,  of  a 
whole  animal,  and  it  symbolized  the  dedi¬ 
cation  of  the  entire  life  to  God  in  an  un¬ 
dying,  all-consuming  zeal  for  his  law.  It 
was  to  be  made  daily  on  behalf  of  all  the 
people  (Exod.  xxix.  38-42),  to  be  double  on 
the  Sabbath  (Num.  xxviii.  9,  10),  and  to  be 
a  special  feature  of  the  great  festivals. 
(Num.  xxviii.  11-xxix.  39.) 

"(2)  The  meat-offering. — This  was  ‘  un¬ 
bloody,’  consisting  of  pure  flour,  oil,  and 
wine,  seasoned  with  salt,  and  it  was  eucha¬ 
ristic,  the  flour  in  symbol  that  the  support 
of  life,  the  oil  that  its  fulness,  and  the  wine 
that  its  vigor  are  of  the  Lord.  It  was  to 
be  made  at  the  morning  and  evening  sacri¬ 
fice  (Exod.  xxix.  40,  41),  in  the  renewal  of 
shewbread  every  Sabbath  (Lev.  xxiv.  5-9), 
and  specially  on  the  Sabbath,  and  at  the 
great  festivals.  (Num.  xxviii.  and  xxix.) 

“(3)  The  peace  -  offering.  —  This  was 
‘  bloody,’  consisting  of  an  animal  from 
the  herd  or  the  flock,  of  which  the  flesh 
was  to  be  eaten,  the  blood  to  be  poured 
out,  and  the  fat  to  be  burned,  in  way 
of  vow  to  observe  the  statute  which  re¬ 
quired  that  the  offerer  should  ‘  eat  neither 
fat  nor  blood.’  (Lev.  iii.)  It  was  to  be  in 
thank-offering,  in  vow,  or  in  freewill-offer¬ 
ing.  (Lev.  vii.  11-21.) 

“(4)  The  sin  and  trespass  offerings. — 
These  were  propitiatory  or  expiatory,  and 
consisted  of  the  sacrifice  of  an  animal,  of 
which  the  blood  was  partly  sprinkled  be¬ 
fore  the  veil  of  the  sanctuary,  partly  put 
on  the  horns  of  the  altar  of  incense,  and 


the  rest  poured  out  at  the  foot  of  the  altar 
of  burnt-offering,  and  of  which  the  flesh 
was  either  burnt  without  the  camp,  or 
eaten  by  the  priests  in  the  holy  place. 
(Lev.  iv.-vi.)  They  expressed  confession 
of  sin,  and  a  sense  of  its  ill-desert — the 
sin-offering,  it  is  thought,  of  sin  in  general, 
or  offenses  which  the  person  committing 
them  has  perpetrated  unwittingly,  and  the 
trespass-offering  of  some  particular  offense 
of  which  the  offender  felt  the  guilt  even 
before  the  community  discerned  it.”  —  Bag- 
ster:  Bible  Helps.  See  Delitzsch:  Commen¬ 
tary  on  Hebrews ;  Ewald:  Antiquities  of 
Israel;  Oehler:  Theology  0 f  the  Old  Testa¬ 
ment. 

Offertory,  (1)  a  term  which,  in  the  litur¬ 
gy  of  the  Roman  Catholic  Church,  denotes 
the  first  part  of  the  eucharistic  service,  con¬ 
sisting  of  the  Dominus  vobiscum ,  the  obla¬ 
tion  of  the  bread  and  wine,  the  censing  of 
the  oblation,  the  altar,  etc.,  and  the  pray¬ 
er.  (2)  The  sentences,  said  by  the  minis¬ 
ter  in  the  Episcopal  and  some  other  church¬ 
es,  during  the  communion,  while  the  offer¬ 
ings  of  the  people  are  being  collected. 

Office,  Congregation  ok  the  Holy, 
that  department  of  the  papal  government 
which  is  charged  with  the  direction  of  the 
Inquisition  ( q .  v.).  It  was  established  by 
Paul  III. ,  in  1542. 

Offices  of  Christ.  Sec  Jesus  Christ, 
Three  Offices  of. 

Oil,  Olive.  The  olive-tree  is  one  of  the 
most  common  trees  of  Palestine.  It  resem¬ 
bles  the  apple-tree  in  form  and  in  mode  of  cul¬ 
tivation.  It  blossoms  profusely,  and  its  fruit 
is  like  a  plum  in  shape  and  color.  The  olives 
are  sometimes  gathered  in  an  unripe  state 
and  pickled,  but  are  valuable  mostly  for  the 
oil  which  is  pressed  from  them.  Olives 
are  eaten,  and  the  oil  is  used  in  the  place 
of  butter  and  fat.  So  important  a  part  did 
the  olive  play  in  the  every-day  life  of  the 
Jews  that  the  failure  of  the  harvest  was 
deemed  a  great  calamity.  Mixed  with 
odorous  vegetable  essences  the  oil  was  used 
for  anointing  the  body. 

Olaf,  St.,  King  of  Norway  (1015-30). 
In  early  life  he  fought  in  England  against 
Canute  the  Great.  Returning  to  Norway, 
in  1015,  he  secured  the  crown,  ami  bent  his 
energies  to  the  establishment  of  Christian¬ 
ity.  He  employed  coercive  and  violent 
methods,  and  the  discontent  became  so 
great  that  when  Canute  the  Great  invaded 
the  country  most  of  the  people  welcomed 
him.  Olaf  fled  to  Russia,  and  upon  his  re¬ 
turn  was  defeated  and  killed  in  the  battle 


Old 


(  680  ) 


Oli 


of  Sliklesbad,  July  29,  1030.  Very  soon 
there  came  a  strong  revulsion  of  feeling, 
and  in  1031,  in  a  great  assembly  of  the 
clergy  and  laymen,  Olaf  was  declared  a 
saint.  His  remains  were  deposited  in  the 
cathedral  of  Nidaros  (Trondhjem),  and  the 
story  of  miracles  drew  crowds  of  pilgrims 
to  his  grave.  Olaf  is  the  patron  saint  of 
Norway. 

Oldcastle,  Sir  John.  See  Gorham,  Lord. 

Old  Catholics,  “  (a)  the  name  used  by 
a  small  body  of  believers  in  Jansenism  in 
Holland,  with  an  archiepiscopal  see  in 
Utrecht.  They  have  continued  since  1723 
to  recognize  the  authority  of  the  pope  by 
sending  him  notice  of  each  new  election  of 
a  bishop,  which  he  always  disregards.  ( b ) 
A  reform  party  in  the  Roman  Catholic 
Church,  founded  after  the  proclamation  of, 
and  in  opposition  to,  the  dogma  of  papal 
infallibility  proclaimed  by  the  Vatican 
Council  in  1870.  A  schism  with  the  Ro¬ 
man  Catholic  Church  was  not  intended, 'but 
it  resulted;  the  leaders  were  excommuni¬ 
cated  and  new  congregations  formed.  No 
t  bishop  having  joined  the  movement,  the 
ordination  of  a  bishop  was  obtained  from 
the  Old  Catholic  bishop  of  Deventer  in 
Holland.  Old  Catholics  have  departed  in 
few  respects  from  their  former  ecclesias¬ 
tical  customs  as  Roman  Catholics.  Auric¬ 
ular  confession  and  fasting  are,  however, 
voluntary  with  them,  and  priests  are 
allowed  to  marry.  Mass  is  permitted  to 
be  said  in  the  vernacular.  They  are  found 
chiefly  in  Germany  and  in  Switzerland, 
where  they  call  themselves  Christian  Cath¬ 
olics.'' — Century  Dictionary.  They  number 
in  Holland  about  thirty  priests  and  8,000 
adherents.  In  Prussia  in  1886  they  had 
thirty-five  priests  and  15,063  members.  It 
is  estimated  that  there  are  in  Germany 
about  40,000  Old  Catholics;  Austria,  10,- 
000;  and  in  Switzerland,  40,000.  See 
Doellinger. 

Old  Testament.  See  Bible,  p.  103. 

Olevianus,  Casper,  one  of  the  founders 
of  the  Reformed  Church  in  Germany;  b. 
at  Treves,  1536;  d.  at  Herborn,  1587.  He 
studied  at  Geneva,  where  he  became  an  ar¬ 
dent  disciple  of  Calvin.  Returning  to 
Treves,  as  a  teacher,  he  began  to  preach 
the  doctrines  of  the  Reformation  with 
such  success  that  the  archbishop  of  the 
diocese  threw  him  into  prison.  He  was 
finally  released  on  the  payment  of  a  sum 
of  money,  but  banished  with  his  friends. 
In  1561  he  was  elected  professor  of  theol¬ 
ogy  at  Heidelberg,  and  in  conjunction  with 
Ursinus,  he  composed  the  Heidelberg  Con¬ 


fession.  He  held  the  views  of  Calvin,  and 
upon  the  accession  of  Ludwig  VI.,  a  Lu¬ 
theran,  with  six  hundred  other  reformed 
ministers,  he  was  obliged  to  leave  the  coun¬ 
try.  He  found  a  home  at  Berleburg,  where 
he  wrote  commentaries  on  the  Epistles , 
and  a  work  on  the  covenant  of  grace.  He 
was  active  in  founding  the  Reformed 
Church,  in  Nassau  Siegen, and  other  States. 

Olga,  the  wife  of  Igor,  prince  of  Kieff, 
and  afterward  (from  945)  regent  for  Svia- 
toslaf,  her  son,  was  baptized  at  Constanti¬ 
nople,  about  955,  and  died  about  969.  She 
was  afterward  canonized  in  the  Russian 
Church,  and  is  now  commemorated  on  the 
nth  of  July. 

Olin,  Stephen,  D.  D.,  LL.  D.,  an  emi¬ 
nent  Methodist  preacher  and  educator;  b. 
at  Leicester,  Vt.,  March  3,  1797;  d.  at 
Middletown,  Conn.,  Aug.  16,  1851.  After 
graduating  at  Middlebury  College,  in  1820, 
he  entered  the  ministry  of  the  Methodist 
Episcopal  Church;  was  professor  of  Eng¬ 
lish  literature  in  the  University  of  Georgia, 
1827-34;  president  of  Randolph  Macon 
College,  Va. ,  1834-37.  After  spending 
some  time  in  traveling  in  Europe,  Egypt, 
and  Palestine,  he  assumed  the  presidency 
of  the  Wesleyan  University,  Middletown, 
Conn.,  in  1842,  where  he  remained  until  his 
death.  He  was  a  preacher  of  wonderful 
power  and  eloquence.  He  wrote:  Trav¬ 
els  in  Egypt ,  Arabia  Petrcea ,  and  the  Holy 
Land  (N.  Y. ,  1843),  2  vols. ;  and  Greece 
and  the  Golden  Horn  (N.  Y.  1854).  His 
Works ,  consisting  of  sermons,  etc.,  were 
published  in  N.  Y.,  1852,  2  vols.;  and  his 
Life  and  Letters ,  edited  by  his  wife  (N.  Y. , 
1853),  2  vols. 

Olive.  See  Oil. 

Olivers,  Thomas,  b.  at  Tregonan,  in 
Wales,  1725;  d.  in  London,  1799.  He  was 
converted  from  a  life  of  profligacy  under 
the  preaching  of  Whitefield,  and  became  an 
active  helper  of  Wesley,  assisting  him  es¬ 
pecially  in  his  literary  work.  He  wrote 
an  elegy  on  the  death  of  Wesley  (1791), 
and  four  hymns,  one  of  which,  “  The  God 
of  Abraham  praise,”  is  considered  among 
the  best  odes  in  the  language. 

Olives,  Mount  of.  or  Mount  Olivet,  “is 
the  hill  facing  the  Temple  Mount  on  the 
east,  and  separated  from  it  by  the  Kidron. 
Here  our  Lord  sat  when  he  delivered  his 
great  eschatological  address.  (Markxiii.  3.) 
That  the  ascension  took  place  from  the  sum¬ 
mit  of  the  Mount  of  Olives  is  not  necessarilv 
implied  in  Acts  i.  12,  and  appears  to  be  ex¬ 
cluded  by  Luke  xxiv.  50,  for  Bethany  lies 


Ols 


(  68r  ) 


Opt 


at  the  back  of  the  hill  and  almost  a  mile 
from  the  top.  But  since  Constantine  erect¬ 
ed  the  basilica  of  the  ascension  on  the  spot 
marked  by  a  certain  sacred  cave  (Euself.  v. 
Const.,  iii.  41),  the  site  of  the  ascension 
has  been  placed  here  and  marked  by  a  suc¬ 
cession  ol  churches.  The  present  building 
is  quite  modern.  Close  to  the  Chapel  of 
the  Ascension  is  the  vault  of  St.  Pelagia, 
and  a  little  way  down  the  hill  is  the  laby¬ 
rinth  of  rock-hewn  sepulchral  chambers, 
now  called  the  ‘  Tombs  of  the  Prophets.’ 
A  chapel  bearing  the  name  of  4  Omar,’ 
and  said  to  occupy  the  place  where  he  en¬ 
camped  when  Jerusalem  surrendered  to  the 
Moslems,  formerly  stood  beside  the  Church 
of  the  Ascension  (Mokaddasi).”  —  Ency. 
Eritannica.  See  Jerusalem. 

Olshausen  iols' how-zen),  Hermann,  a  dis¬ 
tinguished  modern  commentator,  was  b.  at 
Oldeslohe,  in  Holstein,  Aug.  21,  1796;  d.  at 
Erlangen,  Sept.  4,  1839.  He  studied  the¬ 
ology  at  Kiel  and  Berlin,  and  became  ex¬ 
traordinary  professor  at  Kdnigsberg,  in 
1821,  and  ordinary  professor  in  1827.  In 
1838  he  accepted  a  call  to  the  professorship 
of  theology  at  Erlangen.  His  great  work 
is  his  Commentary  on  the  New  Testatnent ,  a 
translation  of  which,  revised  by  Professor 
A.  C.  Kendrick,  was  published  in  New 
York  in  1856-58.  He  was  an  able  scholar 
and  a  devoted  Christian. 

On,  the  Greek  Heliopolis.  See  Egypt, 
p.  280. 

Onderdonk,  Henry  Ustic,  U.  D., 
LL.  D.,  was  b.  in  New  York,  1789;  d.  in 
Philadelphia,  Dec.  6,  1858.  Educated  at 
Columbia  College  (1805)  he  first  studied 
medicine,  but  afterward  was  ordained  to 
the  ministry  in  1815.  In  1816-20  he  was 
pastor  at  Canandaigua,  N.  Y. ;  rector  of  St. 
Ann’s,  Brooklyn,  1820-27;  assistant  bishop 
of  Pennsylvania,  1827;  succeeded  Bishop 
White,  1836;  suspended,  1844;  restored 
1856.  He  was  one  of  the  compilers  of  the 
two  hundred  and  twelve  hymns,  which  from 
1327  to  1871  were  usually  found  in  the 
Prayer-Book  of  the  Protestant  Episcopal 
Church.  Ten  of  the  hymns  were  of  his 
own  composition,  one  of  which  has  come 
into  general  use,  “  The  Spirit  in  our 
hearts.”  He  was  the  author  of  Episcopacy 
Examined  and  Re-examined  (1835). 

Oneida  Community,  an  association 
founded  by  John  H.  Noyes  who  taught 
a  so-called  religious  perfectionism  that 
inculcated  a  community  of  goods,  and 
a  theory  of  “  complex  marriage,”  which 
considered  every  man  as  married  to  every 
woman  and  every  woman  to  every  man. 


1 

Two  communities  were  established,  one 
near  Oneida,  N.  Y.  (1847),  and  the  other 
at  Wallingford,  Conn.  The  community  at 
Oneida,  living  in  one  large  building,  was 
successful  as  a  business  enterprise,  but  the 
opposition  to  its  immoral  practices  in  the 
relation  between  the  sexes,  under  the  lead 
of  prominent  citizen^  of  Oneida  County, 
secured  its  dissolution  in  1879. 

Onkelos,  the  supposed  author  of  an 
Aramaic  version  (Targum)  of  the  Penta¬ 
teuch,  and  other  books  of  the  Old  Testa¬ 
ment.  He  was  a  pupil  of  Gamaliel,  and, 
as  the  Talmud  informs  us,  a  fellow-scholar 
with  Paul.  His  Targum  is  a  faithful 
translation.  It  may  be  found  in  the  Bibles 
of  Bomberg  and  Buxtorf,  and  in  Walton’s 
Polyglot. 

Oosterzee,  Jan  Jacob  van,  a  distinguish¬ 
ed  theologian  of  the  Dutch  Evangelical 
School,  was  b.  at  Rotterdam,  April  17, 
1817;  d.  at  Wiesbaden,  July  29,  1882.  He 
was  educated  at  Utrecht,  and  was  first  pas¬ 
tor  of  Kemnes-Binnendijk,  and  four  years 
later  (1844)  at  Rotterdam.  In  1862  he  was 
called  to  Utrecht  University.  In  connec¬ 
tion  with  his  labors  as  a  teacher  he  pub¬ 
lished  many  valuable  works.  His  Life  of 
Christ,  Christology ,  Theology  of  the  Nero 
Testament ,  Dogmatics ,  Year  of  Salvation, 
Moses,  and  Practical  Theology  are  well 
known  to  English  readers  through  transla¬ 
tions.  He  contributed  St.  Luke,  the  Pas¬ 
toral  Epistles,  and  St.  James  for  Lange’s 
Commentaries. 

O'phir,  the  region  from  which  the  ships 
of  Solomon  brought  gold  of  the  finest  qual¬ 
ity.  Its  precise  situation  is  a  much-dis- 
i  puted  question.  Three  countries  have  been 
,  suggested  as  its  location:  (1)  Arabia,  as 
the  land  of  gold  was  probably  named  after 
Ophir,  a  son  of  Joktan,  and  a  descendant 
of  Shem(Gen.  x.  29,  30),  who  lived  between 
Mesha  and  Sephar,  and  a  town  of  the  lat¬ 
ter  name  is  spoken  of  by  Ptolemy  in  his 
description  of  Arabia  Felix.  (2)  India  is 
advocated  by  Ritter,  Ewald,  and  Max  Mul¬ 
ler,  because  the  articles  brought  in  the 
ships  of  Solomon  are  peculiar  to  that  coun¬ 
try.  (3)  Eastern  Africa.  Portuguese  trav¬ 
elers  in  the  sixteenth  century  suggested 
that  Ophir  was  identical  with  Sofalaon  the 
coast  of  Mozambique,  and  some  French 
scholars  accept  this  theory.  The  most 
probable  conjecture  places  Ophir  at  some 
point  on  the  southeastern  coast  of  Arabia. 

Ophites.  See  Gnosticism. 

Optimism.  This  theory,  although  it  ex¬ 
ists  to  a  great  extent  in  most  books  on 


Opu 


(  <382  ) 


Ord 


Christian  philosophy,  was  first  designated 
by  the  name  “  optimism  ”  to  describe  the 
teaching  of  Leibnitz  in  the  eighteenth  cen¬ 
tury.  Its  chief  point  is  that  the  world  as 
it  is  is  as  good  as  it  possibly  can  be,  see¬ 
ing  that  God  is  a  perfect  Being,  and  that 
therefore  his  creations  must  be  to  a  certain 
extent  perfect,  too.  But  there  are  difficul¬ 
ties  in  the  way  of  this  theory.  If  God 
wished  the  world  and  mankind  to  be  abso¬ 
lutely  perfect,  why  does  he  not  make  them 
so?  This  is  a  question  which  has  been 
eagerly  asked  age  after  age,  and  no  answer 
is  forthcoming  which  settles  it.  Pope’s 
Essay  on  Man  sums  up  the  Optimist  theory 
in  that  famous  line  in  the  first  book, 
“  Whatever  is  is  right;  ”  but  in  the  face  of 
the  sorrow  and  sin  which  we  are  compelled 
to  witness,  we  feel  that  an  epigram  like 
Pope’s  does  not  settle  the  question.  Epi¬ 
grams  take  hold  of  the  memory,  but  they 
do  not  convince.  Physical  suffering,  in¬ 
deed,  can  be  shown  in  many  cases  to  result 
in  good,  and  to  conduce  to  the  general  wel¬ 
fare  of  man,  but  the  conscience  pronounces 
sin  essentially  evil.  The  Scripture  points 
to  a  true  Optimism  when  it  points  to  a 
world  to  come  where  there  shall  be  “  no 
more  curse,”  and  where  God  “  shall  wipe 
away  all  tears.” — Benham:  Diet,  of  Religion. 

Opus  Operantis  ( the  work  of  the  worker ), 
and  Opus  Operatum  ( the  work  wrought ), 
“  two  theological  terms,  expressive  of  two 
diametrically  opposite  conceptions  of  the 
character  of  the  Christian  sacraments;  the 
former  ascribing  the  effect  of  the  rite 
chiefly,  if  not  exclusively,  to  the  disposi¬ 
tion  of  him  who  performs  it;  the  latter 
ascribing  the  effect  to  the  rite  itself,  inde¬ 
pendent,  or  nearly  independent,  of  the  dis¬ 
position  of  him  who  performs  it.” — Schaff- 
Herzog:  Ency. 

Oral  Law.  See  Tradition. 

Oratories,  a  name  once  given  to  churches 
as  being  houses  of  prayer,  but  it  is  now 
commonly  used  to  designate  private  and 
domestic  chapels,  in  distinction  to  the  parish 
church. 

Oratorio,  a  sacred  drama,  sung  by  solo 
voices  and  choruses,  and  accompanied  by 
an  orchestra.  It  differs  from  the  opera  in 
not  requiring  scenery  or  stage  costumes. 
The  subjects  of  oratorios  have  almost  al¬ 
ways  been  taken  from  the  Bible.  As  now 
prepared,  they  originated  with  Filippo  de 
Neri  ( 1 5 1 5—1 595) ,  who  had  them  sung  in 
the  “  oratory  ”  of  his  church.  Hence  their 
name.  They  have  come  to  their  grandest 
development  in  the  works  of  Handel,  Bach, 
Mendelssohn,  and  Haydn. 


Oratory,  Congregation  of  the.  See 
Neri. 

Ordeal  means  a  direct  appeal,  by  some 
extraordinary  test,  to  the  judgment  of  God. 
It  came  into  use  at  a  time  when  the  law 
was  but  feebly  administered  by  regular 
courts,  and  between  the  sixth  and  thirteenth 
centuries  it  was  encouraged  by  the  clergy  in 
Europe.  Many  tests  were  employed,  such 
as  carrying  red-hot  iron  in  the  hands,  or 
walking  upon  it,  and  thrusting  an  arm  into 
a  vessel  of  boiling  water.  The  ordeal  by 
water,  which  consisted  in  being  thrown  into 
a  stream  of  water,  with  the  hands  and 
feet  tied,  was  often  used  in  cases  of  witch¬ 
craft.  This  ordeal  was  employed  both  in 
Massachusetts  and  Connecticut  during  the 
time  when  the  witchcraft  mania  raged.  In 
the  eleventh  century  opposition  to  the  or¬ 
deal,  although  incorporated  with  the  laws, 
became  active,  and  the  Council  of  Trent  re¬ 
jected  it.  In  many  countries,  however, 
witches  were  tried  by  ordeal  in  the  seven¬ 
teenth  century. 

Orders,  Holy,  a  term,  used  especially  in 
the  Roman  Catholic  and  Episcopal 
Churches,  to  represent  the  office  and  func¬ 
tions  of  lawfully  ordained  bishops,  priests, 
and  deacons.  These  orders  are  designated 
“holy”  in  distinction  from  Inferior  or 
Minor  Orders. 

Ordinary,  a  term  of  canon  law  denoting 
one  who  exercises  ordinary  or  immediate 
jurisdiction  in  ecclesiastical  affairs.  An 
ordinary  performs  all  his  functions  in  his 
own  right,  while  lower  orders  perform 
them  in  the  right  delegated  to  them  from 
the  bishops. 

Ordination,  the  rite  or  ceremony  by 
which  ministers  of  the  Christian  Church 
are  dedicated  to  their  sacred  office.  The 
use  of  a  ceremonial  for  such  purposes  is 
traceable  among  the  Jews  (Exod.  xxix.  24; 
Lev.  xxi.  10;  Num.  iii.  3);  and  the  New 
Testament  contains  frequent  reference  to 
the  specific  ceremonial  of  “  imposition  of 
hands.”  (Acts  vi.  1-7;  xiii.  1-4;  xiv.  23; 
1  Tim.  iv.  14;  v.  22;  2  Tim.  i.  6.)  In  the 
Roman,  the  Greek,  and  the  other  Eastern 
Churches  this  rite  of  ordination  is  held  to 
be  sacramental,  and  it  is  reserved,  at  least 
as  regards  the  major  orders,  exclusively  to 
bishops.  The  Roman  Catholic  Church,  the 
Church  of  England,  and  the  Protestant 
Episcopal  Church  of  the  United  States  do 
not  consider  ordination  valid  unless  the 
officiating  bishops  are  in  the  line  of  succes¬ 
sion  from  the  apostles.  Presbyterian 
Churches  hold  that  the  ministers  of  a  pres¬ 
bytery  are  identical  with  bishops,  and  have 


Ore 


(  6$3  ) 


Ori 


power  to  ordain.  Congregational  Churches 
(including  the  Baptist),  believe  that  the 
local  church  has  the  power  of  ordination. 
In  recognition  of  the  fellowship  of  the  local 
churches,  councils  are  called  of  neighbor¬ 
ing  churches,  who  examine  the  candidate  as 
to  his  character  and  theological  views,  and 
act  in  behalf  of  the  local  church  by  ordain¬ 
ing  him  with  prayer  and  laying  on  of  hands. 
In  Wesleyan  and  Methodist  Churches  or¬ 
dination  is  performed  at  the  annual  confer¬ 
ence  by  the  bishop  or  president.  The 
Society  of  Friends,  the  Disciples  of  Christ, 
and  Plymouth  Brethren  have  no  formal 
ceremony  in  setting  apart  their  ministers, 
and  do  not  recognize  any  human  right  of 
ordination.  The  Moravians  allow  ordina¬ 
tion  only  by  their  bishops,  but  recognize 
the  ordination  of  other  Protestant  bodies 
as  valid. 

Orelli  (Hans),  Conrad  von,  Ph.  D. 
(Leipzig,  1871),  D.  D.  ( hon . ,  Greifswald, 
1885),  Swiss  Protestant;  b.  at  Zurich,  Jan. 
25,  1846;  studied  at  Zurich,  Lausanne,  Er¬ 
langen,  Tubingen,  and  Leipzig;  became 
orphan-house  preacher  at  Zurich,  1869, 
privat-docent ,  1871;  professor  extraordi¬ 
nary  of  theology  at  Basel,  1873;  ordinary 
professor,  1881.  Of  his  works,  The  Old 
Testament  Prophecy  of  the  Consummation  of 
God s  Kingdom ,  traced  in  its  Historical  De¬ 
velopment ,  was  published  in  Edinburgh, 
1885.  He  wrote  many  articles  in  Herzog’s 
Real-Ency. 

Organ  (Gr.  organon).  The  word  in  the 
LXX.  was  used  for  any  kind  of  instru¬ 
ment,  but  in  the  Vulgate  it  is  translated  as 
“  pipe.”  In  St.  Augustine’s  time  it  seems 
to  have  nearly  approached  its  present 
meaning,  as  he  speaks  of  it  as  an  instru¬ 
ment  in  which  wind  was  supplied  by  bel¬ 
lows.  The  pipes  were  at  first  generally  ten, 
which  were  sounded  either  from  a  wind- 
magazine  compressed  by  the  arms,  or  by 
bellows  whose  supply  was  regulated  by 
water.  These  were  used  at  entertain¬ 
ments,  and  not  allowed  in  churches,  be¬ 
cause  it  was  thought  that  the  soft  tones 
spoilt  the  singing;  but  when  Michael 
Rhangabe  sent  an  organ  to  Charles  the 
Great,  it  was  put  in  Aix-la-Chapelle  Ca¬ 
thedral,  and  at  the  end  of  the  ninth  cen¬ 
tury  Pope  John  VIII.  begged  Bishop  Anno 
of  Freesing  to  send  him  an  organ  and 
some  one  who  could  play  it.  The  keys 
were  added  in  the  eleventh  century,  and 
pedals  in  the  fifteenth.  The  organ  has 
never  been  used  among  the  Greeks.  From 
the  time  of  Charlemagne  organs  seem  to 
have  come  more  and  more  into  use  in  the 
West,  though  protests  were  made  against 
them,  and  the  monks  were  very  averse  to 


their  use.  At  the  Reformation  they  were 
discarded,  being  considered  “the  vilest 
remnants  of  Popery;”  but  they  were  re-in¬ 
troduced  at  the  Council  of  Basel.  They 
were  so  disliked  by  the  Puritans  in  Eng¬ 
land  that  at  the  Restoration  there  was 
scarcely  one  to  be  found,  and  foreigners 
were  brought  over  to  play  on  those  which 
remained. 

Concerning  the  position  of  the  organ  in 
a  church,  it  is  noticeable  that  in  ancient 
times  it  was  placed  on  the  north  side  of  the 
choir,  as  it  is  generally  at  present.  The 
plan  of  placing  it  over  the  choir  screen, 
which  is  now  far  less  prevalent  than  it  was 
half  a  century  ago,  seems  not  to  have  be¬ 
come  general  till  the  Restoration.  It  is  the 
custom  in  many  churches  and  cathedrals 
in  Europe  for  the  organ  to  be  silent  through¬ 
out  Passion  Week,  and  during  Wednesdays 
and  Fridays  in  Lent.  —  Benham:  Diet,  of 
Religion. 

Oriflamme,  a  three-pointed  banner  of 
flame-colored  silk,  embroidered  \yith  gold, 
and  having  green  tassels.  It  was  carried 
on  the  point  of  a  lance,  and  was  first  used 
by  the  Count  of  Vexin,  as  the  defender  of 
the  Church  of  St.  Denis.  After  Louis  VI. 
acquired  possession  of  Vexin,  he  adopted 
the  oriflamme  as  the  standard  of  France. 
It  was  kept  in  the  Cathedral  of  St.  Denis, 
and  consecrated  with  great  ceremony  when¬ 
ever  it  was  taken  to  be  carried  in  battle. 
The  original  banner  was  lost  about  1382. 

Origen,  “  one  of  the  most  eminent  of  the 
early  Christian  writers,  4  the  father  of 
biblical  criticism  and  exegesis  in  Christen¬ 
dom;’  b.  185  A.  d.  at  Alexandria,  where 
his  father,  Leonidas,  seems  to  have  held 
some  superior  office  in  the  Church.  Ori¬ 
gen  received  a  most  liberal  education. 
While,  on  the  one  hand,  he  was  initiated 
at  an  early  age  into  Hellenic  science  and 
art,  the  teachings  of  Christianity  were  in¬ 
stilled  into  his  mind  by  men  like  Pantaenus 
and  Clemens  of  Alexandria.  During  the 
persecutions  against  the  Christians,  insti¬ 
tuted  by  Sept.  Severus,  his  father  died  the 
death  of  a  martyr,  and  Origen,  then  seven¬ 
teen  years  of  age,  would  have  shared  it  of 
his  own  free  will,  had  not  his  mother,  left 
unsupported  with  six  children,  prevented 
him.  After  a  short  time  his  zeal  and  eru¬ 
dition  procured  for  him  the  office  of  cate¬ 
chist  in  the  Alexandrian  Church;  but,  no 
salary  being  affixed  to  it,  he  was  fain  to 
dispose  of  his  much-loved  collection  of 
classical  authors  for  a  daily  stipend  of  four 
oboli  (2d.)  for  several  years.  His  wants 
were  extremely  limited,  and  his  asceticism 
led  him  even  to  self-mutilation  (in  accord¬ 
ance  with  the  view  he  took  of  Matt.  xix. 


Ori 


(  684  ) 


Ort 


12);  an  act  for  which  heafterwarcl  express¬ 
ed  the  deepest  sorrow,  and  which  became 
a  dangerous  weapon  in  the  hands  of  his 
antagonists.  Not  a  few  of  his  hearers 
being  masters  of  Greek  (Neo-Platonic)  phi¬ 
losophy,  Origen,  in  order  to  ward  off  more 
successfully  their  attacks  upon  his  doc¬ 
trines,  and  to  combat  them  on  their  own 
ground,  applied  himself  particularly  to  this 
science,  and  Ammonius  Saccas  himself  is 
said  to  have  been  his  teacher.  From  this 
period,  also,  may  be  dated  Origen’s  tran¬ 
sition  from  unconscious  to  conscious  belief. 
He  examined,  henceforth,  with  as  little 
prejudice  as  possible,  all  the  different  sys¬ 
tems  of  human  speculations  that  came 
under  his  notice  during  the  mat  )  journeys 
he  undertook,  proceeding  on  the  principle 
‘  that  we  are  not,  under  the  pretense  of 
piety,  to  pin  our  faith  on  that  which  is  held 
by  the  multitude,  and  which,  therefore, 
alone  seems  to  stand  on  high  authority, 
but  on  that  which  results,  through  exam¬ 
ination  and  logical  conclusions,  from  estab¬ 
lished  and  admitted  truths.’  This  liberal¬ 
ity  of  his  mind  and  doctrines  could  not 
fail,  on  the  one  hand,  to  bring  about  many 
.conversions  to  the  faith,  as  he  taught  it, 
both  among  ‘  pagans  ’  and  ‘  heretics,’  the 
latter  chiefly  of  the  Gnostic  sects  ;  and, 
on  the  other  hand,  to  raise  an  outcry 
among  less  liberal  professors  and  teachers 
of  the  faith,  who  had  not  been  so  success¬ 
ful  in  their  labors.  What  gave  the  great¬ 
est  offence  in  his  teachings  was  his  way  of 
explaining,  after  the  manner  of  the  Mid¬ 
rash,  known  to  him  through  the  Jewish 
masters  (from  whom,  at  an  advanced  age, 
he  had  also  learned  Hebrew),  allegorically 
and  symbolically,  that  which  in  the  Script¬ 
ure  warred  with  the  common  human  un¬ 
derstanding,  or  seemed  repugnant  in  man¬ 
ner  or  matter.  Furthermore,  while 
upholding  all  the  ethical  portions  of  the 
Bible,  he  rejected  a  great  deal  of  its  sup¬ 
posed  historical  and  legal  contents  for  all 
purposes,  save,  perhaps,  as  starting-points 
for  homiletics.  As  to  the  discrepancies  in 
the  different  gospels  respecting  the  life  of 
Christ,  he  says:  ‘  One  of  two  only  is  pos¬ 
sible.  Either  these  things  are  true  in  a 
spiritual  sense  only,  or,  as  long  as  the  dis¬ 
crepancies  are  not  satisfactorily  explained 
away,  we  cannot  believe  in  the  gospels 
being  dictated  by  the  Holy  Ghost,  and  re¬ 
dacted  under  the  influence  of  his  inspira¬ 
tion.’ 

“  In  21 1  he  went  to  Rome,  but,  soon  af¬ 
terward,  at  the  wish  of  Bishop  Demetrius, 
he  returned  to  Alexandria;  which,  how¬ 
ever,  he  was  obliged  to  leave  precipitately, 
and  to  seek  refuge  from  certain  popular 
tumults  in  Palestine.  Here  the  bishops 
received  him  with  great  honors,  and  de¬ 


sired  him  to  institute  public  lectures,  in 
which  they  themselves  became  hearers. 
Recalled  again  by  the  Alexandrian  bishop, 
he  was  sent  to  Achaia  to  combat  certain 
heresies  that  had  broken  out  there.  The 
wrath  that  had  silently  been  gathering 
against  him  found  its  first  vent  when,  in 
228,  the  bishops  assembled  in  Ctesarea,  in 
Palestine,  consecrated  him  presbyter.  The 
bishop  of  Alexandria  took  umbrage  at  this 
outrage,  as  he  called  it,  on  his  authority. 
Two  councils  were  convoked,  and  in  232 
Origen  was  deprived  of  his  priestly  office, 
and  excommunicated,  the  principal  heresy 
charged  against  him  being  his  denial  of 
eternal  punishment.  Yet  the  churches  of 
the  East  remained  faithful  to  him.  Pales¬ 
tine,  Arabia,  Phoenicia,  and  Achaia  re¬ 
mained  in  constant  communication  with 
him;  and  men  like  Gregory  Thaumaturgus 
{q.  v.),  Athenodoros,  and  others,  remained 
or  became  his  faithful  disciples  ever  after, 
while  the  bishop  of  Caesarea  allowed  him 
openly  to  expound  the  Scripture  in  his 
church.  The  persecutions  under  Maximi¬ 
nus  again  forced  him  to  seek  refuge  for 
two  years  in  Cappadocia.  Returning  under 
Gordianus,  he  resumed  his  labors  and  jour¬ 
neys,  until,  when  Decius  ascended  the 
throne,  he  was  seized,  imprisoned,  and  tor¬ 
tured  for  his  faith.  He  did  not  survive 
his  sufferings  long,  but  died  in  254  at  Tyre, 
where  his  tomb,  near  the  high  altar  of  the 
cathedral,  was  shown  for  many  centuries, 
until  it  was  destroyed  during  the  Cru¬ 
sades.” — Chambers  :  Cyclopccdia.  Origen 
teaches  the  ultimate  restoration  of  all — the 
Devil  not  being  an  exception.  See  Church 
histories  of  Neander  and  Schaff.  Several 
of  Origen’s  writings  have  been  translated 
by5!  Cronbie  in  the  Ante-Niceue  Library 
(Edinburgh,  1869-72),  2  vols. 

Original  Sin.  See  Sin. 

Ormuzd  and  Ahriman.  “  In  the  Zoroas- 
trian  writings,  Ormuzd  denotes  the  high¬ 
est  god,  the  absolute  god,  involving  both 
the  principle  of  good,  and  that  of  evil. 
But,  in  the  later-developed  dualism  of  the 
Parsee  religion,  Ormuzd  sank  down  to  the 
representative  of  only  one  of  these  princi¬ 
ples, — that  of  the  good;  and  Ahriman  was 
placed  in  direct  opposition  to  him  as  the 
representative  of  evil.”  —  Schaff-Herzog: 
Eticy.  See  Zoroaster. 

Orthodoxy  (Gr.  orthos ,  right,  and  doxa , 
opinion).  Inasmuch  as  no  one  can  ar¬ 
rogate  to  himself  the  claim  of  holding  cor¬ 
rect  opinions  on  all  subjects,  it  might  seem 
difficult  to  determine  what  constitutes 
orthodoxy.  It  may  be  said  that  those  who 
hold  the  doctrines  of  Scripture  are  ortho- 


Osc 


( 6s5  > 


Ost 


i 


dox;  but  as  disputes  exist  as  to  the  inter¬ 
pretation  of  Scripture  this  test  is  hardly 
sufficient.  The  Roman  Catholic  Church 
holds  it  heterodox  to  deny  transub- 
stantiation.  Protestants  generally  would 
agree  to  apply  it  to  those  who  hold  the 
doctrine  of  the  Trinity  and  the  three 
Creeds. — Benham:  Diet,  of  Religion. 


Oscultatory,  a  carving  or  painting  on 
wood  or  metal,  representing  the  Saviour, 
the  Virgin,  or  one  of  the  saints.  During 
the  celebration  of  the  mass  it  was  first 
kissed  by  the  priest,  and  then  by  the  peo¬ 
ple.  It  was  probably  suggested  by  the 
custom  among  the  early  Christians  of  in¬ 
terchanging  the  kiss  of  peace  at  the  agapee. 


Osgood,  David,  D.  D.,  in  his  day  a  dis¬ 
tinguished  Congregational  preacher;  b.  at 
Andover,  Mass.,  Oct.  14,  1747;  d.  at  Med¬ 
ford,  Dec.  12,  1822.  He  was  graduated  at 
Harvard  in  1771,  and  became  pastor  at 
Medford,  where  he  continued  for  fifty 
years.  He  was  a  zealous  federalist,  and 
in  1794  preached  a  sermon  upon  Genet’s 
appeal  to  the  people  against  the  Govern¬ 
ment,  which  attracted  wide  attention,  and 
passed  through  several  editions.  A 
volume  of  his  sermons  was  published  in 
Boston  (1824). 


Osgood,  Howard,  D.  D.,  Baptist;  b.  on 
Magnolia  Plantation,  parish  of  Plaque- 
mine,  La.,  Jan.  4,  1831;  was  graduated  at 
Harvard  College,  1850;  pastor  at  Flush¬ 
ing,  N.  Y. ,  1856-58;  New  York  City,  1860- 
65;  professor  in  Crozier  Seminary,  Ches¬ 
ter,  Penn.,  1868-74,  and  Rochester  (N.  Y.) 
Theological  Seminary  since  1875.  He  was 
a  member  of  the  American  Old  Testament 
Revision  Company,  and  translated  the 
general  and  special  introduction  to  Exodus , 
Leviticus ,  and  Numbers  in  the  Lange  Com¬ 
mentary. 

Osgood,  Samuel,  D.  D.,  LL.  D.,  b.  in 
Charlestown,  Mass.,  Aug.  30,  1812;  d.  in 
New  York  City,  April  14,  1880.  He  was 
graduated  at  Harvard  in  1832,  and  studied 
theology  in  the  Divinity  School  of  the  Uni¬ 
versity.  He  entered  the  Unitarian  minis¬ 
try  in  1835;  was  pastor  at  Nashua,  N.  H., 
1838-41;  in  Providence,  1841-1849.  He 
then  accepted  a  call  to  the  Church  of  the 
Messiah,  New  York  City,  where  he  gained 
an  influential  position  in  many  directions. 
In  1869  he  changed  his  theological  views, 
and  after  a  year  spent  in  travel  abroad  he 
became  rector  of  the  Church  of  St.  John 
the  Evangelist.  For  several  years  he  was 
domestic  corresponding  secretary  of  the 
New  York  Historical  Society.  Among  his 
writings  are:  Studies  of  Christian  Biogra¬ 


phy  (N.  Y.,  1851);  God  with  Men  (N.  Y., 
1S54);  Milestones  in  our  Life  fourney  (N. 
Y.,  1855);  Student  Life  (N.  Y. ,  1S60).  He 
was  a  frequent  contributor  to  the  North 
American  Review ,  and  edited  the  Christian 
Inquirer  (1850-54). 

Osiander  (o-ze-dn 'der),  Andreas,  “  one  of 
the  most  learned  and  zealous  of  the  Ger¬ 
man  reformers,  was  b.  in  1498,  at  Gunzen- 
hausen,  near  Nuremberg.  His  father  was 
a  blacksmith  called  Hosemann,  out  of 
which  name  his  son,  after  the  fashion  of 
his  time,  manufactured  the  classic- looking 
Osiander.  Osiander  was  educated  at  Ing- 
olstadt  and  Wittenberg;  and  after  com¬ 
pleting  his  course  of  study,  became  a 
preacher  at  Nuremberg,  where  he  was  con¬ 
spicuously  active  in  introducing  the  Ref¬ 
ormation  (1522).  He  ardently  advocated 
the  views  of  Luther  in  his  controversy 
with  the  Swiss  reformer,  Zwingli,  on  the 
question  of  the  Lord’s  Supper.  He  took 
part  in  the  conference  held  at  Marburg 
(1529),  and  was  present  at  the  Diet  of  Augs¬ 
burg  (1530).  In  1548  he  was  deprived  of 
his  office  as  preacher  at  Nuremberg,  be¬ 
cause  he  would  not  agree  to  the  Augsburg 
Interim;  but  was  immediately  afterward 
invited  by  Albrecht,  Duke  of  Prussia,  to 
become  the  head  of  the  theological  faculty 
in  the  newly  established  University  of  Kb- 
nigsberg.  He  was  hardly  settled  here 
when  he  became  entangled  in  a  theological 
strife  that  imbittered  his  naturally  impe¬ 
rious  and  arrogant  temper.  In  a  treatise 
De  Lege  et  Evangelio  (‘  On  the  Law  and  the 
Gospel  ’),  Osiander  asserted  that  the  right¬ 
eousness  by  which  sinners  are  justified,  is 
not  to  be  conceived  as  a  mere  justificatory 
or  imputative  act  on  the  part  of  God,  but 
as  something  inward  and  subjective,  as  the 
impartation  of  a  real  righteousness,  spring¬ 
ing  in  a  mystical  way  from  the  union  of 
Christ  with  man.” — Chambers:  Cyclopedia. 
He  published,  in  1537,  a  Harmony  of  the 
Gospels — the  first  of  its  kind.  Several 
other  persons  of  the  name  of  Osiander, 
most  of  them  the  descendants  of  Andreas, 
have  been  prominent  in  the  theological 
thought  of  Germany. 

Ostervald  (os' ter-walt),  “Jean  Frederic, 
Swiss  Protestant  theologian,  was  b.  at 
Neufchatel,  Nov.  25,  1663;.  was  educated  at 
Zurich  and  at  Saumur  (where  he  was  gradu¬ 
ated),  studied  theology  at  Orleans,  Paris, 
and  Geneva,  and  was  ordained  to  the  min¬ 
istry  in  his  native  place,  in  1683.  As 
preacher,  pastor,  lecturer,  and  author,  he 
attained  a  position  of  great  influence  in  his 
day;  he  and  his  friends,  J.  A.  Surretin,  of 
Geneva,  and  S.  Werenfels,  of  Basel,  form¬ 
ing  what  was  once  called  the  *  Swiss  tri- 


Oth 


(  6S6  ) 


Owe 


umvirate.’  Me  died  on  April  14,  1747.” — 
Ency.  Britannica. 

Otho,  Sr.,  the  Apostle  of  Pomerania;  b. 
in  Suabia  about  1060;  d.  at  Bamberg,  June 
30,  1139.  He  was  a  teacher  in  Poland  be¬ 
fore  entering  the  service  of  Henry  IV., 
who,  in  1101,  made  him  chancellor,  and  in 
1102  bishop  of  Bamberg  in  Franconia.  At 
the  request  of  Duke  Boleslaus  he  went  to 
Pomerania,  in  1124,  to  preach  Christianity 
to  the  Slavs.  With  the  encouragement  of 
the  pope  he  entered  the  country  in  almost 
royal  state,  and  made  many  converts  and 
founded  several  churches.  In  1127  he  again 
visited  the  country.  He  was  canonized  by 
Clement  III.,  in  1189. 

Otterbein  (ot'er-bin),  Philip  William. 
See  United  Brethren. 

Owen,  Dr.  John,  b.  1616;  d.  16S3;  Puri¬ 
tan  divine,  honored  both  for  his  personal 
piety  and  his  high  literary  attainments. 
His  father  was  unable  to  supply  him  with 
the  means  for  his  maintenance  at  the  uni¬ 
versity,  but  a  rich  uncle  did  so,  and  at  the 
early  age  of  twelve  John  Owen  was  admit¬ 
ted  to  Queen’s  College,  Oxford,  and  at 
nineteen  was  Master  of  Arts.  Two  years 
later  he  was  forced  to  leave  his  college  for 
resisting  the  discipline  of  Archbishop  Laud. 
He  was  at  this  time  exercised  much  in  his 
mind  by  doubts  about  his  spiritual  life,  and 
this  perplexity  continued  for  nearly  five 
years,  causing  a  deep  melancholy.  Through 
liearing  accidentally  a  very  simple  yet 
powerful  sermon  preached  by  a  stranger 
(whose  name  he  never  found  out)  on  thte 
text,  “  Why  are  ye  fearful,  O  ye  of  little 
faith  ?  ”  he  found  such  peace  that  he  had 
from  that  time  a  serenity  which  never  for¬ 
sook  him  throughout  his  life.  He  became, 
first,  chaplain  to  a  private  gentleman;  then 
was  offered  the  living  of  Fordham,  in  Es¬ 
sex,  which  he  occupied  on  the  principles  of 
Independency;  but  after  two  years  the  peo¬ 
ple  of  Coggleshall,  five  miles  from  Ford- 
ham,  besought  him  to  go  to  them,  which 
he  did.  His  fame  soon  spread,  and  he  was 
ordered  to  preach  before  the  Parliament  on 
April  29,  1646.  His  sermon  was  a  power¬ 
ful  appeal  for  liberty  of  conscience.  Out 
of  gratitude  to  the  Earl  of  Warwick,  who 
had  given  him  the  living  of  Coggleshall,  he 
dedicated  his  book,  Death  of  Death ,  in  the 
Death  of  Christ ,  to  him  in  1643;  and  it  was 
about  this  time  that  he  attracted  the  notice 
of  Cromwell,  who  heard  him  preach,  and  de¬ 
sired  his  friendship.  General  Fairfax  was  be¬ 
sieging  Colchester,  and  he,  too,  was  struck 
by  his  eloquent  preaching.  Cromwell,  later 
on,  insisted  upon  his  accompanying  him  to 
I  reland .  and  afterward  to  Scotland ,  where  he 


also  remained  about  six  months,  then  re¬ 
turning  to  Coggleshall;  but  in  a  very  short 
time  he  was  appointed  by  the  House  of 
Commons  to  the  deanery  of  Christ  Church, 
Oxford,  and  the  following  year  (1652)  he 
was  chosen  Vice-Chancellor  of  that  uni¬ 
versity,  which  office  he  held  for  five  years. 
When  in  this  high  position  he  still  retained 
that  moderation  and  gentle  firmness  which 
had  so  endeared  him  to  his  congregation 
and  friends.  He  showed  no  favoritism,  but 
was  tolerant,  hospitable,  and  generous.  He 
preached  every  Sunday  at  St.  Mary’s,  and 
often  at  Stadham,  and  other  neighboring 
places.  Probably  Oxford  never  stood  higher 
for  learning  and  religion  than  under  his  rule. 
The  book  he  wrote  about  this  time,  Com¬ 
munion  with  God ,  corresponded  with  his 
daily  life.  At  the  Restoration  he  was  de¬ 
prived  of  the  deanery,  and  from  that  time 
lived  privately  in  London,  publishing  many 
books,  amongst  which  was  an  Exposition  of 
the  1 joth  Psalm,  and  A n  Exposition  of  the 
Epistle  to  the  Hebrews,  which  last  was  most 
valuable  in  refuting  the  errors  of  the  So- 
cinians.  In  1678  he  published  a  very  power¬ 
ful  work  upon  The  Holy  Spirit,  which 
shows  his  earnest  endeavor  to  answer  and 
refute  all  erroneous  doctrines.  His  piety 
and  learning  won  the  respect  of  all,  and 
even  the  king  sent  for  him,  and  assured 
him  of  his  favor  and  respect.  He  died 
peacefully  at  his  house  at  Ealing,  having 
survived  all  his  children. — Benham:  Diet, 
of  Religion.  See  edition  of  Owen’s  JVorks, 
reedited  by  C.  W.  Quick,  published  in 
Philadelphia  (1S65-69),  17  vols. 

Owen,  Robert,  a  social  theorist  and  phi¬ 
lanthropist;  b.  at  Newtown,  North  Wales, 
March  14,  1771;  d.  there,  Nov.  19,  1858. 
Of  humble  parentage,  he  found  a  situation 
at  fourteen  in  London,  and  afterward  had 
charge  of  the  Chorlton  Mills  near  Man¬ 
chester,  and  then  at  New  Lanark,  Scotland. 
Here  he  married  the  daughter  of  the  pro¬ 
prietor  of  the  mills  in  1S01,  and  with  the 
means  which  a  prosperous  business  gave 
him,  he  entered  upon  the  philanthropic  and 
social  plans  with  which  his  name  is  con¬ 
nected.  He  did  much  to  improve  the  con¬ 
dition  of  the  operatives  in  New  Lanark, 
and  in  1813  published  Neva  View  of  Society; 
or,  Essays  on  the  Formation  of  Human  Char¬ 
acter.  In  1S23  he  came  to  this  country  and 
bought  a  large  tract  of  land  at  Wabash, 
Ind.,and  founded  New  Harmony.  This 
attempt  to  give  a  practical  direction  to  his 
communistic  views  proved  an  utter  failure. 
Returning  to  England,  Owen  founded  so¬ 
cieties,  on  the  principle  of  cooperation,  at 
Lanarkshire  and  elsewhere,  but  they  were 
unsuccessful.  In  1829  he  held  a  memorable 
debate  with  Dr.  Alexander  Campbell  at 


Owe 


(  687  ) 


Pag 


Cincinnati  on  the  evidences  of  Christianity. 
Energetic,  gifted,  but  visionary,  he  con¬ 
tinued  to  advocate  his  peculiar  view  until 
the  time  of  his  death.  In  the  latter  part  of 
his  life  he  became  a  convert  to  Spiritual¬ 
ism.  See  Packard:  Life  of  Robert  Owen 
(Philadelphia,  1866). 


estants.  None  of  them  were  of  long  dura¬ 
tion.  The  first  was  granted  by  Charles 
IX.,  in  1562,  and  the  last,  the  famous  Edict 
of  Nantes  (see  Nantes),  was  given  by  Hen¬ 
ry  IV.,  in  1598. 

Paedobaptism,  the  baptism  of  children. 
See  Baptism  of  Infants. 


Owen,  Robert  Dale,  son  of  Robert 
Owen;  b.  in  Glasgow,  Scotland,  Nov.  7, 
1801;  d.  June  24,  1877.  He  came  to  the 
United  States  in  1823,  and  aided  his  father 
in  the  attempt  to  found  a  colony  at  New 
Harmony,  Ind.  In  1828  he  began  the  pub¬ 
lication  of  the  Free  Inquirer  in  New  York 
City.  After  its  discontinuance  in  1834,  he 
returned  to  New  Harmony  and  was  elected 
member  of  the  Indiana  Legislature  three 
terms  (1835-38),  and  represented  his  dis¬ 
trict  in  Congress  two  terms  (1843-47). 
From  1853  to  1858  he  was  charge  d’  affaires 
and  minister  to  Naples  from  our  country. 
He  earnestly  favored  the  emancipation  of 
the  slaves,  and  was  one  of  the  most  prom¬ 
inent  Spiritualists  of  his  time.  He  wrote, 
among  other  books,  The  Debatable  Land 
between  this  World  and  the  Next  (1872); 
Threading  My  Way  (1874),  an  autobio¬ 
graphical  sketch. 

Oxford  Tracts.  See  Tractarianism. 

F\ 

Pachomius  {fa-kd'  me-us ),  St.,  the  organ¬ 
izer  of  the  monastic  life ;  b.  about  292,  in  U p- 
per  Thebais;  d.  at  Tabenna,  an  island  in 
the  Nile,  in  348.  In  his  twentieth  year  he 
joined  Palemon,  one  of  the  most  austere 
pupils  of  St.  Anthony.  With  the  great  in¬ 
crease  in  the  number  of  those  devoted  to 
the  hermit  life,  the  custom  had  arisen  of 
the  novices  building  their  cells  around  that 
of  some  prominent  leader  in  asceticism, 
that  they  might  have  the  benefit  of  his  ex¬ 
ample  and  training.  This  was  called  the 
la ura,  and  Pachomius  was  the  first  to  take 
the  steps  that  changed  it  into  the  organized 
community  of  the  monastery,  with  fixed 
rules.  The  monastery  which  he  founded 
in  the  island  of  Tabenna  at  one  time  con¬ 
tained  fourteen  hundred  monks.  Pacho¬ 
mius  practiced  and  required  of  his  follow¬ 
ers  the  most  severe  austerities.  His  sister 
desiring  to  retire  from  the  world,  a  mon¬ 
astery  was  built  on  the  other  side  of  the 
Nile  for  her  and  her  followers.  The  order 
established  by  Pachomius  is  said  to  have 
remained  in  the  East  until  the  eleventh 
century. 

Pacification,  Edicts  of,  the  name  given 
to  those  edicts  which  at  different  times 
were  issued  for  the  protection  of  the  Prot- 


Paedobaptists,  a  term  used  to  distinguish 
those  who  believe  in  infant  baptiam,  irre¬ 
spective  of  differences  on  other  points. 

Paganism,  the  name  applied  to  the  idol- 
worship  of  the  ancient  world.  The  name 
is  derived  from  Lat.  pagus ,  a  village, 
and  the  etymology  reminds  us  that  the 
name  was  applied  to  the  religion  of  the 
villages  or  country  districts,  as  contrasted 
with  that  of  the  towns  and  large  centres  of 
population.  In  other  words,  when  the 
world  in  its  intelligent  centres  accepted 
I  Christianity,  the  outlying  districts  re¬ 
mained  long  attached  to  the  ancient  poly¬ 
theism;  hence,  “  villager,”  a  “  rustic,” 
became  synonymous  with  “  idol-wership- 
per.”"  By  exactly  similar  process  the 
word  heathen ,  in  Anglo-Saxon,  “one  who 
dwelt  on  the  heath  or  open  country,”  also 
became  identified  with  a  believer  in  the  an¬ 
cient  gods. 

At  the  period  when  Christianity  began 
to  extend  itself  beyond  Palestine,  the  Ro¬ 
man  Empire  had  gathered  into  itself  all  the 
civilized  world  except  India  and  China,  and 
as  we  have  no  historical  evidence  of  the 
extension  of  apostolic  labors  to  China, 
and  little  as  to  the  primitive  Christianity 
of  India,  we  may  for  our  present  purpose 
assume  the  Roman  Empire  to  have  been 
the  real  battle-field  of  idolatry  and  Chris¬ 
tianity.  Let  us,  therefore,  sketch  out  in  a 
few  words  what  was  the  quasi-religious 
condition  of  the  civilized  world,  or  of  that 
portion  of  it  of  which  we  know  anything, 
at  the  period  when  the  strife  began. 

A  necessary  part  of  the  Roman  policy 
was  that  of  tolerating  every  form  of  relig¬ 
ion  which  was  found  established  among  the 
conquered  nations  under  their  sway,  pro¬ 
vided  that  religion  was  not  inconsistent 
with  those  relations  between  the  con¬ 
querors  and  the  conquered  which  were 
necessarv  for  the  maintenance  of  their 
power  by  the  former.  Hence,  we  find 
the  Jews  exercising  their  religion  in  the 
|  time  of  our  Lord  without  any  restraint, 
i  so  long  as  it  was  not  made  the  pretext  for 
(  rebellion  to  Roman  authority.  And  so 
also  in  other  portions  of  the  empire,  the 
local  idolatries  were  rarely  interfered 
with;  the  Druidism  of  unconquered 

*  The  word  first  appears  in  a  Law  of  the  Emperor 
Valentinian,  A.  D.  368. 


Pag 


(  688  ) 


Pag 


Britain,  for  example,  continuing  to  prevail 
when  the  land  was  subdued  by  the  Roman 
legions,  and  other  local  forms  of  polytheism 
in  other  countries  being  persecuted  only 
when  socially  or  politically  troublesome. 
But  with  the  more  intellectual  and  educated 
subjects  of  the  empire,  and  wherever  the 
influence  of  Rome  itself  was  much  felt,  ex¬ 
ternal  idolatry  had  become  little  more  than 
the  recognized  public  religion  of  the  State, 
conformity  to  which  was  kept  up  pierely 
on  the  ground  of  order  and  social  pro¬ 
priety;  the  more  real  and  ruling  principles 
of  life  being  found  in  certain  systems  of 
philosophy  which  had  grown  up  among  the 
Greeks,  and  had  extended  their  influence 
over  all  the  higher  classes  among  the 
Romans.  Thus  the  religion  of  the  civilized 
world  at  the  time  when  it  stood  opposed  to 
Christianity  was,  partly,  a  system  of  mere 
idolatry,  the  worship  of  things  that  were 
not  God;  and  partly  this  combined  with 
philosophical  principles  which  were  more 
attractive  than  mere  idolatry  could  be  to 
educated  minds.  These  philosophical 
principles  were  developed  out  of  three  sys¬ 
tems  which  had  their  origin  among  the 
Greeks,  who  were  highly  civilized  and 
acute  thinkers  at  a  period  when  the  Ro¬ 
mans  themselves  were  in  their  infancy. 

The  three  systems  were  the  Stoic,  the 
Epicurean,  and  the  Platonist.  They  will  be 
found  under  their  separate  heads.  We  have 
here  only  to  inquire  how  idolatry  affected 
the  morals  of  matikind.  A  man  must  be 
violently  prejudiced,  if  not  wilfully  blind, 
who  should  refuse  to  see  in  the  teach¬ 
ings  of  Plato  and  Socrates  a  desire  after 
truth,  and  also  after  virtue  which  was  al¬ 
most  Divine.  The  whole  ethical  doctrine 
of  Greek  polytheism  was  beautiful  in  con¬ 
ception.  It  inculcated  the  recognition  of 
mutual  rights,  and  the  rendering  to  each 
man  his  due,  “  honor  to  whom  honor,  cus¬ 
tom  to  whom  custom,  tribute  to  whom 
tribute.”  Dike,  “  justice,”  was  to  the  Greek 
a  real  god.  Liberty  defending  itself 
against  tyranny  was  courage;  courage  was 
the  essence  of  manliness  ( andreia ).  In¬ 
dividual  right  involved  social  right,  the 
authority  of  law  reposed  on  the  consent  of 
the  community,  and  thus  there  was  inter¬ 
dependence  and  mutual  help.  Law  was 
not,  as  in  the  great  Oriental  tyrannies,  the 
power  exerted  by  the  strong  over  the 
weak,  but  the  free  and  spontaneous  con¬ 
sent  of  a  race  of  freemen.  And  to  pre¬ 
serve  this  mutual  welfare  consideration, 
kindness  and  forgiveness  became  duties. 
“  When  thy  neighbor  acknowledges  his 
fault,”  says  Hesiod,  “  restore  him  to  thy 
friendship.” 

Yet  this  system  had  a  deadly  worm  at 
its  very  core.  It  contemplated  man  in  his 


relation  to  his  fellow-men,  but  ignored  his 
duty  toward  himself,  and  toward  God. 
“  Know  ye  not  that  your  bodies  are  the 
temples  of  the  Holy  Ghost  ?  ”  was  a  ques¬ 
tion  which  Christianity  taught  as  a  new 
revelation.  A  Greek  was  ruled  in  his  deal¬ 
ings  with  the  commonwealth,  but  was  free 
to  do  what  he  liked  as  an  individual. 
What  was  the  result  ?  The  result  was  ex¬ 
actly  what  St.  Paul  described  it  in  the  first 
chapter  of  the  Romans  —  licentiousness 
knew  no  bounds,  for  religion  had  not  at¬ 
tempted  to  check  it.  Greek  indecency, 
wantonness,  dishonesty,  lying,  became 
proverbial.  “  If  there  is  one  fact  of  history 
more  certain  than  another,”  says  a  power¬ 
ful  writer  of  our  own  day,  “  it  is  this 
fact,  that  human  nature  was  reduced  to 
such  a  state  of  fetid  decay  by  the  rejection 
of  God,  that  a  few  more  years  would  have 
seen  the  world  one  gigantic  dunghill  of  cor¬ 
ruption  and  death.  Then  the  great  sacri¬ 
fice  took  place:  God  manifest  in  the  flesh, 
died  upon  the  cross,  an  eternal  sacrifice  to 
take  away  sin.  A  fresh  invigorating 
breeze  swept  through  the  putrefying  mass 
of  human  life.  Men  faced  for  the  first  time 
the  realities  of  existence  with  an  unflinch¬ 
ing  faith — by  pureness,  by  knowledge — in 
a  Divine  life.” — J.  H .  Shorthouse. 

When  Christianity  became  the  recognized 
religion  of  the  civilized  world,  idolatry  be¬ 
came  a  popular  belief  in  contravention  of 
State  authority.  It  had  at  first  tolerated 
Christianity  as  it  did  any  other  religion. 
The  persecutions  that  we  have  in  the  New 
Testament  are  mostly  raised  by  Jews. 
The  rest  are  excited  by  men  who  found 
that  it  interfered  with  their  personal  gains. 
(Acts  xvi.  19;  xix.  27.)  It  was  only  when 
Christianity  revealed  itself  as  an  aggres¬ 
sive  system,  bound  to  extirpate  the  “  gods 
many  and  lords  many”  from  the  world, 
and  hand  it  over  to  the  one  lordship  of 
Christ,  that  idolatry  took  alarm  and  began 
to  persecute  fiercely.  It  was  beaten  in  the 
struggle,  and  Christianity  triumphed.  For 
a  while  an  analogous  state  of  things  was 
repeated.  Paganism  was  tolerated  by  Con¬ 
stantine,  as  Christianity  had  been  by  most 
of  the  Emperors.  The  heathen  priests 
were  maintained  in  the  enjoyment  of  their 
ancient  privileges,  and  he  and  his  im¬ 
mediate  successors  retained  the  heathen 
title,  which  their  predecessors  had  held,  of 
Pontifex  Maximus  (“chief  sacrificer  ”). 
But  popular  opinion  was  against  the  hea¬ 
then  rites,  and  the  temples  were  in  some 
cases  pulled  down,  and  in  others  allowed 
to  crumble  into  ruins.  Gibbon  tells  with 
glee,  though  at  the  expense  of  his  hero 
Julian,  how  that  emperor,  in  his  zeal  to 
restore  Paganism,  proclaimed  a  sacrifice  to 
the  gods  in  populous  Antioch,  Instead  of 


Pag 


(689) 


Pai 


hecatombs  of  fat  oxen,  such  as  former  days 
had  witnessed,  one  pale  and  solitary  priest 
appeared,  bringing  a  single  goose. 

At  an  epoch  when  toleration  was  a  virtue 
so  little  understood,  it  is  no  wonder  that 
legislation  was  often  confused,  and  to  our 
minds  indefensible.  Governments  were 
called  upon  to  inculcate  the  faith,  and  to 
secure  liberty,  though  to  some  extent 
obliged,  as  a  matter  of  fact,  to  respect  the 
prejudices  of  the  minority.  When  Arian- 
ism  divided  the  Christian  Church  into 
fiercely  contending  bodies,  Paganism  lifted 
its  head  once  more,  but  in  vain,  since  it 
had  lost  its  hold  upon  the  intelligent. 
Theodosius  the  Great  enacted  that  those 
who  relapsed  into  Paganism  should  forfeit 
all  civil  rights.  For  years  even  this  was 
evaded  in  the  West.  It  was  Justinian  who 
completed  the  work.  In  his  days  the  last 
temple  was  turned  into  the  celebrated 
monastery  of  St.  Benedict. 

But  meanwhile  Paganism  had  left  its 
markon  Christianity.  The  Church  had  felt 
obliged  to  make  concessions  to  the  pagans, 
to  mitigate  their  opposition  and  facilitate 
their  conversion.  Hence,  minor  observ¬ 
ances  of  paganism  were  adopted  as  part  of 
Christian  ritual.  The  commemoration  of 
saints  is  admitted  by  Jerome  and  Augustine 
to  be  derived  from  Pagan  custom,  and  they 
justify  the  practice  as  one  which  the  uni¬ 
versal  conscience  of  mankind  approves. 
Neander  traces  the  worship  of  the  Virgin 
to  that  of  Ceres.  The  casting  of  earth 
upon  the  dead,  which  we  retain  in  our 
Burial  Service,  is  derived  from  Paganism. 
The  hanging  of  votive  offerings  in  Roman 
Catholic  churches  is  like  what  was  prac¬ 
ticed  in  the  days  of  Horace.  New  Year’s 
gifts  and  rejoicings,  the  use  of  bride-cake, 
the  popular  observances  of  Valentine’s 
Day,  are  all  of  Pagan  origin.  And  every 
day  of  our  lives  we  have  the  names  of  the 
gods  of  our  fathers  on  our  lips,  for  after 
them  we  call  the  days  of  the  week. — Ben- 
ham:  Diet,  of  Religion. 

Page,  Harlan,  a  devoted  Christian  lay¬ 
man;  b.  at  Coventry,  Conn.,  July  28,  1791; 
d.  in  New  York,  Sept.  23,  1834.  He  was 
a  carpenter  by  trade,  but  proved  so  efficient 
and  useful  in  Christian  work  that  from 
1825  until  his  death  he  was  employed  by 
the  American  Tract  Society  as  the  agent  of 
its  depository  in  New  York.  He  was  the 
means  of  leading  many  souls  to  Christ. 
See  Memoir , by  W.  A.  Hallock  (N.  Y. ,  1835). 

Pagoda,  the  name  given  a  highly  deco¬ 
rated  style  of  Hindoo  temples,  and  also  to 
tower-shaped  buildings  in  China  which  con¬ 
sist  of  a  series  of  one-room  stories,  sur¬ 
rounded  by  a  gallery. 


Paine,  Robert,  D.  D.,  a  distinguished 
bishop  of  the  Methodist  Episcopal  Church, 
South;  b.  in  Person  County,  N.  C.,  Nov. 
12,  1799;  d.  at  Aberdeen,  Miss.,  Oct.  19, 
1882.  Making  the  best  use  of  limited  edu¬ 
cational  advantages,  he  was  licensed  to 
preach  soon  after  his  conversion,  in  1817. 
He  was  admitted  into  the  Tennessee  Con¬ 
ference  in  1818,  and  continued  his  service 
as  an  itinerant  preacher  until  1834,  when 
he  was  elected  president  of  La  Grange  Col¬ 
lege,  Alabama.  He  did  excellent  service 
in  this  position  for  sixteen  years,  when  he 
accepted  the  office  of  bishop.  He  was 
chairman  of  the  committee  which  reported 
the  plan  of  separation,  by  which  the  Meth¬ 
odist  Episcopal  Church  was  divided,  in 
1844.  He  was  an  excellent  administrator, 
an  able  preacher,  and  as  a  platform  speak¬ 
er  had  few  superiors.  He  wrote  Life  and 
'Limes  of  Bishop  McKendree  (Nashville, 
1874),  2  vols. 

Paine,  Thomas,  a  political  writer  who 
also  gained  notoriety  by  his  deistical  opin¬ 
ions,  was  b.  at  Thetford,  Norfolk,  Eng., 
Jan.  29,  1737;  d.  in  New  York  City,  June 
8,  1809.  Without  educational  advantages 
in  youth,  he  worked  for  a  time  at  his  fa¬ 
ther’s  trade  as  a  stay-maker,  and  then  was  a 
sailor.  From  1763  he  became  an  exciseman 
at  Sandwich,  and  here  wrote  his  first  pam¬ 
phlet,  criticising  the  systemof excise,  which 
led  to  his  dismissal  from  the  service,  and 
by  the  advice  of  Franklin,  whom  he  met  in 
London,  he  came  to  this  country  in  1774. 
He  at  once  entered  upon  a  political  and 
journalistic  career  that  was  of  great  help¬ 
fulness  during  the  struggle  of  the  colonies 
for  their  liberty.  It  was  in  1776  that  his 
first  notable  work,  Common  Sense ,  was  pub¬ 
lished,  of  which  Burke  speaks  as  “that 
celebrated  pamphlet  which  prepared  the 
minds  of  the  people  for  independence.”  In 
1787  he  returned  to  Europe,  and  in*fi79i 
published  The  Rights  of  Man ,  in  reply  to 
Burke’s  Reflections  on  the  Revolutio7i  in 
France.  The  book  was  condemned  as  a 
“  seditious  libel,”  and  he  was  brought  to 
trial,  and  found  guilty,  but  escaped  to 
France.  Elected  to  the  National  Assembly, 
he  incurred  the  anger  of  the  Jacobins  by 
voting  against  the  execution  of  Louis  XVI. , 
and  was  thrown  into  prison  in  1794,  where 
he  remained  for  nearly  a  year.  In  1802  he 
returned  to  the  United  States.  He  was 
buried  on  his  farm  at  New  Rochelle,  given 
him  by  the  State  of  New  York  for  his  ser¬ 
vices  in  the  Revolution.  His  remains  were 
removed  to  England  in  1819  by  William 
Cobbett.  In  1839  a  monument  was  erected 
by  his  admirers  at  New  Rochelle,  and  in 
1875  the  Paine  Memorial  Hall  was  dedi¬ 
cated  in  Boston.  “  If  Paine’s  writings  had 


Pai 


(  690  ) 


Pai 


been  only  political  he  would  be  entitled  to 
honor  as  a  bold  and  vigorous  friend  of  hu¬ 
man  liberty.  .  .  .  But  it  is  as  the  author 
of  The  Age  of  Reason ,  an  uncompromising, 
ignorant,  and  audacious  attack  on  the  Bible, 
that  he  is  most  widely  known,  indeed,  no¬ 
torious.  .  .  .  Paine  was  not  an  atheist,  but 
a  deist.  In  his  will  he  speaks  of  his  ‘  re¬ 
posing  confidence  in  my  Creator-God,  and 
in  no  other  being:  for  I  know  no  other, 
nor  believe  in  any  other.’  He  voiced  cur¬ 
rent  doubt,  and  is  still  formidable ;  because, 
although  he  attacks  a  gross  misconception 
of  Christianity,  he  does  it  in  such  a  manner 
as  to  turn  his  reader,  in  many  cases,  away 
from  any  serious  consideration  of  the  claim 
of  Christianity.  He  was  blind  to  the  moral 
and  spiritual  truths  of  the  Bible,  and  is 
therefore  an  incompetent  critic,  whose  pre¬ 
tensions  in  this  line  are  really  ludicrous. 

.  .  .  Comparison  of  the  contemporary  biog¬ 
raphies,  both  of  friends  and  foes,  seems 
to  show  these  facts;  Paine  was  through  life 
a  harsh,  unfeeling,  vain,  and  disagreeable 
man.  He  was  wanting  in  a  sense  of  honor, 
and  therefore  could  not  be  trusted.  But  it 
was  not  until  after  his  return  from  France, 
when  he  was  sixty-five  years  old,  very 
much  broken  by  his  long  sufferings,  and 
the  strain  of  the  great  excitement  in  which 
he  had  lived  for  years,  and  for  the  first 
time  in  his  life  above  want,  that  he  devel¬ 
oped  those  traits  which  rendered  him  in 
his  last  days  such  a  miserable  object.  The 
charges  of  matrimonial  infidelity  and  of  se¬ 
duction  are  probably  unfounded;  but  that 
he  was  in  his  old  age  penurious,  uncleanly, 
drunken  and  unscrupulous,  may  be  accept¬ 
ed  as  true.  He  did  a  great  service  for  the 
United  States  in  her  hour  of  peril.  But, 
alas  !  he  has  done  irreparable  injury  ever 
since  in  turning  many  away  from  God  and 
the  religion  of  Jesus  Christ.” — S.  M.  Jack- 
son  in  Schaff- Herzog:  Ency.,  vol.  iii. ,  p. 
171S.  The  complete  Works  of  Paine  have 
been  frequently  published. 

Painting,  Christian.  In  the  early  days 
of  Christianity  the  primary  object  of  paint¬ 
ing  was  to  represent  Jesus  Christ,  either 
alone  or  as  the  centre  of  a  picture,  and 
these  representations  were  not  left  to  the 
imagination  of  the  artist,  but  were  copied 
from  certain  likenesses  supposed  to  have 
been  taken  during  his  life  upon  earth.  Tra¬ 
dition  ascribed  certain  paintings  of  Christ 
and  the  Madonna  to  St.  Luke,  and  the  nap¬ 
kin  of  St.  Veronica  was  preserved,  on 
which  was  supposed  to  be  depicted  the 
Vera  icon .  These  likenesses  were  copied 
and  recopied  for  centuries,  and  departure 
from  the  ancient  tradition  came  to  be  look¬ 
ed  upon  as  nothing  less  than  heresy.  Un¬ 
til  the  twelfth  century  there  was  no  art  in 


Christian  painting;  pictures  were  painted 
in  order  to  keep  alive  the  spirit  of  devo¬ 
tion  in  the  minds  of  the  uneducated,  and 
this  object  was  reached  by  the  most  con¬ 
ventional  method,  made  holy  to  the  wor¬ 
shipers  by  long  usage.  Figures  were  rep¬ 
resented  as  stiff  and  shapeless,  and  the 
only  change  which  came  over  early  art  was' 
the  continual  increase  in  richness  of  color. 
The  first  dawn  of  new  life  began  gradually 
to  make  itself  felt  about  the  twelfth  cen¬ 
tury,  when  artists  first  attempted  to  put 
animation,  beauty,  and  grace  into  the  forms 
of  their  creation;  but  the  work  was  slow, 
and  was  more  a  trial  of  skill  for  their  own 
pleasure  than  for  the  sake  of  art.  Guido 
of  Siena,  and  Giunto  of  Pisa,  are  asso¬ 
ciated  with  the  birth  of  true  Christian  art 
— the  Romanesque  school;  it  almost  reach¬ 
ed  its  completeness  with  Giovanni  Cima- 
bue,  of  Florence;  and  with  Giotto  di  Bon- 
done  (b.  1276;  d.  1336)  the  last  fetters  of 
conventionalism  were  cast  off.  From  this 
time  till  the  fifteenth  century,  art  continued 
to  flourish,  fostered  in  two  schools,  the 
Florentine  and  the  Siennese;  the  former 
somewhat  severe,  resembling  the  Byzan¬ 
tine  school  of  the  early  Christians;  the  lat¬ 
ter  more  graceful  and  more  independent  of 
conventional  ideas.  The  fifteenth  century 
saw  a  further  development,  which  may  be 
traced  to  the  increase  of  religious  feeling 
consequent  on  the  rise  of  the  mendicant 
orders.  It  took  the  form  of  a  nearer  ap¬ 
proach  to  nature  in  form  and  color,  light 
and  shade — art  became  more  naturalistic, 
while  still  keeping  the  spiritual  expression 
of  the  old  masters.  The  first  of  this  school 
was  a  Dominican  monk,  Fra  Angelico  da 
Fiesole  (b.  1387;  d.  1455),  who  was  fol¬ 
lowed  by  Masaccio,  Fra  Lippo  Lippi,  and 
Ghirlandajo;  and  it  reached  its  highest  per¬ 
fection  with  the  sixteenth  century,  in  which 
Christian  art  was  represented  by  many 
great  masters,  headed  by  Raphael  and 
Leonardo  da  Vinci  and  Michael  Angelo. 
With  these  great  masters  beauty  of  form 
and  feature  were  made  equal,  but  not  su¬ 
perior,  to  spiritual  import,  and  the  result 
was  the  painting  of  such  pictures  as  later 
artists  have  never  been  able  to  equal.  They 
have  influenced  all  Italian  painting  of  later 
times. 

German  art,  as  well  as  Dutch  and  French, 
was  far  behind  the  Italian;  during  the  Mid¬ 
dle  Ages  it  followed  the  Gothic  style,  and 
it  was  only  about  the  middle  of  the  fifteenth 
century  that  Italian  influence  began  to 
make  itself  felt.  The  Nuremberg  and  Sax¬ 
on  schools, headed  respectively  by  Albrecht 
Diirer  (b.  1471;  d.  1528),  and  Lucas  Cran¬ 
ach  (b.  1472;  d.  1533),  each  produced  a 
number  of  good  artists,  but  their  individu¬ 
ality  was  lost  in  close  and  inferior  imita- 


Paj 


(  691  ) 


Pal 


tion  of  the  Italian  painters.  In  opposition 
to  the  decline  of  art  in  Italy,  and  conse¬ 
quently  in  Germany,  a  school  arose  in  Spain 
in  the  seventeenth  century  which  lasted 
only  a  short  time,  but  which  produced  five 
great  painters,  of  whom  Murillo  is  the 
greatest.  The  age  which  followed,  charac¬ 
terized  by  the  irreligion  and  immorality 
which  preceded  the  French  Revolution, 
gave  a  check  to  religious  art  from  which  it 
has  never  recovered;  and  although  efforts 
have  been  made  to  revive  the  greatness  of 
Catholic  art,  it  still  stands  in  a  very  small 
proportion  to  art  in  general,  and  is  marked 
by  no  artist  of  great  distinction. — Benham: 
Did .  of  Religion. 

Pajon,  Claude,  the  founder  of  Pajon- 
ism,  was  b.  at  Romorantin,  in  Lower  Ble- 
sois,  1626;  d.  at  Carre,  near  Orleans,  Sept. 
27,  1685.  He  was  educated  at  Saumur, 
and  in  1650  became  minister  at  Machenoir, 
and  in  1666  professor  of  theology  at  Sau¬ 
mur.  His  peculiar  doctrinal  views  led 
him  to  resign  this  position,  and  he  became 
minister  of  a  congregation  in  Orleans, 
where  he  spent  the  rest  of  his  life.  He 
held  that  there  is  no  such  thing  as  subject¬ 
ive  grace,  and  that  in  the  spiritual  as  well 
as  material  world,  God  governs  by  the  ob¬ 
jective  connection  of  cause  and  effect,  and 
that  external  circumstances  are  sufficient 
to  explain  the  conversion  or  non-conversion 
of  an  individual.  He  gained  many  follow¬ 
ers,  but  the  provincial  synods  excluded  all 
Pajonists  from  the  offices  of  the  Church. 
Pajon  published  two  books  in  refutation 
of  attacks  on  the  Reformed  Church,  but 
never  gave,  through  the  press,  an  exposi¬ 
tion  of  his  doctrines. 

Palamas,  Gregory,  the  leader  of  the 
Hesychasts  (y.  v. ),  was  b.  in  Asia,  and 
brought  up  in  the  court  of  the  emperor, 
John  Cantacuzenus.  He  became  a  monk 
at  Mt.  Athos,  and  was  the  principal  defend¬ 
er  of  the  ideas  promulgated  by  the  Hesy¬ 
chasts.  He  was  made  archbishop  of  Thes- 
salonica  in  1349,  but  the  city  refused  to 
receive  him,  and  he  retired  to  the  island  of 
Lemnos.  Little  is  known  of  his  later  life. 
Most  of  his  sixty  works  still  remain  in 
manuscript.  Of  those  printed  are  Proso¬ 
popoeia ,  and  two  Greek  treatises  against  the 
Latin  Church. 

Paleario,  Aonio,  b.  at  Veroli,  in  1500; 
burned  at  Rome,  July  3,  1570.  He  was 
educated  at  Rome,  and  became  a  teacher  at 
Siena,  in  1536.  He  gained  fame  as  a  poet. 
A  volume  which  he  published,  Della  Pie- 
nezza,  Sufpcienza ,  e  Satisfadione  della  Pas- 
sione  di  Christo ,  brought  him  before  the  In¬ 
quisition,  but  he  was  acquitted.  In  1546 


he  was  appointed  professor  at  Lucca,  and 
from  there,  in  order  to  gain  greater  secu¬ 
rity,  removed  to  Milan,  in  1555.  The 
charge  of  heresy  was  here  brought  against 
him,  and  he  was  sent  to  Rome  where,  after 
an  imprisonment  of  two  years,  he  was  con¬ 
victed  and  condemned  to  death,  Oct.  15, 
1569.  See  The  Life  and  Times  of  Aonio 
Paleario,  by  Mrs.  Young  (London  1S60),  2 
vols. 

Palestine.  In  the  place  it  occupies  in  the 
history  of,  the  world  Palestine  is  without 
a  rival;  and  in  whatever  light  it  is  regard¬ 
ed,  it  has  a  strange  and  fascinating  interest 
not  possessed  by  any  other  country.  In 
the  first  place,  its  position  and  physical  feat¬ 
ures  are  remarkable.  It  is  a  small  country, 
situated  at  the  eastern  end  of  the  Med¬ 
iterranean,  extending  not  over  Df  degrees 
from  north  to  south,  reckoning  from  Da¬ 
mascus;  not  over  2J2  degrees  from  west  to 
east,  reckoning  from  Gaza,  and  containing 
12,000  to  13,000  square  miles  at  the  period 
of  its  greatest  prosperity.  It  is  divided 
from  north  to  south  into  two  nearly  equal 
portions  by  the  Jordan  Valley,  which  i?  » 
the  deepest  depression  that  exists  any* 
where  on  the  surface  of  the  earth.  On  the 
east  and  south  it  is  bounded  by  deserts, 
on  the  west  by  the  Mediterranean,  which 
the  Hebrews  called  the  “  Great  Sea,’' 
and  on  the  north  by  rugged  mountains. 

A  unique  surface  is  presented  by  the 
peculiar  arrangement  of  its  valleys, 
plains,  table-lands,  and  hills,  since  all  of 
them  run  parallel  to  the  Mediterranean 
coast. 

(1)  There  is,  first,  the  belt  of  level  land 
along  the  sea,  at  points  not  half  a  mile  in 
width,  but  elsewhere  widening  to  a  dis¬ 
tance  of  several  miles,  which,  in  general, 
formed  the  countries  of  Phoenicia  and  Phi- 
listia,  and  the  plain  of  Sharon  which  lay 
between  them.  Gaza,  Joppa,  Tyre,  Sidon, 
are  only  four  of  the  many  cities  which 
made  this  belt  of  land  famous  in  the  wars, 
but  especially  in  the  commerce  of  the  an¬ 
cient  world.  (2)  Beyond  this  narrow  plain 
rises  the  mountain  range  of  Western  Pal¬ 
estine,  along  which,  at  different  heights 
above  the  sea  level,  are  many  noted  places 
of  sacred  history,  such  as  Nazareth,  1,602 
feet;  Shechem,  1,935;  Bethel,  2,890;  Jeru¬ 
salem,  2,593;  Bethlehem,  2,550,  and  He¬ 
bron,  3,040;  the  latter  being  447  feet  higher 
than  the.  Holy  City  itself.  The  western 
slope  of  this  range  of  mountains,  although 
broken  and  rugged,  is  gradual  compared 
with  its  eastern  slope  where,  particularly 
in  the  parts  near  the  Dead  Sea,  bold,  rocky 
hills  appear  as  if  tossed  together  in  wild¬ 
est  confusion.  Moreover,  the  western 
slope  is  fertile,  while  the  eastern  is  barren 


Pal 


(  692  ) 


Pal 


and  forbidding.  (3)  These  mountains  drop 
down  into  the  Jordan  Valley,  which  can 
best  be  described  as  a  great  chasm  sunk 
into  the  earth,  it  being  700  feet  and  1,300 
feet,  at  the  Sea  of  Galilee  and  the  Dead  Sea 
respectively,  below  the  level  of  the  Medi¬ 
terranean;  but  if  we  reckon  from  the  sum¬ 
mit  of  the  mountains  which  line  it  on 
either  side,  it  is  from  2,000  to  4,000  feet  in 
depth.  In  width  it  varies  from  three  to 
ten  miles.  (4)  Beyond  this  valley  rises  the 
long  range  known  as  the  mountains  of 


Moab  and  Gilead,  varying  in  height  from 
1,800  to  nearly,  or  quite,  3,000  feet,  al¬ 
though  when  looked  at  from  a  distance  the 
line  of  the  summit  appears  to  be  pretty 
uniform.  This  range  is  continuous  from 
Mount  Hermon  in  the  north  to  Mount  Hor 
in  the  south,  a  distance  of  upwards  of  two 
hundred  miles.  (5)  Curiously  enough, 
these  mountains  have  no  appreciable  east¬ 
ern  slope,  but  from  their  very  summits 
they  drop  off  gradually  into  the  vast  table¬ 
land  which  forms  the  countries  of  Moab 
and  Bashan,  which  in  turn  fades  into  the 


deserts  lying  to  the  east  and  south.  These 
five  distinct  sections  render  the  surface 
of  Palestine  unlike  that  of  any  other 
country. 

We  find,  likewise,  a  marked  variety  in  the 
climate  and  pr  eductions  of  these  different 
sections;  on  the  sea-coast  the  winters  are 
always  mild  and  the  summers  very  hot;  on 
the  mountains  the  storms  in  winter  are  pen¬ 
etrating  and  violent,  and  occasionally  snow 
falls,  while  the  summers  are  long  and  less 
oppressive,  with  cool  nights;  in  the  Jordan 
Valley  there  is  intense  heat 
the  year  round;  the  hills 
of  Gilead  and  Moab,  and 
the  table-land  beyond  have 
a  colder  climate  than  the 
mountains  of  Western  Pal¬ 
estine:  birds,  animals,  and 
plants  are  found  in  the 
Jordan  Valley  which  do 
not  exist  in  other  parts  of 
the  country,  and  the  same 
is  true  of  the  higher  moun¬ 
tain  ranges. 

Palestine  is  not  a  well- 
watered  country.  The  Jor¬ 
dan  is  the  largest  stream, 
whose  head  waters  are 
near  Hasbeyeh  on  the 
western  slope  of  Hermon, 
one  hundred  and  forty 
miles  from  its  mouth.  In 
its  course  it  passes 
through  the  only  two 
sweet-water  lakes  of  Pal¬ 
estine,  Merom  and  Tibe¬ 
rias,  and  flows  into  the 
Dead  Sea.  Between  its 
mouth  and  the  Sea  of  Gal¬ 
ilee  the  distance  is  sixty- 
five  miles,  but  its  course 
is  so  winding  as  to  meas¬ 
ure  one  hundred  and  twen¬ 
ty  miles  between  those 
two  points,  while  its  fall 
in  the  same  distance  is 
six  hundred  feet.  This 
rapid  stream,  whose  aver¬ 
age  width  is  about  one 
hundred  feet,  the  He¬ 
brews  called  the  “  Descender.”  Flow¬ 
ing  into  the  Jordan  from  the  east  are  the 
Hieromax  just  below  the  Sea  of  Gali¬ 
lee;  the  Jabbok,  called  the  Zerka,  meaning 
the  “  Blue  Stream,”  and  the  Arnon;  and 
on  the  west,  the  Aujeh  north  of  Jericho, 
and  a  few  smaller  streams  which  in  sum¬ 
mer  become  nearly  dry.  From  the  Jordan 
and  its  many  tributaries  a  vast  quantity  of 
water  is  carried  down  into  the  Dead  Sea, 
and  escapes  thence  by  evaporation.  On 
the  coast  the  Aujeh,  three  miles  north  of 
Jaffa,  is  the  largest,  a  beautiful  stream  with 


THE  JORDAN. 


Pal 


(  693  ) 


Pal 


full  banks;  Nahr  Rubin,  south  of  Jaffa,  the 
Zerka  near  Cesarea-on-the-sea,  and  the 
Kishon,  north  of  Mount  Carmel.  Through¬ 
out  the  country  there  are  many  springs 
and  fountains,  upon  whose  limited  supply 
of  water  thousands  of  men  and  animals  de¬ 
pend  for  all  they  use.  In  the  large  towns 
water  is  caught  in  cisterns,  and  a  supply  is 
thus  furnished  for  a  part  of  the  year,  at 
least.  In  former  times  immense  reservoirs 
were  provided  near  important  towns,  as  at 
Hebron,  Jerusalem,  and  many  other  places, 
and  to  this  class  belong  the  structures  well 
known  as  “Solomon’s  Pools”  south  of 
Bethlehem. 

The  rainfall  varies  from  fourteen  to 
thirty-two  inches.  When  twenty-five  inches 
fall  a  good  crop  is  thought  to  be  insured, 
and  eighteen  inches  are  considered  ab¬ 
solutely  necessary  for  this  purpose.  The 
early  rains  should  fall  in  November,  and 
the  latter  rains  about  the  first  of  April. 
From  April  to  November  is  the  dry  season, 
and  during  the  rainy  season,  from  Novem¬ 
ber  to  March,  there  are  many  intervals, 
sometimes  of  several  weeks’  duration,  of 
delightful  weather. 

In  th z  productions  of  the  soil  of  Palestine 
there  is  a  marked  variety,  notwithstanding 
its  neglected  condition.  Figs,  grapes,  and 
olives  are  still  its  chief  glory  among  fruits; 
but  we  find  also  lemons,  citrons,  pome¬ 
granates,  dates,  quinces,  apricots,  almonds, 
and  oranges  in  vast  numbers;  peaches  can 
be  raised,  but  cherries,  pears,  and  apples 
do  not  flourish,  the  latter  being  always 
small  and  poor.  Almost  every  variety  of 
vegetable  is  raised,  except  the  potato, 
which  does  not  do  well:  these  are  imported 
from  Malta,  France, and  elsewhere.  Sugar¬ 
cane  grows  luxuriantly  on  the  lowlands, 
and  the  remains  of  sugar-mills  in  the  Jor¬ 
dan  Valley  are  evidence  that  formerly  it 
was  extensively  cultivated.  The  cultivation 
of  cotton,  sugar-cane,  and  some  other 
crops  might  be  indefinitely  increased.  In 
recent  times,  Indian  corn  has  been  intro¬ 
duced,  but  the  art  of  raising  as  well  as  of 
using  it  has  not  yet  been  learned.  There 
is  no  grass,  as  we  understand  that  word, 
consequently  no  hay,  and  chopped  straw  or 
tibin,  which  is  both  the  Hebrew  and  Ar¬ 
abic  word  for  it,  is  the  staple  article  of  food 
for  domestic  animals,  just  as  it  was  in  the 
days  of  Abraham.  The  Jordan  Valley  and 
the  Plains  of  Bashan  are  among  the  finest 
wheat  districts  in  the  world,  and  great  quan¬ 
tities  raised  here  are  shipped  annually, 
chiefly  from  Acre.  It  is  brought  to  this 
point  on  camels,  sometimes  three  thousand 
arriving  in  a  single  day,  and  taken  thence 
by  steamers  to  European  ports. 

The  mineral  deposits  of  the  country  are 
of  considerable  interest  and  value,  and  will 


one  day  become  a  source  of  wealth  when 
foreign  capital  is  allowed  to  enter  in  and 
work  these  mines.  Iron,  coal,  lead,  cop¬ 
per,  sulphur,  salt,  and  bitumen  are  found, 
and  it  is  probable  that  an  indefinite  sup¬ 
ply  of  petroleum  exists  about  the  Dead 
Sea.  Not  even  the  natives  are  allowed 
to  gather  the  bitumen  or  the  salt,  these 
articles  being  regarded  as  Government 
monopolies. 

Of  manufactured  articles  soap  takes  the 
lead,  and  two  hundred  thousand  to  three 
hundred  thousand  dollars’  worth  are  ship¬ 
ped  every  year  from  Jaffa;  besides  the  soap 
and  wheat,  oriental  maize,  barley,  oranges, 
wine,  raisins,  dye-stuffs,  and  rags,  Jeru¬ 
salem  and  Bethlehem  wares  of  olive-wood, 
bituminous  limestone  and  mother-of-pearl, 
with  some  other  articles,  make  up  the  chief 
exports  from  the  country. 

Camels,  horses,  donkeys,  sheep,  goats, 
mules,  and  a  few  cattle  comprise  the  list 
of  dotnestic  animals.  Horses  are  under  size, 
but  very  docile.  The  wild  Arabs  have  the 
reputation  of  being  kind  to  these  animals, 
but  in  the  towns  they  are  poorly  fed  and 
often  abused.  Donkeys,  though  cruelly 
treated,  are  most  serviceable  creatures,  and 
as  for  camels,  man  in  the  desert  could  not 
exist  without  them.  With  no  hills,  streams, 
or  trees  to  kindle  the  imagination,  it  is  no 
wonder  that  Arab  poets  have  said  some  of 
their  choicest  things  about  this  strange, 
uncouth,  indispensable  burden-bearer, 
with  which  such  multitudes  of  human  be¬ 
ings  live  and  die.  Cattle  are  small,  and 
their  flesh  is  poor,  since  during  the  summer 
months  there  is  no  grass  for  them  to  feed 
upon.  In  the  cities  and  villages  are  num¬ 
berless  dogs,  without  owners,  leading  a 
half-starved,  wretched  existence.  The  in¬ 
habitants  of  Palestine  have  never  learned 
either  to  be  kind  to  animals,  or  to  care  for 
them  properly. 

In  the  Natural  History  of  Palestine  many 
facts  are  found  which  illustrate  and  con¬ 
firm  the  Bible,  although  some  of  the  birds 
and  animals  referred  to  have  not  yet  been 
identified.  Upward  of  three  hundred  and 
fifty  birds  have  been  noted  as  belonging 
to  that  country,  besides  about  forty  ani¬ 
mals.  Some  have  become  extinct,  as  the 
ostrich  and  the  lion.  Among  those  at 
present  found  in  great  abundance  are  the 
gazelle,  fox,  jackal,  hyena,  porcupine, 
badger,  hare,  and  wild  boar.  In  the  rocks 
about  En-gedi  wild  goats  (the  ibex )  are 
still  seen,  and  the  curious  and  timid  coney 
(, hyrax  Syriacud)  is  found  in  the  most  se¬ 
cluded  places. 

Birds  of  prey  are  most  abundant  of  all 
the  species  found  in  Palestine.  Partridges 
exist  in  multitudes;  the  chukar ,  or  Greek 
partridge,  in  both  valley  and  mountain, 


Pal 


(  694  ) 


and  the  Desert  sand-partridge  {ammoperdix 
heyi)  intthe  Jordan  Valley  and  about  the 
Dead  Sea  only.  There  are  few  song-birds, 
and  generally  the  plumage  of  birds  is  dull, 
with  such  exceptions  as  the  egret,  the 
squacco,  and  buff  -  backed  herons,  the 
Smyrna,  and  the  little  green  kingfishers, 
the  roller,  frankolin,  oriole,  the  bee-eater, 
and  the  tiny  and  exquisitely  beautiful 
sun-bird.  In  the  spring,  when  the  birds 
are  moving  northward,  the  land  appears 
to  be  full  of  them,  and  among  these 
the  turtle-dove  should  be  mentioned, 
whose  voice  and  presence  are  as  welcome 
now  as  they  were  centuries  ago  when  their 
advent  was  heralded  in  the  Song  of  Songs 
(ii.  11,  12).  In  climates  so  unlike  as  are 
those  of  the  seacoast  of  Palestine,  the  Jor¬ 
dan  Valley,  southern  Judea,  and  the  sum¬ 
mits  of  Ilermon  and  Lebanon,  although 
these  sections  are  in  such  close  proximity 
to  each  other,  distinct  and  peculiar  forms 
of  animal  and  plant  life  are  found. 

For  historical  records  pertaining  to  Pal¬ 
estine,  the  Bible  was,  until  recently,  al¬ 
most  our  only  authority,  for  a  period  of 
nearly  twenty  centuries.  Scattered  notices 
have  been  preserved  in  the  writings  of 
other  races,  which  are  more  abundant  as 
we  approach  the  time  of  Christ.  To  this 
latter  period  belong  the  works  of  Josephus, 
invaluable,  and  providentially  preserved 
to  shed  light  on  the  politics,  religion,  and 
life  of  Judea  ;  since  then,  particularly 
within  a  century  past,  books  on  that  sub¬ 
ject  have  multiplied  so  that  the  world  is 
now  familiar  with  that  country  in  every 
phase  of  its  fascinating  history.  The  want 
of  collateral  evidence  for  the  long  interval 
between  Abraham  and  Herod  the  Great 
was  felt,  but  there  were  no  means  of  sup¬ 
plying  it.  An  important  means  has  at  last 
been  found  in  the  stone  documents  that 
have  been  preserved  in  the  buried  libra¬ 
ries  of  Assyria  and  Babylonia.  The  re¬ 
covery  and  decipherment  of  these  records 
is  not  only  one  of  the  greatest  events  of 
the  present  century,  but  it  marks  a  new 
era  in  the  study  of  Palestine  and  the  lands 
and  people  about  it.  This  rich  and  vast 
literature  of  a  people  closely  allied  to  the 
Hebrews,  but  always  hostile  to  them,  illus¬ 
trates  and  corroborates  in  a  surprising 
manner  the  statements  of  the  Bible  from 
Genesis  to  Malachi.  Similar  documents, 
only  to  a  much  more  limited  extent,  have 
been  recovered  from  the  tombs  of  Egypt. 
Moreover,  the  soil  of  Palestine  itself  has 
begun  to  yield  inscriptions;  the  Moabite 
stone,  the  Gezer  boundary,  and  that  of  the 
Siloam  tunnel,  which  confirm  the  Bible 
records,  and  make  us  better  acquainted 
with  the  former  condition  of  that  land  of 
marvels.  The  discoveries  already  made 


'  Pal 


have  awakened  the  universal  hope  that 
still  other  records  will  be  brought  to  light 
— perhaps  from  Kirjath-Sepher,  the  Book- 
town,  and  elsewhere — belonging  to  the 
early  inhabitants  that  were  conquered  by 
Joshua,  or  to  still  more  ancient  peoples. 

From  these  records  we  learn  that  Pal¬ 
estine  in  the  earliest  times  was  called 
Canaan,  and  the  earliest  inhabitants  Ca- 
naanites,  the  word  signifying  Lowlanders 
and  Traders.  They  occupied  the  Mediter¬ 
ranean  coast,  the  great  plains,  and  the 
Jordan  Valley.  In  the  mountains  Abraham 
encountered  the  Hittites,  of  whom  little  is 
known,  yet  sufficient  to  warrant  the  con¬ 
clusion  that  in  the  remotest  times  they 
were  a  powerful  race,  and  were  once  dom¬ 
inant  in  a  large  part  of  Western  Asia.  The 
country  promised  to  Abraham  was  not  con¬ 
quered  and  occupied  by  the  Hebrews  till 
b.  c.  1450.  Its  brilliant  conquest  under 
Joshua  was  soon  followed  by  three  and  a 
half  centuries  of  which  little  is  known,  and 
which  may  well  be  described  as  the  dark 
ages  of  Hebrew  history.  The  few  facts 
recorded  in  Judges  and  the  first  book  of 
Samuel  are  meagre,  but  priceless.  When 
the  nation  began  to  emerge  from  this  pe¬ 
riod  it  was  as  an  oppressed  people,  few  in 
numbers,  and  without  wealth  or  power; 
but  the  tide  in  their  favor  had  certainly 
turned,  and  under  David  and  Solomon 
they  rose  to  a  foremost  place  in  all  that 
constitutes  national  greatness.  The  great 
increase  of  territory,  the  establishment  of 
a  commercial  navy,  the  accumulation  of 
vast  amounts  of  gold,  cedar-wood,  copper, 
and  tin  from  different  parts  of  the  world, 
and  the  erection  of  many  public  buildings, 
particularly  the  royal  palaces  and  the  Tem¬ 
ple  at  Jerusalem,  are  to  be  noted  among 
the  important  events  of  that  time. 

The  greatest  events  following  the  death 
of  Solomon  were  the  division  of  his  king¬ 
dom  and  the  establishment  of  the  separate 
kingdoms  of  Israel  and  Judah,  Israel  last¬ 
ing  for  two  and  a  half  centuries,  until  its 
capital,  Samaria,  was  captured;  and  Judah 
flourishing  for  nearly  four  hundred  years, 
until  Jerusalem,  its  capital,  had  been  twice 
captured  by  Nebuchadnezzar.  Under  Ze- 
rubbabel  and  Ezra,  by  permission  of  Cyrus, 
a  weak  and  dependent  kingdom  was  rees¬ 
tablished  about  536  b.  c. ,  which,  subject 
now  to  one  and  now  to  another  foreign 
power  with  every  brief  intervals  of  quasi¬ 
independence,  lasted  until  the  final  destruc¬ 
tion  of  Jerusalem,  in  the  year  70  a.  d. 
The  vicissitudes  which  Palestine  has  ex¬ 
perienced  since  the  time  of  Christ  are 
hardly  second  in  number  and  variety — cer¬ 
tainly  not  in  their  tragic  and  forbidding 
aspect — to  those  of  the  twenty  centuries 
which  stretch  backward  from  Christ  to 


Pal 


(  695  ) 


Pal 


Abraham.  Omitting  details,  important 
historical  way-marks  are  the  two  conquests 
by  the  Romans  in  A.  D.  66-70,  and  A.  d. 
134;  that  by  the  Persians  in  a.  d.  616;  the 
re-conquest  of  the  country  by  Heraclius, 
emperor  of  Byzantium,  which  was  soon 
followed  by  the  Mohammedan  conquest  in 
A.  D.  636.  Since  then  it  has  been  subject 
to  many  different  dynasties  and  races,  but 
all  the  while  under  the  Mohammedan  yoke 
with  the  exception  of  nearly  one  hundred 
years,  A.  D.  1096-A.  d.  1187,  when  the 
country  was  in  the  hands  of  the  Crusaders. 
For  nearly  four  centuries  it  has  been  under 
Turkish  rule,  and  now  forms  a  part  of  the 
Turkish  Empire.  Under  the  last-named 
rulers  the  people  of  Palestine,  have  become 
poor,  and  the  country  has  retrograded. 
Promises  of  reform  have  not  been  carried 
out,  owing  in  part  to  the  weakness  of  the 
government,  and  in  part  to  its  ignorance  as 
to  what  constitutes  real  progress  and  true 
national  prosperity. 

The  inhabitants  of  Palestine ,  numbering 
roughly  600,000,  are  composed  chiefly  of 
Arabs,  and  after  them  the  most  numerous 
races  are  Syrians  and  Jews.  In  the  East 
it  is  customary  to  divide  the  population 
according  to  religious  beliefs;  hence  we 
speak  of  Mohammedans,  Jews,  and  Chris¬ 
tians.  Besides  Jaffa  there  are  but  four 
towns  that  have  any  considerable  Jewish 
population,  namely,  Hebron,  Safed,  Tibe¬ 
rias,  and  Jerusalem.  They  are  poor  and 
ignorant,  the  Spanish  Jews  being,  how¬ 
ever,  somewhat  better  off  than  the  German 
Jews,  who  are  by  far  the  larger  of  the 
two  bodies.  Each  body  has  its  separate 
synagogues.  A  few  Jewish  colonies  have 
been  established  in  Palestine  during  the 
past  two  decades,  but  they  are  small  in 
numbers  and  have  to  be  supported  by  out¬ 
side  help.  Recent  years  have  witnessed  a 
large  number  of  societies  organized  for  the 
purpose  of  colonizing  Judea  with  Jews,  and 
a  vast  amount  has  been  written  in  favor  of 
these  projects;  but  in  no  case  was  any 
proper  account  taken  of  the  obstacles  to  be 
encountered,  and  the  consequence  is  that 
these  schemes  have,  with  hardly  an  excep¬ 
tion,  been  entire  failures. 

The  Christians  are  divided  into  the  vari¬ 
ous  Oriental  sects,  as  Greek,  Latin  or  Ro¬ 
man  Catholic,  Armenians,  Copts,  Abys- 
sinians,  and  Syrians,  and  there  are  also  a 
few  Protestants.  The  bulk  of  the  popula¬ 
tion  is  Mohammedan,  and  in  a  majority 
of  the  villages  of  Palestine  Christians  are 
unknown,  Christians  having  exclusive  pos¬ 
session  of  but  very  few  villages,  as,  for  ex¬ 
ample,  Bethlehem.  The  Greek  and  Latin 
sects  are  wealthy,  and  have  throughout  the 
country  many  convents.  The  Greeks  are 
supported  by  Russia  and  the  Latins  by 


France,  and  the  many  political  questions 
growing  out  of  the  relations  of  these  two 
rival  bodies  are  interesting,  and  may,  not 
very  far  hence,  prove  of  vital  significance 
for  the  weal  or  woe  of  the  Holy  Land. 

Owing  to  various  circumstances,  the 
struggle  for  life  in  Palestine  is  a  hard  one. 
The  people  are  universally  poor,  and  there 
is  among  them  much  suffering,  with  no 
prospect  for  betterment  under  the  present 
order  of  things.  There  is  a  great  variety 
of  occupations ,  and  in  any  large  town  one 
will  meet  with  bakers,  butchers,  black¬ 
smiths,  builders,  coffee-shop  keepers, 
clothes  dealers,  charcoal  dealers,  carpen¬ 
ters,  dyers,  gold  and  silver  smiths,  gro¬ 
cers,  gunsmiths,  masons,  money-changers, 
milkmen,  stone-cutters,  shoemakers,  spice 
merchants,  saddlers,  soap-makers,  tailors, 
tinsmiths,  tobacconists,  tanners,  vegetable 
dealers,  watch-makers,  wine  and  spirit 
merchants,  weavers,  etc.  These  are  taken 
from  a  list  of  over  one  hundred  occupa¬ 
tions,  as  those  in  which  the  largest  number 
of  persons  are  engaged.  In  all  manual  la¬ 
bor  the  methods  employed  are  primitive, 
and  the  work  produced  is  of  the  rudest  char¬ 
acter.  In  a  few  instances,  however,  as  in 
gold  ornaments,  and  in  the  manufacture  of 
cloth  of  gold,  silver,  and  siTic,  they  exhibit 
fine  taste  and  skill;  on  the  othejhand  they 
cannot  make  a  right  angle  in  the  wall  of  a 
room,  a  straight  edge  to  a  board,  or  a  farm¬ 
ing  utensil  that  is  not  clumsy.  Manufact¬ 
uring  is  carried  on  only  to  a  limited  extent, 
being  confined  chiefly  to  the  household, 
farming,  and  other  utensils  that  are  needed 
in  the  country.  Imported  tools  would  be 
far  better,  but  the  people  are  too  poor 
to  buy  them.  There  are  large  estab¬ 
lishments  for  the  manufacture  of  pottery 
from  white  and  black  clay,  both  kinds  being 
abundant,  whose  products  are  inexpensive 
and  are  constantly  in  demand.  In  some 
sections  the  preparation  of  stones  for  hand- 
mills,  or  for  mills  of  a  larger  size  that  are 
turned  by  donkeys,  is  quite  an  important 
industry.  Glass  rings  and  small  glass  or¬ 
naments  are  extensively  made  in  Hebron; 
and  here  and  elsewhere  the  preparation  of 
goat-skins  for  bottles  for  water,  wine,  and 
oil  is  carried  on  with  profit,  because  these 
articles  are  always  and  everywhere  needed. 
In  the  work  from  mother-of-pearl  and  bi¬ 
tuminous  limestone  at  Bethlehem,  and  in 
the  olive-wood  work  of  Jerusalem,  a  lu¬ 
crative  business  is  done,  which  has  greatly 
increased  within  twenty  years  past,  and 
given  employment  to  thousands  of  people, 
as  these  objects  are  sent  to  all  parts  of  the 
world. 

The  mass  of  the  people  of  Palestine  are 
engaged  in  tilling  the  soil.  This  is  labori¬ 
ous  work  and  not  very  profitable.  More- 


Pal 


(  696  ) 


Pal 


over,  the  farmers  are  almost  universally  in 
debt,  and  after  the  tax-collector  and  money¬ 
lender  have  been  satisfied,  there  is  fre¬ 
quently  very  little  of  the  products  of  the 
year  left  for  the  farmer  himself;  conse¬ 
quently  in  order  to  carry  on  his  work  he 
must  make  ruinous  pledges  on  future 
crops  —  pledges  for  seed,  cattle,  imple¬ 
ments,  and  sometimes  even  for  food.  He 
works  hard,  lives  and  dies  in  debt — this, 
in  brief,  is  the  farmer’s  normal  condition  in 
Palestine.  The  government  affords  its 
people  no  help,  but  in  the  management  of 
the  country’s  affairs  is  oppressive  and  cruel 
in  many  ways.  Could  roads  be  built,  mar¬ 
kets  opened,  and  enterprise  encouraged, 
much  would  be  done  toward  raising  the  in¬ 
habitants  to  a  condition  of  prosperity  and 
happiness. 

The  people  suffer  not  only  from  an  op¬ 
pressive  government  and  their  own  habits 
of  improvidence,  but  because  they  are 
ignorant  of  all  sanitary  laws.  About  any 
town  or  village  the  dunghill — as  Moslems 
never  apply  fertilizing  material  to  the  land — 
is  always  a  conspicuous,  not  to  say  an  of¬ 
fensive  object.  In  the  large  towns  sinks 
are  built  within  the  thick  walls  of  the 
houses,  and  are  seldom  cleaned.  The  nar¬ 
row  streets  become  the  receptacles  of  all 
sorts  of  filth  and  decaying  substances,  to 
whose  presence  the  inhabitants  seem  to  be 
perfectly  indifferent.  The  streets  of  a 
town  are  almost  never  cleaned  except  when 
washed  by  winter  rains.  People  live  and 
die  in  filth.  It  is  a  standing  miracle  that 
pestilence  in  some  form  does  not  visit  that 
land  every  year.  This  would  be  the  result 
were  it  not  for  the  intense  heat  which  pre¬ 
vails  from  the  first  of  April  till  the  last  of 
November,  which  burns  up  filth  and  car¬ 
rion  as. well  as  all  green  vegetation.  The 
prevailing  diseases  are  fevers,  dysentery, 
measles,  and  small-pox,  and  occasionally 
*the  country  is  scourged  by  cholera.  The 
latter  is  the  only  disease  of  which  the  na¬ 
tives  have  any  dread.  Thousands  die  of 
measles  and  small-pox  who  might  be  saved, 
were  any  proper  care  taken  of  the  sick. 
It  is  largely  due  to  this  neglect  that  the 
death-rate  in  Palestine  is  so  high.  Among 
the  Jews  another  fact  enters  into  the  ac¬ 
count  in  estimating  the  death-rate,  and  that 
is,  that  so  many  aged  and  infirm  persons  go 
to  the  Holy  Land  to  spend  their  last  days, 
who  readily  succumb  to  a  climate  to  which 
they  are  not  accustomed.  Leprosy  still 
exists  to  a  limited  extent,  but  it  is  not  con¬ 
sidered  contagious.  For  many  years  lepers 
have  not  been  allowed  within  the  walls  of 
Jerusalem,  and  a  hospital  has  been  provid¬ 
ed  for  them  by  the  Moravians,  at  some  dis¬ 
tance  from  the  city,  where  they  receive 
excellent  sanitary  and  medical  care.  No 


law  compels  them  to  enter  the  hospital, 
and  a  considerable  number  prefer,  as  in 
ancient  times,  to  sit  by  the  wayside  and 
beg. 

The  question  of  wine  and  te?nperance  in 
Palestine  may  be  referred  to,  since  that 
topic  is  so  frequently  mentioned.  Wine  is 
manufactured  in  large  quantities,  both  red 
and  white,  according  to  the  color  of  the 
grapes  used,  and  is  mostly  consumed  in 
the  country.  Its  use  by  Christians  and 
Jews  is  universal,  and  in  the  large  towns 
and  sea-ports  many  Mohammedans  are  also 
addicted  to  wine-drinking.  Much  is  im¬ 
ported  from  Cyprus  and  the  Greek  Islands. 
From  the  pomace  of  grapes  and  from  ref¬ 
use  figs  a  distilled  liquor  is  made,  called 
araky  which  is  generally  very  poor,  and 
injurious  to  the  system.  German  beer  is 
imported  in  considerable  quantities — 10,000 
bottles  in  1886;  besides,  there  are  three 
breweries,  one  at  Jerusalem  and  two  at 
Jaffa,  managed  by  foreigners.  No  such 
thing  as  unfermented  wine  is  known  in  Pal¬ 
estine,  or  anywhere  in  the  East.  With  beer, 
arak  and  wine  in  abundance — the  latter 
costs  from  five  to  ten  cents  a  quart — and  no 
temperance  societies  or  public  sentiment  to 
condemn  their  use,  total  abstinence  is  un¬ 
known,  except  in  such  Mohammedan  vil¬ 
lages  as  have  not  been  reached  by  unfavor¬ 
able  influences.  Very  few  intoxicated  per¬ 
sons  are  seen  on  the  streets  in  the  towns 
of  Palestine,  because  Orientals  do  most  of 
their  drinking  at  home,  and  not  in  saloons 
as  is  the  custom  among  Western  nations. 

During  recent  years  the  number  of  trav¬ 
elers  whovisit  Palestine  annually  has  increas¬ 
ed  from  a  very  few  to  four  or  six  hundred, 
coming  from  the  different  countries  of  the 
world;  and,  besides  these,  the  number  of 
pilgrims  is  not  far  from  ten  thousand,  in¬ 
cluding  the  Mohammedans  who  flock  to 
Jerusalem  to  observe  the  feast  of  the  Proph¬ 
et  Moses  (Neby  Musa).  Travelers  are 
provided  for  in  hotels  and  tents,  while 
Christian  pilgrims  find  comfortable  accom¬ 
modations  in  the  great  convents  and  pil¬ 
grim  houses;  those  belonging  to  the  Greek, 
Latin  and  Armenian  bodies  at  Jerusalem 
being  each  able  to  shelter  several  thousand 
guests  at  once.  One-third,  and,  perhaps, 
one-half,  of  the  Christian  pilgrims  come 
from  Russia.  They  are  all  in  mature  life, 
and  the  effect  of  such  a  body  of  men  and 
women  visiting  the  holy  places  of  Judea 
every  year  is  incalculable  upon  the  yeo¬ 
manry  of  that  grea  empire.  It  is  a  vast  relig¬ 
ious  movement  with  a  strong  political  mo¬ 
tive.  A  Palestinian  constituency  is  being 
created,  which  at  some  future  day  may 
prove  of  the  highest  importance  to  that 
government.  For  Palestine  the  yearly  ad¬ 
vent  of  these  pilgrims  and  travelers  is  a 


Pal 


(  697  ) 


Pal 


priceless  boon,  since  they  leave  behind 
them  a  vast  amount  of  money. 

The  exploration  of  Palestine  is  at  pres¬ 
ent  receiving  special  attention  in  both 
Europe  and  America.  Many  successful 
efforts  have  already  been  made,  which  have 
only  stimulated  a  desire  to  bring  to  light 
the  secrets  still  hidden  in  the  soil  of  that 
ancient  land.  Were  the  matter  to  be  treated 
fully,  mention  would  be  made  of  American, 
English,  German,  French,  Italian,  and 
Swedish  explorers,  who  have  contributed 
time,  strength,  and,  in  some  instances  even 
life,  to  the  furtherance  of  this  work.  Lieu¬ 
tenant  Lynch’s  exploration  of  the  river 
Jordan  and  the  Dead  Sea  (1848);  Dr.  Ed¬ 
ward  Robinson’s  important  work  ten  years 
previous  (1836),  and  Dr.  W.  M.  Thomson’s 
volumes  which  appeared  in  1859 — three 
eminent  Americans  in  three  successive  dec¬ 
ades — gave  a  remarkable  impetus  to  Pal¬ 
estinian  study  and  research,  and  placed  it 
upon  a  scholarly  basis  almost  wholly  un¬ 
known  before.  In  1864  Due  de  Luynes, 
accompanied  by  Vignes  and  Lartet,did  im¬ 
portant  service  in  connection  with  the  Dead 
Sea  and  the  geology  of  the  country.  The 
English  work  began  under  C.  W.  Wilson, 
in  1865,  and  the  excavations  at  Jerusalem 
under  Charles  Warren  in  1867.  In  1871, 
under  Captain  Stewart,  the  English  Society 
undertook  the  systematic  triangulation  of 
Western  Palestine  which,  under  Conder 
and  Kitchener,  was  completed  in  1878. 
The  Americans  sent  out  two  parties,  1872, 
1875,  which  did  commendable  work  east  of 
the  Jordan,  and  opened  the  way  for  further 
researches  in  that  less-accessible  but  in¬ 
tensely  interesting  portion  of  the  Holy 
Land.  The  finding  of  the  Moabite  Stone 
by  Pastor  Klein,  the  Gezer  Boundary  by 
Messrs.  Bergheimand  Ganneau,  the  Siloam 
Tunnel  Inscription  by  a  Jewish  school-boy, 
and  a  long  section  of  the  Second  Wall  of 
ancient  Jerusalem  by  the  present  writer  in 
1886,  are  regarded  by  scholars  as  among 
the  most  important  Palestinian  discoveries 
of  the  present  century. 

The  following  works,  selected  from  the 
vast  Literature  of  Palestine ,  will  be  found 
helpful:  Dr.  Edward  Robinson’s  Biblical 
Researches  (1841,  1856),  and  Dr.  W.  M. 
Thomson’s  The  Land  and  the  Book  (1859, 
new  edition  in  3  vols.,  with  separate  titles, 
New  York,  1880—1886),  are  works  of  great 
value.  On  Jerusalem  one  should  consult 
the  works  of  Lewin,  Thrupp,  Williams, 
Fergusson,  W.  H.  Bartlett,  J.  T.  Barclay; 
and,  for  recent  results,  Charles  Warren: 
Underground  Jerusalem  (London,  1876); 
E.  H.  Palmer:  Desert  of  the  Exodus  (Lon¬ 
don  and  New  York,  1871,  1872);  Selah 
Merrill:  East  of  the  Jorda7i  (New  York  and 
London,  1881,  new  edition,  1883);  J.  Mac¬ 


gregor:  Rob  Roy  on  the  Jordan  (London, 
1866);  Dr.  Philip  Schaff:  Through  Bible 
Lands  (New  York,  1878);  H.  B.  Tristram: 
The  Land  of  Israel  (London,  1866,  new  edi¬ 
tion,  1876),  also,  Natural  History  of  the 
Bible  ( London,  1868);  A.  P.  Stanley:  Sinai 
a?id  Palestine  (London  and  New  York,  1853), 
and  many  editions  since.  The  publications 
of  the  English  Palestine  Exploration  Fund 
will  be  found  of  great  service,  although 
some  of  them  are  too  costly  for  the  general 
reader.  Our  Work  in  Palestine ,  by  this 
society  (London  and  New  York,  1873); 
The  Recovery  of  fertisalem  (London  and  New 
York,  1871);  C.  R.  Conder’s  Tent  Work 
in  Palestine  (1878),  are  all  interesting  and 
valuable.  The  Fauna  and  Flora  of  Pales¬ 
tine  have  been  treated  in  a  separate  volume 
by  the  Pal.  Exp.  Fund  (London,  1884). 
For  the  Geology  of  the  country  one  should 
read  the  works  of  Hull  (1885,  1886);  Fraas 
(1878);  Diener  (1886),  and  Lartet,  and  es¬ 
pecially  Modern  Science  in  Bible  Lands ,  by 
Sir  J.  W.  Dawson  (1888).  The  views  of 
this  reverent  Christian  scholar  will  be 
found  fresh  and  instructive.  Kiepert’s  is 
still  one  of  the  best  wall  maps  of  the  whole 
country,  but  those  of  the  Pal.  Exp.  Fund 
for  Western  Palestine  supersede  all  others. 

Selah  Merrill. 

Palestrina  (pd-les-tree'na),  Giovanni  Pier¬ 
luigi,  the  founder  of  the  modern  style  of 
church  music;  b.  at  Palestrina,  near  Rome, 
in  1524;  d.  in  Rome,  Feb.  2,  1592.  He 
studied  under  Goudimel,  and  was  made 
musical  director  of  the  Julian  chapel  by 
Pope  Julius  III.,  to  whom  he  dedicated 
his  first  works.  By  his  various  composi¬ 
tions  and  influence  he  changed  the  entire 
method  and  style  of  church  music.  The 
famous  “  Mass  of  Pope  Marcellus  ”  is  con¬ 
sidered  his  best  work. 

Paley,  William,  a  celebrated  English  di¬ 
vine,  was  b.  at  Peterborough  in  1743.  Dur¬ 
ing  his  infancy  his  father  removed  to 
Giggleswick,  to  become  head-master  of  the 
Grammar  School,  and  the  boy  was  educated 
there.  When  he  left  for  Christ’s  College, 
Cambridge,  at  the  age  of  sixteen,  his  father 
said  he  had  by  far  the  cleverest  head  he  had 
ever  met  with.  In  1763  he  was  graduated 
as  Senior  Wrangler,  and  then  taught  at 
Greenwich  Academy  for  three  years.  In 
1765  he  gained  the  prize  at  Cambridge  for 
a  Latin  dissertation  on  A  Co??iparison  be¬ 
tween  the  Stoic  and  Epicurean  Philosophy 
with  Respect  to  the  Influence  of  Each  on  the 
Morals  of  a  People ,  and  in  the  next  year  he 
was  elected  a  fellow  and  tutor  of  his  col¬ 
lege.  He  remained  there  for  ten  years 
more,  then  married,  and  retired  to  the  liv¬ 
ings  of  Musgrove  and  Appleby  in  West- 


Pal 


(  698  ) 


Pal 


moreland,  and  Dalston  in  Cumberland. 
In  1780  he  became  prebendary  of  Carlisle, 
and  subsequently  archdeacon  and  chan¬ 
cellor  of  the  diocese.  It  was  during  this 
part  of  his  life  that  he  wrote  most  of  his 
works.  In  1794,  as  a  reward  for  his  Evi¬ 
dences,  the  bishop  of  London  made  him  a 
prebend  of  St.  Pancras,  he  was  promoted 
to  the  subdeanery  of  Lincoln,  became  a 
D.  D.  of  Cambridge,  and  rector  of  Bishop- 
Wearmouth.  He  died  in  1805.  The  first 
of  Dr.  Paley’s  important  works  was  The 
Principles  of  Moral  and  Political  Philosophy 
(1785),  in  which  he  shows  himself  to  be  a 
follower  of  Locke,  and  denies  the  theory 
of  moral  sense.  In  1790  appeared  the  most 
original  of  his  works,  Horce  Paulines,  in 
which,  by  comparing  St.  Paul’s  Epistles 
with  the  Acts  of  the  Apostles,  he  shows 
the  authenticity  of  both,  and  furnishes  a 
testimony  on  behalf  of  revealed  religion. 
A  third  important  work  was  A  View  of  the 
Evidences  of  Christianity ,  which  appeared 
in  1794,  in  writing  which  he  borrowed  from 
the  works  of  Lardner  and  Bishop  Douglas. 
This  book  was  very  popular  at  the  time, 
and  ran  through  many  editions.  His  last 
work  was  Natural  Theology ;  or.  Evidences 
of  the  Existence  and  Attributes  of  the  Deity, 
which  Paley  gained  partly  from  Nieuwen- 
tyt’s  Religious  Philosopher.  The  Natural 
Theology  was,  perhaps,  the  most  popular 
of  his  works. 

Paley  stands  preeminent  in  English 
popular  theology  as  the  Utilitarian  divine. 
With  him  expediency  was  the  one  founda¬ 
tion  of  all  philosophy.  The  laws  of  honor, 
the  sense  of  right  and  wrong  in  the  mind 
both  of  the  individual  and  the  nation,  were 
set  aside  by  him  in  favor  of  the  doctrine 
that  the  laws  both  of  God  and  man  appeal 
to  the  fear  of  tangible  punishment,  and  the 
hope  of  tangible  reward.  Moral  obligation 
means  self-interest  stretching  through  an 
endless  future,  and  the  proclamation  of 
such  motives  is  the  revelation  of  the  will 
of  God.  And  this  will  must  be  made  known 
by  some  authoritative  method.  What  shall 
the  method  be  ?  The  moral  sense  being 
discarded,  there  remains  the  proof  from 
miracles.  Whoever  cannot  dispense  with 
the  laws  of  nature  has  no  credentials  of  a 
Divine  mission  to  offer.  Consequently 
Paley  directs  his  argument  to  proving  that 
the  evidence  for  the  miracles  of  the  New 
Testament  is  sufficient  for  the  conviction 
of  an  honest  conscience.  Hume  had  de¬ 
clared  that  a  miracle  is  so  improbable  in 
itself  that  no  amount  of  external  evidence 
is  sufficient  to  make  it  credible.  Paley  re¬ 
plied  that  the  evidence  adduced  in  favor  of 
the  statements  of  the  Evangelists  was 
overwhelming.  This  much  must  be  ac¬ 
knowledged,  that  Paley’s  style  is  perfect 


as  regards  clearness  and  directness.  But 
the  ignoring  of  the  moral  sense  was  a  ter¬ 
rible  weakness  in  his  theology,  and  it  may 
perhaps  be  regarded  as  the  greatest  merit 
of  the  philosophy  of  Coleridge  that  he  as¬ 
serted  against  Paley  the  power  of  the  con¬ 
science,  of  the  internal  evidence,  and  of  the 
direct  appeal  of  God  to  the  soul. — Ben- 
ham:  Diet,  of  Religion. 

Palimpsest  (from  Greek, palin,  again,  and 
psao,  I  scrape  out),  a  term  used  to  desig¬ 
nate  a  manuscript  written  on  vellum,  from 
which  former  writing  has  been  scraped  off. 
The  most  famous  of  the  palimpsests  which 
contain  portions  of  the  Bible  is  the  Codex 
Ephrccmi.  There  is  a  palimpsest  of  the 
sixth  century  containing  a  portion  of  St. 
Luke’s  Gospel,  in  the  British  Museum, 
and  several  others  have  been  preserved. 

Palissy  {pa-le-se '),  Bernard,  “  a  Hugue¬ 
not  artisan,  famous  for  his  glass  paintings 
and  beautiful  figured  pottery,  was  b.  near 
Agen,  now  in  the  department  of  Lot  et 
Garonne,  France,  about  1510,  and  at  an 
early  age  was  apprenticed  to  a  potter.  He 
devoted  himself  to  chemical  researches  for 
the  improvement  of  his  art,  and  made 
many  journeys  through  France  and  Ger¬ 
many  for  this  purpose;  at  the  same  time 
carrying  on  the  business  of  a  land-sur¬ 
veyor.  An  enameled  cup  of  “faience,” 
which  he  saw  by  chance,  inspired  him  with 
the  resolution  to  discover  the  mode  of  pro¬ 
ducing  white  enamel.  Neglecting  all  other 
labors,  he  devoted  himself  to  investiga¬ 
tions  and  experiments  for  the  long  period 
of  sixteen  years.  He  had  by  this  time 
exhausted  all  his  resources,  and  for  want 
of  money  to  buy  fuel  was  reduced  to  the 
necessity  of  burning  his  household  furni¬ 
ture  piece  by  piece;  his  neighbors  laughed 
at  him,  his  wife  overwhelmed  him  with  re¬ 
proaches,  and  his  starving  family  sur¬ 
rounded  him,  crying  for  food;  but  in  spite 
of  all  these  discouragements  he  persisted 
in  the  search,  and  was  in  the  end  reward¬ 
ed  by  success.  A  few  vessels  adorned 
with  figures  of  animals,  colored  to  repre¬ 
sent  nature,  sold  for  high  prices,  and  en¬ 
abled  him  to  complete  his  investigations, 
after  which  he  became  famous,  and,  though 
a  Huguenot,  was  protected  and  encouraged 
by  the  king  and  the  nobility,  who  employ¬ 
ed  him  to  embellish  their  mansions  with 
specimens  of  his  art.  He  was  lodged  in 
or  near  the  Tuileries,  and  was  specially 
exempted  by  Queen  Catherine  from  the 
massacre  of  St.  Bartholomew,  more  from 
a  regard  to  her  own  benefit  than  from  kind¬ 
ness.  In  March,  1576,  he  commenced  a 
course  of  lectures  on  natural  history  and 
physics,  and  was  the  first  in  France  to  sub- 


Pal 


(  699  ) 


Pal 


stitute  positive  facts  and  rigorous  demon¬ 
strations  for  the  fanciful  interpretations  of 
philosophers.  In  the  course  of  these  lect¬ 
ures,  he  gave  (1584)  the  first  right  notions 
of  the  origin  of  springs,  and  the  formation 
of  stones  and  fossil  shells,  and  strongly 
advocated  the  importance  of  marl  as  a 
fertilizing  agent.  These,  along  with  his 
theories  regarding  the  best  means  of  puri¬ 
fying  water,  have  been  fully  supported  by 
recent  discovery  and  investigation.  In 
1588  he  was  arrested  and  thrown  into  the 
Bastille  as  a  heretic,  but  died  in  1590  be¬ 
fore  his  sentence  was  pronounced. 

“  Palissy  left  a  collection  of  objects  of 
natural  history,  the  first  that  had  been 
formed  in  France.  His  works  are  at  the 
present  day  almost  beyond  price,  and  his 
ornaments  and  arabesques  are  amongst  the 
most  beautiful  of  the  ‘  Renaissance.’  As 
a  sincere,  earnest,  and  courageous  man  he 
was  no  less  eminent  than  as  an  artist.” — 
Chambers:  Cyclopcedia.  See  his  Life ,  by 
Henry  Morley  (New  York,  1852),  2  vols. 

Pall,  or  Pallium  (Latin  palliu?n ,  a  cov¬ 
er,  a  mantle),  “  a  white  woolen  scarf  of 
the  breadth  of  a  hand,  and  adorned  with 
six  black  crosses,  is  an  ecclesiastical  orna¬ 
ment  borne  by  the  highest  officers  of  the 
Roman  Catholic  Church  on  the  most  sol¬ 
emn  occasions.  Its  origin  is  variously  ex¬ 
plained;  some  referring  it  to  the  head-band 
of  the  Jewish  high-priest,  others  to  the 
mantle  of  the  Roman  emperor.  Most  prob¬ 
ably,  however,  it  is  connected  with  the 
shoulder-band  of  the  high-priest,  which, 
by  being  adopted  by  the  Christian  Church, 
came  to  symbolize  the  Lord  seeking  after 
the  lost  lamb,  and  carrying  it,  when  found, 
on  his  shoulder.  From  the  East  it  was 
early  transferred  to  the  West,  where  it  be¬ 
came  a  custom  for  the  bishop  of  Rome  to 
present  it  to  the  metropolitans  connected 
with  his  sees.” — H.  F.  Jacobson  in  Schaff- 
Herzog:  Ency.  ,vol.  iii. ,  p.  1730.  At  first  the 
pallium  was  given  gratis,  but  in  time  it  be¬ 
came  a  great  source  of  revenue  to  Rome. 
The  pallium  can  only  be  received  direct 
from  the  pope;  and  upon  the  death  of  an 
archbishop  his  pallium  is  buried  with  him. 
In  the  East  every  bishop  has  his  pallium. 

Palladius,  b.  about  368,  in  Galatia.  He 
studied  in  Egypt  among  the  monks,  and 
then  spent  three  years  at  Mount  Olivet, 
where  he  met  Rufinus,  of  whom  he  was  a 
great  admirer.  In  400  he  was  made  bishop 
of  Helenopolis.  He  opposed  Epiphanius 
and  Jerome  in  the  Origenistic  controversy. 
Banished  for  a  time  to  Syene,  in  Upper 
Egypt,  he  was  recalled  and  made  bishop  of 
Aspona,  in  Galatia,  where  he  died,  431.  He 
was  the  author  of  a  collection  of  lives  of 


Egyptian  and  Palestinian  monks,  entitled 
Historia  Lausiaca. 

Palmer  (Lat.  palmifer>  a  palm-bearer), 
the  name  given  to  those  who,  having  made 
a  pilgrimage  to  the  Holy  Land  and  per¬ 
formed  their  vow,  returned  bringing  back 
a  palm  branch, which  was  given  to  the  priest 
to  be  placed  on  the  altar  of  the  parish 
church.  After  their  return  these  pilgrims 
often  continued  to  rove  in  their  own  coun¬ 
try,  and  thus  the  name  “  palmer  ”  was  used 
to  designate  these  itinerant  monks,  who 
professed  voluntary  poverty,  and  visited 
about  from  shrine  to  shrine. 

Palmer,  Edward  Henry,  an  English 
Orientalist,  was  born  at  Cambridge  in  1840. 
He  studied  at  St.  John’s  College,  Cam¬ 
bridge,  where  he  took  his  degree  in  1867, 
and  for  the  next  three  years  made  expedi¬ 
tions  to  Sinai,  and  became  perfectly  ac¬ 
quainted  with  the  language  and  manners 
of  the  Bedouins.  In  1871  he  was  made 
Lord  Almoner’s  Professor  of  Arabic  at 
Cambridge,  and  remained  in  England  till 
the  beginning  of  the  Soudan  war.  He 
then  went  out  to  Egypt  to  try  to  dissuade 
the  Bedouins  from  their  attacks  on  the 
Suez  Canal,  but  was  captured,  with  two 
European  companions,  Captain  Gill  and 
Lieutenant  Charrington,  in  the  Wady  Sudr, 
Desert  of  El  Tih,  and  murdered,  August 
11,  1882. 

His  books  have  proved  very  serviceable 
to  Orientalists.  They  are:  The  Negeb ,  or 
South  Cou7itry  of  Scripture  and  the  Desert 
of  El  Tih;  The  Desert  of  the  Exodus;  His¬ 
tory  of  the  Jewish  Nation  from  the  Earliest 
Times;  The  Quran ,  etc. — Benham:  Did. 
of  Religion.  See  Walter  Besant:  The  Life 
and  Achievetnents  of  Edward  Henry  Palmer 
(London,  1883). 

Palmer,  Herbert,  b.  at  Wingham,  Kent, 
March  29,  1601;  d.  Aug.  13,  1647.  Edu¬ 
cated  at  Cambridge,  ordained  in  1624; 
University  preacher  at  Cambridge  in  1632, 
and  vicar  of  Ashwell.  He  was  a  member 
of  the  Westminster  Assembly,  in  1643, 
and  incumbent  of  the  new  church  at  West¬ 
minster,  in  1647.  He  prepared  a  number 
of  catechisms.  One  of  them  was  taken  as 
the  basis  of  the  Westminster  Catechism. 
He  was  a  moderate  Presbyterian,  and  fa¬ 
vored  presiding  bishops.  As  a  preacher  he 
was  devout  and  eloquent,  and  used  his  in¬ 
herited  wealth  as  a  means  of  advancing 
t  the  cause  of  Christ. 

Palm-Sunday,  “  the  last  Sunday  in  Lent, 
is  celebrated  in  many  Christian  churches, 
both  in  the  East  and  the  West,  in  commem¬ 
oration  of  the  entrance  of  our  Lord  into 


Pal 


(  700  ) 


Pan 


Jerusalem,  when  the  multitude  saluted 
him  by  waving  palm-branches,  and  strew¬ 
ing  them  before  him.  (Matt.  xxi.  1-11; 
Mark  xi.  1-11;  John  xii.  12-16.)  In  the 
East  the  celebration  dates  back  to  the  fifth 
century;  in  the  West  it  is  somewhat  later.” 
Schaff-Herzog:  Ency. 

Palm-Tree.  The  palm-tree  of  the  Bible  is 
the  date-palm.  It  is  now  rare  in  Palestine, 
and  it  is  only  in  the  extremely  warm 
climate  of  Jericho  and  the  Dead  Sea  that  it 
ripens  its  fruit.  It  is  eaten  fresh  or  dried, 
and  a  kind  of  honey-like  syrup  or  wine  is 
made  from  it.  The  tree  is  very  graceful 
inform,  with  an  average  height  of  forty  or 
fifty  feet.  The  slender  branchless  ..runk 
is  crowned  with  a  large  number  of  feath¬ 
ery  leaves  from  six  to  twelve  feet  long. 
Jericho  was  called  the  “  city  of  palm- 
trees.”  (Deut.  xxxiv.  3,  etc.)  Branches 
of  the  palm-tree  were  used  on  the  feast  of 
Tabernacles,  and  carried  in  triumphal  pro¬ 
cessions. 

Pamphi'lus,  “  an  eminent  promotor  of 
learning  in  the  early  Church,  is  said  to 
have  been  born  of  good  family  at  Berytus, 
in  the  latter  half  of  the  third  century. 
After  studying  at  Alexandria  under  Pieri- 
us,  the  disciple  of  Origen,  he  was  ordained 
presbyter  at  Caesarea  in  Palestine,  where 
the  remainder  of  his  life  was  spent.  There 
he  established  a  theological  school,  and 
warmly  encouraged  students;  he  also 
founded,  or  at  least  largely  extended  the 
great  library  to  which  Eusebius  and  Jerome 
were  afterward  so  much  indebted.  He  was 
very  zealous  in  the  transcription  and  dis¬ 
tribution  of  copies  of  Scripture,  and  of  the 
works  of  various  Christian  writers,  es¬ 
pecially  of  Origen,  the  copy  of  the  com¬ 
plete  works  of  the  last  named  in  the  library 
of  Caesarea  was  chiefly  in  the  handwriting 
of  Pamphilus  himself.  At  the  outbreak 
of  the  persecution  under  Maximin,  Pam¬ 
philus  was  thrown  into  prison,  and  there, 
along  with  his  attached  friend  and  pupil 
Eusebius  (sometimes  distinguished  as 
Eusebius  Pamphili),  he  composed  an 
Apology  for  Origen  in  five  books,  to  which 
a  sixth  was  afterward  added  by  Eusebius. 
He  was  put  to  death  in  309.  Only  the  first 
book  of  the  Apology  of  Pamphilus  is  extant, 
and  that  but  in  an  imperfect  Latin  trans¬ 
lation  by  Rufinus.  It  has  been  reprinted 
in  De  la  Rue’s  edition  of  Origen ,  and 
also  by  Routh,  and  by  Galland.  Eusebius 
wrote  a  Metnoir  of  his  master,  which  also 
has  unfortunately  disappeared.” — Ency. 
Britannica. 

Pamphyl'ia,  a  province  of  Asia  Minor, 
bounded  on  the  north  by  Pisidia,  east  by 


Cilicia,  south  by  the  Mediterranean,  and 
west  by  Lycia.  Its  chief  cities  were  Perga 
and  Attalia.  Perga  was  the  first  place  in 
Asia  Minor  visited  by  Paul  on  his  first  mis¬ 
sionary  tour  (Acts  xiii.  13),  and  on  his  re¬ 
turn  from  Pisidia  he  again  preached  there, 
and  from  Attalia  sailed  to  Antioch.  (Acts 
xiv.  24-26.) 

Panagia  (Gr.  panagia ,  all-holy).  In  the 
Eastern  Church  this  word  has  two  mean¬ 
ings:  (1)  to  designate  the  Virgin  Mary; 
and  (2)  the  consecrated  bread. 

Pan  -  Anglican  Synod.  See  Lambeth 

Conference. 

Pantsenus,  the  first  catechetical  teacher  at 
Alexandria,  was  b.  in  the  second  century. 
He  is  not  heard  of  after  203.  According 
to  Jerome  he  wrote  several  commentaries, 
but,  with  the  exception  of  two  small  frag¬ 
ments,  his  works  are  lost. 

Pantheism  (from  pan ,  everything,  t.nd 
Theis,  God),  the  belief  that  God  is  every¬ 
thing,  and  everything  God.  In  one  form 
pantheism  may  be  regarded  as  a  protest 
against  materialism.  Those  who  regard¬ 
ed  the  visible  world  as  the  sum  total  of 
all  things,  became  from  the  very  nature 
of  the  case  atheists.  Those  who  recog¬ 
nized  that  thoughts  and  feelings  are  things 
just  as  real  as  things  that  can  be  touched 
were,  so  far,  emancipated  from  the  blank 
hopelessness  of  the  materialist  creed. 
Pantheism  may  be  regarded  as  an  importa¬ 
tion  from  the  Eastern  philosophies,  the 
groundwork  of  which  was  the  belief  in  an 
Infinite  Eternal  Being  which  clothes  itself 
in  a  multiplicity  of  forms,  and  thus  makes 
up  the  universe.  But  the  great  origin  of 
modern  pantheism  must  be  traced  to  Ger¬ 
many.  The  endeavor  to  construct  a  basis 
of  belief  which  should  supersede  the  old 
traditional  supremacy  over  the  conscience 
claimed  by  the  Church  of  Rome  led  to  the 
theories  of  Spinoza,  of  Schelling,  of  Hegel, 
and  upon  these  theories  much  of  the  suc¬ 
ceeding  pantheism  of  modern  thought  has 
been  founded.  The  first  postulate  of  the 
system  is,  not  an  objective  faith  which 
rules  and  regenerates  the  life  of  man,  but 
religious  ideas  and  thoughts  which  have  to 
find  their  assimilation  in  the  facts  of  the 
universe,  and  to  make  these  fit  in  with  ar¬ 
bitrary  assumption.  The  sense  of  har¬ 
mony,  the  aesthetic  faculty,  requires  a  relig¬ 
ion,  and  therefore  a  religion  which  meets 
this  want  must  be  true.  Of  course,  where 
free  license  is  thus  given  to  the  imagina¬ 
tion,  it  is  no  wonder  that  pantheism  takes 
a  thousand  forms.  “  Matter,”  says  one, 
“  does  not  exist  except  as  an  idea  of  our 


Pan 


(  701  ) 


Pan 


minds.”  “  Matter,”  says  another,  “  is  the 
body  of  God,  and  the  unseen  life,  energy, 
intelligence  of  the  universe  are  his  soul. 
The  two  co-exist,  and  are  inseparable.” 
“  There  is  no  God  beside  Me,”  says  the 
Creator  by  his  prophet  Isaiah;  but  the 
pantheist  applies  this  to  the  universe,  and 
represents  it  as  saying,  “  I  am  God,  and 
there  is  no  other.”  It  is  true  that  the 
higher  expression  of  pantheism  admits 
such  ideas  as  God,  Revelation,  Creation, 
Providence,  as  something  more  than  sub¬ 
jective — as  expressing  realities  beyond  the 
mind.  But,  unfortunately,  when  it  is  sought 
to  fix  and  define  these  realities,  they  van¬ 
ish  like  shadows.  Thus  a  very  able  Uni¬ 
tarian  minister,  speaking  of  Gibbon’s  ac¬ 
count  of  himself  sitting  in  the  Coliseum, 
and  suddenly  resolving  there  and  then  to 
write  his  famous  book,  regards  that  reso¬ 
lution  as  parallel  to  the  inspiration  of  the 
Hebrew  prophets  who  heard  the  Word  of 
the  Lord  speaking  to  them  and  sending 
them  a  message.  But  such  a  comparison 
is  not  exalting  to  the  modern  writer — it 
simply  drags  down  the  ancient.  To  deny 
any  real  inspiration  which  comes  direct 
from  God,  without  any  modification  beyond 
that  caused  by  the  imperfection  of  the  mind 
to  comprehend  it,  is  practically  pantheism. 
It  denies  personal  intercourse  between  God 
and  the  soul.  There  may  be  a  veiled  pan¬ 
theism,  too,  in  the  view  so  often  put  forth 
of  late,  that  conceptions  of  God  have  varied 
from  age  to  age  according  to  human  cir¬ 
cumstances.  Thus  the  Jew  conceived  of 
God  as  a  Deliverer  when  the  exodus  from 
Egypt  was  new,  and  as  a  Legislator  when 
order  supervened  upon  anarchy,  and  as 
King  when  the  nation  was  united,  and  as 
Father  when  Christ  had  compassion  on  the 
multitudes.  There  is  truth,  of  course,  in 
all  this,  as  there  is  in  the  modern  concep¬ 
tion  that  he  is  an  all-pervading  beneficent 
Power;  but  it  becomes  error  if  it  ignores 
the  fact  that  God  is,  and  ever  has  been,  all 
these.  The  original  grounds  of  faith  in  a 
Divine  Creator,  and  Ruler,  and  King,  and 
Saviour  fail,  when  one  aspect  only  is  con¬ 
fessed.  The  supposed  discovery  becomes 
a  mere  childish  game  at  hide-and-seek, 
where  the  finder  and  found  are  identical; 
fear  and  gratitude  are  predicated,  but  the 
source  from  which  they  spring  becomes  a 
shadow. 

Unhappily  pantheistic  opinion  involves 
moral  consequences  of  a  sad  character. 
The  sinking  of  the  personal  distinction  be¬ 
tween  man  and  God  is  followed  by  the  loss 
of  the  affections  and  the  conscience,  which 
are  the  very  life  of  religion.  If  God  is  al¬ 
ready  identified  with  his  creatures,  where 
is  the  room  for  obedience  to  him,  for  his 
supreme  law,  for  prayer  which  asks  for 


what  otherwise  it  would  not  receive  ? 
Above  all,  the  holiness  of  God  would  dis¬ 
appear,  as  he  becomes  identified  with  the 
struggles  and  failures  of  the  creation. 
“  The  comparative  and  relative  perfection 
of  his  being,”  we  are  told,  “  is  only  to  be 
reached  by  strife  within  and  without,  from 
which  the  spirit  mounts  stronger  after 
every  conflict.”  It  is  impossible  to  exag¬ 
gerate  the  moral  danger  of  assuming,  as 
evil  men  did  of  old,  that  we  are  delivered 
to  do  all  the  abominations  of  sin  (Jer.  vii. 
10),  that  evil  in  fact  is  a  necessity  for  the 
production  of  virtue,  not  a  moral  conse¬ 
quence  of  liberty,  and  that  the  teaching  of 
Holy  Scripture  is  erroneous  when  it  tells 
us  that  two  possibilities  are  open  to  us, 
life  and  death,  between  which  man  has  to 
choose.  Freewill  is  the  very  centre  of 
human  personality,  and  without  it  we  lose 
the  distinction  between  human  agency  and 
the  agency  of  God.  Deeply  instructive  is 
it  to  watch  the  progress  downward  of  the 
denial  of  this  distinction.  There  is  a  strife 
going  on,  says  the  modern  pantheist,  and 
its  conditions  make  the  world  so  bad  that 
it  is  only  just  endurable,  and  the  progress 
of  civilization  makes  things  worse,  for  they 
increase  the  consciousness  of  misery.  Such 
is  the  pantheism  of  pessimism,  identified 
with  the  name  of  Schopenhauer.  “  I  know 
no  theory  of  the  universe,”  says  a  cele¬ 
brated  living  writer,  “which  leads  me  to 
think  that  it  would  not  have  been  better  for 
mankind  if  they  had  never  been  born.” 

Not  only  worship  must  disappear  before 
such  a  creed,  but  morality  also.  Long  be¬ 
fore  men  reasoned  about  theories  of  life 
and  the  ultimate  good,  light  and  life  were 
given  to  the  world  by  the  Ten  Command¬ 
ments,  and  the  commentaries  upon  them  in 
Psalms  and  Prophets.  They  were  based 
on  the  principle  that  man  is  subject  to  a 
will  higher  than  his  own  and  distinct  from 
it,  the  will  of  an  eternally  righteous  and 
unchanging  Lord.  By  this  conviction 
men’s  lives  have  been  governed  and 
brought  into  a  measure  of  order  and  peace. 
Pantheism  sweeps  away  Lawgiver,  King, 
and  Judge.  So  long  as  he  was  believed  in, 
the  noblest  spirits  among  men  could  face 
the  terrible  difficulties  and  problems  of  life 
even  with  joy,  because  they  believe  him 
faithful.  They  were  like  men  with  the 
warm  sun  over  their  heads  casting  light  all 
around  them.  But  the  night  cometh. 
Nature  fails  us  all,  and  when  God  is  denied 
men  do  the  deeds  of  darkness,  and  learn  to 
praise  the  dead  more  than  the  living.  The 
only  refuge  from  such  dreariness  and  de¬ 
spair  is  to  believe  in  God  even  as  Abraham 
did,  even  as  St.  Paul  did, who  knew  in  whom 
he  believed,  the  same  yesterday,  to-day, 
and  forever. — Benham:  Did  of  Religion. 


Pan 


(  702  ) 


Pap 


Pantheon,  once  a  heathen  temple  at 
Rome,  dedicated  to  Jupiter  and  all  the 
gods.  It  was  re-dedicated  by  Pope  Boni¬ 
face  IV.,  in  608,  to  the  Virgin  Mary  and 
the  saints. 

Papal  Power,  Growth  of.  The  founda¬ 
tion-stone  of  the  papal  supremacy  was 
Rome  itself.  Rome  was  what  no  other 
city  has  ever  been — the  capital  of  the  whole 
civilized  world;  it  was,  moreover,  the  cen¬ 
tre  of  the  civil  and  military  government  of 
the  empire.  St.  Paul  himself  felt  the 
greatness  of  Rome,  and  the  importance  of 
witnessing  for  Christ  there.  (Acts  xix.  21; 
xxiii.  11;  xxv.  1 1 ;  xxviii.  15.)  Again,  the 
Roman  Church  was  an  apostolical  otie,  the 
only  Western  Church  which  could  claim 
this  title  at  all.  St.  Paul  had  lived  there 
long,  had  written  his  greatest  epistle  to  it, 
and  had  received  the  crown  of  martyrdom 
there.  St.  Peter,  too,  may  have  resided  in 
Rome;  very  early  tradition  says  that  he 
had  been  its  bishop,  and  he  had  probably 
been  martyred  there.  To  apostolical 
churches  belonged  a  certain  degree  of 
reverence,  and  the  Church  of  Rome  could 
boast  of  the  two  great  apostles. 

Besides  this,  in  early  days,  the  Roman 
Church  was  always  orthodox.  It  was  not  a 
Church  of  great  literary  fame,  but  it  held 
fast  “the  faith  once  delivered  to  the  saints.” 
When  heretics  came  to  Rome  to  further 
their  views,  their  opinions  were  rejected 
by  the  stern  orthodoxy  of  the  Roman 
Church,  and  the  news  of  this,  spreading 
over  the  Christian  world,  tended  to  increase 
the  influence  of  the  bishops  of  Rome.  On 
such  grounds  Irenaeus,  bishop  of  Lyons 
(180),  says  that  “  with  this  Church  the 
whole  Church  (i.e. ,  the  faithful  everywhere) 
must  agree — with  this  Church  ....  in 
which  the  apostolical  tradition  has  always 
been  preserved.”  And  in  like  manner  Ter- 
tullian:  “  What  a  happy  Church  is  that  on 
which  the  apostles  poured  out  all  their 
doctrine  with  their  blood.  .  .  .  Let  us  see 
what  she  hath  learned,  what  taught.”  The 
references  of  the  ancient  Fathers  to  the 
Roman  Church  are  full  of  respect  and  of  a 
desire  to  set  Rome  as  high  as  possible;  but 
they  speak  of  it  as  belonging  to  the  same 
class  with  other  apostolic  churches,  and 
rest  its  glory  on  its  connection  with  both 
the  apostles,  SS.  Peter  and  Paul,  on  their 
having  founded  it,  settled  it,  and  taught  it, 
and  not  on  any  promise  of  our  Lord  to  St. 
Peter  and  his  successors.  Rather  later, 
Cyprian,  bishop  of  Carthage  (248),  a  man 
of  great  abilities  and  lofty  character,  was 
brought  into  close  relations  with  the 
Church  of  Rome.  We  find  that  he  writes 
to,  and  treats,  its  bishops  on  terms  of  per¬ 
fect  equality.  He  addresses  them  as 


“brother  and  colleague;”  and  whilst  he 
holds  up  the  general  dignity  of  the  episco¬ 
pate,  he  never  owns,  or  even  shows,  that 
he  was  aware  of  any  right  in  the  bishop  of 
Rome  to  rule  over  the  whole  Church. 
Even  those  passages  in  his  writings  which 
speak  in  an  exalted  way  of  St.  Peter,  and 
of  the  Roman  Church  as  founded  by  him, 
appear  rather  to  be  symbolical,  represent¬ 
ing  Peter  as  the  type  of  apostleship  and 
the  Roman  Church  as  the  type  of  unity, 
than  to  imply  that  he  admitted  in  any  way 
the  supremacy  of  the  Roman  See  as  it  was 
afterwards  understood. 

In  the  reign  of  the  Emperor  Constantine 
(306)  the  bishops  of  Rome  became  more 
important  still.  Christianity  was  made  the 
acknowledged  religion  of  the  empire, 
hence,  the  number  of  Christians  and  of  the 
clergy  was  largely  increased;  and,  besides 
this,  the  bishops  and  clergy  were  allowed 
to  receive  legacies,  and  thus  grew  in  wealth. 
It  is  also  probably  true  that  Constantine 
gave  to  Bishop  Sylvester  and  his  succes¬ 
sors  his  own  palace,  the  Lateran  Palace, 
as  the  episcopal  residence  (see  “  Donation 
of  Constantine”  further  on).  In  his  reign, 
too,  was  founded  the  New  Rome  (Constan¬ 
tinople),  and  from  this  time  onwards  the 
Old  Rome  knew  comparatively  little  of  her 
emperors,  whilst  her  bishops  became  more 
and  more  her  most  important  public  per¬ 
sonages. 

From  early  times  the  ecclesiastical  had 
followed  the  lines  of  the  civil  divisions  of 
the  empire,  and  thus  the  bishop  of  the 
capital  city  or  metropolis  of  each  province 
— with  the  title  of  metropolitan — had  pre¬ 
sided  at  synods  of  the  bishops  and  clergy 
of  the  province,  and  had  been  looked  upon, 
in  Church  affairs,  as  the  representative  of 
the  province  generally.  Constantine  made 
a  new  partition  of  the  empire  into  dioceses , 
each  of  which  comprised  several  provinces. 
In  the  West  the  bishop  of  the  chief  city  of 
a  dioceSe  received  the  title  of  primate,  and 
was  at  the  head  of  all  the  metropolitans 
within  his  limits,  but  without  exercising 
their  privileges.  The  most  eminent  of 
these  primates  were  called  patriarchs  (of 
Rome,  Constantinople,  Alexandria,  Anti¬ 
och  and  Jerusalem).  The  patriarchate  of 
Rome  included  the  seven  provinces  of 
Middle  and  Lower  Italy,  with  Corsica,  Sar¬ 
dinia,  and  Sicily;  but  in  none  of  these  had 
metropolitans  yet  been  introduced,  so  that 
the  bishop  of  Rome  exercised  metropolit- 
ical  functions — the  consecration  of  bish¬ 
ops,  the  convocation  of  synods,  the  ultimate 
decision  of  appeals,  and  many  other  sorts 
of  authority — throughout  the  whole  patri¬ 
archate.  This  in  no  small  degree  tended 
to  exalt  the  importance  of  the  Roman  See. 
The  State  acknowledgment  of  Christianity 


Pap 


(  703  ) 


Pap 


I 


also  gave  the  bishops  of  Rome  political 
influence,  since  their  opinions  and  support 
were  sought  after  not  only  by  other  bish¬ 
ops,  but  by  emperors  who  wished  to  have 
their  support  in  the  religious  controversies 
of  the  time. 

The  next  great  step  in  the  building  up  of 
the  papal  power  dates  from  the  Council  of 
Sardica  (343),  held  at  a  town  of  that  name 
in  Illyria,  and  summoned  as  a  General 
Council  of  the  Church  by  the  emperors  of 
the  East  and  West.  Its  object  was  to  heal 
the  divisions  in  the  Church  caused  by  the 
Arian  heresy  (Arius);  but  as  the  Westerns 
gave  Athanasius  (y.  v.)  a  seat  and  a  voice 
at  it,  the  Easterns  separated  themselves 
and  met  elsewhere,  so  that  the  Council  of 
Sardica  had  no  longer  a  title  to  the^name 
“  General.”  Some  of  the  canons  enacted 
gave  a  deposed  bishop  the  privilege  of  ap¬ 
pealing  to  the  bishop  of  Rome  as  a  referee, 
not  to  decide  the  case  himself,  but  to  say 
whether  there  ought  to  be  a  new  trial,  in 
this  case  allowing  him  to  send  Legates 
(Legate)  to  sit  with  the  judges.  On  these 
canons  has  been  founded  the  claim  to  a  ju¬ 
risdiction  by  the  bishop  of  Rome  over  the 
whole  Church;  and  in  the  next  century 
more  than  one  bishop  of  Rome  referred  to 
the  Sardica  canons  as  canons  of  the  Coun¬ 
cil  of  Nicaea,  which  had  been  held  nearly 
twenty  years  earlier,  and  was  recognized 
as  General  by  the  Universal  Church.  By 
such  means,  in  course  of  time,  the  appel¬ 
late  jurisdiction  of  the  pope  came  to  be 
more  and  more  allowed. 

But  beyond  formal  appeals,  the  practice 
arose  of  referring  to  Rome  for  advice  in 
difficult  matters  in  distant  parts  of  the 
Church.  Thus  Siricius,  who  was  bishop 
of  Rome  in  398,  answered  an  application 
from  Himerius,  bishop  of  Tarragona,  in 
Spain,  and  his  letter  is  the  first  genuine 
piece  in  the  series  of  what  are  called  De¬ 
cretal  Letters  or  Epistles.  At  first  these 
epistles  were  written  in  the  name  of  Ro¬ 
man  synods  (i.  e.,  bishops  and  clergy  met 
for  consultation),  but  afterward  they  ran 
in  the  name  of  the  pope  alone,  and  their 
tone  gradually  rose  from  one  of  brotherly 
adyice  to  one  of  command. 

In  order  that  these  views  might  be  fur¬ 
thered,  an  occupant  of  the  Roman  See  was 
wanted  of  marked  ability,  and  one  who 
was  determined  to  promote  the  aggran¬ 
dizement  of  his  office.  Such  an  one  was 
Innocent  I.  (a.  d.  402).  He  laid  it  down 
as  a  principle,  that  all  churches  ought  to 
follow  the  usages  of  Rome,  but  apparently 
limiting  the  claim  to  those  of  the  West — 
the  churches  of  Italy,  the  Gauls,  the 
Spains,  of  Africa,  Sicily,  and  the  islands 
which  lie  between — on  the  plea  that  they 
had  been  founded  by  emissaries  of  St. 


Peter  or  his  successors.  This  claim  over 
daughter  churches  was  often  cheerfully 
admitted,  to  a  large  extent;  as,  later  on, 
in  the  case  of  the  Anglo-Saxon  Church, 
which  owed  its  organization,  though  only 
partly  its  origin,  to  Roman  missionaries, 
and  which  was  a  firm  maintainer  of  the 
papal  supremacy  in  legitimate  matters.  In 
like  manner,  in  the  Pelagian  controversy, 
Innocent  said  that  the  Fathers  considered 
that  nothing,  in  remote  provinces,  should 
be  finally  settled  unless  it  came  to  the 
knowledge  of  the  Roman  See,  so  that  the 
Roman  decision  might  serve  as  a  rule  for 
all  the  churches.  The  next  bishop,  Zosi- 
mus,  went  on  to  declare  the  authority  of 
the  Apostolic  See  to  be  such  that  no  one 
might  dare  to  question  its  decisions,  and 
that  the  successors  of  St.  Peter  inherit  from 
him  an  authority  equal  to  that  which  our 
Lord  bestowed  on  the  apostle  himself. 

The  election  of  Boniface  I.  (a.  d.  418) 
was  opposed  by  a  rival  named  Eulalius. 
In  consequence  of  this,  the  former  applied 
to  the  Emperor  Honorius  for  aid,  and  was 
by  him  established  in  his  see.  This  inter¬ 
vention  of  Honorius,  at  the  request  of  the 
pope  himself,  appears  to  have  laid  the 
foundation  for  the  influence  which  emper¬ 
ors  afterward  exercised  in  the  election  of 
the  popes,  and  indirectly  to  have  added  to 
the  power  of  the  latter. 

The  latter  half  of  the  fifth  century  was  a 
critical  one  for  the  power  of  the  Roman 
See.  The  Eastern  Empire  was  decaying, 
the  Western  Empire  was  tottering  to  its 
fall.  Africa  had  already  fallen  a  prey  to 
the  Vandals,  and  Sicily  had  suffered  se¬ 
verely.  Like  the  Empire,  the  Church  was 
in  evil  case,  from  the  many  heresies  rife 
within  her,  whilst  outside  she  was  assailed 
by  the  Arian  powers  of  the  barbarians.  It 
was  at  this  juncture  that  Leo  I.,  or  the 
Great,  became  pope.  He  stands  out  as  the 
Christian  representative  of  the  imperial 
dignity  and  severity  of  old  Rome,  and  is 
the  true  founder  of  the  mediaeval  papacy  in 
its  uncompromising  strength,  representing 
strongly  that  one  side  of  the  developing 
life  of  the  Church  which  is  especially  identi¬ 
fied  with  Rome — authority  and  unity.  St. 
Leo — for  he  is  a  saint  of  the  Church — was 
a  man  lofty  and  severe  in  life  and  aims,  a 
theologian,  and  a  man  of  personal  piety. 
He  is  the  reputed  inventor  of  the  Collect 
form  of  prayer,  and  its  “  Roman  brevity, 
and  majestic  conciseness  ”  are  consonant 
with  his  character  and  the  style  of  his 
writings.  Notwithstanding  his  ambition 
and  love  of  domination,  we  may  not  doubt 
that,  in  his  exertions  for  the  elevation  of 
the  Roman  See,  he  believed  himself  to  be 
laboring,  not  for  its  benefit  only,  but  for 
the  benefit  of  the  whole  Church.  The  man 


Pap 


(  704  ) 


Pap 


and  the  times  suited  one  another.  Leo 
boldly  declared  the  pretensions  and  prac¬ 
tices  of  the  Roman  Church  to  be  matters 
of  unbroken  apostolical  tradition,  and  thus 
tried  to  enforce  the  usages  of  Rome  on  the 
whole  Church.  He  represented  the  Sardi- 
can  canons,  as  to  appeals,  as  canons  of  the 
General  Council  of  Nicaea,  or  perhaps 
adopted  what  was  now  the  usual  practice 
of  Rome.  The  Vandals  who  conquered  the 
province  of  Africa  were  Arians,  and  the 
hitherto  independent  African  Church  was 
now  glad  to  submit  to  Leo’s  interference  as 
the  price  of  his  support.  A  chance  dispute 
amongst  the  bishops  in  Gaul  was  taken  ad¬ 
vantage  of,  when  one  of  the  bishops  ap¬ 
pealed  to  Rome  against  his  metropolitan — 
the  great  and  good  Hilary  of  Arles — to  lay 
down  the  declaration  that  Rome  had  been 
always  accustomed  to  receive  appeals  from 
Gaul,  and  the  Emperor  Valentinian  III. 
passed  a  law  enforcing  this  view. 

During  Leo’s  pontificate  arose  the  Eu- 
tychian  controversy,  which  was  settled  at 
the  General  Council  of  Chalcedon,  a.  d. 
451.  At  this  Council  the  Legates  whom 
Leo  sent  to  represent  him  sat  as  presidents 
of  the  clergy  with  Anatolius,  patriarch  of 
Constantinople,  and  the  practical  adoption, 
though  only  after  discussion,  of  Leo’s  tome , 
or  letter,  to  Flavian  (bishop  of  Constanti¬ 
nople),  treating  of  the  doctrine  of  our 
Lord’s  incarnation,  contributed  greatly  to 
raise  the  general  opinion  of  the  authority 
of  the  bishop  of  Rome. 

The  claims  of  the  Roman  See  were  main¬ 
tained  during  the  next  century  and  a  half, 
but  they  made  no  great  progress  until  the 
time  of  Gregory  I.,  or  the  Great  (590),  a 
man  of  great  personal  piety,  as  well  as  an 
able  ruler,  both  in  temporal  as  well  as  spir¬ 
itual  things.  As  the  emperor  lived  at 
Constantinople,  and  governed  Italy  by  an 
exarch,  or  lieutenant,  at  Ravenna,  the 
country  was  practically  left  with  very  little 
defence  against  the  Lombards,  and  Greg¬ 
ory  had  often  to  provide  for  the  safety  of 
the  people,  and  to  negotiate  peace  with  the 
enemy.  This  led  to  a  large  increase  in  the 
temporal  power  of  the  popes.  Again,  the 
popes  had  gradually  become  great  land- 
owners.  The  “  Patrimony  of  St.  Peter,” 
as  the  estates  of  the  Roman  See  came  to  be 
called,  were  situated  not  only  in  Italy,  but 
in  many  distant  countries.  Gregory  man¬ 
aged  this  property  by  agents,  often  in  minor 
orders,  and  through  them  he  communicated 
with  the  churches  and  the  sovereigns  of 
these  various  countries,  and  thus  the  Ro¬ 
man  See  gained  a  footing  and  influence 
wherever  it  possessed  estates.  From  the 
time  of  Gregory  onward  the  authority  of 
the  bishops  was  more  and  more  depressed 
by  the  popes.  Persons  often  only  in  minor 


orders  were  empowered,  by  a  commission 
from  the  pope,  to  set  aside  the  rule  of  the 
bishops,  and  to  deprive  them  of  their  rights. 
Gregory,  moreover,  brought  himself  into 
a  closer  connection  with  the  churches  and 
sovereigns  of  other  countries  by  appoint¬ 
ing  certain  bishops  as  his  deputies  or 
vicars ,  and  as  a  mark  of  this  commission 
he  sent  them  the  pallium  (Pallium). 

English  people  will  always  hold  Gregory 
in  reverent  esteem  for  sending  Augustine 
as  a  missionary  to  Kent. 

The  next  event  of  considerable  impor¬ 
tance  was  the  opposition  of  Pope  Gregory 
II.  to  Leo  III.  (717),  the  Isaurian.  This 
emperor  took  strong  objection  to  the 
worship  of  images  which  had  sprung  up, 
and  by  edicts  ordered  their  destruction  iri 
all  th%  churches  of  the  empire.  The  em¬ 
peror  was  reluctantly  obeyed  in  the  East, 
but  the  pope  refused  to  yield,  and  boldly 
armed  against  the  enemy;  finally,  the  im¬ 
perial  fleet  was  destroyed  at  the  mouth  of 
the  Po,  and  a  synod  was  summoned  in 
which  the  Iconoclasts  were  condemned. 
The  pope  pursued  his  victory  no  further, 
but  by  moderate  counsels  preserved  Italy 
outwardly  to  the  empire,  whilst  at  the 
same  time  he  greatly  increased  his  own 
power. 

In  the  pontificate  of  Zacharias  (741)  we 
have  the  first  instance  wherein  the  civil 
duties  of  a  nation,  and  the  rights  of  a  crown, 
were  submitted  to  the  decision  of  a  pope. 
Pepin,  the  Mayor  of  the  Palace  under 
Childeric,  the  last  of  the  Merovingians, 
asked  Pope  Zacharias  whether  the  nation 
of  the  Franks  should  be  ruled  by  the  real 
or  nominal  holder  of  power.  Zacharias  de¬ 
cided  in  Pepin’s  favor.  The  question  was 
merely  a  point  of  casuistry,  laid  before  the 
first  religious  judge  of  the  Church;  but 
later  popes  pretended  that  Zacharias  had 
exercised  a  right  belonging  to  his  office, 
and  had  deposed  Childeric. 

In  the  year  800,  Charlemagne,  the  son  of 
Pepin,  wras  crowned  in  St.  Peter’s  at  Rome 
by  Pope  Leo  III.,  with  the  imperial  title. 
Rome  was  grateful  to  her  deliverer  from 
the  Lombards,  an  emperor  was  needed, 
the  pope  was  the  spokesman  of  the  popular 
will  as  well  as  a  consecrating  priest,  and 
hence  Charles  the  Great  was  crowned;  but 
on  this  event  was  founded  the  right,  claimed 
afterward  by  the  popes,  of  raising  and  de¬ 
posing  monarchs  at  their  will. 

Later  than  this,  two  great  forgeries  were 
put  forth  which  greatly  helped  the  papal 
claims:  (1)  The  so-called  “  Donation  of 
Constantine,”  which  was  believed  to  be 
true  from  868  to  the  middle  of  the  fifteenth 
century.  It  professed  that  Constantine  had 
conferred  on  Pope  Sylvester  the  right  of 
wearing  a  golden  crown,  that  he  had  en- 


Pap 


(  705  ) 


Pap 


dovved  the  Apostolic  See  with  the  Lateran 
Palace  (this  one  thing  was  probably  true), 
with  the  city  of  Rome,  and  with  all  the 
provinces  of  Italy.  And  that,  in  conse- 
quenceof  this,  Constantine  had  relinquished 
the  ancient  capital,  and  had  built  anew  city 
for  himself — Constantinople.  Its  pretend¬ 
ed  date  was  about  330.  The  fable  was  in¬ 
vented  to  give  an  ancient  right  to  many 
things  which  had  become  matters  of  history, 
more  or  less.  (2)  “  The  False  Decretals.” 
In  the  sixth  century  Dionysius  Exiguus 
collected  the  canons  from  the  General  and 
the  most  famous  Provincial  Councils,  and 
to  them  he  added  the  “  Decretal”  letters 
of  the  popes,  so  that  these  latter  were  set 
forth  as  having  the  same  weight  as  the 
canons.  His  collection  was  generally  re¬ 
ceived  as  a  book  of  canon  law  in  the  West, 
except  in  Spain,  where  Isidore,  bishop  of 
Seville  (601-636),  made  a  separate  collec¬ 
tion.  About  840  another  Isidore  started  the 
False  Decretals  under  cover  of  the  name  of 
the  great  Isidore.  They  are  skilful  forger¬ 
ies,  and  profess  to  be  letters  and  decrees  of 
bishops  of  Rome,  going  back  to  apostolic 
days.  Their  aim  is  to  exalt  the  hierarchy 
as  a  whole,  asserting  the  rights  of  the 
clergy  as  a  body  against  the  oppressions  of 
the  emperors;  but  they  carry  the  pope’s 
power  higher  than  it  had  ever  been  carried 
before,  and  since  they  found  their  way  in¬ 
to  the  collections  of  the  canon  laws,  and 
finally  into  the  code  of  the  papacy,  their 
influence  was  very  strong,  and,  indeed, 
still  exists  now,  although  the  deception  is 
admitted. 

An  example  of  the  righteous  use  of  the 
papal  power,  and  one  which  shows  why  the 
moral  support  of  the  civilized  world  was 
given  to  it,  occurred  in  the  pontificate  of 
Nicholas  I.  (858).  Lothair  II.,  a  vicious 
and  contemptible  prince,  wished  to  obtain 
a  divorce  from  his  queen  and  marry  an¬ 
other  women.  Nicholas  firmly  opposed  him, 
even  deposing  two  French  Metropolitans 
and  annulling  the  decisions  of  a  Frankish 
National  Council,  because  they  favored  the 
divorce.  These  measures  were  novel  and 
aggressive,  but  the  rightness  of  the  cause 
prevented  their  being  questioned.  From 
the  eighth  century  onward,  the  popes  had 
granted  special  privileges  to  monastic 
bodies  (Monk),  by  which  they  were  ex¬ 
empted  from  all  jurisdiction  but  that  of  the 
pope.  Later  on,  especially  in  the  twelfth 
century,  these  institutions  increased  in 
number,  and  it  is  easy  to  see  how,  by  their 
means,  the  pope’s  authority  grew  through¬ 
out  every  country,  since  they  were  inde¬ 
pendent  of  the  bishops,  and  were  often  op¬ 
posed  to  the  parochial  clergy.  One  of  the 
greatest  names  amongst  the  popes  is  that 
of  Hildebrand,  Gregory  VII.  (1048-85). 


He  was  the  moving  spirit  of  a  party  in  the 
Church  which  desired  to  emancipate  it 
from  all  connection  with  the  State,  and 
from  the  feudal  obligations  by  which  it  was 
bound  in  regard  of  its  possessions.  With 
unswerving  steadiness,  with  thorough  con¬ 
viction,  with  far-sighted  patience,  and  with 
a  deep,  subtle,  and  even  unscrupulous 
policy,  he  labored  toward  these  ends  dur¬ 
ing  the  reign  of  several  popes,  who  were 
guided  by  his  forcible  character,  until  at 
last  he  became  pope  himself  (1073).  The 
two  objects  he  put  before  himself  were: — 

(1)  To  fix  in  the  College  of  Cardinals  (Car¬ 
dinal)  the  freedom  and  independence  of 
election  of  the  popes,  and  forever  to  abolish 
the  right  (or,  as  he  considered  it,  usurpa¬ 
tion)  of  the  emperors  and  Roman  people. 

(2)  To  bestow  and  resume  the  Western 
Empire  as  a  fief  of  the  Church,  and  to  ex¬ 
tend  his  temporal  dominion  over  kings  and 
kingdoms  of  the  earth.  As  Hallam  wittily 
says,  he  found  it  convenient  to  treat  the 
Apostle  St.  Peter  "  as  a  great  feudal  suze¬ 
rain  ”  of  the  kingdoms  of  the  earth.  The 
first  of  these  designs  was  accomplished, 
but  the  second  only  attained  a  partial  suc¬ 
cess,  although  from  this  time  onward  no 
pope  thought  of  awaiting  the  confirmation 
of  the  emperor  before  he  was  installed  in 
the  throne  of  St.  Peter.  Pepin  and  Charle¬ 
magne  had  bestowed  on  the  popes  grants 
of  territory,  with  sovereign  rights,  and  now 
the  Countess  Matilda,  a  firm  friend  of 
Gregory,  made  over  to  the  Roman  See  her 
territories  after  her  death.  The  “  dona¬ 
tion  ”  was  disputed,  but  the  popes  realized 
enough  of  it  to  add  greatly  to  their  power 
and  wealth. 

The  Crusades  (Crusades)  brought  vast 
advantages  to  the  papacy  in  many  ways. 
Urban  II.,  in  1095,  offered  forgiveness  of 
sins  to  all  faithful  Christians  who  took  up 
arms  in  this  cause.  In  this  movement  the 
popes  found  themselves  placed  at  the  head 
of  Western  Christendom,  since  they  had 
the  control  of  enterprises  in  which  the 
most  powerful  sovereigns  were  expected 
to  enlist  themselves.  They  likewise  ex¬ 
tended  their  sway  by  claiming  the  supreme 
lordship  over  the  territories  rescued  from 
the  Infidels  (the  Turks). 

Innocent  III.  (1198),  the  most  powerful 
of  all  the  popes,  carried  the  ideas  of  his 
predecessors  to  their  furthest  limit.  Many 
of  his  high-handed  proceedings  directly 
tended  towards  social  order  and  the  happi¬ 
ness  of  mankind.  No  control  but  that  of 
religion  appeared  sufficient  to  restrain  the 
abuses  of  society.  Innocent  announced 
himself  as  thp  general  arbiter  of  differences 
and  conservator  of  the  peace  throughout 
Christendom.  Thus,  he  compelled  the  ob¬ 
servance  of  peace  between  the  kings  of 


Pap 


(  706  ) 


Par 


Castile  and  Portugal  by  the  threat  of  ex- 
communication  and  interdict.  He  enjoined 
the  king  of  Aragon  to  restore  his  debased 
coin.  By  a  general  interdict  enforced 
throughout  France  he  compelled  Philip 
Augustus — a  powerful  prince — to  take  back 
his  wife  whom  he  had  repudiated;  andEng- 
land-was  not  the  only  country  which  he 
converted  into  a  spiritual  fief.  On  the 
whole.  Innocent  was  the  greatest  and  most 
successful  of  the  popes.  The  times  them¬ 
selves  were  favorable  to  his  ability  and 
gifts,  as  well  as  to  his  pretensions.  A 
strong,  uncompromising  power,  exercised, 
upon  the  whole,  on  the  side  of  God  and 
of  right,  was  needed,  and  Innocent  exactly 
met  the  want. 

The  popes  were  at  the  summit  of  their 
power  during  the  thirteenth  century. 
“  Rome  inspired  during  this  age  all  the 
terror  of  her  ancient  name.  She  was  once 
more  the  mistress  of  the  world,  and  kings 
were  her  vassals.”  The  Emperor  Freder¬ 
ick  II.  had  taken  the  sign  of  the  Cross,  by 
which  he  bound  himself  to  serve  in  the 
Holy  War  of  Palestine;  but  he  considered 
himself  at  liberty  to  fulfil  his  vow  at  his 
own  time,  and  on  this  account  became  em¬ 
broiled  with  successive  popes.  Innocent 
IV.,  at  a  council  at  Lyons,  1245,  declared 
him  to  be  deposed,  and  this  and  the  pro¬ 
scription  of  Alexander  IV.  were  the  main 
causes  of  the  ruin  of  his  family.  This  is 
the  most  successful  instance  of  the  exercise 
of  the  power  of  deposing  kings  which  his¬ 
tory  affords. 

In  1294  Boniface  VIII.  became  pope, 
and  endeavored  to  carry  out  Hildebrand’s 
idea  of  the  papacy,  but  the  real  power  of 
the  Roman  See  was  beginning  to  wane. 
The  first  successes  of  the  Crusades  were 
being  followed  by  failure  and  disasters;  the 
Holy  Land  was  being  abandoned,  and  the 
preaching  of  a  Holy  War  ceased  to  rouse 
men  to  enthusiasm.  The  high  pretensions 
of  the  canon  law  were  opposed  by  the 
revived  study  of  the  Roman  civil  law, 
which  contained  a  lofty  theory  of  imperial 
and  secular  power.  Boniface  quarrelled 
with  Philip  of  France,  who  would  not  yield 
to  him,  and  death  only  prevented  the  pope 
from  publishing  a  bull  of  deposition 
against  the  king.  Just  after  his  death  the 
popes  settled  at  Avignon,  and  came  under 
the  control  of  the  sovereigns  of  France. 
Next  followed  the  Councils  of  Constance 
and  Basel,  and  afterwards  the  movement 
of  the  Reformation,  all  tending  to  limit 
and  cripple  the  papal  power. 

No  student  of  history  can  fail  to  see 
what  an  important  part  the  papacy  played 
in  the  Middle  Ages,  nor  can  he  fail  to  ad¬ 
mit  that,  though  deformed  by  many  human 
imperfections,  it  was  yet  powerful  for 


good,  by  opposing  to  the  idea  of  mere 
brute  force  that  of  an  unseen  but  mightier 
spiritual  power,  which,  in  a  comparatively 
lawless  age,  did,  on  the  whole,  defend  the 
innocent  and  weak  and  punish  the  guilty 
and  strong. 

But  whilst  freely  admitting  this,  he  can 
find  no  foundation  either  in  Holy  Scripture 
or  in  the  page  of  history  for  the  assertions 
of  a  celebrated  bull  of  Boniface  VIII. 
(“  Unam  Sanctam  ”),  one  sentence  from 
which  appears  to  sum  up  the  papal  claims: 
“  Moreover  we  declare,  affirm,  define,  and 
pronounce  that  it  is  altogether  necessary 
for  salvation  that  every  human  creature 
should  be  subject  to  the  Roman  Pontiff.” — 
Benham:  Diet,  of  Religion. 

Papal  Election.  See  Conclave. 

Papebroeck.  See  Bollandists. 

Paphnutius,  b.  275  (?)  ;  d.  350  (?).  He 
was  bishop  of  a  city  in  the  Upper  Thebais, 
and  took  a  prominent  part  in  the  Council 
of  Nicaea  (325),  where  he  spoke  against  the 
proposition  that  all  ecclesiastics  should  put 
away  the  wives  they  had  married  while 
they  were  laymen.  His  views  prevailed, 
and  marriage  was  forbidden  only  after 
ordination. 

Pa'phos  ( boiling ,  or  hot).  There  were  two 
towns  of  this  name  in  Cyprus — old  Paphos, 
situated  on  a  height  about  two  miles  from 
the  sea,  and  new  Paphos,  on  the  shore  of 
the  sea,  about  ten  miles  to  the  northwest 
of  the  old  town.  This  was  the  place  visited 
by  Paul  and  Barnabas.  (Acts  xiii.  6-13.) 
For  description  of  Cyprus,  see  Di  Cesnola: 
Cyprus  (N.  Y.,  1870). 

Papias,  bishop  of  Hierapolis;  b.  about 
70;  d.  probably  about  153.  All  that  we 
know  of  his  life  or  works  has  come  to  us 
through  Eusebius  and  Irenaeus.  He  wrote 
an  Interpretation  of  the  Sayings  of  the  Lord, 
a  collection  of  the  words  and  works  of  the 
Master  and  his  disciples,  all  of  which  have 
perished,  with  the  exception  of  a  few  frag¬ 
ments. 

Papy'rus.  See  Reed. 

Parable  (Heb.  mashal,  Gr.  parabole),  “  a 
placing  side  by  side,  or  comparing  earthly 
truths,  expressed,  with  heavenly  truths 
to  be  understood.  The  fable  introduces 
brutes,  and  transgresses  the  order  of  things 
natural,  introducing  improbabilities  rest¬ 
ing  on  fancy.  Parable  does  not,  and  has  a 
loftier  significance;  it  rests  on  the  imagi¬ 
nation,  introducing  only  things  probable. 
The  allegory  personifies  directly  ideas  or 


Par 


(  707  ) 


Par 


attributes.  The  thing  signifying  and  the 
thing  signified  are  united  together,  the 
properties  and  relations  of  one  being 
transferred  to  the  other;  instead  of  being 
kept  distinct,  side  by  side,  as  in  the  par¬ 
able,  it  is  a  prolonged  metaphor,  or  ex¬ 
tended  simile;  it  never  names  the  object 
itself;  it  may  be  about  other  than  religious 
'ruths,  but  the  parable  only  about  religious 
truth.  The  parable  is  longer  carried  out 
than  the  proverb,  and  not  merely  by  acci¬ 
dent  and  occasionally,  but  necessarily, 
figurative,  and  having  a  similitude.  The 
parable  is  often  an  expanded  proverb,  and 
the  proverb  a  condensed  parable.  The  par¬ 
able  expresses  some  particular  fact,  which 
the  simile  does  not.  In  the  fable  the  end 
is  earthly  virtues,  skill,  prudence,  etc., 
which  have  their  representatives  in  irra¬ 
tional  creation;  if  men  be  introduced,  they 
are  represented  from  their  mere  animal 
aspect. 

“The  basis  of  parable  is,  that  man  is 
made  in  the  image  of  God,  and  that  there 
is  a  law  of  continuity  of  the  human  with 
the  divine.  The  force  of  parable  lies  in 
the  real  analogies  impressed  by  the  Cre¬ 
ator  on  his  creatures,  the  physical  typify¬ 
ing  the  higher  moral  world.  ‘  Both  king¬ 
doms  develop  themselves  according  to  the 
same  laws;  Jesus’  parables  are  not  mere 
illustrations,  but  internal  analogies,  nature 
becoming  a  witness  for  the  spiritual  world; 
whatever  is  found  in  the  earthly  exists 
also  in  the  heavenly  kingdom.’ — Lisco. 
The  parables,  earthly  in  form,  heavenly  in 
spirit,  answer  to  the  parabolic  character  of 
his  own  manifestation.  Jesus’  purpose  in 
using  parables  is  judicial  as  well  as  didactic , 
to  discriminate  between  the  careless  and 
the  sincere.  In  his  earlier  teaching,  as 
the  sermon  on  the  mount,  he  taught  plain¬ 
ly,  and  generally  without  parables;  but 
when  his  teaching  was  rejected  or  misun¬ 
derstood,  he,  in  the  latter  half  of  his  min¬ 
istry,  judicially  punished  the  unbelieving 
by  parabolic  veiling  of  the  truth  (Matt, 
xiii.  11-16),  ‘  therefore  speak  I  to  them 
in  parables,  because  they  seeing  see  not, 
.  .  .  .  but  blessed  are  your  eyes,  for  they 
see,’  etc.  Also,  vers.  34,  35.  The  disci¬ 
ples’  question  (ver.  10),  ‘  why  speakest 
thou  unto  them  in  parables  ?’  shows  that 
this  is  the  first  formal  beginning  of  his 
parabolic  teaching.  The  parables  found 
earlier  are  scattered,  and  so  plain  as  to  be 
rather  illustrations  than  judicial  veilings 
of  the  truth  (vii.  24-27;  ix.  16;  xii.  25; 
Mark  iii.  23;  Luke  vi.  39).  Not  that  a 
merciful  aspect  is  excluded,  even  for  the 
heretofore  carnal  hearers.  The  change  of 
mode  would  awaken  attention,  and  judg¬ 
ment  thus  end  in  mercy,  when  the  message 
of  reconciliation  addressed  to  them  first 


after  Jesus’  resurrection  (Acts  iii.  26) 
would  remind  them  of  parables  not  under¬ 
stood  at  the  time.  The  Holy  Spirit  would 
‘bring  all  things  to  their  remembrance.’ 
(John  xiv.  26.)  When  explained,  the  par¬ 
ables  would  be  the  clearest  illustration  of 
truth.  The  parable,  which  was  to  the 
carnal  a  veiling,  to  the  receptive  was  a 
revealing,  of  the  truth,  not  immediate,  but 
progressive.  (Prov.  iv.  18.)  They  were  a 
penalty  or  a  blessing  according  to  the  hear¬ 
er’s  state;  a  darkening  to  those  who  loved 
darkness;  enshrining  the  truth  (concerning 
the  Messiah’s  spiritual  kingdom  so  differ¬ 
ent  from  Jewish  expectations)  from  the 
jeer  of  the  scoffer,  and  leaving  something 
to  stimulate  the  careless  afterwards  to  think 
over.  On  the  other  hand,  enlightening  the 
diligent  seeker,  who  asks,  What  means  this 
parable  ?  and  is  led  so  to  ‘  understand  all 
parables’  (Mark  iv.  13;  Matt.  xv.  17;  xvi. 
9,  11),  and  at  last  to  need  no  longer  this 
mode,  but  to  have  all  truth  revealed  plain¬ 
ly.  (John  xvi.  25.)  The  truths,  when 
afterward  explained,  first  by  Jesus,  then 
by  his  'Spirit  (xiv.  26),  would  be  more 
definitely  and  indelibly  engraven  on  their 
memories.  About  fifty  out  of  a  larger 
number  are  preserved  in  the  gospels. 
(Mark  iv.  33.)  Each  of  the  three  synopti¬ 
cal  gospels  preserves  some  parable  pecul¬ 
iar  to  itself.  John  never  uses  the  word 
parable,  but  ‘  proverb,’  or,  rather,  brief 
‘  allegory  'parabolic  saying (faroimia).  Par¬ 
abolic  sayings,  like  the  paroimia  in  John 
(x.  1,  6-18;  xvi.  25;  xv.  1-8)  occur,  also, 
in  Matt.  xv.  15;  Luke  iv.  23;  vi.  39;  Mark 
iii.  23;  ‘  parable,’  in  the  sense  of  ‘  figure  ’  or 
type ,  Heb.  ix.  9;  xi.  19.” — Fausset:  Bible 
Cyclopcedia.  See  French:  Notes  on  the  Par- 
ables  (1841,  many  editions);  Thomas  Guth¬ 
rie:  The  Parables  (1866);  W.  Arnot:  The 
Parables  of  our  Lord ;  A.  B.  Bruce:  The 
Parabolic  Teaching  of  Christ  (1882). 

Parabolani  (Gr. ,  those  who  expose  them¬ 
selves).  In  the  ancient  Church  one  of  the 
minor  orders  of  the  clergy,  upon  whom  was 
laid  the  special  duty  of  nursing  the  sick. 

Paraclete.  See  Holy  Spirit. 

Paradise,  “a  word  of  Persian  origin, 
meaning  ‘a  garden,’  ‘orchard,’  or  other 
enclosed  place,  filled  with  beauty  and  de¬ 
light.  Hence  it  is  used  figuratively  for  any 
place  of  peculiar  happiness ,  and  particularly 
for  the  kingdom  of  perfect  happiness, 
which  is  the  abode  of  the  blessed  beyond 
the  grave.  (Luke  xxiii.  43;  2  Cor.  xii.  4; 
Rev.  ii.  7.)” — Schaff:  Bible  Diet.  See  Eden. 

Paraguay,  a  republic  of  South  America, 
having  a  population  of  about  300,000. 


Par 


(  7o8  ) 


Par 


With  the  exception  of  a  few  immigrants 
the  inhabitants  are  all  nominally  connected 
with  the  Roman  Catholic  Church.  The 
episcopal  see  is  at  Asuncion,  the  capital. 

Pa'ran  {place  of  caverns),  Wilderness  of, 
“  bounded  on  the  north  by  the  Wilderness 
of  Shur  and  the  land  of  Canaan,  on  the  east 
by  the  Arabah  and  the  Gulf  of  Akabah,  on 
the  south  by  a  sand-belt  which  separates  it 
from  Sinai,  on  the  west  by  the  Wilderness 
of  Etham.  It  is  now  called  Badiet  et-Tih 
(desert  of  the  wandering),  the  scene  of  the 
thirty-eight  years’  scattering  of  Israel  be¬ 
tween  Egypt  and  Palestine.  It  is  a  high 
limestone  plateau,  crossed  by  low  ranges 
of  hills.  Its  few  water-courses  run  only  in 
the  rainy  season.  The  vegetation  is  scanty. 
The  northeastern  portion  of  this  plateau  is 
the  Negeb  (south  country)  of  Scripture. 
The  caravan  route  to  Egypt  crossed  Paran.” 
— Schaff-Herzog:  Ency.,  vol.  iii. ,  p.  1743. 

Pardee,  Richard  Gay,  widely  known  as 
a  Sunday-school  worker  ;  b.  at  Sharon, 
Conn.,  Oct.  12,  1811;  d.  in  New  York  City, 
Feb.  11,  1869.  From  1853  to  1863  he  was 
the  agent  of  the  New  York  Sunday-School 
Union.  He  prepared  two  books  which 
have  had  a  wide  circulation:  The  Sunday- 
School  Worker  and  The  Sunday-School  Index. 

Paris,  Matthew,  b.  probably  in  Paris, 
about  A.  D.  1195;  d.  at  St.  Albans,  1259; 
a  Benedictine  monk  of  St.  Albans;  the 
author,  under  the  title  of  Historia  Major ,  of 
a  history  of  England  from  1066  to  1259. 
The  earlier  part  of  the  history  (from  1066 
to  1235)  belongs,  however,  really  to  Roger 
of  Wendover,  another  monk  of  St.  Albans; 
and  it  was  continued  after  the  death  of 
Matthew  (up  to  1273)  by  William  Rishan- 
ger.  The  whole  work,  so  far  as  it  touches 
upon  matters  affecting  the  Church,  is  con¬ 
sidered  of  great  value. 

Parish  (from  the  Gr .para,  near,  and  oikos, 
a  house),  in  law,  originally  an  ecclesiastical 
division,  or  a  part  of  a  diocese,  being  the 
district  near  the  parish  church.  There  are 
about  12,000  ecclesiastical  parishes  in  Eng¬ 
land.  In  the  United  States  the  parish  sys¬ 
tem  is  retained  by  the  Roman  Catholic  and 
the  Protestant  Episcopal  Churches,  modi¬ 
fied,  however,  on  account  of  the  complete 
separation  of  Church  and  State. 

Park,  Edwards  Amasa,  D.  D.  (Harvard 
University,  1844),  b.  at  Providence,  R.  I., 
Dec.  29,  1808;  was  graduated  at  Brown 
University,  1826;  at  Andover  Theological 
Seminary,  1831;  was  pastor  at  Braintree, 
Mass.,  1831-33;  professor  of  mental  and 
moral  philosophy  at  Amherst  College, 


1 835-36;  professor  of  sacred  rhetoric  at 
Andover  Theological  Seminary,  1836-47; 
and  of  Christian  theology,  1847-81.  He 
was  one  of  the  founders  of  the  Bibliotheca 
Sacra,  1844,  and  one  of  its  editors  till  1884. 
He  is  the  author  of:  Memoirs  of  Samuel 
Hopkins  (1852)  and  Nathaniel  E?nmons 
(1861),  and  editor  of  The  Sabbath  Hyvin- 
Book  (1858),  and  other  works.  His  last 
publication  is  a  volume  of  fourteen  Dis¬ 
courses  on  some  Theological  Doctrines  as  Re¬ 
lated  to  the  Religious  Character  (1885). 

Parker,  Joseph,  D.  D.,  Congregational¬ 
ism  b.  at  Hexam,  Northumberland,  Eng., 
April  9,  1830;  educated  at  University  Col¬ 
lege,  London,  he  privately  entered  the 
Congregational  ministry  and  became  suc¬ 
cessively  pastor  at  Banbury  (Oxfordshire), 
1853;  Manchester  (Cavendish  Chapel),  1858; 
and  of  the  City  Temple,  London,  since 
1869.  He  is  the  author  of:  Ecce  Deus:  Es¬ 
says  on  the  Life  and  Doctrines  of  Jesus 
Christ  (1868);  Ad  Clerum  (1870);  Pulpit 
Notes  with  Introductory  Essay  on  the  Preach¬ 
ing  of  Jestts  Christ  (1873);  The  People's 
Bible:  Discourses  on  Holy  Scripture  (1885), 
still  in  course  of  publication. 

Parker,  Matthew,  the  second  Protestant 
archbishop  of  Canterbury;  b.  in  Norwich, 
Aug.  6,  1504;  d.  at  Lambeth,  May  17,  1575. 
He  was  educated  at  Cambridge,  and  be¬ 
came  master  of  Corpus  Christi  College 
and  dean  of  Lincoln.  He  was  appointed 
archbishop  by  Elizabeth.  He  aided  in  the 
preparation  of  the  Bishop's  Bible ,  and 
wrote  De  Antiquitata  Britannicce  Ecclesioe. 

Parker,  Theodore,  b.  at  Lexington, 
Mass.,  Aug.  24,  1810;  d.  at  Florence, Italy, 
May  10,  i860.  He  was  educated  in  the 
Unitarian  faith  by  his  parents,  who  were 
pious  middle-class  persons,  and  they  in¬ 
tended  him  for  the  ministry  of  their  com¬ 
munion.  He  worked  intensely,  was  gradu¬ 
ated  at  the  Divinity  School  at  Harvard  with 
high  honors,  and  became  minister  of  a 
church  at  Boston.  His  Unitarian  brethren 
soon  found  that  he  was  leaving  the  conserv¬ 
ative  line  of  such  men  as  Channing,  and 
was  being  moved  along  in  the  direction  of 
freethought,  and  they  drew  apart  from  him. 
This  grew  to  an  open  breach  when,  in 
1841,  he  published  a  sermon  in  which  he 
treated  the  gospel  miracles  as  either  myths 
or  exaggerations.  The  result  of  the  con¬ 
troversy  which  arose  was  that  he  left  the 
Unitarian  body  with  a  large  following,  who 
established  themselves  under  him  as  an 
independent  congregation  (1845).  His  con¬ 
gregations  were  large,  and  his  influence, 
from  his  manifest  zeal  of  philanthropy  and 
social  reforms,  was  very  wide.  His  testi- 


v 


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mony  against  slavery  had  great  power  in 
its  abolition.  He  was  a  prolific  writer,  and 
his  sermons  are  devout,  earnest  and 
thoughtful.  His  works,  comprising,  be¬ 
sides  these  and  other  discourses,  reviews, 
criticisms,  and  speeches,  were  published  in 
London  in  twelve  volumes,  1863-65.  He 
also  published  a  translation  of  De  Wette’s 
Introduction  to  the  Old  Testament.  His 
health  failing,  he  came  to  Europe  for 
change,  but  died  at  Florence. 

Parker’s  position  with  respect  to  the 
Bible  miracles,  as  indicated  in  his  works, 
can  hardly  be  said  to  deny  them.  “  Non¬ 
proven  ”  would  perhaps  express  his  view: 
they  are  improbable,  and  the  evidence  in¬ 
sufficient,  but  cannot  be  called  impossible. 
The  truth  of  Christ’s  moral  teaching,  nay, 
even  his  divinity,  in  a  sense  unapproached 
by  any  other  human  personality,  were  evi¬ 
denced  by  the  sanctity  of  his  life.  Legends 
gradually  grew  round  the  beauty  of  his 
figure  in  the  history;  these  being  dropped, 
a  true  biography  remains.  Parker’s  faith 
in  a  personal  God  who  governs  the  soul 
and  the  daily  life  of  man,  to  whom  prayer 
can  be  made,  and  who  will  answer  it,  seems 
not  to  have  wavered.  His  private  papers 
contain  many  direct  and  most  earnest  peti¬ 
tions  to  God.  The  Bible,  according  to  him, 
is  inspired,  not  in  the  sense  of  a  revelation, 
but  as  calling  forth  in  man  the  latent  inspi¬ 
ration  which  is  in  him,  and  leading  him  to 
discern  the  truth,  which  is  given  to  every 
man,  but  which,  but  for  such  quickening, 
lies  hidden. — Benham:  Diet,  of  Religion. 
Parker’s  principal  works  were:  Discourses 
of  Matters  Pertaining  to  Religion  (1842); 
Critical  and  Miscellaneous  Writings  (1843); 
Ten  Sermons  of  Religion  (1853);  Sermons  on 
Theism ,  Atheism  and  the  Popular  Theology 
(1853);  and  four  volumes  of  Sermons ,  Ad¬ 
dresses ■,  etc.  (1855).  See  his  Life ,  by  Weiss 
(1864),  2  vols.,and  by  Frothingham  (1874). 

Parsees.  Parseeism  was  the  religion  of 
Iran  or  Persia.  Its  origin  is  wrapped  in 
obscurity;  even  the  date  of  Zoroaster,  or 
Zarathustra,  is  fixed  variously  between  500 
or  600  b.  c.  and  1200  b.  c.  The  fundamental 
doctrines  probably  were  formed  2,000  years 
b.  c. ,  whilst  Persians  and  Hindoos  were 
still  one  nation,  and  before  the  Veda  exist¬ 
ed,  which  is  generally  fixed  at  1,500  years 
b.  c.  The  first  historic  record  is  found  in 
the  arrow-head  inscriptions  of  about  516 
b.  c. ,  in  which  Darius  Hystaspes  figures  as 
a  disciple  of  the  prophet,  and  ascribes  his 
victories  to  Ormuzd.  At  the  present  time 
there  is  but  a  small  congregation  of  Par¬ 
sees  living  in  Yezd  and  Kirman,  the  rest 
have  emigrated.  There  are  many  points 
of  similarity  to  be  found  in  the  Jews  and 
Parsees:  both  are  monotheists,  both  are 


exiles,  and  both  are  followers  of  an  ancient 
sacred  law. 

The  book  which  contains  their  creed  is 
called  Avesta ,  which  comes  from  the  same 
root  as  Veda — vid,  “  to  know,”  and  thus 
means  “  law  and  revelation.”  It  is  some¬ 
times  improperly  called  Zend-Avesta;  zend 
means  a  “commentary”  or  “glossary,” 
which  accompanies  each  part  of  the  book 
as  a  help  to  the  understanding.  The  Avesta 
was  not  the  work  of  only  one  man  or  time; 
some  of  it  is  said  to  date  back  to  between 
the  seventh  and  fourth  centuries  before 
Christ,  and  some  as  late  as  the  fourth  cen¬ 
tury  after.  It  is  divided  into  the  Yasna , 
which  includes  five  gdthas,  or  hymns,  writ¬ 
ten  in  a  dialect  resembling  Vedic  Sanscrit, 
and  probably  very  ancient;  the  Vendiddd, 
which  means  “  given  against  the  demons,” 
and  contains  the  laws;  the  Visparad,  mean¬ 
ing  “  chiefs,”  a  collection  of  prayers;  and 
other  sections  with  special  prayers.  The 
Avestan  doctrine  came  to  Persia  through 
Media  by  the  Magi — some  of  the  race  who 
were  the  first  Gentiles  to  worship  the  in¬ 
fant  Saviour.  It  became  the  ruling  relig¬ 
ion  of  Persia  in  a.  d.  226  under  Ardeshir, 
the  first  Sassanide  monarch,  and  it  re¬ 
mained  so  till  642,  when  the  Persian  king¬ 
dom  came  to  an  end.  Then  many  Persians 
accepted  the  Koran;  yet  a  small  remnant 
remained,  and  were  the  progenitors  of  the 
modern  community  of  Indian  Parsees. 
Some  went  to  India,  in  716,  and  settled  in 
the  northern  part. 

Besides  being  monotheistic,  Parseeism 
is  dualistic.  It  teaches  the  existence  of 
two  principles,  always  at  war  with  each 
other — light  and  darkness,  good  and  evil — 
under  the  names  of  Ormuzd  or  Ahura- 
Mazda,  and  Ahriman.  These  two  were 
supposed  to  be  living  in  different  parts  of 
the  universe  with  immense  space  separat¬ 
ing  them,  till,  each  becoming  aware  of  the 
existence  of  the  other,  a  fierce  war  was 
waged  between  them.  Ormuzd  commenced 
creating  spirits  suitable  to  his  purposes 
against  his  enemy,  and  then  Ahriman  cre¬ 
ated  evil  spirits  to  counteract  their  influ¬ 
ence.  Ormuzd  next  made  the  stars  and 
planets,  and  when  the  earth  was  finished 
he  placed  it  between  himself  and  Ahriman; 
but  the  latter  bored  a  hole  through  the 
earth,  and  placed  some  of  his  bad  spirits 
on  it.  Henceforth  the  earth  became  the 
arena  of  the  struggle  between  good  and 
evil.  Zoroaster  was  then  created  by  Or¬ 
muzd  to  oppose  Ahriman.  The  struggle  is 
to  last  for  12,000  years.  Each  man  is  to  live 
his  allotted  time  on  the  earth,  there  to  de¬ 
termine  his  ultimate  happiness;  for  the 
Parsee  believes  in  the  resurrection  of  the 
dead,  and  in  a  state  of  final  blessedness. 
Fifty-seven  years  before  the  end  of  the 


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world — which  is  to  be  brought  about  by 
collision  with  a  comet — Soshyans,  of  the 
direct  seed  of  Zoroaster,  will  appear,  and 
prepare  the  dead  for  the  new  life  to  begin. 
Then  sinners  are  to  be  purified  to  join  the 
blessed  by  living  three  days  in  molten  lead. 
Ahriman  is  to  vanish  forever. 

The  Parsees  are  worshippers  of  fire; 
their  sacred  altar-fire  is  never  allowed  to 
go  out,  and  is  fed  chiefly  with  sandal- wood; 
their  domestic  fire  is  also  sacred.  They 
never  smoke,  and  are  very  particular  about 
bodily  defilement:  contact  with  a  dead  body 
is  the  greatest  source  of  defilement,  and 
needs  special  forms  of  purification.  Their 
corpses  are  exposed  to  be  the  food  of  vul¬ 
tures  on  a  dakhma ,  or  “  tower  of  silence,” 
and  then  the  bones  only  fall  into  a  pit  be¬ 
low;  to  inter  a  corpse  is  punishable  by 
death.  The  priesthood  was  formerly  con¬ 
fined  to  one  family,  but  is  not  now  so  lim¬ 
ited.  Their  service  is  divided  thus:  first, 
hymns  and  offering  of  sacrifices,  which  con¬ 
sist  of  small  cakes  and  homa ,  the  juice  of  a 
plant  said  to  be  very  effectual  against  evil 
spirits;  secondly,  hymns,  and  reading  of 
parts  of  the  Vendidad ;  and  then  of  hymns 
and  prayers.  The  young  Parsee  becomes 
a  member  of  the  congregation  at  the  age  of 
seven,  when,  with  sundry  ceremonies,  he 
or  she  is  invested  with  a  woolen  cord, 
called  a  kusti ,  or  sacred  girdle,  which  is 
always  worn,  and  implies  irrevocable  con¬ 
secration  to  the  faith  of  Zoroaster.  Mar¬ 
riage  is  looked  on  as  a  very  sacred  tie,  and 
is  contracted  between  persons  of  the  near¬ 
est  kindred.  The  Parsees  never  make  con¬ 
verts.  They  have  translated  the  Vendidad 
into  the  dialect  Gujerati,  which,  since  their 
settlement  in  India,  has  been  their  mother- 
tongue. 

From  the  seventeenth  century  the  Par¬ 
sees  have  been  the  middlemen  in  India 
between  English,  French,  and  other  Euro¬ 
pean  nations,  and  their  native  customers. 
In  1881,  of  100,000  worshippers  of  Zoro¬ 
aster,  one-half  were  found  to  be  in  Bom¬ 
bay,  which  largely  owes  its  prosperity  to 
them.  They  are  great  promoters  of  educa¬ 
tion,  and  have  English  taught  in  all  their 
schools;  they  have  done  much  toward  fe¬ 
male  enfranchisement.  They  are  extremely 
charitable,  and  very  loyal  to  the  British 
Crown. 

In  1771  Anquetil  Duperron  published  a 
French  translation  of  the  A  vesta,  and  Pro¬ 
fessor  Max  Muller  has  edited  the  transla¬ 
tion  in  The  Sacred  Books  of  the  East. — Ben- 
ham:  Diet,  of  Religion. 

Particular  and  General  Baptists,  the 
names  by  which  two  Baptist  bodies  in 
England  are  known.  The  first  is  Arminian 
in  theology  and  had  its  origin  in  a  com¬ 


pany,  which,  under  the  lead  of  John  Spils- 
bury,  withdrew  in  1633  from  an  Independ¬ 
ent  congregation  at  Southwark,  of  which 
Henry  Jacobs  was  pastor.  The  General 
Baptists  are  Calvinistic,  and  are  descend¬ 
ed  from  a  company  which,  having  embraced 
Baptist  doctrines,  withdrew  from  the  main 
body  of  the  Separatist  exiles  in  Holland, 
and  returned  to  England  in  1612.  In  1822 
a  small  denomination  of  Baptists  holding 
Arminian  views,  but  practicing  strict  com¬ 
munion,  was  formed  in  the  States  of  In¬ 
diana,  Illinois,  Missouri,  and  Kentucky, 
under  the  name  of  General  Baptists.  They 
were  estimated  in  1888  to  have  over  2,000 
churches,  and  13,000  members. 

Pas'cal  (fas' kat),  Blaise,  “  b.  at  Cler¬ 
mont,  in  Auvergne,  June  19,  1623;  d.  at 
Port  Royal,  Aug.  19,  1662;  a  distinguished 
French  mathematician  and  philosopher, 
chiefly  remembered,  however,  as  the 
author  of  the  famous  Provincial  Letters 
(published  about  1658,  in  opposition  to  the 
Jesuits),  and  of  Thoughts  on  Religion  and 
So/ne  Other  Subjects  (published  after  the 
author’s  death).  From  his  childhood  he 
gave  evidence  of  remarkable  capacity. 
His  gift  for  mathematics  was  extraordinary, 
and  he  contributed  largely  to  the  develop¬ 
ment  of  that  science.  But  when  he  was 
in  his  thirty-fourth  year  he  all  at  once  re¬ 
nounced  the  study  of  mathematics  and 
natural  philosophy,  as  well  as  of  all  human 
learning,  and  devoted  himself  wholly  to 
religious  meditation,  mortification,  and 
prayer.  The  last  five  years  of  his  life 
were  spent  in  retirement  at  Port  Royal. 
But  his  retirement  did  not  prevent  his 
noticing  what  was  passing  in  the  world; 
and  he  took  an  interest  in  the  controversy 
between  the  Jesuits  and  Jansenists,  which 
led  to  the  publication  of  the  Provincial 
Letters  in  favor  of  the  latter.  The  wit 
and  genius  of  his  Provincial  Letters  have 
always  been  acknowledged,  though  their 
fairness  has  been  questioned.  His 
Thoughts  on  Religion  has  been  translated 
into  most  European  languages,  and  has 
been  many  times  republished.” — Cassell: 
Cyclopcedia.  Pascal  “  is  one  of  those  rare 
religious  characters  whom  both  Catholics 
and  Protestants  love  to  claim;  and  his  de¬ 
fense  of  Christianity  is,  to  use  the  fine 
words  of  Neander,  ‘  witness  to  that  re¬ 
ligious  conviction  which  is  founded  in  im¬ 
mediate  perception,  and  is  elevated  above 
all  reflection.’  ” — Th.  Schott.  Lives  of  Pas¬ 
cal  have  been  written  by  St.  Beuve,  Vinet, 
Cousin,  etc.  Eng.  trans.  of  Thoughts  and 
Provincial  Letters ,  by  Wright,  N.  Y. ,  2  vols. 

Paschal  Controversies  (Gr.  pascha ,  pass- 
over).  These  were  controversies  which 


Pas 


(  7ii  ) 


Pas 


arose  in  die  middle  of  the  second  century- 
on  the  question  of  the  proper  date  for 
keeping  Easter,  The  term  “  pascha”  was 
in  the  first  ages  of  the  Church  applied  to 
the  anniversary  of  our  Saviour’s  death  (cf. 
1  Cor.  v.  7).  After  a  time  Easter  became 
included  in  this  term,  but  at  length  the 
“  pascha,”  as  an  ecclesiastical  term,  was 
confined  to  Easter  alone,  Good  Friday  be¬ 
ing  excluded.  The  Churches  in  Asia  Minor 
used  to  celebrate  the  Paschal  Supper,  or 
anniversary  of  the  crucifixion,  on  the  14th 
day  of  the  month  of  Nisan,  the  date  of  the 
Jewish  Passover;  and  three  days  later  they 
kept  Easter,  regardless  of  what  day  of  the 
week  it  fell  upon.  The  practice  of  Rome, 
and  of  the  majority  of  the  Churches,  was 
always  to  keep  Easter  on  the  Sunday,  and 
the  Paschal  Supper  on  its  eve.  The  former 
custom  —  called  the  “  quartodeciman,” 
from  its  being  kept  on  the  fourteenth  day — 
was  claimed  as  derived  from  St.  John  and 
St.  Philip;  the  latter  from  St.  Peter  and  St. 
Paul.  About  the  year  158  Polycarp,  bish¬ 
op  of  Smyrna,  visited  Anicetus,  bishop 
of  Rome,  and  discussed  this  question  with 
him  in  a  friendly  spirit;  the  result  was  that 
it  was  agreed  that  a  difference  of  practice 
was  allowable  on  this  point.  But  about  the 
year  196  Victor,  bishop  of  Rome,  sought 
to  enforce  uniformity  of  practice  by 
threatening  to  cut  off  communion  with  the 
Asiatic  Churches  unless  they  submitted  to 
the  Western  custom.  His  efforts,  however, 
were  doomed  to  failure.  Polycrates,  bish¬ 
op  of  Ephesus,  writing  on  behalf  of  the 
Asiatics,  refused  to  yield  to  Victor,  and 
when  the  latter  sought  to  cut  off  so  large 
a  body  of  people  from  Christian  communion 
he  was  opposed  by  many  Western  bishops, 
among  others  by  Irenaeus,  bishop  of 
Lyons.  In  314  the  Council  of  Arles  de¬ 
creed  that  Easter  should  in  all  places  be 
kept  “  on  one  day,  and  at  one  time;”  but 
the  council  had  no  jurisdiction  in  the  East, 
and  therefore  did  not  affect  the  Asiatics. 
But  in  the  Council  of  Nicaea  the  bishops 
from  Asia  Minor  consented  to  conform  to 
the  Western  and  more  general  custom  of 
keeping  Easter;  and  although  individual 
congregations  resisted  this  surrender,  yet 
the  controversy  was  then  at  an  end,  and  by 
the  sixth  century  all  traces  of  the  Quarto- 
decimans  had  disappeared.  —  Benham  : 
Did.  of  Religion. 

Paschalis  is  the  name  of  two  popes  and 
two  antipopes.  See  Popes. 

Paschasius,  Radbertus.  See  Radber- 
tus. 

Passion,  The,  of  our  Lord,  is  his  cruci¬ 
fixion. 


Passion-Plays.  See  Religious  Dramas. 

Passion-Week.  See  Holy  Week. 

Passionists,  an  order  of  the  Roman 
Catholic  Church  founded  by  Paolo  della 
Croce;  b.  at  Ovada,  in  Piedmont,  Jan.  3, 
1694;  d.  at  Rome,  Oct.  18,  1775.  He  was 
canonizedjby  Pius  IX.  in  1868.  The  object 
of  the  order  is  to  keep  alive  in  every  possi¬ 
ble  way  Christ’s  atoning  passion  and  death. 
There  are  several  congregations  of  this 
order  in  England  and  the  United  States. 

Passover,  “  Pesac/i,  pascha,  the  first  and 
greatest  of  the  three  annual  feasts  ( regalim ) 
instituted  by  Moses,  at  which  it  was  in¬ 
cumbent  upon  every  male  Israelite  to  make 
a  pilgrimage  to  the  house  of  the  Lord.  It 
was  celebrated  on  the  anniversary  of  the 
exodus  from  Egypt — i.  e.,  on  the  14th  day 
of  Nisan,  otherwise  called  Abib,  the  pe¬ 
riod  of  the  first  full  moon  in  the  spring — 
and  lasted  eight  days.  In  commemoration 
of  the  incidents  connected  with  the  great 
event  of  the  liberation  of  the  people,  it  was 
ordained  that  unleavened  bread  only  should 
be  eaten  during  this  festive  period,  whence 
it  also  bore  the  name  chag  hamazzoth  (feast 
of  unleavened  bread);  and,  further,  that  a 
lamb  one  year  old,  and  free  from  all  blem¬ 
ish,  roasted  whole,  together  with  bitter 
herbs,  should  form  the  meal  in  every 
house  on  the  eve  of  the  feast.  Prayers 
and  thanksgivings,  all  with  a  reference  to 
the  redemption  from  bondage,  accompanied 
the  repast,  at  which  the  members  of  the 
family  or  families  who  had  joined  in  the 
purchase  of  the  lamb  had  to  appear  in  trav¬ 
eling  garb.  At  a  later  period,  a  certain 
number  of  cups  of  red  wine  were  super- 
added  to  this  meal,  to  which,  as  its  special 
ceremonies  and  the  order  of  its  benedic¬ 
tions  were  fixed,  the  name  seder  (arrange¬ 
ment!  was  given.  The  name  ‘  passover  ’  was 
more  strictly  limited  to  the  first  day,  in 
which  the  paschal  lamb  was  entirely  con¬ 
sumed,  the  reserving  of  any  part  of  it  to 
the  next  day  being  expressly  forbidden 
(Ex.  xii.  10);  and  the  name  ‘  feast  of  unleav¬ 
ened  bread  ’  belonged  rather  to  the  remain¬ 
ing  days,  on  which  other  animal  food  was 
eaten;  but  the  names  were  often  used  in¬ 
discriminately. 

“  The  passover  is  generally  regarded  by 
Christian  theologians  as  at  once  a  sacrifice 
and  a  sacrament,  and  in  the  former  charac¬ 
ter  as  an  eminent  type  of  the  sacrifice  of 
Christ.  The  death  of  Christ  at  the  very 
time  of  the  passover  is  regarded  as  corrob¬ 
orative  of  this  view,  which  is  indeed  plain¬ 
ly  adopted  in  certain  passages  of  the  New 
Testament,  as  John  xix.  36,  and  1  Cor.  v. 
7,  in  which  last  place  our  Saviour  is  desig- 


Pas 


(  7i2  ) 


Pat 


nated  *  Christ  our  Passover.’  The  pass- 
over  is  regarded  as  typical  of  Christ,  in  its 
connection  with  the  deliverance  of  Israel 
from  the  bondage  of  Egypt,  held  to  typify 
our  salvation  from  the  bondage  of  sin;  in 
its  being  a  sacrifice,  and  that  of  a  lamb 
without  blemish — the  perfection  of  the  pas¬ 
chal  lamb,  as  of  the  other  sacrificial  victims, 
being  supposed  to  signify  the  perfection  of 
the  great  sacrifice;  and  in  many  other  mi¬ 
nor  particulars,  of  which  one  is  that  re¬ 
ferred  to  in  John  xix.  36,  that  no  bone  of 
the  paschal  lamb  was  to  be  broken. 

“The  paschal  meal,  as  at  present  cele¬ 
brated  among  the  Jews,  has  more  the  char¬ 
acter  of  a  hallowed  family  feast,  with  ref¬ 
erence,  however,  to  the  great  national 
event.  The  greater  part  of  those,  it  may 
be  added  here,  who  live  out  of  the  Holy 
Land,  celebrate  it  on  the  first  two  evenings, 
as,  owing  to  the  uncertainty  prevalent  at 
one  time  with  respect  to  the  fixing  of  the 
new  moon  by  the  sanhedrim  at  Jerusalem, 
it  was  ordained  that  the  ‘  exiles  ’  should 
celebrate  all  their  festivals — except  the  day 
of  atonement — on  two  successive  days,  a 
law  still  in  force  among  the  orthodox. 
The  regulations  of  the  ‘  lamb  for  each 
house,’  the  traveling  garb,  etc.,  are  abro¬ 
gated,  but  many  further  symbolical  tokens 
have  been  superadded;  reminiscences,  as 
it  were,  both  of  the  liberation  from  Egypt 
and  the  subsequent  downfall  of  the  sanc¬ 
tuary  and  empire.  The  order  of  prayers 
and  songs  to  be  recited  on  these  evenings 
has  also  received  many  additions,  and  even 
mediaeval  German  songs  have  crept  in,  as 
supposed  to  contain  a  symbolical  reference 
to  the  ultimate  fate  of  Israel.” — Chambers: 
Cyclopcedia.  See  Oehler:  Theology  of  the  Old 
Testament ;  Stanley:  Hist,  of  the  Jewish 
Churchy  vol.  i. 

Pastoral  Letter,  a  letter  written  by  a  bish¬ 
op  to  his  diocese. 

Pastoral  Staff,  or  Crozier,  a  bishop’s 
official  emblem.  It  is  a  long  staff  with  a 
hook  at  the  end,  like  a  shepherd’s  crook, 
and  is  the  symbol  of  the  bishop’s  pastoral 
authority  over  his  flock.  It  is  often  beau¬ 
tifully  decorated  with  gold  and  jewels. 

Pastoral  Theology,  “  that  branch  of  theo¬ 
logical  science  which  regards  the  duties  and 
obligations  of  pastors  in  relation  to  the 
care  of  souls.  It  comprises  two  parts: 
first,  that  which  treats  of  the  obligations 
of  the  pastors  themselves,  and  which  is, 
therefore,  designed  for  the  training  and 
preparation  of  the  candidates  for  the  pas¬ 
toral  office.  The  other  part  of  pastoral 
theology,  which  might,  perhaps,  better  be 
called  popular  theology,  comprises  the  ob¬ 


jective  teaching  which  is  to  be  employed  in 
the  instruction  and  direction  of  the  flock 
committed  to  the  pastor’s  charge.  This 
branch  of  theology  has  long  formed  a  lead¬ 
ing  portion  of  the  training  of  candidates  in 
the  evangelical  churches  of  France  and 
Germany.  Numerous  works  on  the  sub¬ 
ject  represent  the  practice  of  the  various 
sections  of  the  Protestant  Church;  and, 
more  recently,  Catholic  manuals  of  pastoral 
theology  have  appeared.” 

Paten,  Patena,  or  Discus,  the  plate  on 
which  the  sacramental  bread  is  placed  and 
distributed  to  communicants. 

Pater  Noster  (Our  Father),  The,  desig¬ 
nates,  especially  in  the  Roman  Catholic 
Church,  the  Latin  translation  of  the  Lord’s 
Prayer. 

Patience  “  is  that  moral  powTer  by  which 
the  soul  preserves  its  equanimity  under  all 
exciting  and  oppressive  circumstances,  and 
freely  submits  to  the  unavoidable,  with 
the  presentiment  that  it  is  a  divine  dispensa¬ 
tion.  As  a  fruit  of  Christian  faith,  patience 
is  the  persistence  of  the  believer  in  a  state 
of  sanctification,  in  spite  of  temptations. 
Born  of  Christian  love,  it  supplements 
Christian  hope.  (Rom.  viii.  25.)  It  gradu¬ 
ally  learns  to  bear  all  things,  endure  all 
things,  hope  all  things,  to  wait  contentedly 
for  the  coming  of  the  Lord.  (James,  v.  7.) 
Its  foundation  is  the  Lord’s  faithfulness.” — 
Lange . 

Pat'mos,  a  barren  and  rocky  island,  situ¬ 
ated  near  the  coast  of  Asia  Minor,  in  the 
H£gean  Sea.  The  Roman  emperors  used 
it  as  a  place  of  banishment,  and  here  the 
Apostle  John  wrote  his  Revelation.  (Rev.  i. 
9.)  Above  the  cave,  where  tradition  says 
he  had  his  visions,  is  the  Greek  monastery 
built  by  Alexius  Commenus. 

Patriarch.  The  name,  as  a  title  in  the 
Christian  Church,  was  given  as  a  mark  of 
respect  to  bishops  in  the  fourth  century. 
In  time  it  designated  the  bishops  of  certain 
great  metropolitan  sees  who  held  a  position 
of  authority  over  the  metropolitans  includ¬ 
ed  in  their  district  which  was  called  a  patri¬ 
archate.  There  are  eleven  patriarchs  in 
the  Roman  Catholic  Church.  See  Greek 
Church. 

Patrick,  St.,  Roman  Catholic  saint  and 
apostle  of  Ireland.  The  chief  sources  of 
information  regarding  him  are  found  in  his 
Confession ,  and  the  Epistle  to  Coroticus.  The 
dates  of  his  life  are  uncertain.  His  birth 
has  been  placed  between  336  and  378,  and 
his  death  between  455  and  493.  When  a 


Pat 


C  7i3  ) 


Pau 


youth  of  sixteen  he  was  carried  captive  to 
Ireland  from  Bonavem  of  Taberniae,  which 
was  probably  in  Gaul.  After  six  years  he 
made  his  escape  and  regained  his  home. 
Nothing  further  is  known  of  him  until  at  a 
mature  age  he  began  his  missionary  labors 
in  Ireland.  In  the  face  of  great  difficulties 
he  established  among  this  heathen  people 
a  native  church  with  a  clergy  raised  up 
from  their  ranks.  St.  Patrick’s  Day  is  com¬ 
memorated  March  17.  See  Nicholson:  St. 
Patrick ,  Apostle  of  Ireland  (Dublin,  1868); 
Killen  :  Ecclesiastical  History  of  Ireland 
(London,  1875),  2  vols. 

Patrick,  Symon,  b.  at  Gainsborough,  in 
Lincolnshire,  in  1626;  d.  at  Ely,  May  31, 
1707.  Educated  at  Cambridge,  he  was  or¬ 
dained  by  Dr.  Hall,  the  ejected  bishop  of 
Norwich,  in  1651,  and  became  successively 
vicar  of  Battersea,  1658;  rector  of  Covent 
Garden,  1662;  prebendary  of  Westminster 
Abbey,  1672;  dean  of  Peterborough,  1679; 
bishop  of  Chichester,  1689,  and  of  Ely, 
1691.  He  is  best  known  as  a  commentator, 
but  produced  several  other  works  of  merit, 
and  took  high  rank  as  a  preacher,  and  in 
later  years  was  accused  of  favoring  the 
Nonconformists.  He  is  numbered  among 
the  Cambridge  latitudinarians. 

Patripassians  (from  pater passus,  the  suf¬ 
fering  father),  “  a  name  applied  to  those 
Christians,  who,  denying  that  there  is  a 
definite  distinction  between  the  personali¬ 
ties  of  the  Father,  the  Son,  and  the  Holy 
Spirit  in  the  Trinity,  said  that  the  Father 
had  suffered  in  the  Son.  It  occurs  for  the 
first  time  in  the  treatise  of  Tertullian 
against  Praxeas,  about  200.” — Schaff-Her- 
zog:  Ency.  See  Monarchians. 

Patristics,  that  branch  of  historical  the¬ 
ology  which  treats  particularly  of  the  lives 
and  doctrines  of  the  Church  Fathers. 

Patronage,  the  right  to  present  a  cler¬ 
gyman  to  a  living;  i.  e.,  to  nominate  him 
to  the  bishop  for  the  purpose  of  insti¬ 
tution.  This  right  was  originally  confined 
to  the  bishop  of  the  diocese;  but  in  the 
Council  of  Orange  (a.  d.  441),  it  was 
enacted  that  one  who  built  a  church  might 
be  allowed  the  presentation  to  it,  and  by  a 
law  of  Justinian  (a.  d.  541)  it  was  laid  down 
that  the  founders  of  churches,  and  their 
heirs,  should  enjoy  the  privilege  of  nomi¬ 
nating  the  incumbents;  provided  always  (1) 
that  a  sufficient  maintenance  were  provided 
for  the  clerk;  (2)  that  the  bishop  approved 
of  the  nominee.  The  system  soon  became 
general  throughout  the  West.  It  was  in¬ 
troduced  into  England  by  Archbishop  Theo¬ 
dore  (a.  d.  668-90).  Abuses,  as  was 


natural,  gradually  crept  in.  Churches 
were  sometimes  built  as  a  profitable  specu¬ 
lation,  the  builder  taking  the  offerings,  and 
allowing  to  the  incumbent  a  fixed  income 
while  he  appropriated  the  surplus  to  his 
own  use.  Occasionally  the  right  of  pre¬ 
sentation  was  divided  among  several  heirs, 
which  led  to  a  division  of  the  living  into  a 
like  number  of  parts,  each  held  by  a  sepa¬ 
rate  clerk.  Frequently  the  patron  claimed 
the  right  of  introducing  or  ejecting  a  priest, 
without  any  reference  to  the  bishop ;  whilst, 
on  the  other  hand,  the  bishop  sometimes 
unreasonably  refused  to  institute  the  pa¬ 
tron’s  nominee.  Against  such  practices 
frequent  canons  and  laws  were  directed: 
bishops  were  prohibited  from  consecrating 
churches  built  for  profit;  the  partition  of 
livings  was  put  a  stop  to;  the  bishop’s  con¬ 
sent  was  made  a  condition  of  induction; 
and  bishops  were  forbidden  to  withhold 
that  consent  except  for  valid  reasons. 

Instead  of  being  regarded  merely  as  a 
trust,  patronage  came  to  be  considered  as 
a  vested  right,  and  therefore  as  salable 
property,  which  might  be  sold  either  with 
the  estate  or  as  a  separate  property.  In 
England  the  perpetual  right  of  presenta¬ 
tion  is  called  an  “  advowson;  ”  if  appended 
to  an  estate,  it  is  an  “advowson  append¬ 
ant;  ”  if  a  property  by  itself,  it  is  an  “  ad¬ 
vowson  in  gross.” — Benham:  Diet,  of  Re¬ 
ligion. 

Patteson,  John  Coleridge,  “  bishop  of 
Melanesia,  was  the  eldest  son  of  Justin 
Patteson  and  Frances  Duke  Coleridge,  a 
near  relative  of  Samuel  Taylor  Coleridge, 
and  was  born  in  Gower  Street,  Bedford 
Square,  April  2,  1827.  He  was  educated 
at  Ottery  St.  Mary  and  at  Eton,  where  he 
greatly  distinguished  himself  on  the  cricket 
field.  He  entered  Balliol  College,  Oxford, 
in  1845,  and  was  graduated  B.  A.  in  1848. 
After  spending  some  time  on  the  Continent 
in  the  capacity  of  tutor,  he  in  1852  became 
a  fellow  of  Merton  College.  In  1853  he 
became  curate  of  Alfington,  Devon,  and  in 
the  following  year  he  was  ordained  priest, 
and  joined  the  mission  to  the  Melanesian 
Islands  in  the  South  Pacific.  There  he  la¬ 
bored  with  great  success,  visiting  the  dif¬ 
ferent  islands  of  the  group  in  the  mission- 
ship,  the  Southern  Cross ,  and  by  his 
good  sense  and  unselfish  devotion  winning 
the  esteem  and  affection  of  the  natives.  In 
1861  he  was  consecrated  bishop  of  Melane¬ 
sia,  and  in  this  capacity  did  much  to  pro¬ 
mote  the  Christianization  of  the  islands, 
until  his  premature  death  by  the  hand  of  a 
native,  Sept.  20,  1871.  See  Life ,  by  Char¬ 
lotte  M.  Yonge.” — Encv.  Britannica. 

Paul  the  Apostle,  and  his  Epistles.  I. 


Pau 


(  714  ) 


Pau 


The  Life  of  Paul. — Paul  was  born  of  Jew¬ 
ish  parents  (2  Cor.  xi.  22;  Phil.  iii.  5)  at 
Tarsus  in  Cilicia.  (Acts  ix.  11;  xxi.  39; 
xxii.  3.)  He  traced  his  lineage  to  the  tribe 
of  Benjamin  (Rom.  xi.  1;  Phil.  iii.  5);  be¬ 
longed,  on  his  father’s  side,  to  the  sect  of 
the  Pharisees  (Acts  xxiii.  6),  and  had  inher¬ 
ited  the  right  of  a  Roman  citizen  (xxii.  18; 
comp.  xvi.  37;  xxiii.  27).  He  had  a  sister, 
who  was  married,  at  Jerusalem  (xxiii.  6). 
His  earliest  education  he  received  at  home, 
to  complete  which  he  went  to  Jerusalem, 
where  he  attended  the  lectures  of  the  famous 
Gamaliel  (xxii.  3),  a  grandson  of  the  great 
Hillel.  As  the  Jewish  teacher  received  no 
money  for  his  instruction  he  learned  the 
trade  of  a  tent-maker  (xviii.  3),  which  en¬ 
abled  him  afterward  to  make  his  own  living 
without  being  dependent  on  congregations. 
(Acts  xx.  34;  1  Cor.  iv.  12;  ix.  15;  2  Cor. 
xi.  9;  xii.  13;  1  Thess.  ii.  19;  2  Thess.  iii. 
8.)  He  became  a  zealous  Pharisee,  and 
his  animosity  against  Christianity  showed 
itself  at  the  stoning  of  Stephen  (Acts  vii. 
57),  where  Saul  was  a  looker-on  at  the 
bloody  scene  (viii.  1).  In  the  persecution 
which  commenced  with  the  death  of  Ste¬ 
phen,  his  fanaticism  grew,  and  he  went 
from  house  to  house  to  imprison  the 
believers  (viii.  3).  With  letters  from  the 
high-priest  he  went  to  Damascus  to 
bring  the  Christians  bound  to  Jerusalem 
(ix.  I  seq. ).  In  the  midst  of  his  zeal  that 
event  took  place  which  made  him  the  chos¬ 
en  vessel  of  Christ  (ix.  1-20;  xxii.  4-16; 
xxvi.  n-20).  Led  by  his  companions  he 
came  to  Damascus,  where  a  Christian, 
named  Ananias,  baptized  him.  From  Da¬ 
mascus  Saul,  now  Paul,  went  to  Arabia 
(Gal.  i.  17)  to  prepare  himself  for  his  great 
work.  After  three  years’  stay  in  Arabia 
he  returned  to  Damascus,  and  thence  to 
Jerusalem,  to  make  himself  acquainted 
with  the  apostles.  (Gal.  i.  17;  Acts  ix.  26.) 
He  soon  perceived  that  Jerusalem  was  not 
the  place  of  his  work,  and  so  he  went  by 
way  of  Syria  and  Cilicia  to  Tarsus.  For  a 
time  he  labored  in  his  old  native  place, 
when  he  was  called  by  Barnabas,  with 
whom  he  had  become  acquainted  in  Jeru¬ 
salem  (Acts  ix.  27),  to  Antioch  in  Syria  (xi. 
26).  From  Jerusalem  they  were  accompa¬ 
nied  by  John  Marcus,  the  evangelist,  a 
cousin  of  Barnabas’  (Col.  iv.  10),  whom 
Peter  had  brought  over  to  Christianity, 
(r  Pet.  v.  13.)  Not  of  his  own  accord,  but 
at  the  impulse  of  the  Holy  Ghost,  and  or¬ 
dained  by  the  congregation,  he  went,  ac- 
campanied  by  Barnabas  and  Marcus,  on 
his  first  missionary  tour.  (Acts  xii i . ;  xiv.) 
By  way  of  Seleucia  they  came  to  Cyprus, 
the  home  of  Barnabas  (iv.  36),  where  they 
labored  with  great  success  (xiii.  6-12). 
Having  returned  to  the  continent  of  Asia 


Minor,  they  preached  in  Pamphylia,  where 
John  Marcus  (xiii.  13)  separated  himself 
from  them;  then  in  Pisidia  (Antioch,  Ico- 
nium)  and  Lycaonia  (Lystra  and  Derbe),  to 
return  by  way  of  Attalia  to  Antioch  in  Syr¬ 
ia.  Here  assaulted  (xiii.  50;  xiv.  5),  and 
there  deified  (xiv.  11),  his  first  journey  al¬ 
ready  indicates  the  general  character  of  his 
missionary  work.  It  was  intended  for  the 
Gentiles,  but  not  to  the  exclusion  of  the 
Jews  (xiii.  14,  42;  xiv.  1,  a.  o.).  By  this 
practice  the  apostle,  in  harmony  with  his 
written  word  (Rom.  i.  16;  iii.  1  seq. ;  ix.  1 
seq. ;  xi.  16;  comp,  also  Matt.  xv.  45;  John 
iv.  22),  preserved  the  prerogatives  of  Israel 
for  the  history  of  salvation,  without  be¬ 
coming  untrue  to  his  universalism.  How 
long  the  first  journey  lasted  is  not  stated. 

While  Paul  and  Barnabas  were  again  at 
Antioch,  some  Jewish  Christians  of  Jeru¬ 
salem  made  a  commotion  in  the  congrega¬ 
tion  of  Antioch  by  claiming  that  Gentiles, 
wishing  to  become  Christians,  must  first 
be  circumcised.  (Acts  xv.  1.)  To  settle  the 
dispute  Paul  and  Barnabas  and  a  few  oth¬ 
ers  were  sent  to  Jerusalem.  Soon  after  the 
return  of  Paul  and  Barnabas,  Peter  came 
to  Antioch,  where  he  was  rebuked  by  Paul 
on  account  of  his  treatment — in  which  he 
was  followed  by  Barnabas — of  the  Gentile 
Christians,  in  spite  of  the  decision  at  Jeru¬ 
salem.  (Gal.  ii.  11  seq.)  This  occurrence 
probably  brought  about  a  conflict  between 
Paul  and  Barnabas;  for  when  the  latter 
proposed  to  receive  Marcus,  Paul  declared 
himself  against  the  proposition  (Acts  xv. 
36-39),  in  consequence  of  which  Marcus 
(ver.  39)  joined  himself  to  Barnabas,  and 
went  with  him  to  Cyprus;  whereas  Paul, 
joined  by  Silas,  who  had  gone  with  him 
from  Jerusalem  to  Antioch  (vers.  22  and 
23),  prepared  himself  for  his  second  ?nission- 
ary  journey.  (Acts  xv.  40-xviii.  22.) 

In  the  beginning  it  wqs  a  visitation 
journey  for  the  strengthening  of  formerly 
established  congregations  in  Syria,  Cilicia, 
and  Lycaonia  (xv.  41).  From  Lystra  Paul 
was,  besides,  accompanied  by  Timothy 
(xvi.  1-3),  a  native  of  that  place,  and  went 
to  Phrygia,  thence  to  Galatia  (xvi.  1), 
where  he  was  kindly  received  (Gal.  iv.  14 
seq.),  founded  a  congregation  (i.  6  seq.),  and 
stayed  some  time  on  account  of  bodily  in¬ 
firmities  (iv.  13).  Over  Mysia  he  went  to 
Troas  where,  in  a  vision,  he  was  com¬ 
manded  to  go  to  Macedonia.  (Acts  xvi.  8 
seq. )  In  Troas  Luke  joined  Paul,  Silas, 
and  Timothy.  At  Philippi  the  apostle,  true 
to  his  custom,  preached  the  Gospel  first  to 
the  Jews;  and  Lydia  of  Thyatira  is  men¬ 
tioned  as  the  first  European  Christian.  At 
Philippi,  also,  he  was  imprisoned  with 
Barnabas,  and  miraculously  delivered. 
(Acts  xvi.  12-40.)  From  Philippi  Paul 


Pau 


{  7i5  ) 


Pau 


went  with  Silas  and  Timothy  to  Thessalo- 
nica  (xvii.  1),  where  he  founded  a  congrega¬ 
tion  (xvii.  4;  1  Thess.  i.  9;  iv.  6  seq.).  He 
was  finally  obliged  to  leave  the  place,  and 
went  to  Beroea,  thence  to  Athens  (xvii.  16— 
34),  and  Corinth  (xviii.  1-18),  where  the 
gospel  had  never  been  preached  before 
(1  Cor.  iii.  6;  iv.  15;  2  Cor.  i.  19),  and 
where  many  were  brought  over  to  Christ 
(Acts  xviii.  8;  viii.  1;  xii.  2;  Rom.  xvi.  21, 
23;  1  Cor.  i.  14;  vi.  9  seq.),  among  whom 
were  Aquila  and  Priscilla.  From  Corinth, 
and  not  from  Athens,  Paul  wrote  his  First 
Epistle  to  the  Thessalonians ,  and,  a  few 
months  later,  the  Second.  Accompanied  by 
Aquila  and  Priscilla  (Acts  xviii.  18  seq.), 
Paul  went  by  way  of  Ephesus  to  Jerusalem, 
to  celebrate  the  Pentecost  and  to  pay  a 
vow,  and  thence  he  returned  to  Antioch  in 
Syria  (xviii.  22).  He  did  not  tarry  here 
long.  He  undertook  also  his  third  ??iission- 
ary  journey.  (Acts  xviii.  23-xxi.  15.)  He 
first  went  to  Galatia  and  Phrygia,  thence 
to  Ephesus,  where  he  stayed  three  years 
(xix.  i-xx.  1).  Here  he  wrote  his  Epistle 
to  the  Galatians  and  the  First  Epistle  to  the 
Corinthians.  From  Ephesus  he  goes  over 
Troas  (2  Cor.  ii.  12)  to  Macedonia,  where 
he  meets  with  Timothy  (comp.  i.  1),  after¬ 
ward,  also,  with  Titus  (vii.  6  seq.),  who 
came  from  Corinth  (comp.  vers.  4,  12,  18) 
with  news  concerning  the  success  the 
apostle’s  epistle  had  (ii.  2;  vii.  5).  From 
Macedonia,  perhaps  from  Philippi,  he  wrote 
the  Second  Epistle  to  the  Corinthians ,  which 
he  soon  followed  in  person.  From  Corinth 
he  wrote  his  Epistle  to  the  Romans ,  in  order 
to  prepare  the  brethren  of  Rome  for  his 
personal  preaching.  Phoebe,  the  deaconess, 
was  probably  the  bearer  of  the  letter.  But 
before  going  to  Rome  he  visits  Jerusalem. 
By  way  of  Macedonia  (Philippi)  he  goes  to 
Troas  (Acts  xx.  3-12),  thence  with  his 
helpers  (ver.  4  seq.)  to  Miletus  (ver.  15). 
Considering  the  sufferings  which  were 
awaiting  him  (ver.  23),  he  bids  farewell  to 
the  elders  of  the  church  of  Ephesus  (xx. 
17  seq.),  and,  in  spite  of  the  warnings  of 
the  prophet  Agabus  in  Caesarea  (xx.  10 
seq.),  he  continues  his  journey  to  Jeru¬ 
salem.  Soon  the  troubles  commenced. 
Claudius  Lysias  saved  him  from  the  fanat¬ 
icism  of  some  zealous  Jewish  Christians, 
who  stigmatized  him  as  an  opponent  of  the 
law.  In  vain  did  he  try  to  justify  himself 
before  the  people  (xxii.  1-21),  and  by  night 
he  was  sent  to  Caesarea  to  Antonius  Felix. 
Under  Festus,  the  successor  of  Felix,  Paul 
again  made  a  self-defence  (xxvi.  1-23),  and 
though  he  could  expect  a  better  under¬ 
standing  for  his  case,  yet,  being  bent,  in 
his  plans  and  hopes  (xix.  21;  xxiii.  11; 
Rom.  xv.  24,  28)  upon  Rome,  he  appealed 
as  a  Roman  citizen  to  the  emperor  (xxvi. 


32),  and  under  the  care  of  Julius,  accompa¬ 
nied  by  Luke  and  Aristarchus  of  Thessa- 
lonica  (xxvii.  1;  Col.  iv.  10),  he  went  from 
Caesarea  to  Sidon,  and  was  driven  by  winds 
to  Crete  to  be  finally  shipwrecked  near  the 
coast  of  Melita.  After  a  three  months’  stay 
they  came  by  way  of  Syracuse  and  Rhegi- 
um  to  Puteoli,  near  Naples.  Here  Paul 
found  Christians  already,  and  Christians 
from  Rome  went  out  to  meet  him  at  the 
Three  Taverns  to  accompany  him  to  the 
capital. 

Although  in  Rome  for  the  first  time,  yet 
the  apostle  was  no  stranger  there.  From 
the  epistle  we  learn  that  he  was  well  ac¬ 
quainted  with  the  affairs  of  the  congrega¬ 
tion,  in  which  he  now  spent  two  years, 
though  closely  watched,  yet  in  his  own 
hired  house  (Acts  xxviii.  16,  30  seq.), 
preaching  the  gospel,  no  man  forbidding 
him.  In  Rome  he  wrote  his  epistles  to 
Philemon ,  the  Ephesians ,  Colossians,  and 
Philippians,  and  suffered  martyrdom  under 
Nero. 

As  to  the  Pastoral  Epistles,  their  gen¬ 
uineness  can  only  be  asserted  in  so  far  as 
a  second  imprisonment  has  a  support  in 
ecclesiastical  tradition. 

II.  The  Character  of  the  Pauline  Epistles . 
— The  Epistles  are  writings  on  a  particular 
occasion,  in  the  noblest  sense,  closely  con¬ 
nected  with  the  concrete  position  of  their 
author  and  the  existing  necessities  of  the 
receivers.  The  more  manifold  those  caus¬ 
es  were,  the  more  heterogeneous  is  the 
inner  character  of  the  Epistles.  Beside 
friendly  writings,  in  which  tender  love  is 
expressed  (Philemon,  Philippians),  stand 
epistles  of  a  strong  polemical  character, 
which  also  express  hard  reproof  (Galatians, 
Colossians);  and,  again,  such  in  which, 
on  account  of  their  didactic  element,  the 
rhetoric  is  directed  by  dialectics  (Romans, 
Ephesians). 

III.  The  Contents  of  the  Pauline  Epistles. 
— The  gospel  of  the  apostle  is  of  a  soterio- 
logico-anthropological  character,  inasmuch 
as  he  gives  an  answer  to  the  main  question 
of  the  religious  moral  life;  i.  e.,  to  the 
question  as  to  the  true  relation  of  man  to 
God,  which  is  identical  with  that  of  man’s 
righteousness.  Whoever  is  a  breaker 
(Rom.  ii.  25),  not  a  doer,  of  the  law,  and 
continuing  not  in  the  sphere  of  the  law 
(Gal.  iii.  10),  is  lacking  righteousness:  his 
lawlessness  is  equivalent  to  unrighteous¬ 
ness.  But  whoever  not  only  hears  of  the 
requirements  of  the  law,  but  does  it  (Rom. 
ii.  13),  is  righteous.  What  the  history  of 
the  Gentiles  as  well  as  of  the  Jews  teaches 
(i.  1 8— iii.  30),  Paul  knows  of  his  own  ex¬ 
perience  (Gal.  i.  13):  law-righteousness  is 
impossible  to  man.  (Rom.  x.  3.)  All  have 
sinned,  and  come  short  of  the  glory  of  God 


Pau 


(  7i6  ) 


Pau 


(iii.  23);  therefore  God  opened  a  way  to 
righteousness  by  giving  it  through  grace 
to  him  who  believes  in  Jesus  Christ  (iv. 
13;  x.  6).  Paul  accordingly  teaches  the 
unrighteousness  of  men  under  the  rule  of 
the  law,  as  well  as  the  righteousness  of 
them  through  faith  in  Jesus  Christ.  In 
showing  the  inability  of  man  to  obtain 
righteousness  by  himself,  Paul  demon¬ 
strates  it  from  the  history  of  the  extra- 
Christian  world.  Neither  Jew  nor  Gentile 
can  reach  the  righteousness  by  himself: 
both  have  one  thing  in  common — sin, 
because  descendants  of  one  progenitor, 
Adam,  from  whom  sin  and  its  effect, 
death,  came  to  all  men.  Sin,  then,  shows 
itself  as  enmity  against  God,  and  is  know- 
able  to  man  bv  his  ungodly  lusts  which 
awake  affections,  thus  proving  with  cer¬ 
tainty  that  he  is  not  free,  but  fettered  by  a 
strange  power.  Against  such  power  of 
sin  God’s  doing  is  directed,  which  Paul 
shows  from  the  history  of  mankind.  The 
Gentiles  were  left  to  themselves — given 
to  the  power  of  darkness,  to  the  impurity 
of  a  life  of  sin:  this  was  God  s  judgment 
over  the  original  apostasy.  By  becoming 
vain  in  their  imaginations,  and  their  foolish 
heart  being  darkened,  the  aim  was  shown 
them  toward  which  sin  must  lead;  and 
Israel  received  the  law  for  the  purpose  of 
this  pedagogy.  But  they,  too,  did  not 
bring  forth  works  of  the  law,  for  the  latter 
did  not  lead  to  life  (Rom.  vii.  10;  comp. 
2  Cor.  iii.  6);  but  as  to  the  knowledge 
(Rom.  iii.  20),  so,  also,  to  the  increase  of 
sin  (v.  20).  For  only  by  God’s  will  is  the 
sinful  state  of  man  strikingly  measured, 
and  by  the  prohibition  of  sin  the  lust  is 
incited.  (Rom.  vii.  5;  1  Cor.  xv.  56.)  Ac¬ 
cordingly,  the  law  became  a  schoolmaster 
leading  to  Christ(Gal.  iii.  24):  a  lasting  bless¬ 
ing  was  promised  to  Israel  in  the  word  of 
promise.  Given  to  the  fathers  as  a  present 
(Rom.  iv.  16),  it  passed  over  to  the  heirs 
(ver.  13),  and  was  therefore,  also,  not 
abolished  by  the  covenant  of  Sinai.  (Gal. 
iii.  17.) 

Since  the  fulfillment  of  this  prophecy 
the  law  no  more  has  dominion,  but  grace. 
(Rom.  vi.  14.)  If  the  law  insists  upon 
works,  grace  excludes  human  work  (xi.  6); 
the  righteousness  is,  therefore,  no  more 
merited , but  donated  (iii.  24).  The  mediator 
of  this  grace  is  Jesus  Christ,  who  appeared 
in  the  fullness  of  time,  when  mankind  was 
prepared  for  the  efficacy  of  God’s  grace 
(Gal.  iv.  4):  Christ  became  the  mediator 
through  his  death,  whereby  he  brought 
about  a  reconciliation  of  man  with  God. 
(2  Cor.  v.  18.)  What  God’s  grace  has  given 
in  Jesus  Christ  becomes  the  possession  of 
man  through  faith,  which  is  not  a  mere 
knowledge  of  the  gospel,  but  a  deed  of  the 


whole  personality  of  man  (Rom.  x.  10) 
which,  in  a  free  self-determination,  turns 
itself  toward  Christ;  leans  on  him  as  me¬ 
diator  and  reconciler,  and  finds  in  him  its 
spiritual  sphere  of  life.  Giving  up  his 
present  principles  of  knowledge  and  life, 
the  believer  gives  himself  up  unreservedly 
to  the  grace  of  God  in  Christ,  and  thus 
finds  himself  in  a  life-communion  with 
Christ.  (1  Cor.  i.  9;  2  Cor.  v.  17;  Gal.  ii. 
20;  Rom.  v.  10;  2  Cor.  xiii.  5.) 

All  those  who  have  received  the  grace 
of  God  in  Jesus  Christ  form  the  Church  of 
God  (1  Cor.  x.  32),  a  divine  organism, 
represented  under  the  image  of  the  temple 
(iii.  16  seq. ;  2  Cor.  vi.  16)  and  the  body. 
*(i  Cor.  x.  17;  xii.  12.)  As  the  temple  was 
the  place  of  the  divine  presence  of  grace, 
thus  the  spirit  of  God  lives  in  it,  which 
proves  itself  as  the  spirit  of  sonship  here  so 
effective  that  all  differences  in  the  external 
Christian  relations  of  life  are  overcome  in 
it.  (Gal.  iii.  28.)  True,  the  congregation 
is  not  an  ideal  one.  Its  consummation 
rests  upon  the  complete  revelation  of 
Jesus  Christ,  the  preaching  of  which  was 
the  starting-point  of  the  apostle,  whether 
orally  or  in  writing.  (Comp.  1  Thess.  ii.  9; 
iv.  6;  2  Thess.  i.  7,  9;  Acts  xvii.  31  seq.) 
The  final  world  crisis  is  marked  as  a  fact 
near  at  hand  (1  Thess.  iv.  17;  2  Thess.  ii. 
1;  1  Cor.  vii.  29;  xv.  32),  which,  however, 
will  not  take  place  till  apostasy  has  reach¬ 
ed  its  climax  in  the  person  of  the  Anti¬ 
christ,  whom  Christ  shall  consume  (2 
Thess.  ii.  8)  at  his  coming,  and  the  resur¬ 
rection  and  change  of  those  who  survive 
shall  take  place.  The  last  enemy,  death, 
shall  be  overcome  with  this  consummation; 
for,  after  the  abolition  of  all  godless  pow¬ 
ers,  the  complete  life-union  of  God  and 
his  creatures  —  the  kingdom  of  God,  has 
come.  (The  above  is  a  very  succinct  out¬ 
line  of  W.  Schmidt’s  art.,  “  Paul  the 
Apostle,”  in  Herzog’s  Real-Ency. ,  2d  ed. , 
vol.  xi.,  pp.  356-389.)  B.  Pick. 

Paul,  the  name  of  five  popes.  Paul 
I-  (757)  ^  noticeable  as  living  at  the  time 
of  the  Lombard  invasion,  and  as  having  to 
play  a  double  part  between  Desiderius,  the 
Lombard  king,  and  Pepin  of  France. 

Paul  II.  (1464-71),  a  worldly  pontiff, 
who,  instead  of  withstanding  the  inroads  of 
the  Turks  in  the  Mediterranean,  devoted 
himself  to  pleasure  and  luxury,  and  ex¬ 
communicated  Podiebrad,  king  of  Bo¬ 
hemia,  the  strongest  opponent  of  the  Turk, 
for  keeping  faith  with  the  Utraquists. 

Paul  III.  (Alexander  Farnese)  was  ap¬ 
pointed  cardinal  by  the  wicked  Pope  Alex¬ 
ander  VI.,  who  held  unhallowed  relations 
with  his  sister.  He  failed  twice  before  he 
succeeded  in  his  attempt  on  the  tiara,  fol- 


Pau 


(  717  ) 


Pau 


lowing  Clement  VII.  in  1534.  He  was  a 
man  of  shameless  immorality.  In  his 
pontificate  the  Council  of  Trent  began. 
Paul,  who  dreaded  that  the  power  of  the 
Emperor  Charles  V.  might  be  employed 
adversely  to  himself,  secretly  encouraged 
some  acts  of  the  Reformers,  and  was  will¬ 
ing  to  grant  the  cup  to  the  laity,  marriage 
to  the  clergy,  and  to  make  some  other  con¬ 
cessions,  but  lacked  the  skill  needful  for 
such  complicated  intrigues,  and  was  quite 
defeated. 

Paul  IV.  (John  Caraffa),  one  of  the 
most  determined  enemies  pf  the  Reforma¬ 
tion,  succeeded  to  the  popedom  in  1555. 
He  had  previously  been  instrumental  in 
establishing  the  Inquisition  in  Rome,  with 
a  view  of  stopping  the  progress  of  the  Ref¬ 
ormation  in  Italy.  He  was  a  man  of  strict 
life  and  of  determined  will,  and  left  his 
mark  upon  the  whole  future  history  of  the 
papacy.  . 

Paul  V.  (Camillo  Borghese).  His 
pontificate  (1605-21)  is  marked  by  the 
Molinist  controversy,  in  which  he  took  the 
part  of  the  Jesuits  against  the  Dominicans. 
For  imprisoning  two  priests,  he  laid  Venice 
under  an  interdict,  and  endeavored  to  ex¬ 
cite  Spain  to  make  war  upon  the  refractory 
State.  But  he  entirely  failed,  and  the 
Venetians  defied  him  successfully,  refus¬ 
ing  to  give  up  the  prisoners.  This  was 
the  last  papal  interdict  ever  issued.  His 
menaces  against  the  English  throne  were 
not  more  successful,  and  a  work  by  Mari¬ 
ana,  written  by  his  command,  in  favor  of 
the  murder  of  tyrannical  kings,  was  burned 
in  Paris  by  the  hangman,  by  order  of  the 
French  Parliament.  To  the  city  of  Rome 
he  was  a  kind  and  useful  ruler. 

Paul,  Father  (Paolo  Sarpi).  See 
Sarpi. 

Paul  of  Samosata,  a  heretic,  and  bishop 
of  Antioch  in  262.  He  denied  the  distinc¬ 
tion  of  the  three  Persons  in  the  Trinity, 
and  asserted  that  there  were  two  distinct 
Persons  in  our  Saviour,  the  Word  and 
Christ,  who  did  not  exist  before  Mary. 
Paul  led  an  impious  life,  and,  after  breaking 
a  promise  made  to  a  council  in  264  to  re¬ 
nounce  his  erroneous  doctrines,  he  was  de¬ 
posed  in  270.  His  followers  were  called 
Samosatians,  or  Paulinists.  They  did  not 
entirely  disappear  until  the  middle  of  the 
fifth  century. 

Paul  the  Deacon,  b.  about  720;  d.  prob¬ 
ably  in  the  year  800.  He  was  tutor  of 
Adelperga,  daughter  of  Desiderius,  king  of 
the  Lombards.  After  taking  orders  he  re¬ 
mained  some  time  in  the  court  of  Charle¬ 
magne.  Returning  to  Monte  Casino  in 


Italy  in  787,  he  devoted  his  life  to  writing. 
Among  his  works  are  a  Life  of  Gregory  the 
Great  and  a  History  of  the  Lo?nbards .  From 
one  of  his  poems  on  John  the  Baptist  the 
names  of  the  notes  in  the  musical  scale 
were  derived  by  Guido  of  Arezzo  (q.  v.). 

Paula,  St.,  a  Roman  lady  of  high  rank 
and  great  wealth.  After  the  death  of  her 
husband  she  settled  most  of  her  property 
on  her  four  children,  and  followed  St. 
Jerome  to  the  Holy  Land.  Retiring  to  a 
cave  in  Bethlehem,  she  founded  there  a 
monastery,  nunnery  and  hospital,  and  spent 
her  life  in  voluntary  poverty  and  devotion. 
She  died  in  404,  and  is  commemorated  by 
the  Roman  Catholic  Church  on  Jan.  26. 

Paulicians,  a  heretical  sect  which  orig¬ 
inated  about  the  middle  of  the  seventh 
century.  It  is  uncertain  from  whom  they 
derived  their  name,  whether  from  one  Paul 
of  Samosata  (the  second  of  the  name); 
from  a  Paul  of  Armenia,  who  was  a  promi¬ 
nent  member  of  the  sect  at  the  beginning 
of  the  eighth  century;  or  from  the  Apostle 
Paul  himself,  whose  teaching  they  special¬ 
ly  pretended  to  follow.  There  has  been 
considerable  controversy  as  to  their  doc¬ 
trines,  some  maintaining  that  they  were 
the  exponents  of  reformed  and  Scriptural 
religion,  and  others  denouncing  them  as 
Manichaeans.  Their  opinions,  however,  as 
stated  by  Peter  of  Sicily  and  Photius,  are 
decidedly  heretical.  They  believed  in  two 
Gods  —  one,  the  Creator  of  this  present 
world,  and  God  of  the  Old  Testament;  the 
other,  the  Good  One,  the  ruler  of  the 
world  to  come.  They  received  the  New 
Testament  only,  attaching  particular 
authority  to  the  Epistles  of  St.  Paul,  and 
the  Gospels  of  St.  Luke  and  St.  John. 
They  rejected  the  Sacraments,  and  attacked 
the  use  of  images  and  the  growing  venera¬ 
tion  for  the  Virgin  Mary.  They  considered 
it  allowable  to  attend  Catholic  Churches, 
and  to  conceal  their  true  views  by  equivo¬ 
cation  and  deceit. 

The  originator  of  the  sect  appears  to 
have  been  a  certain  Constantine,  a  man  of 
Manichaean  family,  who  lived  about  the 
year  653  at  Mananalis,  a  village  near 
Samosata.  It  happened  that  a  copy  of  the 
Gospels  and  Pauline  Epistles  came  into 
his  possession,  which  he  diligently  studied. 
His  reading  led  him  to  renounce  some  of 
the  errors  of  his  hereditary  belief,  but  did 
not  prevent  him  from  substituting  others, 
and  he  produced  a  system  which,  though 
professedly  in  accordance  with  the  New 
Testament,  was  really  founded  on  a  Mani¬ 
chaean  basis.  The  new  doctrines  soon 
gained  converts.  Constantine  settled  at 
Kibossa,  in  Armenia,  and  assumed  the 


Pau 


(  718) 


Pay 


name  of  Silvanus.  Here  he  remained  for 
twenty  -  seven  years,  until  the  year  684, 
when  the  emperor,  having  heard  of  the 
progress  of  the  sect,  made  an  attack  upon 
it.  The  emperor’s  officer,  Symeon,  cap¬ 
tured  Constantine  and  a  number  of  his 
followers,  and,  ranging  the  latter  in  a  line, 
ordered  them  to  stone  their  leader.  All 
but  one  refused,  but  by  the  hand  of  that 
one — his  adopted  son,  Justus — the  heresi- 
arch  fell.  The  officer,  Symeon,  however, 
struck  with  their  constancy,  began  to  in¬ 
quire  into  the  Paulician  doctrines,  with  the 
result  that  he  was  converted,  and  succeed¬ 
ed  Constantine  as  leader  of  the  sect,  under 
the  name  of  Titus.  About  A.  D.  690  the 
youth  Justus  became  uneasy  as  to  the 
truth  of  his  religion,  and,  failing  to  obtain 
satisfaction  from  Symeon,  applied  to  the 
bishop  of  a  neighoring  town.  The  bishop 
informed  the  emperor,  Justinian  II.,  of 
the  tenets  of  the  sect,  and  the  latter  exert¬ 
ed  himself  for  its  suppression.  Justus, 
Symeon,  and  many  others  were  burnt,  and 
the  remainder  dispersed.  But  Paulician- 
ism  was  not  stamped  out.  A  new  leader 
arose  in  the  person  of  the  Armenian  Paul, 
under  whom  it  soon  recovered  its  strength. 
But  after  his  death  the  sect  grew  corrupt, 
and  sank  lower  and  lower  till  about  A.  D. 
801.  It  was  then  reformed  by  the  ex¬ 
ertions  of  Sergius,  who  had  lately  been 
converted  to  Paulicianism,  and  promoted 
to  the  headship  under  the  name  of  Tychi- 
cus. 

The  disposition  of  the  emperors  toward 
the  sect  had  varied.  Leo  the  Isaurian  and 
Constantine  Copronymus  transported  many 
of  them  to  Thrace;  Nicephorus  granted 
them  toleration;  Michael  Curopalates  and 
Leo  the  Armenian  fiercely  persecuted  them. 
The  Empress  Theodora  (a.  d.  844)  under¬ 
took  the  suppression  of  the  sect,  and  under 
her  not  less  than  a  hundred  thousand  were 
killed  in  various  ways.  Amongst  these 
was  the  father  of  Carbeas,  a  captain  of  the 
guard.  Carbeas  was  so  enraged  at  his 
father’s  death  that  he  deserted  with  5,000 
followers  to  the  Saracens,  by  whom  he  was 
given  the  city  of  Tephrica  and  other  places. 
Here  he  was  joined  by  other  Paulicians, 
and  they  soon  became  strong  enough  to 
menace  the  empire.  With  the  help  of  the 
Saracens,  Carbeas  defeated  Michael,  the 
son  of  the  empress,  at  Samosata,  and  this 
success  was  followed  up  by  his  son-in-law, 
Chrysocheres,  who  was  able  to  force  the 
Emperor  Basil  to  beg  for  peace  (a.  d.  867). 
But  a  few  years  after  (a.  d.  871),  Chrys¬ 
ocheres  was  defeated  and  slain  by  one  of 
Basil’s  generals;  Tephrica  was  taken  and 
destroyed,  and  the  power  of  the  sect  over¬ 
thrown.  Paulicianism,  however,  was  kept 
alive  by  those  who  had  been  settled  in 


Thrace.  From  this  centre  it  spread  over 
Europe,  and  is  heard  of  as  late  as  the 
eleventh  century. — Benham:  Diet,  of  Re¬ 
ligion.  See  the  Church  Histories  of  Giese- 
ler  and  Neander;  A.  Lombard:  Paulicians 
(Geneva,  1879). 

Paulists,  a  name  given  to  “  The  Congre¬ 
gation  of  the  Missionary  Priests  of  St. 
Paul  the  Apostle,”  founded  by  Isaac  Thom¬ 
as  Hecker,  in  New  York,  in  1858.  The 
original  members  were  Redemptorists 
( q .  v.),  but  they  requested  to  be  released 
from  their  vows,  thinking  they  could  carry 
on  mission  work  in  the  United  States  bet¬ 
ter  by  forming  a  new  order.  They  are 
bound  by  voluntary  agreement  under  a  su¬ 
perior  general,  with  rules  enacted  in  gen¬ 
eral  chapter. 

Paulus,  Heinrich  Eberhard  Gottlob, 
a  distinguished  representative  of  the  mod¬ 
ern  rationalistic  school  of  German  theolo¬ 
gians;  b.  at  Leonberg,  near  Stuttgart,  Sept. 
1,  1761;  d.  at  Heidelberg,  Aug.  10,  1851. 
The  son  of  a  Lutheran  clergyman,  he  was 
educated  at  Tubingen,  and  after  teaching 
three  years  in  a  German  school  and  travel¬ 
ing  in  England  and  on  the  continent  for  two 
years,  he  was  chosen  ordinary  professor  of 
Oriental  languages  at  Jena.  He  was  in¬ 
timate  with  Schiller,  Goethe,  Herder,  and 
others  of  the  distinguished  men  of  his 
time.  In  1793  he  was  elected  professor  of 
theology.  His  conception  of  religion  was 
merely  an  intellectual  knowledge  of  God. 
“  He  held  that  miracles,  in  the  strict  sense, 
were  impossible,  and  that  the  events  re¬ 
corded  in  the  Bible  took  place  naturally,  and 
that  the  narratives  of  the  Gospels  are  the 
true  reports  of  men  who  either  were  eye¬ 
witnesses,  or  had  obtained  information  from 
such  as  were,  but  whose  opinion  regarding 
the  facts  were  sometimes  incorrect.”  Paul¬ 
as’  chief  works  were  a  critical  Commentary 
on  the  New  Testament  (1804);  Key  to  the 
Psalms  (1791);  Key  to  Isaiah  (1793);  and 
Commentary  on  the  First  Three  Gospels 
(1830—33).  Leaving  Jena  in  1803,  he  be¬ 
came  professor  of  exegesis  and  ecclesiasti¬ 
cal  history  at  Heidelberg  in  1811,  which 
place  he  filled  until  1844,  when  he  retired 
on  account  of  his  extreme  age. 

Payson,  Edward,  D.  D.,b.  at  Rindge, 
N.  H.,  July  25,  1783;  d.  at  Portland,  Me., 
Oct.  22,  1827;  was  graduated  at  Harvard 
College,  in  1803;  studied  theology  with  his 
father,  Dr.  Seth  Payson,  pastor  at  Rindge, 
N.  H.,  and  in  1807  was  settled  over  the 
Second  Congregational  Parish  in  Portland, 
where  he  labored  with  remarkable  success 
until  his  death.  In  his  last  illness,  he  display¬ 
ed,  in  the  most  interesting  and  impressive 


Paz 


(  719  ) 


Pec 


manner,  the  power  of  Christian  faith.  Smit¬ 
ten  down  in  the  midst  of  his  days  and  useful¬ 
ness,  he  was  entirely  resigned  to  the  divine 
will,  for  he  perceived  distinctly  that  the  in¬ 
finite  wisdom  of  God  could  not  err  in  the 
direction  of  events,  and  it  was  his  joy  that 
God  reigneth.  His  mind  rose  over  bodily 
pain,  and  in  the  strong  visions  of  eternity 
he  seemed  almost  to  lose  the  sense  of  suf¬ 
fering. 

In  a  letter  to  his  sister,  just  before  his 
death,  he  says:  “Were  I  to  adopt  the  figur¬ 
ative  language  of  Bunyan,  I  might  date 
this  letter  from  the  land  of  Beulah,  of  which 
I  have  been  for  some  weeks  a  happy  in¬ 
habitant.  The  celestial  city  is  full  in  my 
view.  Its  glories  beam  upon  me,  its  odors 
are  wafted  to  me,  its  sounds  strike  upon 
my  ears  and  its  spirit  is  breathed  into  my 
heart.  Nothing  separates  me  from  it  but 
the  river  of  death,  which  now  appears  but 
as  an  insignificant  rill,  that  may  be  crossed 
at  a  single  step,  whenever  God  shall  give 
permission.  The  Sun  of  Righteousness 
has  gradually  been  drawing  nearer  and 
nearer,  appearing  larger  and  brighter  as  he 
approached,  and  now  he  fills  the  whole 
hemisphere;  pouring  forth  a  flood  of  glory, 
in  which  I  seem  to  float  like  an  insect  in 
the  beams  of  the  sun;  exulting,  yet  almost 
trembling,  while  I  gaze  on  the  excessive 
brightness,  and  wondering,  with  unutter¬ 
able  wonder,  why  God  should  deign  thus 
to  shine  upon  a  sinful  worm.  A  single 
heart  and  a  single  tongue  seem  altogether 
inadequate  to  my  wants:  I  want  a  whole 
heart  for  every  separate  emotion,  and  a 
whole  tongue  to  express  that  emotion.” 
See  The  Complete  Works  of  Edward  Pay  son, 
3  vols.  (1846). 

Pazmany,  Peter,  a  great  Hungarian  Ro¬ 
man  Catholic  prelate;  b.  at  Grosswardein, 
Oct.  4,  1570;  d.  at  Presburg,  March  19, 
1637.  His  parents  were  Calvinists,  but  he 
was  educated  at  the  Jesuit  College  at  Ko- 
loszvar,  and  at  the  age  of  seventeen  enter¬ 
ed  the  order  of  Jesuits.  Protestantism 
had  gained  a  strong  hold  in  Hungary,  but 
Pazmany,  by  a  succession  of  brilliant  con¬ 
troversial  works,  and  the  most  adroit  man¬ 
agement,  turned  the  tide  in  favor  of  Cathol¬ 
icism.  The  Protestant  clergy  were  driv¬ 
en  from  their  parishes,  and  the  Jesuits 
gained  complete  control.  In  1629  Pazmany 
was  made  cardinal. 

Peabody,  George,  an  American  philan¬ 
thropist;  b.  in  the  part  of  Danvers,  Mass., 
which  now  bears  the  name  of  Peabody, 
Feb.  18,  1795;  d.  in  London,  Nov.  4,  1869. 
He  was  for  many  years  a  merchant  in  Bal¬ 
timore,  but  became  a  banker  in  London  in 
1843.  His  great  wealth  was  distributed 


through  many  channels  of  benevolence. 
Among  his  bequests  the  largest  were:  a 
fund  in  trust  for  the  London  poor,  amount¬ 
ing  now  to  $4,000,000;  an  Educational  Fund 
for  the  Southern  States  of  $2,000,000;  and 
the  endowment  of  Peabody  Institute,  Bal¬ 
timore,  $1,400,000. 

Peace,  Kiss  of.  See  Kiss  of  Peace. 

Peace-Offering.  See  Offering. 

Pearson,  Eliphalet,  LL.  D.,  one  of  the 
founders  of  the  Andover  Theological  Sem¬ 
inary;  b.  in  Newbury,  Mass.,  June  11, 
1752;  d.  at  Greenland,  N.  H.,  Sept.  12, 
1826.  He  was  graduated  at  Harvard  Col¬ 
lege  in  1769,  and  taught  for  a  time  at  An¬ 
dover,  aiding  in  the  establishment  of  Phil¬ 
lips  Academy.  In  1786  he  was  appointed 
professor  of  the  Hebrew  and  Oriental  lan¬ 
guages  at  Harvard,  where  he  labored  with 
eminent  success  until  1806.  He  then  be¬ 
came  interested  in  founding  the  Andover 
Theological  Seminary,  and  prepared  its  fa¬ 
mous  constitution.  He  was  the  first  presi¬ 
dent  of  its  Board  of  Trustees,  and  was 
elected  professor  of  sacred  literature  at 
the  opening  of  the  seminary,  but  retained 
the  position  only  one  year.  A  man  of  in¬ 
defatigable  industry  and  executive  ability, 
he  was  very  influential  as  a  leader  and 
counselor  in  many  directions.  He  pub¬ 
lished  a  Hebrew  grammar  and  several 
pamphlets. 

Pearson,  John,  an  eminent  English  bish¬ 
op  and  scholar;  b.  at  Snoring,  Feb.  12, 
1612;  d.  at  Chester,  July  16,  1686.  A  grad¬ 
uate  of  Cambridge,  he  entered  holy  orders 
in  1639,  and  after  service  in  the  parish  of 
Torrington  was  appointed,  in  1650,  preach¬ 
er  of  St.  Clement’s  in  London.  In  1659  he 
published  his  celebrated  Exposition  of  the 
Creed,  which  has  been  recognized  as  a 
standard  authority  by  men  of  every  school 
of  thought.  Pearson  was  interested  in 
other  literary  work  that  was  of  much  in¬ 
fluence  in  his  day.  He  became  rector  of 
St.  Christopher’s,  London,  prebendary  of 
Ely,  master  of  Jesus  College,  Cambridge 
(1662),  and  bishop  of  Chester  in  1672. 
Burnet  pronounced  him  “  in  all  respects  the 
greatest  divine  of  his  age.” 

Peck,  George,  D.  D.;  b.  in  Middlefield, 
N.  Y. ,  Aug.  8,  1797;  d.  at  Scranton,  Penn., 
May  20,  1876.  He  joined  the  Genesee  Con¬ 
ference  of  the  Methodist  Episcopal  Church 
in  1816.  From  1824  he  filled  the  office  of 
presiding  elder  for  many  years;  principal 
of  Oneida  Conference  Seminary  (1835-40); 
editor  of  the  Methodist  Quarterly  Review 
(1840—48);  editor  of  the  Christian  Advocate 


Pec 


(  720  ) 


Pen 


and  Journal  (1848-52).  From  this  time  he 
was  engaged  in  active  ministerial  duties 
until  1873.  He  was  an  effective  and  elo¬ 
quent  preacher  and  a  wise  counselor. 
Among  his  published  works  are:  Scripture 
and  Doctrine  of  Christian  Perfection  (N.  Y. , 
1842);  Wyoming:  Its  History,  Stirring  In¬ 
cidents,  and  Romantic  Adventures  (1858); 
Life  and  Times  (autobiography,  1874). 

Peck,  John  Mason,  D.  D.,  Baptist;  b. 
in  Litchfield,  Conn.,  Oct.  31,  1789;  d.  at 
Rock  Spring,  Ill.,  March  14,  1857.  He  re¬ 
moved  to  Greene  Co.,  N.  Y. ,  in  1811,  and 
was  licensed  as  a  Baptist  preacher  in  1812. 
He  was  sent  as  a  missionary  to  Missouri  in 
1817,  and  from  there  went  to  Illinois.  He 
labored  under  the  direction  of  the  Baptist 
Missionary  Society  and  the  American  Bible 
Society  for  a  time.  In  1827  he  established 
the  Rock  Spring  Seminary  (now  Shurtleff 
College)  ;  and  in  1829  The  Pio7ieer,  the 
first  Baptist  paper  west  of  the  Alleghanies. 
He  was  one  of  the  founders  of  the  Amer¬ 
ican  Baptist  Home  Missionary  Society  and 
of  the  Theological  Seminary  at  Covington, 
Ky.  He  wrote:  The  Emigrant' s  Guide;  A 
Gazetteer  of  Illinois;  Life  of  Daniel  Boone 
in  Spark’s  American  Biography;  Life  of 
Father  Clark,  a  Western  preacher.  See 
Forty  Years  of  Pioneer  Life:  Memoirs  of 
fohn  Mason  Peck,  D.  D.,  by  R.  Babcock 
(Phila. ,  1864). 

Peck,  Jesse  Truesdell,  D.  D.,  Metho¬ 
dist  Episcopal  bishop  ;  b.  in  Middlefield, 
N.  Y.,  April  4,  1 81 1 ;  d.  in  Syracuse,  May 
17,  1883.  He  joined  the  Oneida  Confer¬ 
ence  in  1832;  was  principal  of  the  Gouver- 
neur  Wesleyan  Seminary,  1837-41;  princi¬ 
pal  of  the  Troy  Conference  Seminary  at 
Poultney,  Vt.,  1841-48;  president  of  Dick¬ 
inson  College,  Carlisle,  1848-52.  From 
this  time  he  was  engaged  in  ministerial 
duties  in  Washington,  New  York,  and  San 
Francisco,  with  the  exception  of  a  brief 
period  in  which  he  held  the  office  of  secre¬ 
tary  and  editor  of  the  Methodist  Tract  So¬ 
ciety.  He  was  elected  bishop  in  1872  and 
did  efficient  service.  He  wrote:  The  Cen¬ 
tral  Idea  of  Christianity  (N.  Y.);  The  True 
Woman  (N.  Y. ,  1857);  History  of  the  Great 
Republic  (N.  Y.,  1868). 

Pedobaptism,  Pedobaptists.  See  Bap¬ 
tism  (Pedobaptist  View). 

Pelagianism.  Towards  the  close  of  the 
fourth  century  the  heresy  of  Pelagianism 
took  its  rise  in  the  Church  of  Britain. 
Pelagius  (b.  about  380;  d.  about  450) — the 
classic  form  of  his  British  name  of  Morgan 
— was  a  priest  of  some  learning,  much  of 
whose  later  life  was  spent  at  Rome,  until 


that  city  was  taken  by  Alaric  and  his  Goths, 
when  he  went  to  Carthage  for  a  time,  and 
thence  to  Jerusalem.  The  substance  of  his 
heresy  was  the  denial  of  original  sin.  He 
believed  and  taught  that  none  but  Adam 
himself  received  any  damage  from  his  sin; 
that  we  are  born  as  holy  as  Adam  was  be¬ 
fore  his  fall;  and  that  we  can  live  a  holy 
life  by  the  mere  power  of  our  own  deter¬ 
mination  to  do  so,  without  the  aid  of  super¬ 
natural  grace  from  God.  The  great  St. 
Augustine  (not  the  English  missionary, 
but  the  still  greater  bishop  of  Hippo,  a 
town  in  that  part  of  Africa  which  is  now 
called  Algeria)  was  the  chief  opponent  of 
this  heresy,  which  seems  only  to  have 
reached  Britain — though  invented  by  a 
native  of  the  country — after  it  had  been 
known  for  some  years  in  Palestine  and 
Africa.  When  it  did  arrive,  the  orthodox 
party  in  the  British  Church  applied  to  the 
Church  of  France — not  to  the  Church  of 
Rome — for  some  persons  of  learning  and 
discretion  who  might  come  across  the 
Channel  and  assist  in  combating  the  heresy. 
Germanus  and  Lupus,  bishops  of  Auxerre 
and  Troyes,  were  sent  over  for  the  pur¬ 
pose;  and  a  conference  was  held  between 
them  and  the  Pelagians  at  St.  Albans,  in 
the  presence  of  a  great  multitude.  St. 
German,  by  his  arguments  in  the  confer¬ 
ence  and  by  the  fervid  eloquence  of  his 
preaching,  afterward  brought  the  greater 
part  of  his  hearers  back  to  the  orthodox 
side. — Benham:  Did.  of  Religion. 

Pelagius.  See  above. 

Pelagius,  the  name  of  two  popes;  (1) 
(555-56o),  b.  in  Rome,  and  d.  there,  March 
3,  560.  He  was  accused  of  heresy,  and  at 
the  request  of  Childebert  furnished  a  con¬ 
fession  of  faith  as  a  proof  of  his  orthodoxy; 
(2)  (578-590),  b.  in  Rome;  d.  there  in  Jan. , 
590.  He  attempted  to  heal  the  schism 
which  the  Three  -  Chapter  Controversy 
(y.  v.)  had  caused  in  the  Western  Church, 
but  his  overtures  were  declined.  See  Popes. 

Penance.  In  the  early  Church  those  who 
fell  into  sin  after  baptism  were  subject  to 
very  severe  discipline.  Penitents  were 
divided  into  four  classes:  (1)  the  “  mourn¬ 
ers  ”  ( flentes ),  who  prostrated  themselves  at 
the  church  porch  and  begged  the  prayers 
of  the  faithful;  (2)  when  admitted  to  the 
second  class  they  were  called  “  hearers  ” 
(< audientes ),  and  were  permitted  to  hear  the 
sermons  and  lessons.  (3)  At  the  third 
stage  they  remained  to  join  in  the  prayers 
offered  in  their  behalf,  and  to  receive  the 
bishop’s  blessing.  They  were  then  called 
kneelers  (genufedentes ).  (4)  They  were 

permitted  to  stand  with  those  who  en- 


Pen 


(  72i  ) 


Pen 


joyed  the  privileges  of  membership,  co- 
standers  ( consistentes ).  After  being  released 
from  this  stage  they  were  permitted  to  par¬ 
take  of  the  Lord’s  Supper.  Leo  the  Great 
(461-68)  allowed  penance  to  be  made  in  pri¬ 
vate.  Near  the  close  of  the  seventh  cen¬ 
tury  the  commutation  and  vicarious  per¬ 
formance  of  penance  was  permitted.  This 
introduced  the  system  of  “  indulgences.” 

Penance  is  the  fourth  of  the  seven  sacra¬ 
ments  of  the  Roman  Catholic  Church. 

Penitential  Psalms,  the  name  given 
seven  of  the  Psalms  which  mourn  the  guilt 
of  sin  and  seek  the  pardoning  mercy  of 
God.  They  are  the  vi.,  xxxii.,  xxxviii.,  li., 
cii. ,  cxxx. ,  cxliii.  They  are  found  in  the 
Roman  breviary,  and  those  who  recite  them 
gain  an  indulgence  of  fifty  days.  They  are 
said  in  Roman  Catholic  Churches  on  Fri¬ 
days  in  Lent. 

Penn,  William,  “b.  in  London,  Oct.  14, 
1644;  d.  at  Ruscombe,  in  Berkshire,  July 
30,  1718;  an  eminent  member  of  the  Society 
of  Friends,  celebrated  as  the  founder  of 
the  colony  of  Pennsylvania.  He  was  the 
son  of  Sir  William  Penn,  a  British  Admiral, 
and  was  entered,  when  in  his  fifteenth  year, 
as  a  student  of  Christ  Church,  Oxford. 
While  there  he  embraced  Quaker  views, 
and  was  ultimately  expelled  for  contraven¬ 
ing  the  discipline  of  his  college;  but,  after 
a  tour  in  France  and  Italy,  which  was  in¬ 
tended  by  his  father  to  change  the  bent  of 
his  mind,  he  returned  to  England  with 
greatly  modified  views,  and  became  a  fa¬ 
vorite  at  the  court  of  Charles  II.  When  in 
his  twenty-third  year,  however,  he  visited 
Cork,  and  there  fell  in  with  the  Quaker  (a 
disciple  of  George  Fox)  who  had  been  the 
means  of  his  conversion  at  Oxford.  This 
led  to  the  revival  of  his  Quaker  opinions, 
in  even  greater  strength  than  before, 
and  in  1668  he  published  a  work  called 
Truth  Exalted ,  and  another  called  The 
Sandy  Foundation  Shaken,  in  both  of  which 
the  new  doctrine  was  expounded  with  much 
force  and  vehemence.  For  the  latter  of 
these  works  he  was  charged  with  sedition, 
and  was  committed  to  the  Tower,  where, 
during  a  confinement  of  eight  months,  he 
wrote  his  No  Cross,  No  Crown.  In  1670  he 
was  again  imprisoned,  and  once  more  in 
1671,  when  he  wrote  his  Great  Case  of  Lib¬ 
erty  of  Conscience.  By  this  time  his  father 
had  died,  and  he  had  come  into  possession 
of  a  considerable  estate.  He  now  devoted 
himself  wholly  to  preaching,  and  visited 
France  and  Holland,  in  company  with  Fox 
and  Barclay,  for  the  advancement  of  Quak¬ 
erism;  but  in  1682,  having  obtained  a  grant 
of  land  in  America  from  the  Crown,  in  ex¬ 
change  for  certain  unsatisfied  claims  of  his 


father,  he  set  out  for  that  continent,  and 
there  founded  a  colony  which  he  would 
have  called  Sylvania  (in  allusion  to  the 
great  forests  which  covered  it),  but  which 
the  king  called,  in  the  charter  Pennsylvania, 
and  which  now  forms  the  State  of  Pennsyl¬ 
vania.  Two  years  later,  after  having  set¬ 
tled  the  constitution  of  the  new  colony, 
and  after  having  made  his  famous  treaty  of 
amity  and  brotherhood  with  the  Indian  pos¬ 
sessors  of  the  soil,  he  returned  to  England; 
and  during  the  remainder  of  the  reign  of 
Charles  II.,  and  during  the  brief  reign  of 
James  II.,  he  was  able  to  exert  consider¬ 
able  influence  in  favor  of  the  persecuted 
members  of  his  sect,  many  of  whom  had 
suffered  prolonged  imprisonment.  The  in¬ 
timacy  of  his  relations  with  James  II., 
however,  led  him  into  difficulty  after  the 
succession  of  William  III.;  and  he  had 
other  difficulties  to  contend  with  in  connec- 

a> 

tion  with  certain  extortionate  claims  which 
were  made  upon  him  by  the  family  of  a 
deceased  agent  in  Pennsylvania,  to  rid  him¬ 
self  from  which  he  had  to  take  refuge  in 
the  Fleet  Prison.  But  before  this  he  had 
once  more  visited  Pennsylvania,  and  had 
found  it  in  a  prosperous  condition.  He  now 
retired  to  his  seat  in  Berkshire,  and  spent 
there  the  remainder  of  his  life,  during  the 
last  six  years  of  which  he  was  prostrated 
by  paralysis.  He  is  buried  in  the  Friends’ 
Burial  Ground,  near  Beaconfield,  in  Buck¬ 
inghamshire.  Several  other  works  were 
written  by  Penn  besides  those  mentioned 
above,  notably  a  series  of  Reflections  and 
Maxims,  and  an  Essay  towards  the  Present 
and  Futiire  Peace  of  Etirope,  in  which  he 
advocated  the  holding  of  a  great  European 
congress  to  settle  international  differences 
without  an  appeal  to  arms.” — Cassell:  Cy- 
clopcedia.  See  biography  of  Penn,  by  Dixon 
(1851),  and  Stoughton  (1882). 

Penry,  John,  Congregational  martyr;  b. 
at  Cefnbrith,  Brecknockshire,  Wales,  1559; 
hanged  in  London,  May  29,  1593.  He  was 
brought  up  a  Roman  Catholic,  but  while  a 
student  at  Cambridge  became  a  Puritan. 
He  took  his  degree  of  M.  A.  at  Oxford  in 
1586.  Soon  after  receiving  orders,  his 
heterodox  views  brought  him  in  conflict 
with  the  bishops.  In  1587  he  published  a 
strong  plea  for  gospel-preaching  in  Wales, 
and  the  following  year  had  charge  of  the 
Puritan  press  of  Waldegrave.  About  this 
time  several  of  his  tracts  and  the  first 
Martin  Marprelate  (q.  v.)  book  appeared, 
and  Penry  was  compelled  to  seek  refuge 
in  Scotland.  Queen  Elizabeth  demanded 
his  return,  but  it  was  not  until  Sept., 
1592,  that  he  was  sent  back  to  London. 
Suspected  as  the  author  of  the  Martin  Mar- 
prelate  books,  he  was  arrested  and  com- 


Pen 


(  722  ) 


Pen 


mitted  to  the  Poultry  Prison,  March  24, 
1593.  Two  indictments  for  inciting  insur¬ 
rection  and  rebellion  were  founded  on  a 
scrap  in  his  diary,  and  he  was  most  unjust¬ 
ly  condemned  and  hanged  at  St.  Thomas-a- 
Watering,  Surrey,  London.  See  Dexter: 
Congregationalistn  as  seen  in  its  Literature 
(N.  Y.,  1880). 

Pentateuch,  The.  The  Pentateuch  is  a 
part  of  the  Old  Testament  which  comprises 
the  first  five  books  of  our  Bible. 

I.  Name  and  Contents. — The  Pentateuch 
is  styled  “  the  book  of  the  law  of  Moses  ” 
(Neh.  viii.  1),  “  the  law  ”  (Neh.  viii.  2 
seq. ),  “  the  book  of  the  law  ”  (viii.  3),  “  the 
book  of  the  law  of  Jehovah  ”  (ix.  3),  “  the 
book  of  Moses  ”  (xiii.  1).  In  Talmudic  lit¬ 
erature  it  is  called  “  the  Five  Fifths  of  the 
law.”  The  single  books  of  the  Pentateuch 
are  called,  among  the  Jews,  after  the  first 
words:  (1)  Bereshith,  i.  e.,  “  In  the  begin¬ 
ning  ”  (in  the  Greek,  Genesis );  (2)  Shemoth, 
or  ve-eleh  shemoth ,  i.  e. ,  “  These  are  the 
names  ”  (in  the  Greek,  Exodos)\  (3)  Vay- 
ikra ,  i.  e..  “  And  he  called  ”  (Greek  Leviti- 
con)\  (4)  Bamidbar ,  or  vayedabber ,  i.  e. ,  “  In 
the  wilderness,”  or  “And  he  spoke  ”  (in 
the  Greek,  arithmoi ,  i.  e.,  Numbers);  (5) 
debharitn,  or  eleh  hadbharim ,  i.  e. ,  “The 
words,”  or,  “  These  are  the  words  ”  (in  the 
Greek,  D  euteronomioti).  The  fourth  book 
is  also  called  chomesh  happikudi?n,  i.  e. , 
“  The  book  of  musterings.” 

Contents. —  The  summary  of  the  Penta¬ 
teuch  may  be  best  characterized  as:  history 
of  the  kingdom  of  God  on  earth,  and  in 
Israel,  from  the  creation  to  the  death  of 
Moses,  and  the  laws  of  God’s  kingdom  in 
Israel.  The  individual  sections  are  as  fol¬ 
lows:  (1)  Gen.  i.-xi.,  the  early  history  of 
the  world;  (2)  Gen.  xii.-l. ,  history  of  the 
Patriarchs;  (3)  Ex.  i.-xv.  21,  oppression 
and  salvation  of  Israel;  (4)  Ex.  xv.  22-xxiv. 
11,  march  to  Sinai,  and  the  conclusion  of 
the  covenant;  (5)  Ex.  xxiv.  12-xxxiv.,  the 
continuation  of  God’s  ordinances  being  in¬ 
terrupted  by  the  apostasy  of  the  people — 
renewal  of  the  covenant;  (6)  Ex.  xxxv.- 
Num.  x.  10,  regulations  and  ordinances  at 
Mount  Sinai;  (7)  Num.  x.  11-xxii.  1,  the 
journey  from  Sinai  to  Moab;  (8)  Num. 
xxii.  2-xxxvi.,  events  and  legislation  in 
Moab;  (9)  Deut.  i.  4-iv.  43,  first  discourse 
of  Moses;  (10)  Deut.  iv.  44-xxvi.,  second 
discourse;  (11)  Deut.  xxvii.-xxx. ,  third 
discourse;  (12)  Deut.  xxxi.-xxxiv. ,  close 
of  the  life  and  activity  of  Moses. 

II.  History  of  the  Pentateuch  Criticism. — 
The  synagogue,  the  ancient  and  mediaeval 
Church,  and  even  some  modern  scholars — 
with  the  exclusion  of  the  last  eight  verses 
— regard  Moses  as  the  author  of  the  Penta¬ 
teuch.  The  Mosaic  authorship  was  first 


disputed  by  Cclsus  the  Gnostic,  Ptole- 
maeus,  the  pseudo-Clementine  homilies 
(ii.  40-52;  iii.  43,  47).  Isaac  ben  Jasus,  of 
the  eleventh  century,  declared  Gen.  xxxvi. 
31  seq. ,  as  being  written  only  in  the  time 
of  Jehoshaphat,  for  which  he  was  taken  to 
task  by  Abraham  ibn  Ezra  (d.  1167),  who 
regarded  the  Pentateuch,  as  a  whole,  as 
the  work  of  Moses.  The  next  critic  was 
Andreas  Bodenstein  von  Carlstadt,  who 
doubted  the  Mosaic  authorship  from  a 
stylistic  point  of  view.  Andreas  Masius 
(d.  1573)  advanced  the  opinion  that  the 
Pentateuch  in  its  present  form  cannot  be 
by  Moses,  but  was  supplemented  here  and 
there,  and  worked  over  by  Ezra,  or  some 
other  man  of  God.  Passing  over  Bonfrere, 
Hobbes,  Isaac  Peyrere,  Spinoza,  Richard 
Simon,  etc.,  we  come  to  Jean  Astruc,  a 
French  physician  (d.  1766),  who,  in  his 
book  entitled  Conjectures  sur  les  Me'?noires 
Originaux,  etc.,  pointed  out  the  fact,  by  a 
literary  analysis,  that  in  Genesis  the  names 
of  God,  Elohi?n  and  Jehovah ,  are  not  em¬ 
ployed  indiscriminately,  but  usually  alter¬ 
nate  with  one  another  in  what  appear  to  be 
alternate  sections.  Eichhorn  in  his  Intro¬ 
duction  arrived  at  the  same  result,  dis¬ 
tinguishing  between  an  Elohim  document 
and  Jahveh  document,  and  placing  the  col¬ 
lection  of  the  Pentateuch  in  the  time  be¬ 
tween  Joshua  and  Samuel.  De  Wette,  in 
a  dissertation  (1805),  and  in  the  first 
volume  of  his  contributions  to  an  Intro¬ 
duction  to  the  Old  Testament  (1806),  was 
the  first  to  call  attention  to  the  fact  that 
Deuteronomy  essentially  differs  from  the 
preceding  book;  and  it  is  now  admitted 
that  the  main  part  of  Deuteronomy  belongs 
to  a  separate  document.  Ewald  ( Theol . 
Studien  tend  Kritihen ,  1831,  pp.  602-604) 
pointed  out  that  the  differences  of  the  Elo¬ 
him  and  Jahveh  documents  were  traceable 
throughout  the  entire  Pentateuch,  and  ex¬ 
tended  into  Joshua.  Ilgen  (  Urhunden  des 
Jerusal.  fempelarchivs ,  Halle,  179S),  and 
with  more  success,  Hupfeld  ( Quellen  der 
Genesis ,  Berlin,  1853),  endeavored  to  trace 
out  the  hand  of  a  second  Elohist.  Till  re¬ 
cently  the  following  results  of  criticism 
were  regarded  as  acceptable:  first ,  that  the 
Hexateuch  (Pentateuch  and  Joshua)  had 
for  its  basis  four  sources,  viz.:  (a)  P,  i.  e., 
the  Priests'  Code ,  the  first  Elohist,  the 
original  document  (Tuch),  the  Book  of 
Origins  (Ewald),  the  annalistic  narrator 
(Schrader),  A  (Dillmann,  H.  Schultz). — (b) 
E,  the  second  Elohist,  the  younger  Elohist, 
the  North  Israelitish  narrator,  the  third 
narrator  (Ewald),  the  prophetic  narrator 
(Schrader),  B  (Dillmann),  C  (H.  Schultz). — 
(c)  /,  the  Jahvist,  the  supplementer  (Tuch), 
the  fourth  narrator  (Ewald),  the  prophetic 
narrator  (Schrader),  C  (Dillmann),  B  (H. 


Pen 


(  723  ) 


Pen 


Schultz).  —  ( d )  the  Deuteronomist,  D. 
Second,  that  several  sections  of  the  Penta¬ 
teuch,  although  contained  only  in  the 
sources  mentioned  above,  are  older  than 
these  sources  (the  decalogue,  the  book  of 
the  covenant,  Ex.  xx.  22-xxiii.  19,  the  main 
part  of  the  song,  Ex.  xv. ,  and  other  legal  and 
poetical  pieces);  third ,  that  the  Elohistic 
writings  are  older  than  the  Jahvistic^  and 
fourth ,  that  the  three  sources  just  named 
were  already  worked  over  into  one  whole 
before  the  Deuteronomist.  There  was  and  is 
a  difference  of  opinion, mainly  as  to  the  man¬ 
ner  of  composing  these  sources  for  our 
present  Pentateuch  (Hexateuch).  (a)  Most 
critics  suppose  that  one  redactor  united  P, 
E,  J,  and  that  D  was  added  later.  Schra¬ 
der  thinks  that  the  Jahvist  supplemented 
P  and  E  with  his  own  material,  and  then 
worked  it  together.  (But  almost  the  same 
considerations  are  against  his  view  as 
against  the  now  abandoned  supplemental 
hypothesis.)  (b)  According  to  some  the 
Deuteronomist  incorporated  his  work  in 
P,  E,  J,  (Schrader,  comp,  also  Bleek);  ac¬ 
cording  to  most  critics  this  insertion  be¬ 
longs  to  an  especial  redactor  (Ewald,  a.  o.). 

Against  this  view  of  the  origin  of  the 
Pentateuch,  which  almost  seemed  to  have 
become,  or  was  to  become,  the  ruling  one, 
stands  boldly  the  view  commonly  called 
after  Graf  and  Wellhausen,  more  correctly 
to  be  called  after  Ed.  Reuss,  Leop.  George 
and  Wilh.  Vatke,  which  for  a  time  remain¬ 
ed  unheeded,  but  soon  gained  many  fol¬ 
lowers  through  Wellhausen’s  ingenious  as 
well  as  brilliant  mode  of  representation. 

W.  Vatke  {Religion  des  Alten  Test.,  1835) 
and,  independent  from  him,  J.  F.  L.  George 
( Die  Aelteren  Juedischen  Teste ,  1835),  tried 
to  prove  that  the  legislation  of  the  middle 
books  of  the  Pentateuch  is  younger  than 
that  of  Deuteronomy,  which  belongs  to 
the  time  of  Jonah.  Hengstenberg  ( Au¬ 
thentic  des  Pentateuch ,  2  vols.,  1836,  1839), 
Drechsler  ( Die  Unwissenschaftlichkeitli, 
1837),  and  F.  H.  Ranke  ( Untersuchungen - 
ueber  der  Pentateuch,  Erlangen,  1840)  wrote 
against  them  without  receiving  a  rejoinder, 
and  thus  Vatke  and  George  were  soon  for¬ 
gotten. 

But  already,  before  Vatke  and  George, 
since  the  year  1833,  Edward  Reuss,  in 
lectures  and  afterward  in  the  art.  “  Juda¬ 
ism  ”  in  Ersch  and  Gruber’s  Cyclo.  (1850), 
had  expressed  the  same  views,  which, 
however,  were  little  known  till  K.  H.  Graf, 
a  "former  hearer  of  Reuss,  published  Die 
Geschichtlichen  Bucher  des  Alten  Testaments 
(Leipzig,  1866).  He  distinguished  from 
the  “  original  document  the  old  historical 
book  of  the  Elohist,”  which  was  first  work¬ 
ed  over  by  the  Jahvist,  afterward  by  the 
Deuteronomist,  the  middle  -  Pentateuch 


legislation  (Ex.  xii.  1-28,  43-51;  xxv-xxxi... 
xxxv-xl. ;  Leviticus;  Num.  i.  i-x.  28;  xv. ,. 
xvi.  and  xvii;  partly  xviii.,  xix. ,  xxviii.- 
xxxi. ;  xxxv.  16-xxxvi.);  and  from  studies 
upon  the  feasts,  priests  and  tabernacle, 
he  declared  that  this  legislation  bears 
“  the  plainest  marks  of  its  post  exilic  com¬ 
position.”  A  few  years  later,  in  answer 
to  Riehm  and  Noldeke,  he  pronounced  (in 
Mer x'  Archiv.,  i.,  466-477)  the  so-called 
original  document  post-exilic,  forming  not 
the  basis,  but  the  latest  part,  by  whose 
insertion  the  redaction  of  the  Pentateuch 
was  closed.  Graf  died  in  1869,  but  his 
thesis  was  taken  up  and  further  developed 
by  Aug.  Kayser  [das  Vorexilische  Buch, 
1874)  and  Wellhausen  ( Geschichte  Israels , 
1874;  Prolegomena  zur  Geschichte  Israels 
1883,  3d  ed.,  1886,  and  in  other  works), 
who,  by  his  mode  of  handling  the  ques¬ 
tion,  gained  the  good-will  of  E.  Kautzsch, 
W.  Robertson  Smith,  Stade,  Smend,Giese- 
brecht,  Budde,  and  many  others.  After 
him  Reuss  himself  took  up  the  question 
again,  and  treated  it  fully  in  his  French 
Bible  work  (I’ histoire  sainte  et  la  loi,  vol. 
i.,  1879)  and  then  in  his  Geschichte  der  heil- 
igen  Schriften  Alten  Testament  (1881,  2d 
ed. ,  1890). 

The  Fragmentary  hypothesis ,  first  pro¬ 
mulgated  by  Peyrerius  and  Spinoza,  and 
further  developed  by  Geddes,  Vater  and 
Hartmann,  has  not  many  adherents  at  the 
present  time. 

The  identity  of  style  and  views  in  all 
the  Elohim  section  gave  rise  to  the  Stip- 
plemental  hypothesis ,  according  to  which 
the  Elohim  (also  called  original)  document, 
beginning  with  Gen.  i.  1,  was  supplement¬ 
ed  by  the  Jahvist  (supplementer),  by  the 
insertion  of  disconnected  sections  and  re¬ 
marks.  Deuteronomy  was  incorporated 
later  (Staehelin,  Bleek,  Tuch,  Knobel, 
formerly,  also,  Delitzsch).  This  view 
does  no  justice  to  the  Jahvistic  portions.  It 
is  now  generally  abandoned:  Schrader, 
only,  clings  to  it  yet.  All  views  defended 
at  present  by  the  representatives  of  crit¬ 
icism  may  be  designated  as  modifications 
of  the  Documentary  hypothesis. 

III.  The  right  of  the  Pentateuch  criticism. 
— Aside  from  all  real  or  seeming  contra¬ 
dictions,  double  narratives,  anachronisms, 
impossibilities,  etc.,  there  are  two  reasons 
for  criticism:  First,  the  Pentateuch  no¬ 
where  claims  to  have  been  composed  by 
Moses  himself;  for  Ex.  xvii.  14;  xxiv.  4, 
7;  xxxiv.  27;  Num.  xxxiii.  2  refer  only  to 
some  important  events,  and  the  book  of 
the  covenant,  the  passages  in  Deut.  xxxi. 
9-1 1,  22,  24-26  only  to  Deuteronomy — at 
least  to  chaps,  xii.-xxvi. ;  that  Moses,  if 
he  wrote  at  all,  wrote  also  of  other  things 
than  of  these  few  events  and  laws,  is  cer- 


Pen 


(  724  ) 


Pen 


tainly  probable  in  itself.  Secondly,  the 
literary  analysis  has  proved  with  undoubt¬ 
ed  certainty  that  not  only  Genesis,  but  the 
first  four  books  of  the  Pentateuch  are 
composed  of  (three  [two]) great  documents 
(2  [1]  Elohist.  1  Jahv.);  that  to  these  is 
added  the  Deuteronomic  in  the  fifth  book, 
and  that  these  sources  are  plainly  distin¬ 
guishable,  also,  in  the  book  of  Joshua, 
i.  e.,  after  the  narrative  of  Moses’  death. 

IV.  Present  Problems. — The  problems 
are,  at  present:  («)  the  number;  ( b )  the 
order;  ( c )  the  absolute  age  of  the  single 
documents,  (a)  Not  taking  into  account 
the  older  pieces  which  the  redactor  found 
only  as  parts  of  his  matter,  there  is  an 
agreement  in  the  supposition  of  an  Elo- 
histic  (P)  writing,  commencing  with  “  In 
the  beginning  Elohim  created;”  of  a  Jah- 
vistic,  beginning  Gen.  ii.  4,  and  the  Deu¬ 
teronomic:  it  is  also  agreed  upon  that  Elo- 
histic  pieces  (E),  distinguishable  from  P, 
stand  in  the  closest  relation  to  the  Jahvist. 
It  is  debatable,  however,  whether  E  is  old¬ 
er  than  y(most  critics  affirm  this,  with  the 
exception  of  Wellhausen  and  Schultz,  who 
regard  J  older  than  E)\  whether  E  was 
perused  by  J( so  the  most,  e.  g. ,  Dillmann; 
on  the  other  hand,  besides,  Hupfeld,  Well¬ 
hausen  and  Reuss  regard  the  connection  by 
a  third  as  more  probable);  whether  E  was 
before  the  same  redactor  who  united  P 
with  J  (Hupfeld,  Dillmann),  or  is  extant 
only  as  far  as  J  copied  him  (Noldeke, 
Graf).  The  relation  between  E  and  J 
must  be  made  more  clear  than  has  hitherto 
been  done  before  a  view  concerning  the 
origin  of  the  Hexateuch  can  be  given  with 
any  probability.  Another  question  which 
belongs  here  is  that  as  to  the  nature  of  P. 
According  to  Wellhausen  ( Gesch .  i. ,  8, 
420;  Proleg.  429  seq,)a..  o.  is  the  remaining 
part  of  the  Hexateuch  after  the  separation 
of  J  (-f-  E)  and  D,  not  a  unitary  work,  but  a 
conglomerate,  the  result  of  a  learned 
priestly  activity,  lasting  over  a  century. 
An  original  nucleus  (called  Q  by  Well¬ 
hausen)  was  increased,  “aside  from  the 
insertion  of  older  pieces,  especially  Lev. 
xvii.-xxvi. ,  by  a  multitude  of  secondary 
and  tertiary  after-growths  which,  formally, 
do  not  belong  to  it,  but  materially  are  en¬ 
tirely  homogeneous  ....  so  that  the 
whole  may  be  regarded,  though  not  as  a 
literary,  still,  however,  as  an  historical 
unity.”  Dillmann  now  approaches  this 
view,  who  supposes  yet  a  fifth  document 
( S ,  i.  e.,  Sinai-laws),  which  was  used  by 
P,  as  well  as  later  collectors. 

(b)  It  is  agreed  that  D  is  younger  than  J; 
even  P.  Kleinert  (1872),  who  puts  Deuter¬ 
onomy  in  an  earlier  time  (that  of  Samuel) 
than  all  other  critics.  Disputable,  how¬ 
ever,  is  the  position  of  P  (the  formerly 


so-called  original  document).  Hupfeld, 
Ewald,  Knobel,  Schrader  and  Riehm  re¬ 
gard  P  as  the  oldest  document  of  the 
Pentateuch;  Dillmann  regards  it  as  old. 
It  is  looked  upon  as  the  youngest  part  by 
Graf,  Kuenen,  Wellhausen,  Reuss  and 
Smend,  who  insert  Lev.  xvii.-xxvi.  after 
D.  Since  these  scholars  make  Lev.  xvii.- 
xxv if  dependent  upon  Ezekiel  (Graf  and 
Kayser  think  this  part  also  composed  by 
Ezekiel),  the  correctness  of  this  assertion 
must  first  be  thoroughly  examined.  But 
Noldeke  ( Zur  Kritik ,  p.  67-71),  Aug.  Klos- 
termann  ( Zeitschrift  fuer  Luth.  Theologie , 
1877,  pp.  404-445),  D.  Hoffmann  ( Magazin 
fuer  die  Wissensch  des  Judenthums ,  1879,  PP* 
210-21 5),  Dillmann  ( Commentar  zu  Levit . ), 
Bredenkamp  ( Gesetz  und  Propheten ,  p.  116 
seq. ,  129-134)  have  conclusively  shown  that 
Ezekiel  is  dependent  upon  Leviticus.  The 
order  of  the  documents  can  only  be  settled 
after  a  greater  harmony  has  been  brought 
about  concerning  the  original  contents 
of  P. 

(e)  As  to  the  absolute  age  of  the  individ¬ 
ual  sources,  it  will  be  seen  from  the  fol¬ 
lowing  how  scholars  differ: 

(1)  Th.  Noldeke:  P,  E,  J  belong  to  the 
10th  or  9th  century  b.  c.  ;  E  preserved 
only  in  the  work  made  by  J ;  P  cannot 
be  the  oldest  —  may  also  be  not  much 
younger  than  the  other  two;  D  was  writ¬ 
ten  shortly  before  the  reformation  by  Jo- 
siah,  and  incorporated  by  a  later  writer  in 
the  Hexateuch.  Ezekiel  is  surely  depend¬ 
ent  upon  P. 

(2)  Eb.  Schrader:  P,  beginning  of  David’s 
reign,  is  traceable  to  Josh.  xxiv.  33;  E , 
soon  after  the  division  of  the  kingdom,  be¬ 
tween  975  and  950,  traceable  to  1  Kings  ix. 
28;  J  supplemented  his  predecessors,  and 
worked  them  together  under  Jeroboam  II., 
between  825  and  800;  the  Deuteronomist, 
who  inserted  his  own  book  of  the  law 
(composed  shortly  before  Josiah’s  reform), 
continued  the  history  to  the  destruction  of 
Jerusalem  (2  Kings  xxv.  21),  making  use 
of  other  sources  for  the  later  time.  The 
separation  of  the  Pentateuch,  in  its  present 
form,  from  the  other  books  was  made  after 
the  close  of  the  Babylonish  exile. 

(3)  A.  Dillmann  (Commentar  zu  Numeri- 
Josua ,  18S6)  thinks  that  the  Hexateuch 
consists  of  five  writings — E,  P,  J,  D  and 
S.  E  (B),  the  Israelitish  book  of  history 
and  tradition,  originally  used  the  name 
“Elohim”  (“Jahveh”  being  introduced 
only  by  later  hands);  what  is  extant  com¬ 
mences  with  Gen.  xx. ;  the  author,  who  be¬ 
longed  to  the  kingdom  of  Israel,  wrote  in 
the  first  half  of  the  9th  century  b.  c.  J  ( C ), 
Judaic  writing;  remains  of  J  surely  yet  in 
Judg.  i. ;  A1  is  especially  made  use  of,  yet 
partly  worked  over,  hardly  before  the 


Pen 


(  725  ) 


Pen 


middle  of  the  8th  century.  D ,  written  not 
long  before  the  18th  year  of  Josiah.  Sources 
for  the  historical:  E  and  J  for  the  legal, 
especially  the  book  of  the  covenant,  but 
also  other  laws  (esp.  S),  which  are  now 
extant  in  connection  with  P.  What  is  left 
after  the  separation  of  E,  J,  D  is  a  group 
of  writings  of  a  complicated  composition. 
The  historical  frame,  with  the  traceably 
legal  pieces  appertaining  to  it,  forms  the 
nucleus  of  the  Priests'  Code ,  called  Q.  Q 
knows  and  peruses  the  law-collection  S, 
and  presupposes,  besides,  the  substance  of 
other  older  laws:  for  the  historical  matter 
E  has  been  made  use  of — time  “  +  800  b. 
C.”  S,  i.  e.,  Sinai-laws  (Lev.  xxv.  1;  xxvi. 
46  so  styled),  coming  out  especially  in  Lev. 
xvii.-xxvi. ;  the  main  point  of  view  the  de¬ 
mand  for  holiness  (hence  also  called  “  the 
law  of  holiness”).  Many  injunctions  con¬ 
tained  in  S  are  regarded  by  D  as  old-Mo- 
saic.  But  not  all  pieces  are  alike  old;  a 
collection  S  was  already  perused  by  Q; 
many  things  belong  to  a  later  time,  espe¬ 
cially  a  part  of  Lev.  xxvi.  to  the  exilic  pe¬ 
riod.  Q,  E,  J  were  worked  together  at  one 
time,  about  600  b.  c. ,  not  much  later: 
probably  during  the  exile  D  was  combin¬ 
ed  with  this  work,  whereby  D  remained 
the  authoritative  book.  Afterward,  but 
still  in  the  exile,  i.  e.,  before  Ezra’s  ret’urn, 
S  and  other  current  priestly  laws  were  in¬ 
serted  in  the  middle  pieces  of  the  large 
collectaneum:  on  this  occasion  Joshua  was 
separated.  Ezra  obtained  in  the  year  444 
public  acknowledgment  for  the  Pentateuch. 
The  succeeding  scribes  added  nothing,  but 
corrected  and  changed  the  text,  as  the  old¬ 
er  readings,  still  preserved  in  the  Samaritan 
Pentateuch  and  Septuagint  prove. 

(4)  Franz  Delitzsch  has  considerably  mod¬ 
ified  his  former  views  ( Genesis ,  1872).  He 
gives  as  the  order  now  :J;D,  post-Solomon- 
ic,  but  pre-Isaianic;  law  of  holiness;  P,  pre- 
exilic  ( Zeitschrift  fur  Kirchl.  Wissensch. 
1880,  pp.  338  seq.,  346  seq.,  445,  509,  564, 
622).  The  contents  of  P  are  not  of  like 
age  with  the  “  codification  and  final  redac¬ 
tion,”  and  “  the  contents  of  D  is  not  at  all 
of  the  same  age  with  the  emanation  in  the 
present  form  (1.  e.  1882,  p.  295).  In  his 
new  commentary  on  Genesis  (1887)  these 
dates  are,  inded,  not  retracted,  but  also 
not  repeated.  The  oldest  portions  of  the 
Pentateuch  are,  besides  the  songs  (Num. 
xxi. ;  Deut.  xxxii. ;  xxxiii.  pp.  28-30),  the 
decalogue  and  the  book  of  the  covenant. 
From  the  “  Jehovistic-Deuteronomic  nat¬ 
ure  ”  of  these  legal  pieces  it  follows  “  that 
when,  of  the  two  characteristically  distin¬ 
guished  Pentateuchal  modes  of  represent¬ 
ing,  one  goes  back  to  a  Mosaic  original 
type  ( Urtypus );  this  can  only  be  the  Jeho¬ 
vistic-Deuteronomic,  and  not  the  Elohist” 


(p.  20).  “  The  author,  whose  record  of 

creation  begins  the  Pentateuch  {P)  is,  “  in 
relation  to  the  narrator  of  the  history  of 
Paradise  (J),  not  the  older  but  the  youn¬ 
ger”  (p.  9).  Yet  “the  prehistories  of  Israel, 
from  the  creation  to  the  history  of  Joseph 
(in  P),  were  already  written  down  in  old 
preexilic  time;”  even  “  the  legislative-his¬ 
torical  ”  in  P  is  “  not  .  .  .  freely  devised, 
but  taken  from  tradition;”  and  the  ground 
features  “  of  the  legislation,  codified  by 
the  Elohistic  pen  ( P ),”  were  already  known 
to  the  Deuteronomist  (p.  26  seq.).  The 
Elohist  by  eminence  (this  now  mystifying 
designation  Delitzsch  unfortunately  uses 
often  for  the  Priests'  Code)  is  not  a  unitary 
work;  but  an  older  groundwork  (Q),  “was 
enlarged  by  degrees,  ...  at  any  event 
within  the  priesthood  called  to  propagate 
the  law.  .  .  .  To  the  law-collections  in  P 
belongs  the  law  of  holiness.”  E  begins 
with  Genesis,  “  chap.  xx. ,  if  not  sooner.” 
“  The  writings  of  J  and  E,  before  Deuter¬ 
onomy  received  its  present  form,  seem  to 
have  been  melted  together  to  one  whole.” 
The  “  interfering  hand  ”  of  the  second 
Deuteronomist  “is  to  be  perceived 
throughout  the  entire  Pentateuch,  except¬ 
ing  the  purely  legislative  parts  of  P"  (p. 
18).  “  The  legally  historical  and  literary 

process,  from  which  the  Pentateuch  ema¬ 
nated  in  its  present  form,  continued  itself 
to  the  post-exilic  time  ”  (p.  17;  comp.  p.  9; 
pause  2).  Ezra  probably  only  read  P  in 
the  year  444  (p.  13,  note  2;  p.  34,  line  21 
seq.).  “  The  texts  of  the  Samaritan  and 
Greek  Pentateuch  show  that  the  form  of 
text  was  variously  vacillating  at  the  time 
of  the  origin  of  these  versions  ”  (p.  34). 

(5)  H.  Schultz:  J,  Solomon’s  time;  E , 
from  the  last  time  of  the  Mosaic  period 
(which  Schrader  allows  to  reach  to  800); 
D,  at  the  latest  in  the  time  of  Manasseh; 
P,  at  the  earliest  the  production  of  the 
Babylonian  epoch  of  the  prophetical  time 
(see  Alttestamentliche  Theologie ,  2d  ed.,  pp. 
84,  87,  88,  91). 

(6)  J.  Wellhausen:  J  belongs  to  the  gold¬ 
en  period  of  Hebrew  literature,  just  pre¬ 
ceding  the  dissolution  of  the  two  kingdoms 
( Gesch .  i.  9;  Proleg.  9);  E,  younger,  and 
only  afterward  combined  with  J  ( Gesch .  i. 
370);  D  (chaps,  xii.-xxvi. ),  composed  in  the 
period  when  it  was  discovered  (Gesch.  i. 
9;  Prol.  9).  The  main  part  of  Lev.  xvii.- 
xxvi.  written  in  the  exile,  after  Ezekiel, 
but  not  remote  from  him;  P ,  not  the  work 
of  one  author,  but  the  result  of  a  work 
of  many  years  in  and  after  the  exile,  is 
incorporated  with  Lev.  xvii.-xxvi.  in  the 
Pentateuch  by  Ezra,  published  and  intro¬ 
duced  in  the  year  444  (Gesch.  i.  421,  425; 
Proleg.  430,  434). 

Similarly  (7)  B.  Stade  (Geschichte  des 


Pen 


(  726  ) 


Pen 


Volkes  Israel ,  i.  pp.  58-64);  J ,  850-800;  E , 
about  750;  worked  together  at  the  end  of 
the  seventh  century;  D,  in  the  beginning 
of  the  exile  inserted  with  other  portions  in 
/,  £ ;  P ,  in  the  exile;  connection  with  J , 
E,  D  1‘  toward  the  end  of  the  exile,  or 
shortly  after  it  (p.  63),  in  the  time  of  Ezra” 
(p.  64). 

(8)  K.  H.  Graf  (Geschichte ,  comp,  with 
Archiv.):  J ,  middle  of  the  eighth  century, 
or  at  the  time  of  Ahaz;  D,  shortly  before 
Josiah’s  reform;  second  Deuteronomist  in 
the  first  half  of  the  exile;  P,  post-exilian, 
introduced  by  Ezra;  connected  with  J ,  D 
soon  after  Ezra. 

(9)  A.  Kayser  (  Vorex.  Bitch;  Jahrbb.  fuer 
Protest.  Theol. ,  1881):  E  and  J,  in  the  ninth 
or  beginning  of  the  eighth  century;  E , 
older,  and  perused  by  J;  worked  together 
later,  probably;  D  (iv.  44-xxvi;  xxvii. 
partly,  xxviii),  last  third  of  the  seventh 
century;  the  Ezekielian  law-books  (espe¬ 
cially  in  Lev.  xvii.-xxvi.)  by  Ezekiel;  Q 
(nucleus  of  P),  after  the  return  from  the 
exile,  introduced  by  Ezra;  after  him,  con¬ 
nection  of  the  Ezekielian  pieces  with  Q; 
still  later  A’was  inserted  in  the  Hexateuch; 
our  present  Pentateuch  ready  when  the 
books  of  Chronicles  were  composed. 

(10)  Ed.  Reuss  (L'  histoire  salute  et  la 
loi ,  and  Geschichte ):  book  of  the  covenant 
at  the  time  of  Jehoshaphat;  J ,  second  half 
of  the  ninth  century;  F,  “  perhaps  still 
older,”  but  later  so  worked  together  with 
J  that  “the  separation  is  almost  impos¬ 
sible”  ;  D,  shortly  before  the  eighteenth 
year  of  Josiah,  “  purporting  to  be  a  discov¬ 
ery  of  the  priests;  connection  with  J ,  E 
between  the  first  deportation  and  the  down¬ 
fall  of  the  kingdom  ( Gesch .  p.  312);  main 
part  of  Lev.  xvii.-xxvi.  post- Ezekielian, 
but  before  Ezra.  The  codex  promulgated 
by  Ezra  contained  in  its  framework  (‘  a 
gross  fiction  ....  dreams  of  an  im¬ 
poverished  generation ’)  mainly  ‘a  collec¬ 
tion  of  laws  of  different  origin.’  It  was 
worked  together  with  J,  E,  D  and  a  great 
many  special  ordinances  in  the  time  be¬ 
tween  Nehemiah  and  Alexander.  The 
prophets  are  older  than  the  law,  and  the 
Psalms  later  than  both.” 

Till  recently  C.  F.  Keil  {Introduction  and 
Commentary;  d.  May  5,  1888)  was  the  only 
prominent  German  Old  Testament  student 
who  still  adhered  to  the  Mosaic  authorship 
of  the  whole  Pentateuch.  Laying  aside 
this  view,  the  main  differences  are  those 
which  concern  the  Priests'  Code.  Have  we, 
in  it,  good  and  old  traditions  of  an  histor¬ 
ical,  as  v  eil  as  legal  nature,  or  is  it  the 
product  of  a  late  tendencious  fiction  ?  Is 
Moses  respectively  in  the  oldest  or  pre- 
prophetical  time,  the  creator  of  the  law 
credited  to  him,  or  does  the  same  come 


from  a  school  of  priests  in  the  century  fol¬ 
lowing  Ezekiel,  finally  from  Ezra?  Is  it 
pre-exilic,  or  post-exilic? 

Whatever  the  merits  are  of  those  who 
regard  P  as  pre-exilic,  and  whose  views 
need  more  modification  and  a  better  asser¬ 
tion,  yet  we  think  that  the  view  making 
the  Priests'  Code  a  post-exilic  product  is 
surrounded  t)y  insuperable  difficulties,  as 
a  few  points  will  prove: 

(1)  As  to  the  linguistic  part,  it  must  not 
be  forgotten  that,  through  vocalization, 
different  orthography,  and  slight  gram¬ 
matical  and  stylistic  changes  many  archa¬ 
isms,  without  altering  the  contents,  could 
easily  be  removed — not  a  few  were  entirely 
removed.  From  this  it  follows  that  the 
want,  or  scarce  occurrence,  of  archaisms 
is,  in  itself,  no  proof  of  later  composition; 
and  the  careful  disquisition  of  V.  Ryssel, 
De  Elohistce  (=P)  Pentateuchici  Sermone 
(Leipzig,  1878),  is  unfavorable  to  a  post- 
exilic  composition  of  P.  Giesebrecht’s  ef¬ 
fort  (Zeitschrift  fuer  Alttestt.  IVissenschaft, 
i.  177  seq.)  to  prove  the  contrary  has  found 
a  rejoinder  in  Driver’s  On  some  Alleged 
Affinities  of  the  Elohist  (in  fournal  of  Phi¬ 
lology ,  1882,  xi.  201-236). 

(2)  How  much  respect  has  been  paid  in 
preexilic  writings  to  P  requires  fuller  in¬ 
vestigation.  Not  everything  that  is  gen¬ 
erally  quoted  is  valid,  though  many  a  pas¬ 
sage  must  be  regarded  as  conclusive. 
Comp.  Marti:  Die  Spuren  der  sogenannten 
Grundschrift (in fahrbb.  fuer  Prot.  Theolog. , 
1880),  vi.  127-161;  308-354,  esp.  325  seq. 

(3)  The  relation  existing  between  Ezekiel 
and  the  law  of  holiness  must  be  reverted  to. 

(4)  The  testimony  of  the  Samaritan 
Pentateuch  remains  important,  in  spite  of 
Kayser’s  opposition  ( Jahrbb .  fuer  Prot. 
Theol.,  1881,  pp.  561-563). 

(5 )  P  contains  a  series  of  laws  which 
were  useless  after  the  exile,  or  could  not 
be  carried  out.  Of  what  avail  were  the  in¬ 
junctions  concerning  the  Urim  and  Thum- 
mim  (Ex.  xxviii.  30;  Num.  xxvii.  21;  comp. 
Ezra  ii.  63;  Nell.  vii.  65)?  That  the  de¬ 
tailed  instructions  concerning  the  taber¬ 
nacle  are  mainly  a  fiction  of  exilic  or  post- 
exilic  time  is  highly  improbable  —  yea, 
almost  inconceivable. 

(6)  From  the  non-observance  of  laws 
does  not  follow  their  non-existence.  Ex¬ 
amples:  Jer.  xvi.  16  compared  with  Deut. 
xiv.  1  (and  Lev.  xix.  28);  image-worship 
in  Israel,  in  spite  of  the  very  ancient  pro¬ 
hibition  (comp  Bredenkamp:  Gesetz  und 
Propheten ,  51-54).  The  laws  in  P  may 
have  long  existed,  especially  among  the 
priests,  before  they  received  an  official, 
general  acknowledgment. 

(7)  It  is  incredible  that  the  people  of 
Israel  which  came  out  of  Egypt,  the  land  of 


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an  old  and  extensive  literature,  should  not 
have  received,  soon  after  the  exodus, 
priestly  laws,  but  should  have  remained  a 
millennium  without  written  priestly  law. 
It  is  to  be  assumed  that  the  priest  Moses 
(Ex.  xxiv.  6  seq;  Deut.  xxxiii.  10;  Psa. 
xcix.  6)  established  a  ritual. 

(8)  The  Old  Testament  writings,  in  order 
to  agree  with  the  Graf-Wellhausen  con¬ 
struction  of  history,  both  from  a  critical 
and  an  exegetical  point  of  view,  are 
violently  treated.  Exegetically :  Ex.  xx. 
24,  25  (acc.  to  Wellhausen:  Gesch.  i.  30; 
Proleg.  30)  “sanctions”  sacrifices  at  any 
locality.  From  1  Sam.  ii.  27  seq.  he  infers 
(i.  129,  142,  148=130  seq.,  143,  149)  that 
Zadok  was  the  “  first  of  an  absolutely  new 
line.  ”  The  difference  between  the  prophets 
and  P,  to  be  explained  only  from  the  di¬ 
versity  of  purpose,  has  been  made  an  in¬ 
dissoluble  contradiction  (see  Marti  1.  e., 
308-323;  Bredenkamp,  83-90,  108-112). 
Neh.  viii.-x.  is  to  bear  witness  that  P  was 
only  first  made  known  and  solemnly  intro¬ 
duced  after  the  exile  by  Ezra  and  Nehe- 
fniah.  But  this  does  not  stand  in  the  alleged 
chapters,  comp.  e.  g.,  D.  Hoffmann:  Maga- 
zin  fiir  die  JViss.  d.  Judth.,  1879,  vi.  4~7* 
Critically:  Through  numerous  revisions 
and  retouches  ever  new  ideas  from  later 
times  were  inserted  in  the  prophetical-his¬ 
torical  books;  especially  in  the  historical 
viewing  of  the  books  of  Kings,  an  histori¬ 
cally  untruthful  pious  pragmatism.  The 
book  of  Job  is  later  than  Jeremiah;  the 
Psalms  are  almost  all  post-exilic,  many  be¬ 
longing  to  the  time  of  the  Maccabees. 

(9)  Deuteronomy  becomes  a  tendency- 
work  of  the  priests  in  Jerusalem,  compos¬ 
ed  shortly  before  Josiah’s  reform.  But, 
according  to  the  new  construction  of  Israel- 
itish  history,  the  very  claim,  xviii.  6-8,  must 
have  been  most  unwelcome  to  these  priests. 
The  account,  2  Kings  xxii.  8  seq. ,  shows 
that  the  book  of  the  law,  when  the  manu¬ 
script  was  found  in  the  temple,  was  already 
of  an  incontestable  authority.  Many  in¬ 
junctions  contained  in  Deuteronomy  were 
already  long  purposeless  at  the  time  of 
Josiah  (xx.  10-20;  xxv.  17-19);  different 
views  concerning  Egypt,  Moab  and  Am¬ 
mon  were  then  held  than  in  Deuteronomy. 

The  future  results  of  continued  efforts 
in  the  Pentateuch  criticism  cannot  be  fore¬ 
seen,  as  to  details.  We  are  persuaded, 
however,  that  the  Graf-Wellhausen  theory 
will  not  have  a  lasting  influence  upon  the 
existing  conception  of  Israel’s  history,  and 
especially  of  Moses’  activity.  On  the  other 
hand,  the  result  will  remain  that  the  Penta¬ 
teuch  was  not  composed  by  Moses  himself, 
but  was  united  by  later  redactors  from 
many  documentary  writings.  Of  this  re¬ 
sult  no  believing  Christian  need  be  afraid, 


as,  in  general,  of  no  result  of  true  science. 
It  is  now  generally  admitted  that,  besides 
the  divine  factor,  very  essentially  also,  hu¬ 
man  factors  cooperated  in  the  divine  writ¬ 
ings.  The  very  majority  of  sources  can 
be  made  use  of  in  favor  of  the  credibility 
of  the  Pentateuch. 

[The  above  is  taken  from  Strack’s  Intro¬ 
duction  to  the  Old  Testa?nent  (3d  ed.,  Nord- 
lingen, 1888),  which  was  prepared  later  than 
his  art.  on  the  Pentateuch  in  Herzog’s 
Real  Ency.,  2d  ed.,  but  which  must  not  be 
passed  over  by  those  interested  in  the 
question.  The  literature  on  the  Penta¬ 
teuch  is  given  in  a  very  complete  manner 
by  Bissell:  The  Pentateuch:  Its  Origin  and 
Structure  (N.  Y.,  1888),  pp.  410-475,  who 
maintains  that  the  traditional  view  of  the 
origin  and  structure  of  the  Pentateuch  is 
much  better  supported  than  the  one  now 
most  widely  current  in  Germany.  Stu¬ 
dents  will  also  do  well  to  study  the  papers 
published  on  the  Pentateuchal  question  by 
Harper  and  Green  in  Hebraica ,  Oct.,  1888, 
and  seq.]  B.  Pick. 

Pentateuch,  The.  The  Case  in  Favor  of 
its  Antiquity  and  Genuineness. — “  (1)  It  is 
remarkable  that  it  should  be  left  for  very 
recent  critics  to  discover  so  great  a  secret 
as  that  of  the  late  origin  of  the  Pentateuch 
in  opposition  to  the  opinions  of  all  past 
ages.  (2)  It  is  difficult  to  acquit  the  au¬ 
thors  of  the  Pentateuch  of  a  charge  of 
fraud,  on  any  known  principles  of  literary 
morality,  if  the  book  was  composed  as  al¬ 
leged  by  the  disintegrating  critics.  The 
authority  of  Moses  is  distinctly  claimed  for 
the  law.  (3)  There  has  been  no  consensus 
of  opinion  among  the  critics.  Till  lately 
they  have  been  divided  among  themselves. 
Theories  of  the  successive  order  of  the  va¬ 
rious  parts  of  the  book  have  been  violently 
reversed.  First,  the  Elohistic  part  was 
said  to  be  the  earliest;  now,  it  is  said  to  be 
the  latest.  Wellhausen’s  theory  holds  the 
field  for  the  present  only  by  having  ousted 
rival  theories.  (4)  Except  in  the  case  of 
the  Book  of  Deuteronomy,  the  separate 
parts  of  the  Pentateuch  are  not  kept  dis¬ 
tinct.  They  are  mixed  up  in  closely  asso¬ 
ciated  sections.  We  pass  to  and  fro  in  the 
same  book  between  the  Jehovistic  narrative 
and  the  priestly  code.  In  analyzing  the 
books  on  the  new  theory,  they  have  to  be 
cut  up  into  numerous  fragments,  and  these 
fragments  sorted  out  by  the  aid  of  a  refined 
critical  faculty.  (5)  The  theory  is  contra¬ 
dicted  by  statements  in  the  character  of  the 
supposed  later  writings  appearing  in  the 
middle  of  what  is  unquestionably  of  the 
earlier  date.  This  difficulty  is  met  by  the 
assertion  that  the  statements  have  been  in¬ 
serted  by  a  later  hand.  And  yet  it  is  on 


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the  very  ground  of  the  absence  of  such 
statements  in  the  early  writing  that  the 
other  writings  with  which  they  agree  are 
said  to  be  later.  Is  not  this  reasoning  in  a 
circle  ?  (6)  Nations  do  not  always  progress, 
and  development  is  not  unbroken.  It  may 
well  be  that  a  law  which  a  people  could  not 
yet  live  up  to  should  lie  in  abeyance  and 
be  ignored  by  the  nation.  As  much  as  this 
was  implied  by  Josiah’s  reformation,  when 
he  discovered  the  book  of  the  law  and  set 
to  work  to  bring  the  national  worship  into 
harmony  with  it.  It  may  be  taken  as 
proved  by  the  critics  that  the  Levitical  sys¬ 
tem  was  neglected  during  the  history  of  the 
Judges  and  the  Kings.  We  need  not  be 
surprised  at  this  when  we  think  of  the  dark 
ages  through  which  Israel  passed.  It  may 
be  admitted,  further,  that  while  the  people 
were  not  yet  ready  to  appreciate  the  law, 
and,  indeed,  were  wholly  ignorant  of  its  ex¬ 
istence,  inspired  prophets,  such  as  Samuel 
and  Elijah,  themselves  perhaps  not  know¬ 
ing  the  law,  would  be  permitted  by  God  to 
lead  the  people  according  to  the  measure  of 
their  light.  Moreover,  the  moral  and  spir¬ 
itual  standpoint  of  the  prophets  of  Isaiah’s 
age  is  in  advance  of  that  of  the  law.  (7) 
The  disintegrating  critics  are  not  strong  in 
showing  the  changes  of  language  to  be  in 
harmony  with  their  theory.  (8)  Archaeol¬ 
ogy  supports  the  historical  genuineness  of 
the  Pentateuch.  The  late  discoveries  of 
the  Egyptian  Exploration  Society,  and  all 
that  has  been  deciphered  from  monuments 
throwing  any  light  on  the  subject,  tend  to 
establish  the  authenticity  of  the  history. 
The  route  of  the  exodus  is  confirmed  by 
Professor  Palmer  and  M.  Naville.  Such 
an  able  Egyptologist  as  Mr.  Reginald  Stew¬ 
art  Poole  declares  that  the  most  recent  dis¬ 
coveries  and  interpretation  of  hieroglyphics 
distinctly  favor  the  antiquity  of  the  Penta¬ 
teuch.  Egyptian  names  are  given  more 
correctly  in  the  Pentateuch  than  in  the  later 
histories,  and  the  details  are  true  to  Egyp¬ 
tian  life.  (9)  The  archaic  flavor  of  the 
earlier  part  of  the  Pentateuch  can  be  appre¬ 
ciated  by  the  ordinary  reader.  It  is  diffi¬ 
cult  to  think  that  those  naive  writings  that 
seem  to  hover  on  the  horizon  of  history, 
and  speak  to  us  out  of  the  childhood  of  the 
race,  are  literary  compositions  of  the  latest 
ages  of  Hebrew  literature. 

“  On  the  whole  it  may  well  be  conceded 
that  the  Pentateuch  has  undergone  editing 
from  an  inspired  Ezra,  and  that  it  has  borne 
the  marks  of  the  hand  of  scribes  later  than 
its  author.  But  the  truth  of  the  glorious 
history  which  it  records  stands  unshaken.” 
— Bagster:  Bible  Helps.  See  the  defense  of 
the  Mosaic  authorship  of  the  Pentateuch; 
Keil:  Introduction  to  the  Old  Testament 
(Eng.  trans.  1869),  2  vols. ;  W.  H.  Green: 


Moses  and  the  Prophets  (1882);  Bissell;  The 
Pentateuch:  Its  Origin  and  Structure  (1885). 
In  favor  of  the  Graf-Wellhausen  theory: 
Kuenen:  Religion  of  Israel  (Eng.  trans.)  3 
vols.;  Wellhausen,  art.  “  Israel  ”  in  Ency. 
Britannicaj  W.  R.  Smith:  The  ATew  Testa- 
ment  in  the  Jewish  Church  (1881). 

Pentecost,  (1)  The  Jewish. — “  This  fes¬ 
tival  was  the  second  of  the  great  Jewish 
feasts,  and  was  so  called  as  being  held  on 
the  ‘fiftieth’  day  after  the  second  day  of 
the  Passover.  It  was  called  also  ‘  the  feast 
of  the  harvest,  the  first-fruits  of  labor’ 
(Ex.  xxiii.  16),  ‘  the  feast  of  weeks  ’(Num. 
xxviii.  26),  and  ‘the  day  of  first-fruits.’ 
The  fifty  days,  of  which  it  was  the  last, 
represented  the  period  of  the  grain-harvest 
— the  sheaf  of  the  Passover  denoting  the 
commencement,  and  the  offering  of  two 
loaves  at  the  Pentecost  denoting  the  ter¬ 
mination.  These  loaves  were  to  be  of  native 
wheat,  and  leavened;  and  the  offering  of 
them  constituted  the  distinguishing  rite  of 
the  feast,  which  was  accompanied,  more¬ 
over,  with  sacrifices  peculiar  to  itself.  (Lev. 
xxiii.)  It  was  of  a  more  freely  festive 
character,  and  of  more  general  celebration 
than  the  Passover,  although  in  observing 
it  the  people  were  likewise  reminded  of 
their  deliverance  from  Egypt,  and  their 
obligation  to  keep  the  law  of  their  Deliv¬ 
erer.  It  is  regarded  by  the  Jews  as  com¬ 
memorative  of  the  giving  of  the  Law  on 
Mount  Sinai,  and  it  is  said  to  have  been 
the  custom  among  them  at  one  time  to 
spend  the  eve  of  the  festival  in  thangsgiv- 
ing  to  Jehovah  for  this  gift.” — Bagster: 
Bible  Helps. 

(2)  The  Christian. — Among  ancient  Chris¬ 
tian  writers  the  term  signifies  sometimes 
the  whole  time  between  the  Easter  and  the 
Whitsun  Festivals,  and  sometimes  the  lat¬ 
ter  festival  alone.  The  whole  period  of 
fifty  days,  being  kept  in  honor  and  memory 
of  the  Saviour’s  Resurrection,  was  a  time 
of  more  than  ordinary  joy,  and  it  was  a 
custom  of  very  general  observance  to 
worship  standing,  instead  of  kneeling,  dur¬ 
ing  the  whole  of  this  space,  to  mark  its 
joyful  character.  At  a  later  period  the 
Fast  of  the  Rogation  Days  was  introduced, 
modifying  the  ancient  custom  in  the  Church 
of  excluding  fasting  from  this  season. 

Perfectionists,  those  who  believe  that  it 
is  possible  to  attain  to  actual  perfection  in 
this  life.  There  are  four  classes  of  Per¬ 
fectionists:  (1)  The  Roman  Catholics,  who 
teach  that  a  man  may,  by  obedience,  be¬ 
come  free  from  all  mortal  sin,  though  still 
subject  to  fall  into  venial  sin;  and  even 
this  tendency  may  be  done  away  through 
the  special  favor  of  God.  (2)  The  Wesleyan 


Per 


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Per 


Arminians,  who  teach  Christian  perfection , 
namely,  the  fulfilment  of  the  Law  bv  faith 
and  love,  through  the  grace  of  God,  though 
the  infirmity  of  the  body  prevents  it  from 
being  absolute  in  the  eyes  of  men.  (3) 
Many  Quakers,  who  say  that  in  souls  justi¬ 
fied  by  God  “  the  body  of  death  and  sin 
comes  to  be  crucified  and  removed,  and 
their  hearts  united  and  subjected  unto  the 
truth,  so  as  not  to  obey  any  suggestion  or 
temptation  of  the  Evil  One,  but  to  be  free 
from  actual  sinning  and  transgressing  of 
the  law  of  God,  and  in  that  respect  per¬ 
fect.”  Yet  this  theory  does  not  preclude 
the  possibility  of  attaining  to  a  higher  de¬ 
gree  of  perfection,  nor  of  falling  away  from 
a  state  of  grace.  (4)  The  Oberlin  school 
of  theology,  who  say  that  perfection  is  to 
be  reached  by  a  life  of  implicit  obedience, 
which  effectually  prevents  the  possibility 
of  sin,  since  virtue  and  sin  cannot  exist  in 
the  same  soul  at  the  same  time.  The  Cal¬ 
vinists  and  Lutherans  absolutely  reject  the 
theory  of  Perfectionism. — Benham:  Diet, 
of  Religion.  The  Wesleyan-Arminian  view 
is  given  by  Wesley :  Plain  Account  of  Chris¬ 
tian  Perfection]  Fletcher:  Christian  Perfec¬ 
tion.  For  the  Calvinistic  view  see  Hodge: 
Systematic  Theology ,  iii. ,  p.  245. 

Per'gamos,  the  seat  of  one  of  the  seven 
churches  of  Asia.  (Rev.  i.  11;  ii.  12-17.) 
It  was  a  celebrated  city  of  Mysia,  about 
three  miles  north  of  the  river  Caicus,  and 
some  twenty  miles  from  the  sea.  It  was 
noted  for  its  great  wealth,  and  an  immense 
library  of  200.000  volumes,  which  was 
presented  to  Cleopatra  by  Antony,  who  re¬ 
moved  it  to  Egypt,  when  it  was  destroyed 
with  the  Alexandrine  Library,  by  Caliph 
Omar.  The  city  is  now  called  Bergama, 
and  has  a  population  of  from  20,000  to  30,- 
000,  of  which  about  2,000  are  Christians. 
Many  ruins  of  churches  and  temples  attest 
its  former  magnificence. 

Pericopes,  portions  of  the  New  Testa¬ 
ment  to  be  read  in  the  ancient  Christian 
Church  on  Sunday  and  festivals.  Some 
say  that  the  selection  was  made  as  early  as 
apostolic  times,  while  others  fix  the  time 
as  the  fourth  century,  and  some  as  late  as 
the  eighth  century.  The  custom  corre¬ 
sponds  with  the  Jewish  Parashas  and  Haph- 
tarahs.  The  Parashas  were  fifty-four  sec¬ 
tions,  into  which  the  Law  was  divided,  so 
that  the  whole  of  it  should  be  read  during 
the  year.  The  Haphtarahs  were  fifty-four 
sections  chosen  from  the  Prophets,  and 
read  in  like  manner.  This  is  still  contin¬ 
ued  among  the  modern  Jews,  but  the  por¬ 
tions  of  the  Prophets  now  read  generally 
omit  the  prophecies  regarding  the  Messiah. 

The  method  of  selection  of  the  lessons 


in  Episcopal  Churches  is  given  in  the  Pray¬ 
er-Book. 

In  the  Roman  missal  each  mass  has  two 
Scripture  lessons,  which  are  mostly  taken 
from  the  Vulgate  Version. 

The  Greek  Church  has  special  Epistles 
and  Gospels  for  every  week-day,  as  well 
as  every  Sunday  and  Salt’s  Day. 

In  the  Armenian  Church,  Scripture  read¬ 
ing  takes  a  very  important  place;  from 
Easter  to  Pentecost  they  have  three  ser¬ 
vices  a  day,  and  portions  from  the  Old  and 
New  Testaments  specially  selected  for  each 
service. — Benham:  Did.  of  Religion. 

Perkins,  Justin,  an  eminent  American 
missionary  in  Persia;  b.  at  West  Spring- 
field,  Mass.,  March  12,  1805;  d.  at  Chico¬ 
pee,  Mass.,  Dec.  13,  1869.  He  was  grad¬ 
uated  at  Amherst  in  1829,  and  after  study¬ 
ing  theology  at  Andover  Seminary,  he  was 
sent,  in  1833,  by  the  American  Board,  to 
the  Nestorians  in  Persia.  For  thirty-six 
years  he  had  charge  of  the  mission  at 
Oroomiah.  He  translated  the  Bible  and 
other  books  into  the  Nestorian  dialect.  In 
1842  he  returned  to  the  United  States,  and 
made  a  tour,  accompanied  by  Mar  Yohan- 
nan,  a  convert  and  former  Nestorian  bishop, 
whose  presence  and  addresses  awakened  a 
deep  interest.  Dr.  Perkins  returned  to 
Persia,  and  labored  with  marked  success 
almost  to  the  time  of  his  death.  He  wrote: 
A  Residence  of  Eight  Years  in  Persia  among 
the  Nestorian  Christians  (1843);  Missionary 
Life  in  Persia  (1861). 

Perrone,  Giovanni,  Roman  Catholic  the¬ 
ologian,  was  born  at  Chieri  (Piedmont)  in 
1794;  studied  theology  at  Turin,  and  in 
his  twenty-first  year  went  to  Rome,  where 
he  joined  the  Society  of  Jesus,  and,  after 
his  ordination  to  the  priesthood,  became 
a  teacher  in  the  Collegium  Romanum. 
From  Ferrara,  where  he  was  rector  of  the 
Jesuit  College  after  1830,  he  returned  to 
his  teaching  work  in  Rome,  being  made 
head  of  his  old  college  in  1850.  He  died  on 
Aug.  26,  1876.  He  was  the  author  of  nu¬ 
merous  dogmatic  works,  which,  as  clearly 
and  faithfully  reflecting  the  prevailing  ten¬ 
dencies  of  Roman  theology,  obtained  wide 
currency,  and  were  extensively  translated. 
They  may  still  be  regarded  as  representing 
most  nearly  the  modern  orthodoxy  of  his 
church.  The  Prcelediones  T hcologicce  (1835) 
may  be  specially  named. 

Perronet,  Edward,  d.  1792;  wasapreach- 
er  in  John  Wesley’s  connection,  and  that 
of  the  Countess  of  Huntingdon,  and  after¬ 
ward  an  Independent  Dissenter.  He  pub¬ 
lished,  in  1785,  Occasional  Verses,  Moral 
and  Sacred,  in  which  is  found  the  well- 


Per 


(  730  ) 


Per 


known  hymn:  “All  hail  the  power  of  Jesus’ 
name.” 

Perry,  Right  Rev.  William  Stevens, 
S.  T.  D.  (Trinity  College,  Hartford,  Conn., 
1869),  LL.  D.  (William  and  Mary  College, 
Williamsburg,  Va. ,  1876),  D.  D.,  Oxon. 
(Oxford  University,  Eng.,  1888),  the  second 
bishop  of  Iowa;  b.  at  Providence,  R.  I., 
Jan.  22,  1832.  He  was  graduated  at  Har¬ 
vard  College  in  1854,  and  studied  theology 
at  the  Alexandria  Theological  Seminary, 
Va. ;  became  assistant  minister  at  St. 
Paul’s,  Boston,  Mass.,  1857;  rector  of  St. 
Luke’s,  Nashua,  N.  H.,  1858;  of  St.  Ste¬ 
phens,  Portland,  Me.,  i86r;  of  St.  Mi¬ 
chael’s,  Litchfield,  Conn.,  1864;  of  Trinity, 
Geneva,  N.  Y. ,  1869;  president  of  Hobart 
College,  Geneva,  N.  Y. ,  April,  1876;  con¬ 
secrated  bishop,  Sept.  10,  1876.  Bishop 
Perry  has  been  an  indefatigable  student  of 
the  history  of  the  American  Episcopal 
Church,  and  since  1868  has  held  the  official 
position  of  its  historiographer.  His  nu¬ 
merous  publications  in  this  field  of  histor¬ 
ical  research  are  invaluable  to  those  who 
desire  to  learn  the  history  of  the  Episcopal 
Church  in  this  country. 

Persecutions.  The  causes  of  persecution 
in  religious  history  are  manifold  and  com¬ 
plicated.  The  Lord  Jesus  Christ  was  per¬ 
secuted  by  the  Pharisees  because  he  ex¬ 
posed  their  hypocrisy,  and  by  the  Jews  in 
general  because  he  ran  counter  to  their 
prejudices.  These  causes  produced  a  like 
treatment  of  his  apostles;  and  the  igno¬ 
rance  of  the  heathen  was  another  cause  of 
persecution:  the  Christians  were  confound¬ 
ed  by  them  with  the  rebellious  Jews,  and 
indiscriminately  persecuted.  Thus  the 
historian  Suetonius  says  that  Christ  excited 
the  Jews  to  frequent  tumults.  Further¬ 
more,  Gentile  superstition  came  to  the  in¬ 
crease  of  persecution:  the  heathen  could 
not  endure  a  sect  which  aimed  at  the  de¬ 
struction  of  the  worship  of  their  gods. 
The  Jews  frequently  escaped  rough  treat¬ 
ment  simply  because,  though  they  practis¬ 
ed  their  own  rites,  they  let  those  of  the 
heathen  alone.  But  this  was  exactly  what 
the  Christians  would  not  do.  They  boldly 
called  on  men  “  to  turn  from  their  vanities 
and  serve  the  true  God  alone.”  Thus  it 
was  that  they  were  called  “  Atheists,”  as 
enemies  of  the  gods.  And  so  all  calumnies 
among  them  were  believed  by  the  super¬ 
stitious:  they  burned  Rome,  made  nightly 
conspiracies,  ate  human  flesh,  worshipped 
an  ass’s  head,  committed  adultery,  incest, 
infanticide.  The  base  heresies  of  the 
Nicolaitans,  Carpocratians,  and  others, 
sometimes  gave  color  to  the  slanders.  But 
another  cause,  which  influenced  some  of  the 


best  and  wisest  of  the  emperors,  was  found 
in  political  ideas.  The  Gentile  religion  was 
interwoven  with  the  State;  and  men  like 
Trajan,  who  conscientiously  believed  it 
their  duty  to  uphold  existing  institutions, 
regarded  Christianity  as  a  hostile,  and 
therefore  a  dangerous,  principle.  Its  pro¬ 
fessors  were  denounced  as  the  enemies  of 
kings,  of  laws,  and  of  the  human  race. 

The  persecutions  in  the  New  Testament 
were  (r)  about  Stephen,  (2)  by  Herod 
Agrippa  (Acts  xii. ) ,  (3)  those  stirred  up  by 
the  Jews  against  St.  Paul,  (4)  those  raised 
by  heathen  who  saw  that  their  gains  were 
endangered.  (Acts  xvi.  and  xx. ) 

In  Ecclesiastical  History  there  are  com¬ 
monly  reckoned  ten  persecutions.  They 
are  the  following,  notices  of  each  will  be 
found  under  their  several  names: 


Persecution 
of  ; 

Date. 

1. — Nero 

64-68 

2. — Domitian 

95-96 

3. — Trajan  .  . 

105-117 

4.  — Marcus  1 

Aurelius  j 

5.  — Septimius 

6.  — M  aximian 

166-180 

202-2 1 1 

235-238 

7. — Decius  .  . 

250-253 

8. — Valerian  . 

257—260 

9. — Aurelian  . 

275 

10. — Diocletian 

303-305 

Chief  Sufferers. 


St.  Peter  and  St.  Paul 
Consul  Flavius  Clemens 
(St.  John  sent  to  Pat¬ 
inos) 

Symeon  of  Jerusalem; 
Ignatius  of  Antioch 

Justin  Martyr  ;  Polycarp 
Perpetua  and  Felicitas 

\  Fabian  of  Rome  ;  Alex- 
"j  ander  of  Jerusalem 
(  Xystus  of  Rome  ;  Cyp- 
j  rian  of  Carthage 
Execution  of  Edict  pre¬ 
vented  by  death  of 
emperor 

Anthimus  of  Nicome- 
dia;  St.  Alban 


The  accession  of  Constantine  the  Great, 
the  first  Christian  emperor,  put  an  end  to 
the  persecutions  of  Christianity  by  the 
Empire.  Would  that  no  more  needed  to  be 
added  to  this  article.  But  Christian  history 
has  to  record  that  persecution  has  been 
used  as  a  weapon  age  after  age  for  enforc¬ 
ing  obedience  to  that  form  of  religion  which 
is  strongest.  The  Arian  controversy, 
which  began  the  reign  of  Constantine,  was 
the  signal  for  persecution,  now  by  the 
Arians,  now  by  their  opponents.  “  Tolera¬ 
tion,”  it  has  been  well  said,  “  was  the  last 
Christian  virtue  to  be  learned.”  It  was 
argued  that  as  error  of  opinion  leads  to 
disorganization  of  society,  to  moral  evils, 
and  (in  early  opinion)  to  everlasting  perdi¬ 
tion,  such  error  must  be  put  down  like  any 
other  offence  against  the  well-being  of  the 
commonwealth.  The  barbarous  nations 
who  broke  into  the  Roman  Empire  and  de¬ 
stroyed  it  were  frequently  persecutors. 
Thus  the  Vandals,  both  in  their  heathen 
days,  and  also  after  they  had  embraced  the 
Arian  faith,  desolated  the  Church,  and  per¬ 
secuted  those  who  remained  faithful  to  the 


Per 


(  73i  ) 


Pet 


ancient  creed  to  death.  The  English,  on 
arriving  as  heathen  in  this  country,  per¬ 
secuted  the  Christian  Britons,  destroyed 
their  churches,  and  drove  them  into  the 
mountains.  The  cruelties  of  the  Moham¬ 
medans  when  they  began  their  career  of 
conquest  were  terrible  and  remorseless. 
“  The  Koran  or  the  sword  ”  was  their  sole 
alternative  to  all  who  fell  into  their  power. 
During  the  Middle  Ages  all  movements  in 
the  direction  of  free  thought  were  regarded 
by  the  dominant  religion  as  warfare  against 
the  Kingdom  of  God.  The  persecutions 
of  the  Waldenses  and  Albigenses,  and  the 
establishment  of  the  Inquisition,  are  de¬ 
scribed  in  their  places,  as  are  also  the  Hus¬ 
site  wars,  the  persecutions  of  the  Lollards, 
and  the  fires  of  Smithfield  in  the  reign  of 
Queen  Mary.  On  the  accession  of  Eliza¬ 
beth  the  tables  were  turned,  and  the  spirit 
of  persecution  was  directed  against  the 
Roman  Catholics,  who  were  proceeded 
against  as  traitors  to  the  State,  and  fined 
and  imprisoned  for  not  attending  the  es¬ 
tablished  worship.  Cases  also  occurred 
occasionally  of  punishment  by  death  for 
heresy,  a  penalty  inflicted  by  Elizabeth 
upon  both  Baptists  and  Independents  (y. 
v. ).  There  were  those  who  left  England 
for  America  in  order  to  secure  “freedom 
to  worship  God;”  but  even  these  in  turn 
became  persecutors  both  of  those  who  pre¬ 
ferred  Episcopacy  to  Independency,  and 
also  of  the  Quakers.  The  same  spirit 
showed  itself  on  both  sides  in  England  in 
the  days  of  the  Commonwealth  and  of  the 
Stuarts;  and  the  history  of  the  Scottish 
Covenanters  is  a  touching  narrative  of  per¬ 
secutions  bravely  endured.  The  Act  of 
Toleration  may  be  said  to  have  put  an  end 
to  persecution  as  a  legalized  instrument  in 
England,  but  the  spirit  will  hardly  be 
eliminated  from  mankind,  except  as  human 
nature  itself  is  altered  by  the  influence  of 
the  Gospel  of  Christ. — Benham:  Did.  of 
Religion. 

Perseverance  of  Saints,  “  a  doctrine  nec¬ 
essarily  resulting  from  the  most  essential 
parts  of  the  Calvinistic  system,  and,  there¬ 
fore,  held  by  almost  all  who  adopt  the 
Calvinistic  or  Augustinian  doctrines.  It 
is  advocated  not  only  by  arguments  from 
other  doctrines,  as  those  of  election,  atone¬ 
ment,  the  intercession  and  mediatorial 
dominion  of  Christ,  imputed  righteousness 
and  regeneration,  but  also  from  many  texts 
of  Scripture,  as  those  which  declare  eternal 
life  to  be  always  connected  with  believing, 
and  those  which  encourage  the  believer  to 
depend  upon  the  faithfulness,  love,  and 
omnipotence  of  God.  To  an  objection  very 
commonly  urged  against  it,  that  it  tends 
to  make  men  careless  concerning  virtue 


and  holiness,  its  advocates  reply  that  this 
objection  is  only  valid  against  a  doctrine 
very  different  from  theirs,  the  true  doctrine 
of  perseverance  of  saints  being  one  of  per¬ 
severance  in  holiness,  and  giving  no  en¬ 
couragement  to  a  confidence  of  final  salva¬ 
tion  which  is  not  connected  with  a  present 
and  even  an  increasing  holiness.” — Cham¬ 
bers:  Cydopcedia . 

Persia.  The  prevailing  religion  of  Per¬ 
sia,  until  it  fell  into  the  hands  of  the 
Arabs  in  651,  has  been  described  in  the 
article  Parsees  ( q .  v.).  Then  the  greater 
part  of  the  population  embraced  Moham¬ 
medanism:  Persia  developed  that  special 
branch  of  Islamism  which  is  mystical  and 
is  seen  under  the  form  of  Dervishes  ( q .  v.). 
Their  founder,  Meolana,  was  born  at  the 
beginning  of  the  fourteenth  century;  there 
are  now  thirty-six  dervish  sects  spread  in 
the  surrounding  countries.  It  is  a  most 
powerful  sect,  both  in  the  Ottoman  and 
Persian  Empires.  The  Sultan  is  never 
deemed  as  fully  invested  with  the  imperial 
power  till  he  has  received  the  sword  from 
the  successor  of  Meolana  Jelalu-d-hin,  and 
at  the  present  time  the  Caliphate  seems  to 
be  within  its  grasp. 

Persia  has  been  the  scene  of  many  mis¬ 
sions  —  Nestorian  and  Roman  Catholic 
missions,  which  have  left  little  trace  be¬ 
hind  them;  and  in  the  middle  of  the  last 
century  a  Moravian  mission,  which  was 
unsuccessful. — Benham:  Did.  of  Religion. 
During  this  century,  since  the  brief  stay 
of  Martyn  (1811-12),  a  few  devoted  mis¬ 
sionaries  have  labored  with  increasing 
success  among  the  Nestorians.  The  work 
of  Dr.  Perkins,  who  began  his  labors  in 
1834,  is  well  known  in  the  United  States. 
At  the  present  time  efforts  are  being  made 
to  reach  the  Armenians  and  Mohammedans. 
The  Presbyterian  Church  has  the  largest 
representation  in  the  number  of  mission¬ 
aries  now  in  Persia. 

Peru.  The  great  majority  of  the  peo¬ 
ple,  who  are  of  Indian  descent,  are  Roman 
Catholics.  The  Church  is  still  wealthy, 
although,  since  the  establishment  of  the  re¬ 
public,  much  of  the  property  which  it  held 
under  Spanish  rule  has  been  confiscated. 
The  bishops  are  appointed  by  the  govern¬ 
ment  and  are  treated  as  government  of¬ 
ficials. 

Peshito.  See  Bible,  Sec.  III.,  p.  106. 

Peter.  “  I.  His  Life.  — ‘  Peter’  is  the 
Greek  equivalent  of  the  Syriac  appellative 
‘  Cephas,’  meaning  a  stone  or  a  rock,  with 
which  Christ  saluted  Simon  when  he  first 
met  him.  He  made  good  his  right  to  this 


Pet 


(  732  ) 


Pet 


title  by  that  confession  of  his  which  is  the 
rock  on  which  Christianity  is  grounded 
and  rooted  (Matt.  xvi.  16),  himself  being 
the  first  ‘living  stone’  in  the  temple;  by 
his  being  deemed  worthy  to  be  charged 
with  the  keys  of  the  kingdom  of  heaven 
{ib.  19);  by  his  being  entrusted  especially 
with  the  pastorate  of  the  lambs  of  Christ’s 
flock  (John  xxi.  15-17);  by  his  being  the 
first  to  declare,  and  that  in  Jerusalem  it¬ 
self,  the  Messiahship  of  the  crucified  Jesus 
(Acts  ii.  14-36);  and  by  his  being  the  first 
to  acknowledge  the  equal  right  of  the 
Gentiles  to  a  share  in  the  inheritance  of 
Israel.  (Acts  x. )  He  is  the  principal  fig¬ 
ure  in  the  history  of  the  early  Christian 
Church,  but  is  soon  eclipsed  by  the  over¬ 
powering  presence  and  zeal  of  Paul.  He 
disappears  after  the  first  Council  of  Jeru¬ 
salem,  and  the  only  other  mention  we  have 
of  him  is  in  Gal.  ii.  11-14,  till  he  comes  be¬ 
fore  the  Church  as  the  author  of  I.  Peter  and 
the  subsequent  epistle.  He  figures  con¬ 
spicuously,  indeed,  in  ecclesiastical  tradi¬ 
tion  and  legend,  but  from  this  source  little 
that  is  trustworthy  can  be  gathered  beyond 
the  fact,  perhaps,  that  he  finished  his  career 
by  martyrdom  in  the  city  of  Rome. 

“I  I.  His  Epistles:  I.  Peter. — This  epistle 
is  addressed  to  the  churches  in  the  district 
of  Asia  Minor  mentioned  in  chap.  i.  I,  and 
especially  those  members  of  them  who  were 
of  Jewish  origin.  These  churches  appear 
to  have  been  all  directly  or  indirectly 
founded  by  Paul,  although  the  seed  of  the 
gospel  may  have  been  first  introduced  by 
those  Jews  who,  as  we  read  in  Acts  ii.  10, 
came  up  from  thence  to  Jerusalem,  and 
witnessed  the  events  of  the  day  of  Pente¬ 
cost,  in  connection  with  which  Peter  took 
so  prominent  a  part,  and  might  be  repre¬ 
sented  to  be  the  chief  actor.  Thus  it  might 
naturally  happen  that  his  name  would  be 
regarded  with  honor  among  the  Jewish 
Christians  in  those  parts,  and  that  he  him¬ 
self  might  be  led  to  take  a  paternal  inter¬ 
est  in  their  affairs.  This  epistle  was 
quoted  by  Polycarp  and  recognized  by  Pa- 
pias  early  in  the  second  century;  later,  it 
was  repeatedly  quoted  by  Irenseus,  Clem¬ 
ent  of  Alexandria,  Origen,  and  Tertullian. 
The  internal  notices  of  names,  places,  and 
conditions  of  church  life  all  bespeak  its 
genuineness.  So  does  its  character  of 
spiritual  riches.  The  epistle  has  been  re¬ 
ceived  by  Christians  in  all  ages  and  with¬ 
out  reasonable  doubt.  It  appears  to  have 
been  written  from  Babylon,  which  has  very 
questionably  been  identified  by  some  with 
Rome;  and  is  referred  to  the  date  when 
Paul  wrote  his  epistles  to  Timothy,  on  the 
ground  that  the  state  of  things  described 
in  it  corresponds  exactly  with  that  de¬ 
scribed  in  them.  It  must  be  allowed,  how¬ 


ever,  that  it  is  difficult  to  determine  the 
time,  place,  and  circumstances  in  which  the 
epistle  was  written.  The  occasion  of 
Peter’s  writing  this  epistle  was  the  report 
which  Silvanus  had  brought  him  of  the 
fiery  persecution  with  which  the  churches 
addressed  were  being  threatened  by  the 
civil  power,  and  of  the  outrages  they  were 
suffering  on  account  of  the  odium  of  the 
Christian  name,  associated  as  it  was  with 
evil-doing,  especially  disloyalty  and  revolu¬ 
tion  (chap.  iii.  16);  and  his  object  in  writ¬ 
ing  it  was  to  comfort  and  fortify  the  Church 
in  view  of  the  impending  fiery  trial,  to  en¬ 
force  on  its  members  the  duties — personal, 
social,  and  domestic — of  their  Christian 
calling  as  the  best  answer  to  the  charges 
of  their  accusers,  to  prove  to  them  how 
completely  their  discharge  of  these  depend¬ 
ed  on  a  spiritual  apprehension  of  Christ 
and  his  work.  The  churches  addressed 
are  especially  comforted  and  encouraged 
by  the  hope  of  the  coming  of  the  Lord, 
which  is  represented  as  not  far  off.  The 
character  of  the  epistle  corresponds  with 
that  of  the  writer  as  revealed  in  the  Gos¬ 
pels  and  the  Acts,  being  ‘  ardent,  impas¬ 
sioned,  practical,  and  unspeculative,’  and 
as  showing  a  mind  ‘  which  held  with  a  fine 
Hebraic  vehemence  of  faith  the  great  facts 
and  principles  of  Christianity,  but  could 
not,  like  the  more  subtle  and  logical  Paul, 
give  them  a  systematic  expression.’ 

“  II.  Peter. — This  epistle  has  been  re¬ 
garded  with  more  doubt  than  any  other  book 
of  the  New  Testament.  In  the  time  of  Eu¬ 
sebius  it  was  reckoned  among  the  disputed 
books,  and  references  to  it  cannot  be  defi¬ 
nitely  fixed  upon  before  Origen,  in  the  third 
century,  though  the  so-called  second  epistle 
of  Clement  of  Rome,  the  Shepherd  of  Her¬ 
nias,  Justin  Martyr,  Melito  of  Sardis,  Ire- 
naeus,  and  Theophilus  have  been  thought 
by  some  to  have  alluded  to  it.  II.  Peter 
ii.  1-19  is  so  like  Jude  3-16  that  one  of  the 
passages  must  have  been  taken  from  the 
other,  and  that  in  Jude  appears  to  be  the 
original.  This  epistle  is  less  Jewish  in 
tone  than  I.  Peter,  and  is  not  like  it  in 
style,  and  the  people  addressed  seem  to  be 
different  from  those  addressed  in  the  first 
epistle,  being  established  Christians,  not 
the  scattered  Dispersion,  yet  they  are  de¬ 
scribed  as  the  same  (chap.  iii.  1).  But  the 
epistle  might  be  genuine,  and  little  known 
in  the  early  Church,  because  not  much  in 
circulation,  and  perhaps  even  lost  sight  of 
for  a  time.  Origen  seems  to  have  reckoned 
it  as  Scripture,  and  if  so  he  probably  re¬ 
ceived  it  as  such  from  an  earlier  age.  It 
has  been  suggested  that  perhaps  Silvanus 
helped  the  fisherman-apostle  with  the  ear¬ 
lier  work,  and  Mark  or  some  other  friend 
with  the  later  one,  and  that  so  the  varia- 


Pet 


(  733  ) 


Pet 


tions  in  style  may  be  accounted  for.  The 
churches  had  grown  in  power  and  changed 
in  character  during  the  interval  between 
the  writing  of  the  two  epistles;  and  thus, 
while  the  first  refers  to  external  enemies, 
the  second  is  required  to  treat  of  internal 
dangers.  Hence  a  necessary  change  of 
tone.  Further,  it  may  be  asked,  Why 
should  not  Peter  have  quoted  from  Jude  ? 
The  epistle  was  received  as  in  the  Canon 
at  the  Council  of  Laodicea  (372  A.  D.),  and 
the  Council  of  Carthage  (397  A.  D.). 

“  This  epistle  professes  to  be  addressed  to 
some  at  least  of  those  to  whom  the  former 
epistle  was  sent  (chap.  iii.  1),  only  they  are 
described  in  more  general  terms  than  those 
to  whom  that  was  written  (chap.  i.  1),  so 
as  to  include  all  who  bore  the  Christian 
name.  The  occasion  for  writing  this  epis¬ 
tle  was  the  appearance  in  the  Church  of 
certain  fatal  forms  of  error,  both  doctrinal 
and  practical,  and  the  purpose  in  writing 
was  a  desire  to  confirm  the  Christians  in 
the  faith  they  had  received.  The  object 
throughout  is  twofold,  and  is  given  in 
chap.  iii.  17,  18 — the  first,  that  the  readers 
might  believe,  lest,  being  led  away  with  the 
error  of  the  wicked,  they  should  fall  from 
their  steadfastness;  and  the  second,  that 
they  might  grow  in  grace  and  the  knowl¬ 
edge  of  their  Lord  and  Saviour;  this  last 
being  the  final  aim  of  the  whole,  as  the  one 
means  of  fellowship  with  God  (chap.  i.  3, 
4),  of  escape  from  the  pollutions  of  the 
world  (chap.  ii.  20),  and  access  into  the  di¬ 
vine  kingdom  (chap.  i.  11).  The  doctrinal 
errors  against  which  they  were  warned 
were  ( a )  the  denial  of  the  power,  and  ( b ) 
the  denial  or  the  coming  of  the  Lord  as 
judge;  and  the  practical  errors  were  of¬ 
fences  against  the  way  of  righteousness 
(chap.  ii.).  The  similarity  between  the 
second  chapter  of  the  epistle  and  the  Epis¬ 
tle  of  Jude  strikes  every  reader,  and  a  hy¬ 
pothesis  in  explanation  has  been  hazarded, 
that  Peter  had  seen  Jude’s  letter,  had  felt 
appalled  at  the  revelation,  and  deemed  it 
his  duty  to  caution  the  churches  he  had  al¬ 
ready  written  to  against  the  evils  described, 
adopting  Jude’s  terms  in  doing  so.  Com¬ 
pare  the  epistle  of  the  latter  with  his  ques¬ 
tion  and.  the  answer  in  John  xiv.  22-24.” — 
Bagster:  Bible  Helps.  See  Bible  diction¬ 
aries  of  Kitto,  and  Smith;  New  Testament 
Introductions  of  De  Wette  and  Reuss,  and 
the  standard  Commentaries. 

Peter,  Festivals  of.  There  were  for¬ 
merly  four  festivals  of  St.  Peter  kept:  (1) 
June  29,  the  day  on  which  SS.  Peter  and 
Paul  are  supposed  to  have  been  martyred 
at  Rome,  the  former  by  crucifixion,  with 
his  head  downward,  the  latter  by  behead¬ 
ing.  This  is  the  oldest  of  the  Feasts  of 


the  Apostles,  having  been  observed  since 
the  fourth  century.  (2)  February  22,  the 
festival  of  St.  Peter’s  Chair  at  Antioch. 
Though  there  is  no  account  in  the  Bible 
of  the  foundation  of  the  Church  at  Anti¬ 
och,  it  is  generally  believed  to  have  been 
the  work  of  St.  Peter,  who  established  his 
episcopal  chair  first  in  this  place.  (3)  Jan¬ 
uary  18,  St.  Peter’s  Chair  at  Rome.  Cel¬ 
ebrated  in  honor  of  St.  Peter’s  fixing  his 
episcopal  work  there  after  seven  years  at 
Antioch.  (4)  August  1,  St.  Peter’s  Chains, 
or  St.  Peter  ad  Vincula,  the  day  on  which 
the  Roman  Catholics  honor  his  chains,  and 
commemorate  his  miraculous  deliverance 
from  the  hands  of  Herod  Agrippa.  The 
1st  of  August  was  probably  the  day  on 
which  the  church  on  the  Esquiline  Hill 
was  dedicated  to  St.  Peter  in  Chains.  It 
was  built  by  Eudoxia,  wife  of  Valentine 
III.,  about  the  middle  of  the  fifth  century. 
— Benham:  Diet,  of  Religion. 

Peter  D’Ailly.  See  Ailli. 

Peter  of  Bruys.  See  Petrobrussians. 

Peter  Lombard.  See  Lombard. 

Peter  the  Hermit,  b.  at  Amiens  in  the 
middle  of  the  eleventh  century;  d.  in  the 
monastery  of  Neu  Montier,  in  the  diocese 
of  Liege,  July  7,  1115.  He  is  said  to  have 
conceived  the  idea  of  preaching  a  crusade 
after  returning  from  a  pilgrimage  to  the 
Holy  Land  in  1093.  His  enthusiasm  cre¬ 
ated  great  excitement,  and  large  numbers 
under  his  leadership  were  too  impatient  to 
wait  for  a  regular  army.  They  landed  at 
Constantinople  in  1096,  and  went  thence 
to  Bithynia,  where  they  were  defeated, 
and  but  3,000  returned  to  Constantinople. 
See  Crusades. 

Peter’s  Pence  denotes  a  money  tribute 
once  paid  annually  by  several  countries  to 
the  popes.  It  probably  originated  in  Eng¬ 
land,  where  it  was  collected  from  about 
740  until  it  was  abolished  by  Henry  VIII. 
in  1534.  The  tax  was  first  fixed  at  a  penny 
for  every  family,  but  was  afterward  re¬ 
quired  only  of  those  having  fixed  incomes. 
The  peter-pence  paid  to  the  pope  since 
i860,  which  placed  him  in  a  position  where 
he  could  decline  the  pension  offered  by 
the  Italian  Government,  is  a  gratuitous 
contribution. 

Peters,  or  Peter,  Hugh,  a  noted  Puri¬ 
tan;  b.  at  Fowey,  Cornwall,  Eng.,  1599; 
hanged  at  Charing  Cross,  London,  Oct.  16, 
1660.  Educated  at  Cambridge  (1622);  after 
his  ordination  he  preached  for  a  time  in 
London.  After  suffering  imprisonment  for 


Pet 


(  734  ) 


Phi 


nonconformity,  he  preached  to  a  congre¬ 
gation  at  Rotterdam.  Emigrating  to  New 
England  in  1636,  he  became  successor  of 
Roger  Williams  as  pastor  at  Salem.  Re¬ 
turning  to  England  in  1641,  he  interested 
himself  actively  in  the  fortunes  of  the  Puri¬ 
tan  party.  At  the  Restoration  he  was 
brought  to  trial  and  sentenced  to  be  hung 
as  a  regicide.  While  in  prison  he  wrote: 
A  Dying  Father  s  Last  Legacy  to  an  Only 
Child ,  published  in  1717. 

Petra.  See  Selah. 

Petrobrussians,  followers  of  the  heretic 
Peter  of  Bruys,  who  was  burnt  at  St.  Gil- 
les  about  A.  D.  1125.  The  only  authorities 
from  which  any  knowledge  of  the  sect  can 
be  gained  are  a  passage  in  Abelard,  and  a 
book  by  Peter  the  Venerable,  Adversus  Pe- 
trobrusianos  Hcereticos.  Peter  of  Bruys  ap¬ 
pears  to  have  been  an  ecclesiastic  holding 
some  benefice  in  the  south  of  France, 
where  he  first  began  to  publish  his  heresy, 
and  gained  many  followers  among  the  Cath- 
ari  at  Arles  and  elsewhere;  afterwards 
he  preached  with  great  success  at  Nar- 
bonne  and  Toulouse,  but  was  eventually 
seized  and  condemned  to  death.  He  pro¬ 
fessed  the  desire  to  restore  Christianity  to 
its  original  purity,  and  accepted  the  Gos¬ 
pels,  to  which  he  would  only  grant  a  liter¬ 
al  interpretation;  the  Epistles  he  partly 
rejected,  and  only  granted  to  them  a  deriv¬ 
ative  authority.  He  would  not  allow 
infant  baptism;  declared  that  the  Church 
being  invisible,  no  buildings  are  necessary 
as  places  of  worship,  for  the  Church  exists 
only  in  the  hearts  of  the  people;  denied 
not  only  the  Real  Presence  in  the  Eucharist, 
butalso  that  any  sacramental  character  is  at¬ 
tached  to  it,  and  regarded  it  simply  as  a 
historical  incident  in  Christ’s  life.  He  ob¬ 
jected  to  elaborate  ritual  of  any  kind,  to 
prayers  for  the  dead,  and  to  music  as  a 
part  of  divine  worship;  and  abhorred  the 
adoration  of  the  cross,  as  being  the  instru¬ 
ment  of  our  Lord’s  torture.  After  his 
death  the  sect  continued  to  flourish  for 
some  time,  but  finally  became  merged  in 
that  of  the  Henricians. — Benham:  Diet,  of 
Religion. 

Pew  is  a  word  derived  from  the  old 
French .pui,  an  elevated  space;  puye ,  an 
open  gallery  with  rails,  which  is  the  Latin 
podion,  a  balcony  where  distinguished  per¬ 
sons  sat  in  the  amphitheatre.  In  this  way 
the  name  pew  was  given  to  the  places  in 
churches  occupied  by  distinguished  per¬ 
sons.  As  a  rule,  pews  are  unknown  in 
Roman  Catholic  churches  on  the  Conti¬ 
nent.  In  England  they  date  from  the 
Reformation,  but  did  not  come  into  gen¬ 


eral  use  until  the  middle  of  the  seven¬ 
teenth  century. 

Pharaoh,  “which  the  Old  Testament 
often  uses  as  if  it  were  a  proper  name,  ap¬ 
plicable  to  any  king  of  Egypt,  though  some¬ 
times  such  a  distinguishing  name  as  Hoph- 
ra  (Apries,  Jer.  xliv.  30),  or  Necho  (Nekos, 
2  Kings  xxiii.  29)  is  added,  is  really  an 
Egyptian  title  of  the  monarch  (Peraa  or 
Phuro),  often  found  on  the  monuments. 
Apart  from  Hophraand  Necho.  the  biblical 
Pharaohs  cannot,  in  the  present  state  of 
Hebrew  and  Egyptian  chronology,  be  iden¬ 
tified  with  any  certainty.” — Ency.  Britan - 
nica. 

Pharisees,  “a  religious  party  whose 
name  was  derived  from  the  Hebrew  “  Pa- 
rush,”  separated ,  because  they  affected  very 
great  sanctity.  (John  vii.  49;  Acts  xxvi.  5.) 
They  were  strict  observers  of  external 
rites  and  ceremonies  beyond  the  require¬ 
ments  of  the  Law,  placing  the  traditions  of 
the  elders  on  an  equal  footing  with  the  writ¬ 
ten  oracles.  They  were  exclusive,  formal, 
self-righteous;  proud  of  their  unblemished 
descent  from  Abraham;  abjuring  Greek 
culture,  literature,  and  commerce;  adher¬ 
ing  to  the  land,  language,  and  proud  self- 
satisfaction  of  the  ancient  Hebrew  race. 
Jerusalem  was  their  capital;  their  language 
was  Aramaic;  the  Hebrew  Scriptures  were 
their  literature;  the  temple  their  one  cen¬ 
tre  of  devotion.  They  held  to  the  literal 
interpretation  of  the  Law  and  the  prophets; 
believed  in  spiritual  manifestations,  in  the 
pre-existence  and  immortality  of  the  soul, 
and  in  the  resurrection  of  the  dead.  They 
were  already  an  influential  body  in  the 
time  of  John  Hyrcanus  the  Maccabee  (b.  c. 
108).” — “  Oxford  ”  Bible  Helps. 

Philadelphia  ( brotherly  love),  a  city  on 
the  borders  of  Lydia  and  Phrygia,  about 
twenty-five  miles  southeast  from  Sardis, 
and  the  seat  of  one  of  the  seven  churches 
of  Asia.  (Rev.  i.  11;  iii.  7-13.)  It  was  built 
by  Attalus  Philadelphus,  king  of  Perga- 
mos,  who  died  b.  c.  138.  It  then  came 
under  the  power  of  the  Romans,  and  after 
its  destruction  by  an  earthquake,  A.  d.  17, 
it  was  restored,  and  became  a  place  of 
importance,  until  captured  by  the  Turks  in 
1390.  The  modern  city,  called  Allah- Shehr 
(beautiful  city),  has  a  population  of  about 
ten  thousand.  There  are  the  ruins  of  many 
churches,  and  a  solitary  pillar  is  one  of  the 
conspicuous  features  of  the  place. 

Philadelphian  Society  (Gr.  Philadelphia , 
brotherly  love),  a  sect  founded  in  1695 
by  an  aged  Englishwoman  named  Jane 
Lead.  She  embraced,  it  is  said,  the  same 


Phi 


(  735  ) 


Phi 


views  as  Madame  Bourignon  (y.  v. ).  She 
was  a  widow  of  good  family,  from  Norfolk, 
and  had  devoted  a  great  deal  of  time  to  the 
study  of  the  works  of  Jacob  Boehme  ( q .  v.). 
She  wrote  many  books  of  a  mystical  char¬ 
acter;  one  of  them  is  called  The  Wonders 
of  God's  Creation  Manifested  in  the  Variety 
of  Eight  Worlds ,  as  They  Were  Made  Knozun 
Experimentally  to  the  Author.  She  was  of 
opinion  that  all  dissensions  among  Chris¬ 
tians  would  cease,  and  the  Kingdom  of  the 
Redeemer  become,  even  here  below,  a 
glorious  scene  of  charity,  concord,  and 
happiness,  if  those  who  bear  the  name  of 
Jesus,  without  regarding  the  forms  of  doc¬ 
trine  or  discipline  that  distinguish  partic¬ 
ular  communions,  would  all  join  in  com¬ 
mitting  their  souls  to  the  care  of  the  internal 
guide ,  to  be  instructed,  governed,  and 


Philemon.  See  Paul. 

Phil'ip  the  Apostle.  His  name  in  the 
Synoptical  Gospels  and  the  Acts  occurs 
only  in  the  list  of  apostles.  (Matt.  x.  3; 
Mark  iii.  18;  Luke  vi.  14;  Acts  i.  13.)  He 
is  frequently  mentioned  in  the  Gospel  by 
John.  According  to  tradition  he  preached 
in  Phrygia,  and  died  at  Hierapolis. 

Philip,  “  ‘  the  evangelist,’  is  first  men¬ 
tioned  in  the  Acts  (vi.  5)  as  one  of  ‘  the 
seven  ’  who  were  chosen  to  attend  to  cer¬ 
tain  temporal  affairs  of  the  church  in  Jeru¬ 
salem,  in  consequence  of  the  murmurings 
of  the  Hellenists  against  the  Hebrews. 
After  the  martyrdom  of  Stephen  he  went 
to  Samaria,  wrhere  he  preached  with  much 
success,  Simon  Magus  being  one  of  his 


PHILADELPHIA,  ASIA  MINOR. 


formed  by  his  divine  impulse  and  sugges¬ 
tions.  She  declared  that  this  desirable 
event  would  come  to  pass,  and  that  she 
had  a  divine  commission  to  proclaim  the 
approach  of  this  glorious  communion  of 
saints,  who  were  to  be  gathered  in  one  vis¬ 
ible,  universal  church  or  kingdom  before 
the  dissolution  of  the  earth.  Thus  she  as¬ 
serted  that  her  Philadelphian  Society  was 
the  true  Kingdom  of  Christ,  in  which  alone 
the  Divine  Spirit  resided  and  reigned.  She 
died  in  1704  at  the  age  of  eighty-one.  She 
was  greatly  assisted  in  forming  her  society 
by  Dr.  Pordage,  one  of  the  Nonjurors, 
who  had  afterward  taken  to  medicine,  and 
who  was  a  great  spirit-seer.  The  Phila¬ 
delphians  helped  to  spread  the  doctrines  of 
mystical  piety  shown  in  the  writings  of 
William  Law  ( q .  v. ). — Benham:  Diet,  of 
Religion. 


converts.  He  afterward  instructed  and 
baptized  the  Ethiopian  eunuch  on  the  road 
between  Jerusalem  and  Gaza;  next  he  was 
*  caught  away  ’  by  the  Spirit  and  ‘  found 
at  Azotus  ’  (Ashdod),  whence,  *  passing 
through,  he  preached  in  all  the  cities  till 
he  came  to  Caesarea.’  (Acts  viii.)  Here, 
some  years  afterward,  according  to  Acts 
xxi.  8,  9,  he  entertained  Paul  and  his  com¬ 
panion  on  their  way  to  Jerusalem.  At  that 
time  ‘  he  had  four  daughters  which  did 
prophesy.’  At  a  very  early  period  he  came 
to  be  confounded  with  the  subject  of  the 
preceding  notice  (q.  v.)\  the  confusion  was 
all  the  more  easy  because,  while  he  un¬ 
doubtedly  could,  in  a  certain  well-under¬ 
stood  sense  of  the  word,  be  called  an 
‘  apostle,’  writers  naturally  refrained  from 
applying  to  him  the  more  ambiguous 
designation  of  ‘  evangelist.’  ‘  Philip  the 


Phi 


(  736  ) 


Phi 


deacon  ’  is  commemorated  on  the  6th  of 
June.” — Encv.  Britannica. 

Philip,  Landgrave  of  Hesse,  called 
“  The  Magnanimous;”  b.  at  Marburg, 
Nov.  23,  1504;  d.  there,  March  31,  1567. 
By  the  death  of  his  father  he  came  into 
possession  of  his  estates  at  the  age  of  four¬ 
teen  (1518).  He  was  present  at  the  Diet 
of  Worms  (1521),  and,  although  he  had 
taken  no  positive  stand  in  the  matter  of 
religious  belief,  he  insisted  that  Luther 
should  receive  full  protection,  and  even 
visited  him  at  his  lodgings.  In  1525  he 
took  open  sides  in  favor  of  the  Reforma¬ 
tion.  He  used  his  great  influence  in  an 
effort  to  unite  the  German  and  Swiss  Prot¬ 
estants,  but  was  only  partially  successful. 
In  1531  he  formed  the  Smalcaldian  League, 
and  in  various  directions  did  much  to  ad¬ 
vance  the  Reformation.  A  marriage  with 
Margarethe  von  der  Saal,  while  his  wife 
was  still  living,  although  made  with  the 
consent  of  his  wife  and  prominent  Reform¬ 
ers,  weakened  his  influence.  After  the 
Smalcaldian  war  (1546-47),  he  was  treach¬ 
erously  seized  by  the  emperor,  Charles 
V.,  and  imprisoned  for  five  years.  After 
his  release  he  acted  the  part  of  mediator 
on  several  occasions  between  the  Protes¬ 
tants  and  Roman  Catholics,  and  was  active 
in  the  conferences  of  Naumburg  in  1554, 
and  of  Worms  in  1557. 

Philip'pi,  the  chief  city  of  the  eastern 
division  of  Macedonia,  eight  miles  north¬ 
west  of  Neapolis,  its  seaport.  It  was  cap- 
.  tured  by  Philip,  the  father  of  Alexander 
the  Great,  from  the  Thracians,  and  given 
his  name.  It  was  here  the  famous  battle 
of  Philippi  was  fought,  B.  c.  42,  and  in 
honor  of  the  victory  Augustus  made  it  a 
Roman  “  colony.”  It  was  the  first  place 
in  Europe  to  receive  the  Gospel.  Paul  and 
Silas  preached  there,  and  Lydia  was  one 
of  their  converts.  The  story  of  their 
being  cast  into  prison,  and  the  conversion 
of  the  jailor,  is  told  in  Acts  xvi.  Paul  re¬ 
visited  the  city,  and  remained  there  some 
time.  (Acts  xx.  1—6.)  The  Christians  here 
were  generous  in  their  contributions  to  his 
support,  and  he  wrote  to  them  the  Epistle 
to  the  Philippians.  The  place  is  now  only 
interesting  on  account  of  its  ruins  and  as  - 
sociations. 

Philip'pians,  Epistle  to  the.  See  Paul. 

Philippists,  a  term  applied  to  the  follow¬ 
ers  of  Philip  Melanchthon.  It  first  desig¬ 
nated  those  who  accepted  the  theological 
views  of  Melanchthon,  but  afterward  it  was 
used  to  distinguish  the  party  which  sought 
to  bring  about  a  union  among  the  Prot¬ 


estants,  especially  the  Lutherans  and  Cal¬ 
vinists. 

Philis'tines.  “The  origin  of  the  Philis¬ 
tines  is  nowhere  expressly  stated  in  the 
Bible;  but  as  the  prophets  describe  them 
as  ‘the  Philistines  from  Caphtor’  (Amos 
ix.  7),  and  ‘  the  remnant  of  the  maritime 
district  of  Caphtor’  (Jer.  xlvii.  4),  it  is 
priitia  facie  probable  that  they  were  the 
‘  Caphtorim  which  came  out  of  Caphtor’ 
who  expelled  the  Avim  from  their  terri¬ 
tory,  and  occupied  it  in  their  place  (Deut. 
ii.  23);  and  that  these  again  were  the  Caph¬ 
torim  mentioned  in  the  Mosaic  genealog¬ 
ical  table  among  the  descendants  of  Miz- 
raim.  (Gen.  x.  14.)  But,  in  establishing 
this  conclusion,  certain  difficulties  present 
themselves:  in  the  first  place,  it  is  observ¬ 
able  that,  in  Gen.  x.  14,  the  Philistines  are 
connected  with  the  Casluhim  rather  than 
the  Caphtorim.  The  clause  seems  to  have 
an  appropriate  meaning  in  its  present  posi¬ 
tion;  it  looks  like  an  interpolation  into  the 
original  document  with  the  view  of  ex¬ 
plaining  when  and  where  the  name  Philis¬ 
tine  was  first  applied  to  the  people  whose 
proper  appellation  was  Caphtorim.  But  a 
second  and  more  serious  difficulty  arises 
out  of  the  language  of  the  Philistines;  for 
while  the  Caphtorim  were  Hamitic,  the 
Philistine  language  is  held  to  have  been 
Shemitic.  The  difficulty  arising  out  of  the 
question  of  language  may  be  met  by  as¬ 
suming  either  that  the  Caphtorim  adopted 
the  language  of  the  conquered  Avim,  or 
that  they  diverged  from  the  Hamitic  stock 
at  a  period  when  the  distinctive  features 
of  Hamitism  and  Shemitism  were  yet  in 
embryo.  A  third  objection  to  their  Egyp¬ 
tian  origin  is  raised  from  the  application  of 
the  term  ‘uncircumcised’  to  them  (1  Sam. 
xvii.  26;  2  Sam.  i.  20),  whereas  the  Egyp¬ 
tians  were  circumcised.  (Herod,  ii.  36.) 
But  this  objection  is  answered  by  Jer.  ix. 
25,  26,  where  the  same  term  is  in  some 
sense  applied  to  the  Egyptians,  however  it 
may  be  reconciled  with  the  statement  of 
Herodotus.  The  next  question  that  arises 
relates  to  the  early  movements  of  the  Phi¬ 
listines.  It  has  been  very  generally  assumed 
of  late  years  that  Caphtor  represents  Crete, 
and  that  the  Philistines  migrated  from  that 
island,  either  directly  or  through  Egypt, 
into  Palestine.  This  hypothesis  presup¬ 
poses  the  Shemitic  origin  of  the  Philis¬ 
tines.  Moreover,  the  name  Caphtor  can 
only  be  identified  with  the  Egyptian  Cop- 
tos.  But  the  Cretan  origin  of  the  Philis¬ 
tines  has  been  deduced,  not  so  much  from 
the  name  Caphtor  as  from  that  of  the 
Cherethites.  This  name  in  its  Hebrew 
form  bears  a  close  resemblance  to  Crete, 
and  is  rendered  Cretans  in  the  LXX.  But 


Phi 


(  737  ) 


Phi 


the  mere  coincidence  of  the  names  cannot 
pass  for  much  without  some  corroborative 
testimony.  Without,  therefore,  asserting 
that  migrations  may  not  have  taken  place 
from  Crete  to  Philistia,  we  hold  that  the 
evidence  adduced  to  prove  that  they  did  is 
insufficient. 

“  The  last  point  to  be  decided  in  connec¬ 
tion  with  the  early  history  of  the  Philis¬ 
tines  is  the  time  when  they  settled  in 
the  land  of  Canaan.  If  we  were  to  restrict 
ourselves  to  the  statements  of  the  Bible, 
we  should  conclude  that  this  took  place  be¬ 
fore  the  time  of  Abraham;  for  they  are 
noticed  in  his  day  as  a  pastoral  tribe  in  the 
neighborhood  of  Gerar.  (Gen.  xxi.  32,  34; 
xxvi.  1,8.)  The  interval  that  elapsed  be¬ 
tween  Abraham  and  the  Exodus  seems 
sufficient  to  allow  for  the  alteration  that 
took  place  in  the  position  of  the  Philistines, 
and  their  transformation  from  a  pastoral 
tribe  to  a  settled  and  powerful  nation. 
Between  the  times  of  Abraham  and  Joshua 
the  Philistines  had  changed  their  quarters, 
and  had  advanced  northward  into  the  Shefe- 
lah  or  Plain  of  Philistia.  This  plain  has  been 
in  all  ages  remarkable  for  the  extreme  rich¬ 
ness  of  its  soil;  its  fields  of  standing  corn, 
its  vineyards  and  olive-yards,  are  incident¬ 
ally  mentioned  in  Scripture  (Judg.  xv.  5); 
and  in  time  of  famine  the  land  of  the 
Philistines  was  the  hope  of  Palestine. 
(2  Kings  viii.  2.)  It  was  also  adapted  to 
the  growth  of  military  power;  for  while 
the  plain  itself  permitted  the  use  of  war- 
chariots,  which  were  the  chief  arm  of 
offence,  the  occasional  elevations  which  rise 
out  of  it  offered  secure  sites  for  towns  and 
strongholds.  It  was,  moreover,  a  commer¬ 
cial  country;  from  its  position  it  must 
have  been  at  all  times  the  great  thorough¬ 
fare  between  Phoenicia  and  Syria  in  the 
north,  and  Egypt  and  Arabia  in  the  south. 
The  Philistines  probably  possessed  a  navy; 
for  they  had  ports  attached  to  Gaza  and 
Ashkelon:  the  LXX.  speaks  of  their  ships 
in  its  version  of  Isa.  xi.  14;  and  they  are 
represented  as  attacking  the  Egyptians  out 
of  ships.  They  had  at  an  early  period  at¬ 
tained  proficiency  in  the  arts  of  peace. 
Their  wealth  was  abundant  (Judg.  xvi.  5, 
18),  and  they  appear  in  all  respects  to  have 
been  a  prosperous  people.  Possessed  of 
such  elements  of  power,  the  Philistines  had 
attained  in  the  time  of  the  Judges  an  im¬ 
portant  position  among  Eastern  nations. 
About  b.  c.  1209  we  find  them  engaged  in 
successful  war  with  the  Sidonians.  (Justin 
xviii.  3.)  About  the  same  period,  but 
whether  before  or  after  is  uncertain,  they 
were  engaged  in  a  naval  war  with  Rameses 
III.  of  Egypt,  in  conjunction  with  other 
Mediterranean  nations. 

“  And  now  to  recur  to  the  biblical  narra¬ 


tive:  The  territory  of  the  Philistines,  hav¬ 
ing  been  once  occupied  by  the  Canaanites, 
formed  a  portion  of  the  promised  land,  and 
was  assigned  to  the  tribe  of  Judah.  (Josh, 
xv.  2,12,45-47.)  No  portion,  however,  of 
it  was  conquered  in  the  lifetime  of  Joshua 
(Josh.  xiii.  2),  and  even  after  his  death  no 
permanent  conquest  was  effected  (Judg. 
iii.  3);  though,  on  the  authority  of  a  some¬ 
what  doubtful  passage,  we  are  informed 
that  the  three  cities  of  Gaza,  Ashkelon,  and 
Ekron  were  taken.  (Judg.  i.  18.)  The 
Philistines,  at  all  events,  soon  recovered 
these,  and  commenced  an  aggressive  policy 
against  the  Israelites,  by  which  they  gained 
a  complete  ascendancy  over  them.  Indi¬ 
vidual  heroes  were  raised  up  from  time  to 
time  whose  achievements  might  well  kindle 
patriotism,  such  as  Shamgar  the  son  of 
Anath  (Judg.  iii.  31),  and  still  more  Sam¬ 
son  (Judg.  xiii. -xvi.);  but  neither  of  these 
men  succeeded  in  permanently  throwing  off 
the  yoke.  Under  Eli,  there  was  an  organ¬ 
ized  but  unsuccessful  resistance  to  the  en¬ 
croachments  of  the  Philistines,  who  were 
met  at  Aphek.  (1  Sam.  iv.  1.)  The  pro¬ 
duction  of  the  ark  on  this  occasion  demon¬ 
strates  the  greatness  of  the  emergency,  and 
its  loss  marked  the  lowest  depth  of  Israel’s 
degradation.  The  next  action  took  place 
under  Samuel’s  leadership,  and  the  tide 
of  success  turned  in  Israel’s  favor.  The 
Israelites  now  attributed  their  past  weak¬ 
ness  to  their  want  of  unity;  and  they  de¬ 
sired  a  king,  with  the  special  object  of  lead¬ 
ing  them  against  the  foe.  (1  Sam.  viii.  20.) 
As  soon  as  Saul  was  prepared  to  throw  off 
the  yoke,  he  occupied  with  his  army  a 
position  at  Michmash,  commanding  the  de¬ 
files  leading  to  the  Jordan  Valley;  and  his 
heroic  son  Jonathan  gave  the  signal  for  a 
rising  by  overthrowing  the  pillar  which  the 
Philistines  had  placed  there.  The  challenge 
was  accepted;  the  Philistines  invaded  the 
central  district  with  an  immense  force,  and, 
having  dislodged  Saul  from  Michmash,  oc¬ 
cupied  it  themselves,  and  sent  forth  preda¬ 
tory  bands  into  the  surrounding  country. 
The  Israelites  shortly  after  took  up  a  posi¬ 
tion  on  the  other  side  of  the  ravine  at  Geba, 
and,  availing  themselves  of  the  confusion 
consequent  upon  Jonathan’s  daring  feat, 
inflicted  a  tremendous  slaughter  upon  the 
enemy.  (1  Sam.  xiii.;  xiv.)  No  attempt 
was  made  by  the  Philistines  to  regain  their 
supremacy  for  about  twenty-five  years,  and 
the  scene  of  the  next  contest  shows  the 
altered  strength  of  the  two  parties:  it  was 
no  longer  in  the  central  country,  but  in  a 
ravine  leading  down  to  the  Philistine  Plain, 
the  Valley  of  Elah,  the  position  of  which  is 
about  fourteen  miles  S.  W.  of  Jerusalem: 
on  this  occasion  the  prowess  of  young 
David  secured  success  to  Israel,  and  the 


Phi 


(  738  ) 


Phi 


foe  was  pursued  to  the  gates  of  Gath  and 
Ekron.  (1  Sam.  xvii.)  The  power  of  the 
Philistines  was,  however,  still  intact  on 
their  own  territory.  The  border  warfare 
was  continued.  The  scene  of  the  next  con¬ 
flict  was  far  to  the  north,  in  the  Valley  of 
Esdraelon.  The  battle  on  this  occasion 
proved  disastrous  to  the  Israelites:  Saul 
himself  perished,  and  the  Philistines  pene¬ 
trated  across  the  Jordan,  and  occupied  the 
forsaken  cities.  (1  Sam.  xxxi.  1-7.)  On 
the  appointment  of  David  to  be  king  over 
the  united  tribes,  the  Philistines  attempted 
to  counterbalance  the  advantage  by  an  at¬ 
tack  on  the  person  of  the  king:  they  there¬ 
fore  penetrated  into  the  Valley  of  Rephaim, 
S.  W.  of  Jerusalem,  and  even  pushed  for¬ 
ward  an  advanced  post  as  far  as  Bethlehem. 
(1  Chron.  xi.  16.)  David  twice  attacked  them 
at  the  former  spot,  and  on  each  occasion 
with  signal  success,  in  the  first  case  cap¬ 
turing  their  images,  in  the  second  pursu¬ 
ing  them  ‘  from  Geba  until  thou  come  to 
Gazer.’  (2  Sam.  v.  17-25;  1  Chron.  xiv.  8- 
16.)  Henceforth  the  Israelites  appear  as 
the  aggressors:  about  seven  years  after  the 
defeat  at  Rephaim,  David,  who  had  now 
consolidated  his  power,  attacked  them  on 
their  own  soil,  and  took  Gath  with  its  de¬ 
pendencies  (1  Chron.  xviii.  1),  and  thus  (ac¬ 
cording  to  one  interpretation  of  the  obscure 
expression  ‘  Metheg-ammah  ’  in  2  Sam. 
viii.  1)  ‘  he  took  the  arm-bridle  out  of  the 
hand  of  the  Philistines,’  or  (according  to 
another)  ‘  he  took  the  bridle  of  the  metrop¬ 
olis  out  of  the  hand  of  the  Philistines  ’ — 
meaning  in  either  case  that  their  ascendancy 
was  utterly  broken. 

“  The  whole  of  Philistia  was  included 
in  Solomon’s  empire.  The  division  of  the 
empire  at  Solomon’s  death  was  favorable 
to  the  Philistine  cause.  Rehoboam  secured 
himself  against  them  by  fortifying  Gath 
and  other  cities  bordering  on  the  plain  (2 
Chron.  xi.  8):  the  Israelite  monarchs  were 
either  not  so  prudent, or  not  so  powerful,  for 
they  allowed  the  Philistines  to  get  hold  of 
Gibbethon.  (1  Kings xv.  27;xvi.  15.)  Judah 
meanwhile  had  lost  the  tribute.  (2  Chron. 
xvii.  11.)  The  increasing  weakness  of  the 
Jewish  monarcy,  under  the  attacks  of  Ha- 
zael,  led  to  the  recovery  of  Gath,  which  was 
afterwards  dismantled  and  probably  destroy¬ 
ed  by  Uzziah.  (2  Chron.  xxvii.  6;  2  Kings 
xii.  17.)  We  have  reason  to  suppose  that 
the  Philistines  were  kept  in  subjection  un¬ 
til  the  time  of  Ahaz.  (2  Chron.  xxvii.  18.)  A 
few  years  later,  the  Philistines,  in  conjunc¬ 
tion  with  the  Syrians  and  Assyrians,  and, 
perhaps,  as  the  subject-allies  of  the  latter, 
carried  on  a  series  of  attacks  on  the  king¬ 
dom  of  Israel.  (Isa.  ix.  11,  12.)  Hezekiah 
formed  an  alliance  with  the  Egyptians,  as 
a  counterpoise  to  the  Assyrians,  and  the 


possession  of  Philistia  became  henceforth 
the  turning-point  of  the  struggle  between 
the  two  great  empires  of  the  East.  The 
Assyrians  under  Tartan,  the  general  of 
Sargon,  made  an  expedition  against  Egypt, 
and  took  Ashdod,  as  the  key  of  that  coun¬ 
try.  (Isa.  xx.  1,  4,  5.)  Under  Sennacherib, 
Philistia  was  again  the  scene  of  important 
operations.  The  Assyrian  supremacy  was 
restored  by  Esar-haddon,  and  it  seems 
probable  that  the  Assyrians  retained  their 
hold  on  Ashdod  until  its  capture,  after  a 
long  siege,  by  Psammetichus.  It  was 
about  this  time  that  Philistia  was  traversed 
by  a  vast  Scythian  horde  on  their  way  to 
Egypt.  The  Egyptian  ascendancy  was  not 
as  yet  re-established;  for  we  find  the  next 
king,  Necho,  compelled  to  besiege  Gaza 
on  his  return  from  the  battle  of  Megiddo. 
After  the  death  of  Necho,  the  contest  was 
renewed  between  the  Egyptians  and  the 
Chaldaeans,  under  Nebuchadnezzar,  and 
the  result  was  specially  disastrous  to  the 
Philistines.  The  ‘old  hatred’  that  the 
Philistines  bore  to  the  Jews  was  exhibited 
in  acts  of  hostility  at  the  time  of  the  Baby¬ 
lonish  captivity  (Ezek.  xxv.  15-17);  but  on 
the  return  this  was  somewhat  abated,  for 
some  of  the  Jews  married  Philistine  wom¬ 
en,  to  the  great  scandal  of  their  rulers. 
(Neh.  xiii.  23,  24.)  From  this  time  the 
history  of  Philistia  is  absorbed  in  the 
struggles  of  the  neighboring  kingdoms. 
The  latest  notices  of  the  Philistines  as  a 
nation  occur  in  1  Macc.  iii.-v.  With  regard 
to  the  institutions  of  the  Philistines,  our 
information  is  very  scanty.  The  five  chief 
cities  had,  as  early  as  the  days  of  Joshua, 
constituted  themselves  into  a  confederacy, 
restricted,  however,  in  all  probability,  to 
matters  of  offence  and  defence.  Each  was 
under  the  government  of  a  prince,  whose 
official  title  was  seven  (Josh.  xiii.  3;  Judg. 
iii.  3,  etc.),  and  occasionally  sar.  (1  Sam. 
xviii.  30;  xxix.  6.)  Each  town  possessed 
its  own  territory.  The  Philistines  appear 
to  have  been  deeply  imbued  with  supersti¬ 
tion:  they  carried  their  idols  with  them  on 
their  campaigns  (2  Sam.  v.  21),  and  pro¬ 
claimed  their  victories  in  their  presence.  (1 
Sam.  xxxi.  9.)  The  gods  whom  they 
chiefly  worshipped  -were  Dagon  (Judg.  xvi. 
23;  1  Sam.  v.  3-5;  1  Chron.  x.  10;  1  Macc. 
x.  83),  Ashtaroth  (1  Sam.  xxxi.  10;  Herod, 
i.  105),  Baal-zebub  (2  Kings  i.  2-6),  and 
Decerto,  who  was  honored  at  Ashkelon 
(Diod.  Sic.  ii.  4),  though  unnoticed  in  the 
Bible.  Priests  and  diviners  (1  Sam.  vi.) 
were  attached  to  the  various  seats  of  wor¬ 
ship.” — Smith:  Diet,  of  the  Bible. 

Philo,  a  Jew  of  Alexandria;  b.  probably 
a  few  years  b.  c. ;  d.  during  the  reign  of 
the  Emperor  Claudius.  Of  his  life  noth- 


Phi 


(  739  ) 


Phce 


ing  is  known  beyond  what  can  be  gathered 
from  his  writings.  He  was  of  noble  family, 
of  the  sect  of  the  Pharisees,  and  was  well 
acquainted  with  the  Old  Testament  Script¬ 
ures,  as  appears  from  his  numerous  writ¬ 
ings.  About  39  or  40  A.  D.  Philo  was  ap¬ 
pointed  to  the  head  of  an  embassy  sent  by 
the  Jews  of  Alexandria  to  the  Emperor 
Caligula  to  petition  him  for  redress  from 
the  injustice  of  the  Imperial  Governor, 
Publius  Avilius  Flaccus.  The  manner  in 
which  the  ambassadors  were  treated  in¬ 
duced  Philo  to  write  his  book  Contra  Flac- 
£um.  At  different  times  he  visited  Jeru¬ 
salem,  and  other  parts  of  Palestine;  and  it 
is  said  that  he  made  another  journey  to 
Rome  in  the  reign  of  Claudius;  but  the 
story  is  surrounded  by  legends,  and  is 
probably  not  true.  The  works  of  Philo  are 
divided  into  three  parts:  the  first  contain¬ 
ing  Cosmopoetica ,  the  second  Historica,  and 
the  third  Juridica  seu  Legalia.  The  influ¬ 
ence  of  Philo’s  writings  upon  both  Jewish, 
and  through  that  upon  Christian,  theology 
and  thought  has  been  profound.  He  had 
practically  mastered  all  the  learning  of  his 
time,  and  his  object  was  to  show  that  the 
Divine  revelation  as  given  to  the  Jews  was 
consistent  with  the  highest  philosophy 
known  to  the  ancients,  and  especially  with 
that  of  Plato.  From  the  bold  anthropo¬ 
morphism  of  the  Jewish  Scriptures  he  ar¬ 
gued  the  absolute  necessity  of  a  symbolic  or 
allegorical  meaning,  which  required  study 
and  systematic  interpretation — a  doctrine 
carried  to  still  greater  lengths  in  modern 
days  by  Swedenborg  ( q .  v.~).  This  alle¬ 
gorical  doctrine  is  carried  much  further  in 
the  first  division  of  his  works  than  in  the 
last;  but  he  does  not  deny  also  the  literal 
sense,  which  is,  as  it  were,  the  vehicle  of 
the  spiritual. 

In  Philo’s  system  of  theistic  philosophy 
God  is  the  one  ideally  good  and  perfect 
Being,  as  with  Plato.  As  such  he  is  in¬ 
comprehensible  and  inscrutable,  but  as 
Creator  he  manifests  himself  to  man,  and 
is  then  the  “  Beginning,  the  Name,  the 
Word;  ”  and  this  manifestation  is  as  natural 
to  him  as  burning  is  to  great  heat.  On  the 
other  hand  exists  a  formless  chaos,  which 
God  has  determined  to  fashion  into  a  uni¬ 
verse;  but  to  bring  such  different  exist¬ 
ences  into  relation  an  intermediary  is  re¬ 
quired.  This  is  found  in  the  Logos  ( q .  v.) 
or  Word,  and  in  still  lower  intelligent  ex¬ 
istences.  The  Logos  is  at  different  times 
represented  as  a  High-priest,  the  Image  of 
God,  his  Shadow,  the  instrument  of  Crea¬ 
tion,  the  first-born  Son,  the  Archangel,  and 
so  on;  and  Philo  also  identifies  him  with 
the  Lord,  or  Angel  of  the  Covenant,  who  so 
often  appeared  to  the  patriarchs. 

In  the  Book  of  Wisdom  we  probably  see 


a  slightly  earlier  form  of  Philo’s  doctrine 
engrafted  upon  Judaism,  Wisdom  being,  in 
this  book,  personified  much  in  the  same 
real  sense  as  the  Logos  of  Philo.  By  the 
heathen  philosophers  the  system  of  thought 
out  of  which  Philo’s  grew  was  corrupted 
into  Gnosticism.  On  the  other  hand,  its  re¬ 
lation  to,  and  influence  upon,  Christian 
theology  can  be  clearly  traced  in  St.  John’s 
phraseology  concerning  the  Logos  or 
Word,  and  the  teaching  of  the  Epistle  to 
the  Hebrews,  which  also  gives  striking 
examples  of  the  allegorical  method  of  in¬ 
terpretation  Philo  so  largely  adopted,  and 
which  so  profoundly  influenced  Origen, 
and  other  Christian  Fathers.  But  as  Far¬ 
rar  well  points  out,  while  Philo’s  concep¬ 
tion,  splendid  as  it  is,  is  vague,  and  only 
floats  in  the  air,  the  difference  between  it 
and  that  of  the  apostles  “  is  as  wide  as  that 
between  the  living  and  the  dead.”  “  The 
four  words  of  St.  John,  ‘  The  Word  became 
Jlesh,y  created  an  epoch,”  and  tell  us  more, 
and  give  us  a  more  definite  conception, 
than  all  which  Philo  and  Plato  wrote, 
though  it  was  given  to  them  not  only  to 
see  through  a  glass  darkly  much  of  the 
truth,  but  also  to  prepare  the  way  for  the 
coming  of  its  kingdom. — Benham:  Diet .  of 
Religion. 

Phoenicia.  The  Old  Testament  usually 
designates  the  Phoenicians  as  Canaanites, 
though  sometimes  as  Sidonians;  the  land 
is  spoken  of  in  the  New  Testament  as  the 
coasts  of  Tyre  and  Sidon.  (Matt.  xv.  21; 
comp.  Mark  iii.  8;  vii.  24.)  Phoenicia  was 
the  name  given  by  the  Greeks,  and  includ¬ 
ed  a  narrow  strip  of  country  between  the 
Lebanon  mountains  and  the  Mediter¬ 
ranean  Sea.  “  Its  limits  varied  at  different 
times;  generally  it  was  included  within 
two  degrees  of  latitude,  and  was  of  narrow 
breadth.  Its  inhabitants  were  enterpris¬ 
ing  navigators,  and  the  country  has  been 
called  ‘  the  birthplace  of  commerce.’ 
Phoenician  pilots  and  sailors  navigated  the 
vessels  of  Solomon;  and  before  other  ships 
had  ventured  to  lose  sight  of  their  own 
shores  colonies  of  this  people  were  es¬ 
tablished  in  some  of  the  most  distant  parts 
of  Europe,  Asia,  and  Africa.  They  were 
also  distinguished  for  their  knowledge  of 
the  arts  and  sciences.  Phoenician  work¬ 
men  were  employed  at  the  building  of  the 
Temple  of  Solomon,  and  by  Phoenicians 
the  knowledge  and  use  of  letters  were  in¬ 
troduced  into  Greece.  The  climate  of  the 
country  is  mild;  the  land  is  abundantly 
watered;  and  it  yields  large  crops  of  fruit, 
corn,  cotton,  and  sugar.  But  its  once 
populous  and  opulent  cities  are  reduced, 
under  the  rule  of  a  despotic  government, 
to  impoverished  villages  or  masses  of 


Phr 


(  740  ) 


Pie 


ruins.  Under  the  Romans  Phoenicia  form¬ 
ed  a  part  of  the  province  of  Syria.  Since 
the  beginning  of  the  sixteenth  century  it 
has  formed  apart  of  the  Turkish  Empire.” 
— Cassell:  Cyclopcedia.  For  their  relig¬ 
ion,  see  the  articles  on  Astarte;  Baal,  etc. 

Phryg'ia.  Occupying  the  central  portion 
of  Asia  Minor,  its  boundaries  varied  at  dif¬ 
ferent  times,  and  it  furnished  parts  to  sev¬ 
eral  Roman  provinces.  (Acts  ii.  10.)  Paul 
passed  through  Phrygia  on  his  second 
(Acts  xvi.  6)  and  third  (xviii.  23)  mission¬ 
ary  tours.  The  inhabitants  of  this  region 
were  of  Indo-Germanic  descent,  and  allied 
to  the  Armenians;  but  many  Jews  had  set¬ 
tled  among  them.  At  the  Council  of  Nice 
(325)  the  Phrygian  churches  were  repre¬ 
sented  by  eight  bishops. 

Phylac'teries,  or  Frontlets.  (Ex.  xiii.  16; 
Deut.  vi.  8;  xi.  18;  Matt,  xxiii.  5.)  “  These 
‘  phylacteries’  or  4  frontlets  ’  were  strips  of 
parchment  on  which  were  written  four 
passages  of  Scripture  (Ex.  xiii.  2-10,  11- 
17;  Deut.  vi.  4-9,  13-23)  in  an  ink  prepared 
for  the  purpose.  They  were  then  rolled 
up  in  a  case  of  black  calfskin,  which  was 
attached  to  a  stiffer  piece  of  leather,  hav¬ 
ing  a  thong  one  finger  broad  and  one  and 
a  half  cubits  long.  They  were  placed  at 
the  bend  of  the  left  arm.  Those  worn  on 
the  forehead  were  written  on  four  strips  of 
parchment,  and  put  into  four  little  cells 
within  a  square  case,  on  which  the  Hebrew 
letter  Shin  was  written.  The  square  had 
two  thongs,  on  which  Hebrew  letters  were 
inscribed.  That  phylacteries  were  used 
as  amulets  is  certain,  and  was  very  nat¬ 
ural.  Scaliger  even  supposes  that  phylac¬ 
teries  were  designed  to  supersede  those 
amulets,  the  use  of  which  had  been  already 
learned  by  the  Israelites  in  Egypt.  The 
expression  4  they  make  broad  their  phylac¬ 
teries  ’  (Matt,  xxiii.  5),  refers  not  so  much 
to  the  phylactery  itself,  which  seems  to 
have  been  of  a  prescribed  breadth,  as  to 
the  case  in  which  the  parchment  was  kept, 
which  the  Pharisees,  among  their  other 
pretentious  customs  (Mark  vii.  3,  4;  Luke 
v.  33,  etc.),  made  as  conspicuous  as  they 
could.  It  is  said  that  the  Pharisees  wore 
them  always,  whereas  the  common  people 
only  used  them  at  prayers.  The  modern 
Jews  only  wear  them  at  morning  prayers, 
and  sometimes  at  noon.  In  our  Lord’s  time 
they  were  worn  by  all  Jews,  except  the 
Karaites,  women,  and  slaves.  Boys,  at  the 
age  of  thirteen  years  and  a  day,  were 
bound  to  wear  them.  The  Karaites  ex¬ 
plained  Deut.  vi.  8;  Ex.  xiii.  9,  etc.,  as  a 
figurative  command  to  remember  the  law, 
as  is  certainly  the  case  in  similar  passages. 
(Prov.  iii.  3;  vi,  21;  vii,  3;  Cant.  viii.  6, 


etc.)  It  seems  clear  to  us  that  the  scope  of 
these  injunctions  favors  the  Karaite  inter¬ 
pretation.  The  Rabbis  have  many  rules 
about  their  use.” — Smith:  Diet,  of  the  Bible. 

Piarists,  an  order  of  the  Roman  Catholic 
Church,  founded  in  1600,  in  Rome,  by  a 
Spanish  nobleman,  Joseph  Calasanze;  b. 
at  Calasanze  in  Aragon,  Sept.  11,  1556;  d. 
in  Rome,  Aug.  22,  1648;  canonized  by 
Clement  XIII.  in  1767.  Their  object  is  to 
give  poor  children  a  religious  education, 
and  also  some  knowledge  of  Latin,  Greek, 
and  philosophy.  The  Jesuits  have  opposed 
them,  but  they  have  grown  and  number 
about  two  thousand  members.  They  are 
chiefly  confined  to  Italy,  Spain,  and  Austro- 
Hungary.  In  the  latter  country  it  is  said 
that  20,000  children  are  under  their  care. 

Picards,  a  term  applied  to  some  branches 
of  the  Bohemian  Brethren.  Picard  was  a 
Fleming,  who  finally  settled  at  Tabor,  in 
Bohemia,  where  he  was  attacked  and  killed 
by  Zisca,  with  all  his  followers  but  two, 
who  were  kept  in  order  that  they  might 
give  an  account  of  the  doctrines  which  they 
held.  See  Adamites. 

Pierce,  Lovick,  D.  D.,  a  distinguished 
minister  of  the  M.  E.  Church,  South;  b.  in 
Halifax  Co.,  N.  C.,  March  24,  1785;  d.  at 
Sparta,  Ga. ,  Nov.  9,  1879.  He  entered  the 
South  Carolina  Conference  in  1S04,  and 
served  as  a  chaplain  in  the  war  of  1S12. 
In  1812  he  withdrew  from  the  conference, 
and  until  1822  practised  medicine  at  Greens- 
borough,  Ga. ,  when  he  again  connected 
himself  with  the  Georgia  Conference.  From 
this  time  he  was  very  influential  in  the 
councils  of  the  denomination.  He  was  a 
member  of  every  General  Conference  from 
1824  till  his  death.  He  is  said  to  have 
preached  during  his  life-time  not  less  than 
eleven  thousand  times. 

Pierpont,  John,  b.  at  Litchfield  (now 
Morris),  Conn.,  April  6,  1785;  d.  at  Med¬ 
ford,  Mass.,  Aug.  27,  1866.  He  was 
graduated  at  Yale  College  in  1804,  and  was 
admitted  to  the  bar  in  1812,  but  soon  aban¬ 
doned  it  from  conscientious  scruples,  and 
after  an  unsuccessful  attempt  to  establish 
himself  in  business  he  studied  theology  at 
the  Cambridge  Divinity  School,  and  be¬ 
came  pastor  of  the  Hollis  Street  Unitarian 
Church,  Boston,  1819.  He  was  pastor  at 
Troy,  N.  Y. ,  1845-49,  and  Medford,  Mass., 
1S49-59.  He  was  an  earnest  champion  of 
the  antislavery  and  temperance  causes, 
but  his  name  is  most  widely  known  by  the 
poems  and  hymns  which  he  wrote.  His 
Airs  of  Palestine  was  published  in  1S16, 
and  with  other  poems  in  1S40. 


Pie 


(  741  ) 


Pil 


Pietists,  a  party  in  the  Lutheran  Church, 
formed  first  about  the  middle  of  the  seven¬ 
teenth  century  at  Leipzig,  by  Spener.  He 
considered  that  the  Bible  was  neglected  in 
the  studies  ordered  for  young  men  at  the 
University,  and  organized  lectures  and 
meetings  for  its  more  careful  study.  His 
preaching  at  Strasburg,  Frankfort,  and 
Dresden  had  great  effect,  and  he  insisted 
on  a  holy  life  in  both  teachers  and  taught. 
For  this  purpose,  he  formed  schools  called 
Collegia  Pietatis,  where  men  and  women 
met  together  for  prayer  and  instruction, 
and  thence  carried  their  influence  through¬ 
out  the  land.  The  scheme  was  treated 
with  some  contempt,  and  those  who  took 
it  up  were  nicknamed  Pietists,  on  account 
of  their  alleged  excessive  piety  as  regards 
outward  behavior.  The  movement  cer¬ 
tainly  did  a  great  deal  of  good  to  society, 
instilling  a  purity  of  devotion  in  home  life 
whose  effects  were  lasting;  and  to  it  was 
due  the  foundation  of  German  and  Danish 
missions  to  the  heathen.  Amongst  Spe- 
ner’s  disciples  were  Francke(^.  v.),  Thoma- 
sius,  the  professor  of  Leipzig  and  Halle, 
and  Bengel,  the  great  commentator.  Their 
teaching  gained  ground  at  Leipzig,  but 
some  of  the  more  extreme  Pietists  so  ir¬ 
ritated  the  old  school  of  theologians  by 
their  denunciation  of  the  mere  doctrinal- 
ism  of  many  ministers  in  the  Church,  that 
at  last  the  Docents  were  obliged  to  leave 
Leipzig.  Frederick  William  I.  of  Branden¬ 
burg  established  the  University  of  Halle 
in  1694,  and  through  Spener’s  influence 
his  friends  found  a  refuge  there,  and  it  be¬ 
came  the  home  of  Pietistic  professors,  who 
first  prelected  on  Scripture  and  founded 
the  great  exegetical  literature  of  Germany. 
Afterward  they  came  into  collision  with 
the  University  of  Wittenberg.  Little  more 
is  heard  of  the  party  in  the  history  of  the 
Church  till  the  beginning  of  the  present 
century,  when  it  was  at  the  height  of  its 
power.  It  was  entirely  the  result  of  the 
new  wave  of  evangelical  teaching  which 
passed  all  through  Europe  about  the  same 
time — waking  men’s  consciences,  making 
them  dissatisfied  with  the  rationalistic 
,  creed  which  had  been  considered  sufficient 
the  century  before,  and  counterbalancing 
the  refined  indifference  to  religion  which 
we  find  in  the  works  of  Goethe  and  some 
of  his  contemporaries.  The  work  was,  to 
a  great  extent,  carried  on  by  a  publication 
called  the  Evangelical  Church  Journal. 
The  views  held  by  the  members  of  this 
party  were  decidedly  narrow.  As  a  ground¬ 
work  they  took  the  teaching  of  either  Luther 
or  Calvin,  but  further  proceeded  to  say 
that  those  only  who  also  held  these  views 
could  hope  to  be  saved;  and  it  was  in  con¬ 
sequence  of  this  that  several  famous  and 


learned  divines,  Neander  amongst  others, 
refused  to  join  their  ranks.  It  was  not  to 
be  expected  that  the  various  members  in  all 
parts  of  Germany  (for  it  was  in  that  coun¬ 
try  that  Pietism  was  principally  developed) 
would  think  exactly  alike.  One  province 
wanted  the  work  carried  on  in  one  way 
and  another  in  another;  and  the  conse¬ 
quence  was  that  various  communities  were 
formed.  The  most  famous  of  these  was 
that  which  established  itself  at  Kornthal, 
near  Wurtemberg.  It  was  not  in  the  least 
schismatic,  taking  the  Augsburg  Confes¬ 
sion  as  its  basis,  but  it  made  several  minor 
alterations  in  the  Lutheran  Liturgy,  and 
claimed  absolute  right  to  settle  its  own  af¬ 
fairs  independently  of  the  ordinary  ec¬ 
clesiastical  jurisdiction  of  Wurtemberg. 
The  community  is  still  in  a  flourishing 
condition,  the  church  well  attended,  and 
the  agricultural  department  a  pattern  to 
the  surrounding  country.  Some  of  the 
schools,  too,  are  so  famous  that  many  boys 
from  America  and  England  are  sent  there 
for  their  education.  The  population  at 
the  present  time  is  about  1,000. — Benham: 
Did.  of  Religion. 

Pi'late  (John  xix.  1),  or  Pon'tius  Pi'late 
(Matt.  xxvi.  2),  was  the  sixth  Roman  pro¬ 
curator  of  Judaea,  appointed  A.  D.  25-26,  in 
the  twelfth  year  of  Tiberius.  It  was  dur¬ 
ing  the  time  that  he  held  office  that  our 
Lord  labored,  suffered,  and  died.  The 
administration  of  Pilate  was  very  offensive 
to  the  Jews.  A  weak,  time-serving  man, 
while  declaring  his  conviction  of  the  inno¬ 
cence  of  Jesus,  when  he  saw  that  his  ac¬ 
quittal  might  be  used  to  arouse  the  suspi¬ 
cion  of  the  emperor,  he  delivered  the 
innocent  Saviour  into  the  hands  of  the 
Jews  to  be  crucified.  In  a.  d.  36  Pilate 
went  to  Rome  to  defend  himself  against 
accusations  brought  by  the  governor  of 
Syria;  but  was  unsuccessful.  There  are 
several  traditions  as  to  the  scene  of  his 
death.  One  is,  that  he  was  banished,  and 
died  in  Vienne,  Gaul;  while  another  is, 
that  he  sought  refuge  in  the  recesses  of 
the  mountain  near  Lucerne,  which  bears 
his  name  ;  and  in  remorse  and  despair 
committed  suicide  by  drowning  in  the 
dismal  lake  upon  the  summit  of  the  moun¬ 
tain. 

Pilgrimage,  a  religious  discipline,  which 
consists  in  making  a  journey  to  some 
place  in  order  to  adore  the  relics  of  a 
saint,  or  to  visit  the  scene  of  some  event 
in  sacred  history.  Pilgrimages  were  first 
made  about  the  fourth  century,  and  speed¬ 
ily  came  into  use  as  an  effectual  means  of 
penance,  the  most  celebrated  places  of  de¬ 
votion  being  Jerusalem,  Rome,  Tours,  and 


Pis 


(  742  ) 


Pla 


Compostella.  The  custom  of  going  on 
pilgrimages  reached  its  height  about  the 
eleventh  and  twelfth  centuries,  when  it 
was  followed  by  all  classes  of  society, 
from  kings  to  peasants.  The  Church 
granted  indulgences  and  special  privileges 
to  those  who  visited  certain  places  of  de¬ 
votion,  and  some  made  it  their  calling  in 
life  to  travel  from  one  shrine  to  another. 
At  some  places,  as  at  Loretto,  and,  in  our 
own  days,  at  Lourdes,  it  was  said  that  the 
Virgin  Mary  had  appeared  and  ordained 
that  they  should  be  consecrated  to  her 
service;  while  at  others  relics  of  saints 
were  said  to  exist,  which  had  wonderful 
powers  for  the  healing  or  sanctification  of 
those  who  visited  them.  In  almost  every 
country  pilgrimages  have  been  common. 
In  England,  the  shrine  of  Thomas  a  Becket 
was  the  chief  resort  of  the  pious;  in  Scot¬ 
land,  St.  Andrew’s;  in  Ireland,  various 
places.  The  practice  has  been  discontin¬ 
ued  among  the  Protestants,  but  is  still  in 
favor  in  Roman  Catholic  countries,  and 
innumerable  shrines  are  held  sacred,  and 
visited  for  the  expiation  of  sins  or  the 
healing  of  infirmities.  Pilgrimages  are  not 
confined  to  Roman  Catholics;  they  are 
common  among  Mohammedans,  Hindus, 
and  Jews,  and  are  connected  with  all  kinds 
of  superstitions. — Benham:  Did.  of  Re¬ 
ligion. 

Pisa,  Councils  of.  The  first  Council  of 
Pisa  (1409)  sought  to  restore  the  unity  of 
the  Roman  Church.  Failing  to  secure  the 
retirement  of  the  two  contending  popes, 
Gregory  XII.  and  Benedict  III. ,  it  elected  a 
third,  Alexander  V.  The  second  Council 
of  Pisa  was  called  in  the  interest  of  Louis 
XII.  Composed  mostly  of  French  clergy, 
after  a  few  sessions  they  removed  to  Mil¬ 
an,  and  cited  the  pope  to  appear;  and,  on 
his  refusal,  passed  a  sentence  of  suspen¬ 
sion.  Meanwhile,  Julius  II.  held  a  coun¬ 
cil  in  the  Lateran,  which  excommunicated 
the  members  of  the  Council  of  Pisa.  The 
loss,  not  long  after,  of  his  Italian  con¬ 
quests,  compelled  Louis  to  submit. 

Pis'gah,  the  mountain  height  from  which 
Moses,  just  before  his  death,  obtained  a 
view  of  the  promised  land.  (Deut.  xxxiv. 
1.)  It  was  in  Moab,  in  the  territory  assign¬ 
ed  to  Reuben,  and  was  the  place  of  Balak’s 
sacrifice  and  Balaam’s  prophecy.  (Num. 
xxiii.  14.)  The  precise  location  of  Pisgah 
has  long  been  in  dispute.  The  Due  de 
Luynes  and  Professor  Paine  of  the  Amer¬ 
ican  Palestine  Exploration  Society  ( 1 873) 
identified  Pisgah  with  Jebel  Siaghah ,  the 
extreme  headland  of  the  range  Abarim. 
“  His  theory  of  the  site  of  Pisgah  is  sharp¬ 
ly  questioned  by  Wolcott,  Tristram,  War¬ 


ren,  and  others,  chiefly  on  the  ground  that 
it  fails  to  meet  the  requirements  of  the 
biblical  narrative,  and  that  Siaghah  is  not 
the  modern  equivalent  of  Pisgah.  Merrill, 
as  the  results  of  a  later  exploration,  says: 

‘  Mr.  Paine  makes  the  lowest  and  most 
7vestern  of  his  five  flat  summits  to  be  the 
Pisgah  of  Moses.  The  most  prominent 
summit,  directly  south  of  ’Ayun  Musa,  is 
called  by  Due  de  Luynes  Jebel  Rfrtsa,  and 
is  covered  with  ruins.’  Mr.  Paine’s  theory 
places  Pisgah  a  quarter  of  a  mile  south¬ 
west  of  this  ruin  summit,  while  Due  de 
Luynes  regards  a  higher  peak  in  the  oppo¬ 
site  direction  as  Pisgah.  Merrill  favors 
this  ‘  highest  point  and  most  commanding^ 
outlook’  as  the  probable  point  to  which 
Moses  ascended.  (See  East  of  the  fordan , 
pp.  242-250.)” — Schaff:  Bible  Diet . 

Pisid'ia  [pitchy),  a  district  of  Asia  Minor 
north  of  Pamphylia,  and  south  of  Phrygia, 
The  Taurus  mountains  run  through  it,  cut 
by  narrow  defiles,  with  rushing  torrents. 
This  wild  region  was  infested  with  robber 
tribes,  and  it  may  have  been  here  that  Paul 
was  in  perils  of  waters,  in  perils  of  robbers, 
(2  Cor.  xi.  26.)  Paul  visited  Pisidia  twice, 
(Acts  xiii.  14;  xiv.  21-24.) 

Pi'thom.  See  Egypt,  p.  281. 

Pius  is  the  name  of  nine  popes.  See 
Popes. 

Placet  ( placetu?n  regiuni ,  regium  exe¬ 
quatur ,  litterce  pareatis ),  a  confirmation 
of  church  law,  papal  bulls,  or  briefs,  for¬ 
merly  required  to  be  given  by  the  State 
before  such  law  could  be  put  into  execu¬ 
tion.  This  was  made  compulsory  in  Eng¬ 
land  by  the  Statute  of  Praemunire,  1393,. 
which  “  vindicated  the  right  of  the  Church 
of  England  to  prohibit  the  admission  or  the 
execution  of  all  papal  bulls  or  briefs  with¬ 
in  the  realms.”  In  the  Roman  Catholic 
Church  it  is  no  longer  in  force  as  regards 
matters  of  doctrine,  ritual,  or  the  sacra¬ 
ments;  in  other  matters  it  is  simply  limited 
to  an  appeal  to  the  pope,  made  by  the 
bishops  if  any  constitution  appears  to  them 
to  be  unfitted  for  enforcement  in  their  dio¬ 
cese.  The  pope  denies  the  right  of  the 
State  to  interfere  in  ecclesiastical  matters,, 
and  all  who  attempt  to  prevent  the  carry¬ 
ing  out  of  a  papal  decree  are  under  a 
penalty  of  excommunication;  but,  never¬ 
theless,  concessions  are  occasionally  made 
in  order  to  prevent  disturbance. — Benham: 
Did.  of  Religion. 

Plagues  of  Egypt,  The,  were  ten  in 
number.  (1)  The  waters  of  the  Nile  were 
changed  intQ  blood.  (Ex.  vii.  14-25.)  (2) 


Pla 


(  743  ) 


Pla 


The  plague  of  frogs.  (Ex.  viii.  1-15.)  (3) 

The  plague  of  lice.  (Ex.  viii.  16-19.)  (4) 
Swarms  of  venomous  flies.  (Ex.  viii.  20- 
32.)  (5)  A  grievous  murrain  that  destroy¬ 

ed  the  cattle  of  the  Egyptians.  (Ex.  ix.  1- 
7.)  (6)  Malignant  boils.  (Ex.  ix.  8-12.) 

(7)  Terrible  storms  with  hail.  (Ex.  ix.  13- 
35.)  (8)  Locusts.  (Ex.  x.  1-20.)  (9)  A 

pall  of  darkness  for  three  days,  except  in 
Goshen.  (Ex.  x.  21-28.)  (10)  Finally  the 

first-born  of  Egypt  were  smitten  at  mid¬ 
night.  (Ex.  xii.  29,  30.)  These  plagues 
were  probably  spread  over  a  considerable 
period  and  followed  as  much  as  possible 
the  order  of  the  seasons. 

Plato,  the  greatest  writer  of  heathen 
philosophy,  was  born  at  Athens,  B.  c.  429. 
Of  the  details  of  his  early  life  little  is 
known.  He  was  well-educated,  and  de¬ 
voted  the  early  years  of  his  life  to  writing 
poetry;  but  at  the  age  of  twenty  became 
acquainted  with  Socrates  ( q .  v.),  and  in 
consequence  gave  up  poetry,  and  devoted 
the  rest  of  his  long  life  to  the  study  of  phi¬ 
losophy.  It  is  related  by  the  biographer 
of  the  Greek  philosophers  that  once  upon 
a  time  Socrates  dreamed  that  he  found  an 
unfledged  cygnet  on  his  knee.  In  a  few 
moments  it  became  winged  and  flew  away, 
uttering  sweet  sounds.  Next  day  Plato 
came,  and  Socrates  felt  his  dream  fulfilled. 
From  that  time  Plato  became  so  identified 
with  his  master  that  his  individuality  is  al¬ 
most  lost.  A  part  of  the  writings  attributed 
to  him  are  certainly  spurious,  though  a  few 
fragments  of  them  may  be  genuine,  giving 
us  some  information  respecting  his  travels 
in  Sicily.  The  form  which  Plato  chose  to 
express  his  philosophy,  that  of  the  dia¬ 
logue,  was  not  an  invention  intended  to 
present  his  truth  in  attractive  form.  It 
was  because  he  was  desirous  from  his  heart 
to  elucidate  truth,  and  to  give  all  sides  full 
consideration.  Many  doubts  and  objec¬ 
tions  expressed  are  frivolous,  but  they  are 
such  as  suggest  themselves  to  many  minds, 
and  therefore  have  to  be  met.  “  The  dia¬ 
logues  of  Plato,”  says  an  English  philos¬ 
opher,  “  are  literally  an  education ,  explain¬ 
ing  to  us  how  we  are  to  deal  with  our  own 
minds,  how  far  we  are  to  humor  them,  how 
far  we  are  to  resist  them;  how  they  are  to 
entertain  the  glimpses  of  light  which  some¬ 
times  fall  upon  them;  how  they  are  to 
make  their  way  through  the  complications 
and  darkness  in  which  they  so  often  feel 
themselves  lost.  Nowhere  but  in  the  sa¬ 
cred  oracles  do  we  find  an  author  so  cogni¬ 
zant  of  our  own  perplexities,  so  little 
anxious  to  hide  them  from  us;  nay,  so 
anxious  to  awaken  us  to  the  consciousness 
of  them,  in  order  that  we  may  be  delivered 
from  them.  Herein  lies  the  art  of  Plato. 


Most  consummate  art  it  is,  we  admit;  supe¬ 
rior  in  the  depth  of  insight  which  must 
have  led  to  it,  and  in  the  influence  which  it 
exerts,  to  that  which  is  displayed  in  almost 
any  human  composition.  Still,  it  is  not 
art,  in  the  sense  commonly  given  to  that 
word;  it  has  no  independent  purpose  of 
pleasing.  It  does  not  work  underground, 
leaving  the  ordinary  man  to  feel  its  effects 
simply,  and  the  thoughtful  man  to  judge 
of  its  character  by  its  effects.  On  the  con¬ 
trary,  it  anxiously  draws  your  attention  to 
its  own  methods  and  contrivances:  that 
you  should  enter  into  them,  and  under¬ 
stand  all  the  springs  and  valves  that  are  at 
work  is  as  much  the  writer’s  ambition  as 
that  you  should  accept  any  one  of  the  final 
results.  Indeed,  he  does  not  acknowledge 
the  result  as  yours,  till  in  the  region  of 
your  own  inner  being  you  have  gone 
through  the  processes  which  lead  to  them.” 
— Maurice:  Moral  and  Metaphysical  Philos¬ 
ophy,  p.  129. 

The  fundamental  principle  of  Plato’s  doc¬ 
trine  is  probably  that  which  was  known  to 
the  Schoolmen  as  that  of  Universals,  i.  e., 
the  assertion  that  there  is  a  constant  char¬ 
acter  which  repeats  itself  in  every  sample 
of  any  natural  kind,  an  invariable  attri¬ 
bute,  which  makes  that  object  what  it  is, 
whilst  individual  members  of  that  class 
have  variable  accidents.  The  essential 
attribute  he  called  the  idea — that  was  the 
ultimate  reality.  No  object  that  comes  be¬ 
fore  us  in  the  physical  world  completely 
fulfils  our  idea.  I  have  an  idea  of  a  man, 
but  no  one  man  fulfils  the  whole  idea  when 
I  hear  the  word  “  man.”  But  so  far  as  the 
thing  coalesces  with  the  thought,  the  abid¬ 
ing  essence  is  present.  And  these  ideals 
rise  in  rank,  the  lower  rise  into  the  higher, 
even  until  they  reach  One  Supreme,  in 
whom  all  ideas  and  all  thoughts  are  cen¬ 
tred.  Dr.  Martineau,  in  his  masterly  and 
exhaustive  examination  of  the  Platonic 
philosophy,  thus  discriminates  its  main 
principles:  “  (1)  The  proper  end  of  man  is 
not  pleasure  or  the  contentment  of  the 
sensitive  nature,  but  a  good  which  may  run 
counter  to  this,  and  the  chief  elements  of 
which  are  truth,  beauty,  right.  These  are 
to  be  sought  on  their  own  account  as  hav¬ 
ing  intrinsic  and  ultimate  worth.  (2)  This 
good,  though  including  the  just  regulation1 
of  the  active  principles  of  conduct,  does  not 
terminate  here,  but  takes  in  also  the  right 
direction  of  the  rational  powers.  (3)  The 
good  which  supplies  the  proper  human  aim 
is  not  merely  subjective  and  dependent  on 
the  constitution. of  the  human  faculties;  it 
has  an  objective  reality,  which  would  re¬ 
main  though  we  were  not.  Ere  anything 
perishable  arose,  it  was.  It  existed  sep¬ 
arately,  and  justifies,  therefore,  its  as- 


Pla 


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Ply 


sumption  of  the  name  God.  (4)  This  high¬ 
est  good  exists  in  us  and  out  of  us.  Its 
various  types,  embodied  in  the  visible  uni¬ 
verse,  are  also  indigenous  treasures  of  the 
human  mind  which  has  pre-existed  as  well 
as  they,  and  been  familiar  with  them  in  an 
earlier  state.  Whatever  is  good  is  evolved 
from  us  by  appeal  to  memory;  virtue  is 
learning,  and  learning  is  remembrance.  (5) 
It  follows  from  this  that  our  relation  to 
God  as  the  divine  ground  and  source  of 
the  universe  is  a  relation  of  likeness,  arising 
from  identity  of  essence — of  the  little  to 
the  great,  the  mixed  and  disguised  to  the 
pure  and  clear,  the  partial  copy  to  the  per¬ 
fect  original.” — Types  of  Ethical  Theory, 
vol.  i.,  pp.  84-86.  The  learned  author 
shows  in  a  very  grand  passage  which  fol¬ 
lows,  where  the  Platonic  idea  fell  short  of 
the  Christian. 

Platonism  has  been  made  by  Providence 
one  of  the  most  powerful  handmaids  of 
Christianity.  It  underlies  the  grand  phi¬ 
losophy  of  the  apocryphal  books  of  “  Ec- 
clesiasticus  ”  and  the  “  Wisdom  of  Sol¬ 
omon,”  writings  of  Alexandrian  Jews  who 
had  drunk  deep  of  the  Platonic  writings. 
Philo’s  teaching  concerning  the  Logos  was 
derived  from  the  same  source,  and  St.  John 
was  inspired  to  show  how  far  he  was  right, 
and  how  the  ideals  had  been  fulfilled  in  the 
Incarnate  Word.  The  Alexandrian  divin¬ 
ity  was  Platonic,  and  some  of  the  greatest 
of  English  philosophers  have  drawn  their 
doctrines  from  the  same  fountains. — Ben- 
ham:  Did.  of  Religion. 

Platonism.  See  above. 

Platonists,  The  Cambridge.  See  Cam¬ 
bridge  Platonists. 

Plitt,  Gustav  Leopold,  one  of  the  edi¬ 
tors  of  the  second  edition  of  Herzog’s  Real- 
Encyklopadie;  b.  at  Genin,  near  Liibeck, 
March  27,  1836;  d.  at  Erlangen,  Sept.  10, 
18S0.  He  studied  theology  at  Erlangen 
and  Berlin;  became  extraordinary,  in  1867, 
and  in  1875  ordinary,  professor  of  church 
history  and  encyclopaedia  at  Erlangen.  He 
wrote  several  volumes  on  historical  sub¬ 
jects,  and  at  the  time  of  his  death  had  nearly 
completed  a  Life  of  Luther.  He  lived  to 
aid  Dr.  Herzog  in  his  editorship  of  the  Real- 
Encyklopadie  only  through  six  volumes. 
He  was  an  excellent  scholar  and  well 
equipped  for  this  work. 

Plumer,  William  Swan,  D.  D.,  an  emi¬ 
nent  Presbyterian  minister  and  theologian; 
b.  in  Darlington,  Penn.,  July  26,  1802;  d. 
In  Baltimore,  Md.,  Oct.  22,  1880.  He  was 
graduated  at  Washington  College,  Lexing¬ 
ton,  Va. ,  and  studied  theology  at  Princeton 


Seminary.  He  was  licensed  to  preach  in 
1827,  and  after  several  years  of  evangelistic 
work  in  North  Carolina  he  was  called  to 
Petersburg,  Va. ,  in  1831  and  then  to  the 
First  Presbyterian  Church  in  Richmond  in 
1834,  where  he  labored  thirteen  years. 
From  1847  to  1854  he  was  pastor  of  the 
Franklin  Street  Church,  Baltimore,  when 
he  was  elected  to  the  chair  of  didactic  and 
pastoral  theology  in  the  Western  Theolog¬ 
ical  Seminary  at  Allegheny,  Penn.,  at  the 
same  time  serving  as  pastor  of  the  First 
Presbyterian  Church  of  that  city.  From 
1862  to  1867  he  preached  in  Philadelphia 
and  Pottsville,  Penn.  Elected  in  1867  to 
the  professorship  of  didactic  and  polemic 
theology  in  Columbia  Seminary,  S.  C.,  he 
remained  there  until  1880,  when  he  was 
made  professor  emeritus.  He  wrote  a  num¬ 
ber  of  commentaries  on  different  portions 
of  the  Old  and  New  Testaments,  and  a  great 
variety  of  tracts  that  had  a  wide  circulation, 
as  well  as  articles  for  the  religious  press. 
A  man  of  devoted  piety  and  lovable  char¬ 
acter,  he  accomplished  a  noble  life-work. 

Plymouth  Brethren,  “  a  religious  sect 
which  sprang  into  existence  about  1830-35 
in  Plymouth,  Dublin,  and  other  places  in 
the  British  Islands,  and  which  has  extended 
itself  considerably  throughout  the  British 
dominions  and  in  some  parts  of  the  conti¬ 
nent  of  Europe,  particularly  among  the 
Protestants  of  France,  Switzerland,  and 
Italy,  and  also  in  the  United  States  of 
America.  It  seems  to  have  originated  in 
a  reaction  against  exclusive  high-church 
principles,  as  maintained  in  the  Church  of 
England,  with  everything  of  a  kindred 
nature  in  other  churches,  and  against  a 
dead  formalism  associated  with  ‘  unevan¬ 
gelical  ’  doctrine.  Man)'-  of  the  first  mem¬ 
bers  of  the  new  religious  communities 
formed  in  Plymouth  and  elsewhere  were 
retired  Anglo-Indian  officers,  men  of  un¬ 
questionable  zeal  and  piety;  and  these 
communities  began  to  appear  almost  simul¬ 
taneously  in  a  number  of  places.  Their 
origin  is,  however,  very  much  to  be  as¬ 
cribed  to  the  labors  and  influence  of  Mr. 
Darby,  from  whom  the  Plymouth  Brethren 
on  the  continent  of  Europe  are  very  gen¬ 
erally  known  as  Darbyites.  Mr.  Darby  was 
a  barrister,  moving  in  the  highest  circles 
of  society;  and  under  deep  religious  im¬ 
pressions  became  a  clergyman  of  the 
Church  of  England,  and  lived  for  some 
time  in  a  mud  hovel  in  the  county  Wick¬ 
low,  devoting  himself  to  his  work  ;  but 
afterward  left  the  Church  of  England  from 
conscientious  scruples,  and  became  an 
evangelist  unconnected  with  any  church. 
In  this  character  he  labored  both  in  Eng¬ 
land  and  on  the  continent  of  Europe, 


Ply 


(  745  ) 


Pol 


preaching  in  French,  English,  and  German. 
He  also  gave  utterance  to  his  opinions  in 
numerous  pamphlets,  and  in  a  quarterly 
periodical  called  The  Christian  Witness, 
which  for  a  number  of  years  was  the  ‘  or¬ 
gan  ’  of  the  Plymouth  Brethren.  He  con¬ 
tinued  to  visit  from  time  to  time  the  com- 
munitiesor  meetingsof  Plymouth  Brethren. 
His  tenets,  and  those  of  the  Plymouth 
Brethren  in  general,  are  strictly  Calvin- 
istic:  original  sin  and  predestination,  the 
efficacy  of  Christ’s  sacrifice,  the  merit  of 
his  obedience,  the  power  of  his  interces¬ 
sion,  the  gracious  operations  of  the  Holy 
Spirit  in  regeneration  and  sanctification, 
are  prominent  points.  Millenarian  views 
are  also  generally  entertained  by  the  Plym¬ 
outh  Brethren;  and  they  usually  practice 
the  baptism  of  adults  without  regard  to 
previous  infant  baptism.  They  acknowl¬ 
edge  the  sacrament  of  the  Lord’s  Supper, 
and  administer  it  to  one  another  in  their 
meetings,  usually  on  every  Sunday,  or 
‘  first  day  of  the  week;’  in  this,  as  in  every¬ 
thing  else,  refusing  to  acknowledge  any 
special  ministers.  They  utterly  reject 
confirmation.  Their  most  distinctive  pe¬ 
culiarity,  when  contrasted  with  other  Cal- 
vinistic  churches,  is  their  complete  rejec¬ 
tion  of  ecclesiastical  organization.  They 
suppose  the  whole  Christian  body  in  the 
world  to  have  declined  from  truth  and 
duty,  like  Israel  of  old,  and,  therefore,  to 
have  been  ‘  corporately  rejected  of  God,’ 
and  believe  the  true  Church  to  consist  of 
themselves  and  of  other  chosen  ones  in  the 
various  Christian  churches.  They  refuse 
to  recognize  any  form  of  church  govern¬ 
ment,  or  any  office  of  the  ministry;  they 
insist  much  on  the  equal  right  of  every 
male  member  of  the  church  to  prophesy  or 
preach;  and  in  their  meetings,  after  each 
hymn  or  prayer,  there  is  usually  a  pause, 
that  any  one,  moved  by  the  Spirit,  may  un¬ 
dertake  this  office.  They  exclude  persons 
known  to  have  been  guilty  of  gross  sins 
from  participation  with  them  in  the  Lord’s 
Supper,  until  proof  is  afforded  of  repent¬ 
ance.  The  Plymouth  Brethren  reject  every 
distinctive  appellation  but  that  of  Chris¬ 
tians;  although  a  special  denomination  is 
found  necessary  to  designate  them;  and, 
in  fact,  no  one  not  holding  their  views 
could  remain  associated  with  them.  A 
great  schism  took  place  among  them  in 
consequence  of  doctrines  preached  in  Plym¬ 
outh  and  Bristol  concerning  the  human 
nature  of  Christ;  Mr.  Darby  vigorously 
opposing  what  he  deemed  a  dangerous 
error,  and  he  and  his  adherents  utterly 
separating  from  the  fellowship  of  those 
who  maintained  or  even  refused  to  con¬ 
demn  it.  One  of  the  most  noted  (if  not 
notable)  converts  to  the  principles  of  the 


sect  was  the  revivalist  Guinness,  who  was 
baptized  in  i860  by  another  Plymouth 
Brother,  Lord  Congleton. 

“  On  the  continent  of  Europe  the  Plym¬ 
outh  Brethren  have  in  many  places  given 
great  trouble  to  the  Protestant  churches 
by  their  opposition  to  all  ecclesiastical 
order  or  organization.” — Chambers:  Cyclo- 
pcedia.  See  Tevlon:  History  and  Doctrines 
of  the  Plymouth  Brethren  (London,  1883). 

Pneumatomachi  (Gr . pneuma,  spirit,  and 
machos,  an  enemy),  a  name  applied  to  all 
who  denied  the  personality  and  divinity 
of  the  Holy  Spirit,  but  more  especially  to 
the  followers  of  Macedonius  (q.  v.).  See 
Semi-Arians. 

Poetry,  Hebrew.  See  Hebrew  Poetry. 

Pole,  Reginald,  archbishop  of  Canter¬ 
bury;  b.  probably  in  Lordington,  Sussex, 
March,  1500;  d.  at  Lambeth,  Nov.  18, 
1558.  His  mother  was  a  niece  of  Edward 
IV.,  and  he  was  educated  at  Oxford,  and  at 
the  universities  of  Paris  and  Padua,  at  the 
expense  of  Henry  VIII.,  who  bestowed  up¬ 
on  him  several  important  ecclesiastical  pre¬ 
ferments.  When  that  monarch  resolved 
upon  the  divorce  from  his  queen,  Catherine 
of  Aragon,  Pole  strongly  opposed  the 
measure,  and  wrote  his  Pro  Unitate  Eccle- 
siastica,  which  condemned  the  position  taken 
by  the  king.  Deprived  of  his  preferments 
Pole  found  refuge  in  Italy,  where  he  was 
received  with  honor,  and  made  cardinal. 
On  the  death  of  Paul  III.  he  came  near  be¬ 
ing  elected  his  successor.  At  the  acces¬ 
sion  of  Mary  he  was  sent  as  legate  to  Eng¬ 
land,  and  the  day  after  the  execution  of 
Cranmer  he  was  consecrated  to  the  arch¬ 
bishopric  of  Canterbury.  During  his  brief 
term  of  power  many  were  put  to  death  as 
heretics.  He  was  a  man  of  time-serving 
spirit,  but  always  firm  in  his  defence  of 
papal  authority.  See  Hook:  Lives  of 
Archbishops  of  Canterbtiry ,  vol.  iii. 

Polemics.  See  Apologetics. 

Polentz,  George  of.  See  George  of 
Polentz. 

Polity.  See  Church  Government 

Pollock,  Robert,  a  Scottish  minister  and 
poet;  b.  at  Muirhouse,  Eaglesham  Parish, 
Renfrewshire,  1799;  d.  at  Southampton, 
Sept.  15,  1827.  He  was  graduated  at  the 
University  of  Glasgow,  and  studied  theol¬ 
ogy,  but  after  receiving  his  license  from  the 
United  Secession  Church  (1827),  he  preach¬ 
ed  but  once.  He  wrote  numerous  stories 
which  were  published  anonymously,  but 


Pol 


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Pol 


his  fame  rests  upon  his  poem,  the  “  Course 
of  Time”  (1827),  which  had  great  popularity. 

Polycarp,  bishop  of  Smyrna,  was  a  pupil 
of  St.  John,  and  by  some  is  thought  to  be 
the  angel  of  Smyrna  on  whose  account  St. 
John  received  a  message  in  the  Book  of 
Revelation.  Soon  after  his  accession, 
Marcus  Aurelius  ordered  a  persecution 
throughout  his  empire.  The  Christians 
bore  their  sufferings  so  bravely  that  they 
are  described  by  a  writer  of  that  time  in 
the  following  words:  “At  the  time  of 
their  torment  they  seemed  absent,  as  it 
were,  from  the  body,  or  rather  that  the 
Lord,  being  present  with  them,  conversed 
familiarly  with  them;  thus  they  were  sup¬ 
ported  by  the  grace  of  Christ.”  The  mob 
were  so  angry  at  this  fortitude  that  they 
determined  to  have  Polycarp  as  one  of 
their  victims.  He  was  warned  of  the  ar¬ 
rival  of  the  officers,  so  had  time  to  take 
refuge  in  a  neighbor’s  house,  and  from 
thence  retired  to  a  small  village  on  the  out¬ 
skirts  of  Smyrna.  He  might  have  stayed 
there  safely  for  some  time,  but  the  officers 
bribed  one  of  his  slaves  to  reveal  the 
bishop’s  hiding-place.  When  they  came 
to  take  him  he  behaved  toward  them  with 
great  kindness, setting  refreshments  before 
them  with  his  own  hand.  He  asked  leave 
to  have  a  quiet  hour  for  prayer,  and  then 
expressed  himself  ready  to  go  with  them. 
On  the  way  back  to  Smyrna  the  soldiers 
tried  to  tempt  him  to  recant,  urging  that 
there  could  be  no  harm  in  saying  the  words 
“  Lord  Caesar,”  or  in  offering  sacrifice,  and 
yet  by  such  trivial  matters  he  might  save 
his  life.  He  did  not  answer  them  at  first, 
and  when  absolutely  compelled  to  speak 
he  only  said,  “  I  will  not  follow  your  ad¬ 
vice.”  He  was  given  another  chance  by 
the  proconsul  while  the  soldiers  were  pre¬ 
paring  the  stake  at  which  he  was  to  be 
burnt  alive.  The  proconsul  said,  “  Swear 
by  the  fortunes  of  Caesar;  curse  Christ, 
and  I  will  set  thee  free.”  But  Polycarp 
quietly  answered,  “  Eighty  and  six  years 
have  I  served  Christ;  how,  then,  can  I 
curse  him,  my  King  and  my  Saviour?” 
The  herald  was  ordered  to  proclaim  'that 
Polycarp  had  admitted  that  he  was  a 
Christian,  and  then  the  fire  was  kindled. 
Soon  after  his  death  one  of  his  followers, 
Irenaeus,  wrote  an  account  of  his  life  and 
death,  and  some  of  his  congregation  met 
together  to  settle  how  they  should  com¬ 
memorate  the  memory  of  one  to  whom 
they  all  owed  so  much.  They  agreed  that 
they  would  solemnly  keep  the  day  of  his 
martyrdom  every  year,  which  they  called 
his  “  birthday.”  This  is  probably  the 
origin  of  keeping  Saints’  Days. — Benham: 
Diet,  of  Religion. 


Polyglot  (Gr.  polys ,  many,  and  glotta,  a 
tongue).  The  name  is  given  to  two  or 
more  versions  of  the  Bible  arranged  side 
by  side.  The  polyglots  seem  to  have  ex¬ 
isted  from  very  early  ages.  The  ancient 
editions  of  the  New  Testament  which  ap¬ 
peared  in  the  first  ten  centuries,  and  which 
contain  the  Greek  and  vernacular  lan¬ 
guages,  are  sometimes  wrongly  termed 
polyglot.  The  name  is  also  sometimes 
used  for  the  Hexapla  of  Origen,  which  con¬ 
tains  the  Hebrew  text  and  six  Greek  ver¬ 
sions.  The  polyglots,  properly  so  called, 
are  the  four  greater  and  the  many  lesser 
polyglots.  The  four  greater  are  the  Com- 
plutensian,  the  Antwerp,  the  Parisian,  and 
the  London. 

The  Complutensian  Polyglot  (so  called  be¬ 
cause  it  was  printed  at  Alcala  da  Henares, 
the  Latin  name  of  which  is  Complutum) 
was  prepared  at  the  cost  of  Cardinal  Xime- 
nes  by  famous  Spanish  scholars  between 
the  years  1502  and  1517,  but  was  not  pub¬ 
lished  till  1529.  It  is  in  six  volumes,  of 
which  the  first  four  contain  the  Old  Testa¬ 
ment,  the  fifth  the  New,  and  the  sixth  He¬ 
brew  and  Chaldee  grammars  and  lexicons. 
It  gives  six  different  texts:  the  Hebrew, 
the  Chaldee,  Onkelos’s  Targum,  the  Sep- 
tuagint,  the  Vulgate,  and  the  Greek  New 
Testament.  There  are  also  literal  Latin 
translations  of  the  Chaldee  and  Septuagint 
Greek  versions. 

The  Antwerp  Polyglot  was  published 
there  between  1569  and  1572  by  the  famous 
printer  Christophe  Plantin,  at  the  cost  of 
King  Philip  II.  of  Spain,  under  the  direc¬ 
tion  of  Benedict  Arias  Montanus.  It  is  in 
eight  volumes,  and  contains,  besides  what 
is  in  the  Complutensian  Version,  the  Chal¬ 
dee  Paraphrase  upon  the  other  books  of 
the  Old  Testament,  with  the  Latin  inter¬ 
pretation  of  the  Syriac.  The  eighth  vol¬ 
ume,  which  has  the  Hebrew  and  Greek 
texts  with  the  Latin  version  of  Pagninus, 
altered  in  a  few  instances  by  Arias,  has 
been  often  reprinted.  This  polyglot  is  not 
of  very  much  value,  as  it  depends  very 
much  on  the  Complutensian,  and  the  alter¬ 
ations  are  made  from  some  editions  pub¬ 
lished  in  Paris  by  Robert  Stephens  (d. 
1559)- 

The  Paris  Polyglot ,  the  largest  of  the 
polyglots,  was  published  in  Paris  in  1645 
at  the  expense  and  under  the  superintend¬ 
ence  of  Guy  Michel  le  Jay.  It  is  in  ten 
large  folio  volumes,  and  contains,  besides 
the  versions  in  the  Antwerp  Polyglot, 
Syriac  and  Arabic  versions,  arranged  by 
some  Maronites  from  Rome,  the  Samaritan 
Pentateuch,  and  another  Samaritan  version, 
each  with  a  literal  Latin  translation.  It 
contains  many  defects,  and  has  little  criti¬ 
cal  value. 


Pol 


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Pop 


The  London  Polyglot  was  published  in 
1654-57  in  London  in  six  volumes.  It  was 
edited  by  Brian  Walton,  afterward  bishop 
of  Chester.  There  are  two  sets  of  copies 
— the  Republican  (1657),  those  dedicated  to 
Oliver  Cromwell,  and  the  Loyal  (1660), 
which  were  dedicated  to  Charles  II.  on  his 
accession.  The  work  engaged  all  the  most 
learned  men  in  England  for  many  years. 
It  contains  Hebrew,  Samaritan,  Greek, 
Arabic,  Chaldee,  Ethiopic,  Syriac,  Persic, 
and  Latin  versions,  all  but  the  Vulgate  be¬ 
ing  accompanied  with  literal  Latin  transla¬ 
tions.  The  sixth  volume  contains  various 
readings  and  critical  remarks.  The  Prole¬ 
gomena  by  Walton  discusses  Bible  texts  and 
versions.  This  work  was  followed  in  1669 
by  the  Lexicon  Heptaglotton  of  Edmund 
Castell,  containing  lexicons  of  all  the  lan¬ 
guages  of  the  polyglot  except  the  Latin  and 
Greek. 

The  chief  of  the  lesser  polyglots  are  (1) 
the  Heidelberg ,  in  3  vols.  (1586),  containing 
Hebrew,  Greek  and  Latin  texts  ;  (2)  the 
Hamburg,  compiled  by  David  Wolder,  in  6 
vols.  (1596),  in  Hebrew,  Greek,  Latin,  and 
German;  (3)  the  Nuremberg ,  edited  by  Elias 
Hutter  (1599),  in  Hebrew,  Chaldee,  Greek, 
Latin,  German,  and  French;  (4)  the  Leipzig, 
edited  by  Reineccius,  the  New  Testament 
in  Syriac,  Greek,  Latin,  German,  and  Ro¬ 
man  (1713),  and  the  Old  Testament  in  He¬ 
brew,  Greek,  Latin,  and  German  (1750-51); 

(5)  Bagster’s,  the  most  valuable  of  the 
modern  collections  of  versions  (1831), 
which  contains  Latin,  Greek,  Samaritan, 
the  Septuagint,  Hebrew,  German,  Italian, 
Spanish,  French,  and  English,  to  which 
Syrian  is  added  in  the  New  Testament; 

(6)  Bielefeld s  Hand  Polyglot  (1845-54), 
containing,  in  the  Old  Testament,  Hebrew, 
Greek,  Latin,  and  Luther’s  German  ver¬ 
sion,  and  in  the  New,  Greek,  Latin,  and 
Luther’s  German,  and  in  the  fourth  column, 
sometimes  the  chief  differences  between 
this  and  other  German  versions,  sometimes 
the  English  authorized  version;  (7)  the 
Hexaglot  Bible,  edited  in  London  by  R.  de 
Levante(  1 871-75),  containing  the’G reek  and 
Hebrew  texts,  with  Septuagint,  Syriac, 
Latin,  English,  French,  and  German  ver¬ 
sions. — Benham:  Diet,  of  Religion. 

Polytheism.  The  gradual  development 
of  polytheism — the  belief  in  and  worship  of 
many  gods — from  the  primitive  monothe¬ 
ism,  we  infer  from  the  history  of  Abraham 
(Gen.  xiv.  18;  Josh.  xxiv.  2),  of  Jacob 
(Gen.  xxxi.  19),  of  Joseph  (Gen.  xli.  50), 
and  of  Moses  in  his  struggle  to  keep  his 
people  free  from  the  seductions  of  Egyptian 
and  Midianite  heathenism.  This  view  is 
substantiated  by  the  New  Testament. 
(Rom.  i.  21;  Acts  xiv.  16;  xvii.  29.) 


Pond,  Enoch,  D.  D.,  b.  at  Wrentham, 
Mass.,  July  29,  1791;  d.  at  Bangor,  Me., 
Jan.  21,  1882.  He  was  graduated  at  Brown 
University  in  1813,  and  studied  theology 
under  Dr.  Emmons,  and  was  ordained  pas¬ 
tor  of  the  Congregational  Church  in  Ward 
(now  Auburn),  Mass.,  1815.  From  1828 
to  1832  he  edited  The  Spirit  of  the  Pilgrims , 
published  in  Boston.  In  1832  he  entered 
upon  the  duties  of  professor  of  systematic 
theology  in  the  Bangor  Theological  Sem¬ 
inary.  He  filled  this  chair  till  1856,  when 
he  was  elected  president  and  professor  of 
ecclesiastical  history,  and  lecturer  on  pas¬ 
toral  theology.  He  retired  from  active 
service  in  1870.  He  wrote  several  books, 
among  them:  Lectures  on  Pastoral  Theology 
(Andover,  1866 \,  Lectures  on  Christian  The¬ 
ology  (Boston,  1868);  A  History  of  Gods 
Church ,  from  its  Origin  to  the  Present  Times 
(Hartford,  1871). 

Pontifex,  or  Pontiff,  an  order  of  hea¬ 
then  priests  at  Rome.  The  Pontifex  Maxi¬ 
mus  was  the  head  of  the  College  of  Pontiffs, 
and  was  an  office  of  power.  The  term 
“  pontiff,”  as  applied  to  bishops  and  then 
to  the  gope,  is  borrowed  from  this  source. 

Pontificale,  a  book  which  designates  the 
rites  which  can  alone  be  performed  by  a 
bishop;  e.  g. ,  the  coronation  of  kings,  the 
ordination  of  priests  and  deacons,  and  con¬ 
firmation.  It  also  describes  his  vestments. 

Poole,  Matthew,  a  learned  Noncon¬ 
formist  divine;  b.  at  York,  Eng.,  1624;  d. 
at  Amsterdam,  Oct.,  1679.  Educated  at 
Emmanuel  College,  Cambridge,  he  became 
Presbyterian  minister  of  St.  Michael-le- 
Quernes,  London,  in  1648.  Having  lost 
his  living  on  account  of  his  Nonconformity, 
he  devoted  himself  to  biblical  studies  and 
writing.  His  chief  works  are:  Synopsis 
Bibliorum  Criticorum  (1669);  The  Blasphem¬ 
er  Slain  by  the  Sword  of  the  Spirit  (1654); 
The  Nullity  of  the  Romish  Faith;  or,  a  Blow 
at  the  Root ,  etc.  (1666);  Dialogues  Between  a 
Popish  Priest  and  an  English  Protestant 
(1667).  He  left  an  uncompleted  English 
Annotations  of  the  Holy  Bible,  which  was 
completed  by  his  friends,  and  has  passed 
through  many  editions. 

Poor  Clares.  See  Clare,  St. 

Poor  Men  of  Lyons.  See  Waldenses. 

Popes.  “  The  name  Pope  (from  the  Lat. 
papa,  a  father)  was  formerly  given  to  all 
bishops;  but  in  the  Western  Church  it  is 
now  given  exclusively  to  the  bishop  of 
Rome,  and  the  head  of  the  Roman  Catholic 
Church.  Officially  the  pope  bears  the  title. 


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*  Bishop  of  Rome  and  Vicar  of  Jesus 
Christ,  Successor  of  St.  Peter,  Prince  of 
the  Apostles,  Supreme  Pontiff  of  the  Uni¬ 
versal  Church.’  The  title  of  pope  was  first 
adopted  by  Hyginus,  A.  D.  139.  Originally 
the  popes  were  elected  by  the  priests  and 
people  of  the  diocese  of  Rome.  In  the 
eleventh  century,  Nicholas  II.  conferred 
on  the  cardinals  the  right  of  election;  but, 
in  conformity  with  his  statutes,  these  dig¬ 
nitaries,  who  had  figured  as  a  body  since 
the  eighth  century,  were  bound  to  demand 
of  the  Roman  people  and  the  Roman  clergy 
the  ratification  of  their  choice,  that  choice 
being  the  preference  of  at  least  two-thirds  of 
the  conclave.  Since  1227  (the  accession  of 
Gregory  IX.)  the  popes  have  been  chosen 
by  the  cardinals  alone,  and  almost  always 
from  among  the  Italian  members  of  their 
own  body.  Each  cardinal  writes  the  name 
of  the  candidate  he  proposes  on  a  ticket, 
which  he  deposits  in  a  consecrated  chalice 
which  stands  on  the  altar  of  the  chapel  in 
which  the  conclave  meets.  If  no  candidate 
is  found  to  have  secured  two-thirds  of  the 
votes,  there  is  no  election,  and  the  former 
mode  of  proceeding  must  be  repeated;  but 
any  cardinal  may  4  accede  ’  to  the^vote  of 
another  by  altering  his  ticket  according  to 
a  prescribed  form,  and  thus  the  necessary 
two-thirds  may  be  obtained.  This  proceed¬ 
ing  is  called  election  4  by  access.’  The 
moment  the  election  is  declared  the  tickets 
are  burned.  After  election  the  pope  is 
solemnly  enthroned  and  crowned.  From 
755  to  1870  the  pope  was  a  temporal  prince. 
The  states  (called  4  the  States  of  the 
Church’) over  which  he  reigned  now  form 
a  part  of  the  Italian  Kingdom.  The  follow¬ 
ing  is  a  list  of  the  bishops  and  popes  of 
Rome  from  the  first  century  downwards: 


a.  d.  First  Century. 

St.  Peter.  [Although  St.  Peter  is  always  placed 
at  the  head  of  the  list,  it  is  doubted  by  many 
historians  whether  St.  Peter  ever  was  at 
Rome.  There  is  a  tradition,  however,  that 
he  was  martyred  there — crucified,  with  his 
head  downwards.] 

St.  Clement  (Clemens  Romanus).  (See  Clemens 
Romanus.) 

St.  Linus. 

St.  Cletus. 

St.  Clement  II. 

Second  Century. 


A.  D. 

230— St.  Pontianus.  [Banished.] 

235—  St.  Antherus.  [Martyred.] 

236 —  St.  Fabianus.  [Martyred.] 

251 —  St.  Cornelius. 

252 —  St.  Lucius.  [Martyred.] 

253 —  St.  Stephen  I.  [Martyred.] 

257 — St.  Sixtus  II.  [Martyred.] 

259 — St.  Dionysius. 

269 — St.  Felix  I.  [Martyred.] 

275 — St.  Eutychianus. 

283 — St.  Caius.  • 

296 — St.  Marcellinus. 

Fourth  Century. 

308 — St.  Marcellus  I.  [Banished.] 

310 —  St.  Eusebius. 

31 1 —  St.  Melchiades. 

•  3x4 — St.  Sylvester  I. 

336 —  St.  Marcus. 

337—  St.  Julius. 

352 — Liberius.  [Felix  II.,  antipope.] 

366— St.  Damasus  [Ursicinus,  antipope.] 

384 — Siricius. 

398 — St.  Anastasius. 

Fifth  Century. 

402 — St.  Innocent  I. 

417 —  St.  Zosimus. 

418 —  St.  Boniface  I. 

422 — St.  Celestine  I.  [Is  said  to  have  sent  missionaries 
to  Ireland.] 

432 — Sixtus  III. 

440 — St.  Leo  I.,  or,  the  Great.  [Celebrated  for  his 
writings;  also  as  having,  it  is  said,  induced 
Attila  to  leave  Italy,  without  attacking 
Rome,  after  he  had  sacked  Verona,  Mantua, 
and  other  cities.]  (See  Atola.) 

461— St.  Hilary. 

468 — St.  Simplicius. 

483 — St.  Felix  III. 

492 — St.  Gelasius  I. 

496 — St.  Anastasius  II. 

498 — Symmachus.  [Laurentius,  antipope.] 

>  Sixth  Century. 

514 — Hormisdas. 

523 — John  I.  [Died  at  Ravenna  in  prison,  into  which 
he  had  been  thrown  by  Theodoric,  king  of 
the  Goths.] 

526 — Felix  IV.  [Is  said  to  have  introduced  into  the 
Church  the  sacrament  of  extreme  unction.] 
530 — Boniface  II. 

533— John  II.  (Mercurius.) 

535 —  Agapetus  I. 

536 —  St.  Sylverius.  [Banished,  through  the  influence 

of  the  Empress  Theodora,  into  Lycia,  where 
he  is  said  to  have  died  of  hunger.  Vigilius, 
antipope.] 

540 — Vigilius. 

555 — Pelagius  I. 

560 — John  III.  (Catilinus.) 

574 — Benedict  I.  (Bonosus.) 

578 — Pelagius  II. 

590 — St.  Gregory  I.,  or,  the  Great.  [Sent  St.  Augus¬ 
tine  to  England  to  win  the  English  over  to 
the  Church.] 


100— St.  Evaristus.  [Martyred.] 
109 — St.  Alexander  I.  [Martyred.] 
1 19 — St.  Sixtus  I.  [Martyred.] 

127 — St.  Telesphorus.  [Martyred.] 
139 — St.  Hyginus. 

142 — St.  Pius  I.  [Martyred.] 

157 — St.  Anicetus. 

168 — St.  Soterus.  [Martyred.] 

177 — St.  Eleutherius. 

193 — St.  Victor  I.  [Martyred.] 

Third  Century. 
202 — St.  Zephyrinus. 

219 — St.  Calixtus.  [Martyred.] 

223 — St.  Urban  I.  [Martyred.] 


Seventh  Century. 

604 — Sabinianus. 

607 —  Boniface  III. 

608 —  Boniface  IV. 

6x5— St.  Deusdedit,  or  Deodatus  I. 
618 — Boniface  V. 

625 — Honorius  I. 

638 — Severinus. 

640 — John  IV. 

642 — Theodorus  I. 

649 — Martin  I. 

654 — Eugenius  I. 

657 — Vitalianus. 

672 — Deusdedit,  or  Deodatus  11= 

676 — Domnus  I. 


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A.  D. 

678 — St.  Agathon. 

682 — St.  Leo  II.  [Is  said  to  have  introduced  into  the 
Church  the  use  of  holy  water.] 

684 —  Benedict  II. 

685 —  John  V. 

686 —  Conon. 

687 —  Sergius  I. 

Eighth  Century. 

701 — John  VI. 

705 — -John  VII. 

708 — Sisinius. 

Constantine. 

715 — St.  Gregory  II. 

731 — Gregory  III. 

741— St.  Zacharias. 

752 — Stephen  II. 

Stephen  III. 

757 — Paul  I. 

763 — Stephen  IV. 

772 — Adrian  I.  [Is  said  to  have  sanctioned  the  wor¬ 
ship  of  images,  which  had  been  allowed  by 
a  council  held  at  Nice  in  786,  but  was 
opposed  by  Charlemagne  and  the  Latin 
Church.] 

795 — Leo  III. 

Ninth  Century. 

816 —  Stephen  V. 

817 —  Paschal  I.  ( Paschasius. ) 

824 — Eugenius  II. 

827 — V  alentinus. 

Gregory  IV. 

844 — Sergius  II. 

847 — Leo  IV.  [To  this  period  belongs  the  fabulous 
story  of  Pope  Joan.  See  Joan.] 

855 — Benedict  III. 

858 — Nicholas  I. 

867 — Adrian  II. 

872 — John  VIII. 

882 — Marinus,  or  Martin  II. 

884 —  Adrian  III. 

885 —  Stephen  VI. 

891 — Formosus.  [Sergius  and  Boniface  VI.,  anti¬ 

popes.] 

896—  Stephen  VII.  [Strangled  by  the  people,  for 

having  dishonored  the  remains  of  the  former 
pope.] 

897 —  Roman  us. 

Theodorus  II. 

John  IX. 

Tenth  Century. 

900 — Benedict  IV. 

903 —  Leo  V.  [Died  in  prison.  Christopher,  anti¬ 

pope.] 

904 —  Sergius  III. 

91 1 — Anastasius  III. 

9x3 — Landonius,  or  Lando. 

914— John  X.  [Put  to  death  by  Marozia,  wife  of  Guy, 
Duke  of  Tuscany,] 

928 —  Leo  VI.  [Also  said  to  have  been  put  to  death 

by  Marozia.] 

929 —  Stephen  VIII. 

931 — John  XI.  [A  son  of  Marozia.  Thrown  by  his 
brother  Alberico  into  the  Castle  of  St.  An¬ 
gelo,  where  he  died.] 

936 — Leo  VII. 

939 — Stephen  IX. 

942 — Marinus  II. ,  or  Martin  III. 

946 — Agapetus  II. 

956— John  XII.  (Octavianus  Conti.)  [The  first  pope 
to  change  his  name  on  his  accession  to  the 
papal  throne.  He  was  assassinated  by  a 
man  whose  bed  he  had  violated.] 

963—  Leo  VIII.  [Styled  antipope  by  some.  ] 

964 —  Benedict  V. 

965—  John  XIII. 

972 —  Benedict  VI.  [Murdered  in  prison.] 

973 —  Domnus  II. 

974 —  Benedict  VII.  (Conti.) 


A.  D. 

984 —  John  XIV.  [Poisoned  in  the  Castle  of  St.  An¬ 

gelo.  Boniface  VII.,  antipope.] 

John  XV. 

985 —  John  XVI. 

996 — Gregory  V.  (Bruno.)  [John  XVII.,  antipope.]; 

999 — Sylvester  II. 

Eleventh  Century. 

1003 — John  XVII.  (Philagathus.) 

John  XVIII.  (Secco.) 

1009 — Sergius  IV.  (Bocca  di  Porco.) 

1012 — Benedict  VIII. 

1024 — John  XIX.  (Fasio.) 

1033 — Benedict  IX.  [Sylvester  III.,  antipope.] 

1044 — Gregory  VI.  (Giovanni  Graziano.) 

1047 —  Clement  II.  (Suger.) 

1048 —  Damasus  II.  (Poppo.) 

1049 —  St.  Leo  IX.  (Bruno.) 

1055 — Victor  II.  (Gebhard.) 

1057 —  Stephen  X. 

1058 —  Benedict  X.  [By  some  styled  antipope.] 

1059 —  Nicholas  II. 

1061—- Alexander  II.  (Anselmo  Baggio.)  [Honorius 
II.,  antipope.] 

1073 — St.  Gregory  VII.  (Hildebrand.)  [The  son  of  a 
carpenter  of  Soano,  in  Tuscany.  He  was 
characterized  by  great  energy  and  ambition, 
formed  vast  projects  for  the  reform  of  the 
Church,  and  in  attempting  to  execute  them 
assumed  unexampled  powers.  But  he  was 
embroiled  with  the  Emperor  Henry  IV.,  and 
after  a  violent  struggle  retired  to  Salerno, 
where  he  died.  Clement  HI.,  antipope.] 

1086 — Victor  III.  (Didier.) 

1088 — Urban  II.  [Proclaimed  the  first  Crusade.] 

1099— -Paschal  II.  [Albert  and  Theodoric,  antipopes.] 

Twelfth  Century. 

1118 —  Gelasius  II.  [Gregory  VIII.,  antipope.] 

1119 —  Calixtus  II. 

1124 — Honorius  II.  (Lamberto.) 

1130 — Innocent  II.  [Victor  IV.  (Anacletus),  antipope.] 

1143 —  Celestine  II. 

1144 —  Lucius  IT.  [Killed  by  a  blow  which  he  received 

in  a  popular  commotion.] 

1145 —  Eugenius  III. 

1153 —  Anastasius  IV. 

1154 —  Adrian  IV.  (Nicholas  Brakespeare.)  [The  only 

Englishman  ever  elected  to  the  papal  chair. 
He  was  bom  at  Abbot’s  Langley,  near  St. 
Albans,  and  was  for  some  time  connected,  i.i 
an  inferior  position,  with  the  monastery  in 
that  city.  It  was  during  this  pontificate  that 
the  disputes  between  the  papacy  and  th^ 
Emperor  Frederick  of  Germany  (Barbarossa) 
began,  the  result  of  which  was  the  strife  be¬ 
tween  the  Guelphs  and  the  Ghibellines, 
which  lasted  for  three  centuries.  Adrian  IV. 
is  believed  to  have  died  from  poison.] 

1159 — Alexander  III.  (Ronaldo  Ranuci.)  [Several 
antipopes  during  the  reign  of  this  pope.  He 
took  part  with  Thomas  a  Becket  in  his  con¬ 
flict  with  Henry  II. ,  and  canonized  A  Becket 
after  his  death.] 

1181-— -Lucius  III.  (Ubaldo.) 

1185 — Urban  III.  (Uberto  Crivelli.) 

1187 —  Gregory  VIII.  (Alberto  di  Mora.) 

1188 —  Clement  III.  (Paulino  Scolaro.)  [Proclaimed 

the  Third  Crusade.] 

X191 — Celestine  III.  (Hyacinthus.) 

1198— Innocent  III.  (Lothario  Conti.)  [Encouraged 
the  Crusades,  promoted  the  war  against  the 
Albigenses,  laid  the  kingdom  of  France  under 
interdict,  and  excommunicated  John,  king 
of  England.] 

Thirteenth  Century. 

1216 — Honorius  III.  (Cencio  Savclli.) 

1227 — Gregory  IX.  (Ugolino.)  [Proclaimed  the  Cru¬ 
sade  which  was  led  by  Frederick  II.  of  Ger¬ 
many,  whom  he  afterward,  however,  twice 
excommunicated.] 


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A.  D. 

1241 — Celestine  IV. 

1243 — Innocent  IV.  (Sinibaldo  de’  Fieschi.)  [Said  to 
nave  been  the  first  to  give  red  hats  to  the 
cardinals.] 

1254 — Alexander  IV.  (Rinaldo  Conti.) 

1261 — Urban  IV.  (Jacques  Pantaleon.) 

1265 — Clement  IV.  (Guy  Foulquois.)  [Signed  with 
St.  Louis  of  France  the  ‘  Pragmatic  Sanc¬ 
tion,”  which  put  an  end  to  the  differences 
between  Rome  and  France.] 

1271 — Gregory  X.  ( Tebaldo  Visconti.) 

1276 —  Innocent  V.  (Pietro  de’  Champagniaco.) 

Adrian  V.  (Ottobono  Fieschi.)  [Had  been, 

before  his  elevation  to  the  papacy,  legate  to 
England,  in  the  reign  of  Henry  III.] 

John  XXI. 

1277 —  Nicholas  III.  (Giovanni  Orsini.) 

1281 — Martin  IV.  (Simon  de  Brie.) 

1285 — Honorius  IV.  (Giacomo  Savelli.) 

1288 — Nicholas  IV.  (Jerome  of  Ascoli.) 

1294—  St.  Celestine  V.  (Pietro  da  Morroni  of  Abruzzo.) 

[Imprisoned  by  his  successor  in  a  castle, 
where  he  died.] 

1295 —  Boniface  VIII.  (Benedetto  Gaetani.)  [Asserted 

that  God  had  set  him  over  all  kings  and 
kingdoms.  He  was  taken  prisoner  by  Philip 
the  Fair  of  France,  which  country  he  had 
laid  under  an  interdict.  His  death  is  said  to 
have  been  hastened  by  the  sufferings  he  en¬ 
dured  during  his  captivity.] 

Fourteenth  Century. 

1303 — Benedict  XI.  (Nicholas  of  Treviso.)  [Said  to 
have  been  poisoned.] 

1305 — Clement  V.  (Bertrand  of  Bordeaux.)  [Re¬ 
moved  the  residence  of  the  popes  from  Rome 
to  Avignon.] 

1316— John  XXII.  (Jacques  de  Cohors.)  [Nicholas, 
antipope.] 

1334 — Benedict  XII.  (Jacques  Fournier.) 

1342 — Clement  VI.  (Pierre  Roger.) 

1352 — Innocent  VI.  (Etienne  d’Albert.) 

1362 — Urban  V.  (Guillaume  de  Grimoard.) 

1370— Gregory  XI.  (Pierre  Roger.)  [Restored  the 
papal  chair  from  Avignon  to  Rome;  pro¬ 
scribed  the  doctrine  of  Wycliffe.] 

3378 — Urban  VI.  (Bartolomeo  Prignano.)  [With  this 
reign  began  the  great  Western  Schism,  dur¬ 
ing  which  several  rival  popes  were  elected, 
residing  at  Avignon.  It  lasted  till  1410.] 

1389 — Boniface  IX.  (Peter  Tomacelli.) 

Fifteenth  Century. 

1404 — Innocent  VII.  (Cosmo  de’  Migliorati.) 

1406 — Gregory  XII.  (Angelo  Corrari.)  [Deposed.] 

1409 —  Alexander  V.  (Peter  Philargius.)  [Is  believed 

to  have  died  from  poison,  administered  by 
his  successor.] 

1410 —  John  XXIII.  (Baldassare  Cossa.)  [Deposed.] 

1417 — Martin  V.  (Otho  Colonna.)  [Persecuted  the 

Hussites.] 

1431 — Eugenius  IV.  (Gabriel  Condulmero.  [Felix  V., 
antipope.] 

1447 — Nicholas  V.  (Tommaso  Parantucelli.)  [Founded 
the  Vatican  Library.] 

1455 — CalixtusIII.  (Alfonso  Borgia.) 

1458 — Pius  II.  (.Eneas  Silvius  Piccolomini.)  [One  of 
the  most  eminent  scholars  of  his  age.] 

1464 — Paul  II.  (Pietro  Barbo.) 

1471 — Sixtus  IV.  (Francesco  della  Rovere.)  [Issued  a 
bull  giving  indulgence  to  those  who  cele¬ 
brated  the  Festival  of  the  Immaculate  Con¬ 
ception.] 

1484 — Innocent  VIII.  (Giovanni  Battista  Cibo.) 

1492 — Alexander  VI.  (Rodrigo  Lenzuoli  Borgia.)  [Died 
from  poison,  which  he  had  prepared  for 
another.] 

Sixteenth  Century, 

1503 — Pius  III.  (Francesco  Piccoloipini.) 

Julius  II.  (Julian  della  Rovere.) 


A.  D. 

1513 — Leo  X.  (Giovanni  de’  Medici.)  [The  issue  of 
indulgences  by  this  pope  was  the  immediate 
cause  of  the  Reformation  under  Martin 
Luther.] 

1522 —  Adrian  VI. 

1523 —  Clement  VII.  (Giulio  de’  Medici.)  [Excom¬ 

municated  Henry  VIII.  for  having  divorced 
Catherine  of  Aragon  and  married  Anne 
Boleyn.  This  led  to  the  Reformation  in 
England.] 

1534 — Paul  III.  (Alessandro  Farnese.)  [Issued  a  bull 
of  excommunication  and  deposition  against 
Henry  VIII.  of  England.] 

1550 — Julius  III.  (Giovanni  Maria  Giocci.) 

1 555 — Marcellus  II.  (Marcello  Servini.) 

Paul  IV.  (Giovanni  Pietro  Caraffe.) 

1559 — Pius  IV.  (Giovanni  Angelo  Medichini.) 

1566 — St.  Pius  V.  (Michele  Ghislieri.) 

1573 — Gregory  XIII.  (Hugo  Buoncompagni.)  [The 
Gregorian  Calendar  derives  its  name  from 
this  pope.  See  Calendar.] 

1585 — Sixtus  V.  (Felice  Peretti.) 

1590 —  Urban  VII.  (Giovanni  Battista  Castagna.) 

Gregory  XIV.  (Nicola  Sfrondati.) 

1591 —  Innocent  IX.  (Giovanni  Antonio  Facchinetti.) 

1592 —  Clement  VIII.  (Ippolito  Aldobrandini.) 

Seventeenth  Century. 

1605 — Leo  XI.  (Alessandro  de’  Medici.) 

Paul  V.  (Camillo  Borghese.)  [The  founder  of 
the  Borghese  family,  one  of  the  wealthiest  in 
Italy.] 

1621 — Gregory  XV.  (Alessandro  Ludovici.) 

1623 — Urban  VIII.  (Mafifeo  Barberini.) 

1644 — Innocent  X.  (Giovanni  Battista  Pamphili.) 

1655 — Alexander  VII.  (Fabio  Chigi.) 

1667 — Clement  IX.  (Giulio  Rospigliosi.) 

1670 — Clement  X.  (Emilio  Altieri.) 

1676 — Innocent  XI.  (Benedetto  Odescalchi.) 

1689 — Alexander  VIII.  (Pietro  Ottoboni.) 

1691 — Innocent  XII.  (Antonio  Pignatelli.) 

Eighteenth  Century. 

1700 — Clement  XI.  (Giovanni  Francesco  Albini.) 

1721 — Innocent  XIII.  (Michael  Angelo  Conti.) 

1724 — Benedict  XIII.  (Vinbenzo  Maria  Orsini.) 

1730 — Clement  XII.  (Lorenzo  Corsini.) 

1740 — Benedict  XIV.  (Prospero  Lambertini.) 

1758 — Clement  XIII.  (Carlo  Rezzonico.) 

1769 — Clement  XIV.  (Giovanni  Vincenzo  Ganganelli.) 

1775 — Pius  VI.  (Giovanni  Angelo  Braschi.)  [Drained 
the  Pontine  Marshes.  Was  dethroned  and 
deposed  by  Napoleon  Bonaparte  in  1798,  and 
died  at  Valencia  the  following  year.] 

Nineteenth  Century. 

1800 — Pius  VII.  (Gregorio  Barnaba  Chiaramonti.) 

[Crowned  Napoleon  Emperor  in  1804  ;  ex¬ 
communicated  him  in  1809;  and  was  for 
some  years  prisoner  in  France.  On  the  abdi¬ 
cation  of  Napoleon  he  returned  to  Rome, 
where  he  died  in  1823.] 

1823 — Leo  XII.  (Annibale  della  Genga.) 

1829 — Pius  VIII.  (Francesco  Xavier  Castiglioni.) 

1831 — Gregory  XVI.  (Mauro  Cappellari.) 

1846 — Pius  IX.  (Giovanni  Maria  Maistai-Ferreti.)  [At 
first  remarkable  for  his  reforms  of  abuses, 
both  civil  and  ecclesiastical,  Pius  IX.  was 
yet  compelled  to  leave  Rome  on  account  of 
the  revolutionary  movement  of  1848,  and  re¬ 
tired  to  Gaeta,  where  he  remained  till  1850, 
when  he  was  reinstated  by  French  troops. 
In  1870  he  propounded  the  doctrine  of  Papal 
Infallibility,  and,  after  a  troubled  reign,  was 
deprived  of  his  temporal  power  in  the  same 
year.  He  died  Feb.  7,  1878.] 

1878 — Leo  XIII.  (Vincenzo  Gioacchino  Pecci,  b.  at 
Carpineto,  Italy,  March  2,  1810.)” 

— Cassell :  Cyclopedia. 

*For  a  full  account  of  the  development  of 
the  papal  power,  and  the  part  acted  by  dif- 


Pop 


( 751 ) 


Pqs 


ferent  popes,  see  articles:  Papal  Power, 
Christianity,  and  Roman  Catholic 
Church. 

Pope,  Alexander,  b.  in  London,  May 
21,  1688;  d.  at  Twickenham,  May  30,  1744. 
His  name  is  given  a  place  among  sacred 
poets  because  of  his  Messiah  (1712);  Uni¬ 
versal  Prayer  (1732),  and  Dying  Christian  to 
his  Soul  (1712). 

Pordage,  John,  one  of  the  founders  of 
the  Philadelphian  Society;  b.  in  London, 
1600;  d.  there,  1698.  He  studied  theology 
and  medicine  at  Oxford,  and  was  curate  at 
Reading,  and  then  rector  at  Bradfield. 
While  here  he  became  a  convert  to  the 
views  of  Boehme  (q.  v.),  and,  with  a  little 
company  of  disciples,  moved  to  London, 
where  he  aided  in  the  formation  of  the 
Philadelphian  Society.  See  Philadelphian 
Society. 

Por'phyry.  See  Neo- Platonism. 

Porter,  Ebenezer,  D.  D.,  b.  at  Cornwall, 
Conn.,  Oct.  5,  1772;  d.  at  Andover,  April 
8,  1834.  He  was  graduated  at  Dartmouth 
College,  1792,  and  after  holding  the  pas¬ 
torate  of  the  Congregational  Church  in 
Washington,  Conn.,  from  1796  to  1812,  he 
became  professor  of  sacred  rhetoric  in  the 
Andover  Theological  Seminary,  where  he 
remained  until  ill-health  compelled  him  to 
retire,  in  1832.  He  was  a  man  of  great 
intellectual  strength  and  ability.  Among 
his  published  works  are:  Letters  on  Relig¬ 
ious  Revivals  which  Prevailed  about  the  Be¬ 
ginning  of  the  Present  Century ;  Lectures  on 
Eloquence  and  Style  (1836). 

Porter,  Noah,  D.  D.  (University  of  New 
York  City,  1858,  Edinburgh,  1886),  LL.  D. 
(Western  Reserve  College,  O.,  1870; 
Trinity  College,  Hartford,  Conn.,  1871), 
Congregationalist;  b.  at  Farmington, 
Conn.,  Dec.  14,  1811;  was  graduated  at 
Yale  College,  New  Haven,  Conn.,  1831; 
was  pastor  at  New  Milford,  Conn.,  1836- 
43;  at  Springfield,  Mass.,  1843-46;  Clark 
professor  of  metaphysics  and  moral  phi¬ 
losophy  at  Yale  College,  1846-71;  president 
of  Yale  College,  1871-86.  He  is  the  author 
of:  The  Human  Lntellect  (1868,  3d  ed. ,  1876); 
Books  and  Reading  (1870,  6th  ed.,  1881); 
American  Colleges  and  the  American  Public 
(1870,  2d  ed.,  1878);  Elements  of  Lntellectual 
Science  (1871);  Evangeline:  The  Place ,  the 
Story,  and  the ,  Poem  (1882);  Science  and 
Sentiment  (1882);  The  Elements  of  Moral 
Science,  Theoretical  and  Practical  (1885); 
Bishop  Berkeley  (1885);  Kant's  Ethics,  a 
Critical  Exposition  (Chicago,  1886).  He  was 
the  principal  editor  of  the  revised  editions 


of  Webster' s  Unabridged  Dictionary  (Spring- 
field,  Mass.,  1864,  1880,  and  1890). 

Port  Royal,  “  the  name  given  to  two 
celebrated  nunneries  which  formerly  ex¬ 
isted  in  France — the  Port  Royal  de  Paris , 
in  the  city  of  Paris,  and  the  Port  Royal  de 
Champs,  near  Chevreuse.  The  latter  was 
the  more  ancient,  having  been  founded  in 
1204  by  the  wife  of  a  French  noble  who 
had  joined  in  the  Crusades;  and  its  name 
is  said  to  have  been  given  it  by  Philippe 
II. ,  or  his  followers,  who,  having  lost  their 
way  while  hunting,  found  a  ‘  port  ’  or  ref¬ 
uge  in  the  valley  in  which  it  was  situated. 
Early  in  the  seventeenth  century  the  nuns 
of  the  establishment  were  removed  to 
Paris,  carrying  the  name  of  the  establish¬ 
ment  with  them;  and  the  old  monastery 
was  soon  after  occupied  by  a  number  of 
learned  men,  who  wished  to  live  a  seclud¬ 
ed  life,  and  who  went  by  the  name  of  Les 
Solitaires  de  Port  Royal.  These  men  in¬ 
stituted  a  school  or  academy,  by  means  of 
which  they  hoped  to  counteract  the  teach¬ 
ing  of  the  Jesuits;  and  from  them  proceed¬ 
ed  the  famous  school-books,  which  have 
ever  since  borne  the  name  of  Port  Royal. 
The  nuns  of  Port  Royal  were  also  famous 
for  their  conflicts  with  the  Jesuits.  Their 
establishment  in  Paris  continued  in  ex¬ 
istence  till  the  Revolution,  when  it  was 
finally  dissolved.”  —  Cassell:  Cyclopcedia. 
See  Sainte  -  Beuve:  Port  Royal  (Paris, 
1840-59),  5  vols;  Beard:  Port  Royal  (Lon¬ 
don,  1861),  2  vols.;  Jansenists. 

Portugal.  The  State  religion  is  Roman 
Catholic,  and  of  its  population  of  4,708,178 
it  is  estimated  that  only  500  are  Protes¬ 
tants,  and  these  are  not  allowed  to  worship 
in  public.  The  Roman  clergy  are  paid  in 
part  by  the  State,  by  the  congregations 
and  from  ecclesiastical  funds.  The  Jesuits 
were  expelled  in  1759,  and  have  not  been 
allowed  to  return. 

Positivism.  Positivism  consists  essen¬ 
tially  of  a  philosophy  and  a  polity,  and 
to  these  may  be  added  a  religion.  It  was 
originated  by  Auguste  Comte  (b.  1797;  d. 
1 S5 7),  who  set  forth  his  ideas  in  some  fif¬ 
teen  volumes.  The  books  are  rather  ver¬ 
bose,  and  the  difficulties  connected  with  his 
system  are  met  with  the  easy  assurance,  or 
“  thereforeism,”  so  often  found  in  French 
philosophical  and  theological  writers. 

The  name  “  Positivism”  was  chosen  by 
Comte  as  implying  reality  and  usefulness 
as  well  as  certainty  and  precision ,  since  he 
teaches  that  we  have  nothing  whatever  to 
do  with  anything  which  cannot  be  positively 
demonstrated.  The  existence  of  God,  and 
the  belief  in  a  future  state  are  thus  prac- 


Pos 


( 752 ) 


Pos 


tically  excluded  from  his  system.  Posi¬ 
tive  Religion,  or  the  Religion  of  Humanity, 
as  Comte  calls  it,  is  a  curious  invention. 
Having  dismissed,  as  mere  fables,  the  be¬ 
lief  in  God  and  the  instinctive  longing  for 
immortality,  some  central  point  was  want¬ 
ed  toward  which  feeling,  reason,  and  ac¬ 
tivity  could  alike  converge,  and  this  was 
found  in  the  great  conception  of  Humanity 
— the  abstract  idea  of  mankind  in  the  past, 
the  present,  and  the  future.  It  is  the  pe¬ 
culiar  characteristic  of  Humanity,  or  the 
Great  Being,  who  is  here  set  forth,  to  be 
compounded  of  separable  elements;  mut¬ 
ual  love  knits  together  its  various  parts; 
and  “towards  Humanity,  who  is  for  us 
the  only  true  Great  Being,  in  the  conscious 
elements  of  whom  she  is  composed,  we 
shall  henceforth  direct  every  aspect  of  our 
life,  individual  or  collective.  Our  thoughts 
will  be  devoted  to  the  knowledge  of  Hu¬ 
manity,  our  affections  to  her  love,  our  ac¬ 
tions  to  her  service.”  ( General  View.) 
“  By  Humanity,  the  conception  of  God 
will  be  entirely  superseded.”  This  differs 
from  pantheism,  since  the  Great  Being  of 
positivism  submits  to  the  laws  of  the  ex¬ 
ternal  world  instead  of  originating  them. 
(Pantheism.)  This  idea  is  to  be  illustrat¬ 
ed  by  the  organization  of  festivals  at  reg¬ 
ular  intervals,  setting  forth  the  various 
aspects  of  Humanity:  the  nation,  the 
town,  the  domestic  relations,  polythe¬ 
ism,  monotheism,  etc.,  will  have  their  fes¬ 
tival  days;  in  fact,  there  is  to  be  a  “  Posi¬ 
tivist  Calendar.”  On  the  last  day  of  the 
year  there  is  to  be  a  commemoration  of 
the  dead  and  of  their  services. 

Throughout  his  system,  Comte  assigns 
to  woman  a  peculiar  and  exalted  position. 
He  seems  to  find  the  answer  to  Solomon’s 
question,  “  Who  can  find  a  virtuous  wom¬ 
an?”  in  the  great  majority  of  women. 
Woman’s  mission  is,  he  says,  in  one  word, 
love;  they  are  charged  with  the  education 
of  sympathy,  the  source  of  human  unity. 
As  mothers  and  wives  it  is  their  office  to 
conduct  the  moral  education  of  humanity. 
In  return  for  these  benefits  women  are  to 
enjoy  immunity  from  out-door  and  other 
toilsome  labor,  and,  besides,  they  are  to  be 
the  objects  of  worship,  publicly  and  pri¬ 
vately,  as  the  first  permanent  step  towards 
the  worship  of  Humanity.  Man  will,  in 
the  days  when  positivism  prevails,  kneel 
to  woman,  and  to  woman  alone;  the 
source  of  his  reverential  feelings  being  a 
clear  appreciation  of  benefits  received,  and 
a  spirit  of  deep  thankfulness  for  them.  To 
her,  as  the  concrete  form  of  the  abstract 
idea  of  Humanity,  prayer — i.  e.,  the  out¬ 
pouring  of  men’s  nobler  feelings — is  to  be 
addressed  daily.  If  a  suitable  living  ob¬ 
ject  of  devotion  does  not  present  itself,  a 


dead  wife  or  mother  may  be  selected,  or 
even  some  historical  personage,  so  long  as 
she  once  really  lived.  For  women  them¬ 
selves,  however,  Comte  does  not  consider 
himself  competent  to  suggest  an  object  of 
devotion. 

We  have  seen  that  love  is  said  to  be  the 
principle  of  positivism;  it  is  to  amount  to 
an  abnegation  of  self;  the  motto  on  the 
positive  flag  is  to  be  Vivre  pour  altrui , 
“Live  for  Others;”  and  the  great  moral 
principle  itself  Comte  called  Altruism: 
hence,  “to  love  Humanity  may  be  truly 
said  to  constitute  the  whole  duty  of  man.” 
And  then,  after  having  “  lived  as  far  as  it  is 
possible  for  others,  both  in  public  and  pri¬ 
vate,  and  having  given  a  charm  and  sacred¬ 
ness  to  our  temporary  life,  we  shall  at  last 
be  forever  incorporated  with  the  Supreme 
Being  (Humanity),  of  whose  life  all  noble 
natures  are  necessarily  partakers.”  ( Gen¬ 
eral  View — condensed.) 

If  we  look  for  the  sources  of  this  novel  re¬ 
ligion,  we  are  not  much  assisted  by  Comte’s 
own  life.  He  seems  to  have  been  an 
eccentric  genius,  with  one  of  those  bitter, 
despotic  tempers  which  led  him  to  quarrel 
with  every  one  !  He  was  separated  from 
his  wife,  and  lived  on  intimate  terms  with 
a  married  woman,  Clotilde  de  Vaux,  not¬ 
withstanding  the  strict  morality  of  his  sys¬ 
tem.  We  must  rather  turn  for  an  expla¬ 
nation  to  what  he  calls  “  Catholicism,”  by 
which  he  means  sometimes  Christianity, 
sometimes  modern  Romanism;  and  then 
we  cannot  but  be  struck  with  the  singular 
imitation  of  Christianity  and  the  Christian 
Church  which  positivism  presents.  Thus, 
for  the  positive  principle  of  love ,  “  live 
for  others,”  we  have  the  Gospel  grace  of 
love  as  “  the  fulfilling  of  the  Law,”  and 
“  Thou  shalt  love  thy  neighbor  as  thyself,” 
with  the  Christian  rule  of  self-denial.  For 
the  abstract  idea  of  Humanity,  we  have 
the  Incarnate  Son  of  God,  the  Second 
Adam,  and  the  Church  of  many  members, 
his  Mystical  Body.  For  the  worship  of 
woman,  extended  to  women  generally  in 
imitation  of  mediaeval  chivalry,  and  per¬ 
haps  not  without  reference  to  the  Goddess 
of  Reason  of  the  French  Revolution,  we 
have  the  Romanist  cultus  of  the  Virgin. 
The  Madonnas  of  art  had  likewise  their 
influence,  for  the  positivist  flag  has  for  its 
device  a  young  woman  with  a  child  in  her 
arms.  For  the  festivals  and  commemora¬ 
tions  we  have  the  Christian  Seasons  and 
the  roll  of  Saints.  The  leading  principle 
and  the  form  of  the  Religion  of  Humanity 
are  thus  obviously  borrowed  from  Catholic 
Christianity. 

But  a  system  that  asserts  that  there  is 
no  sense  of,  or  feeling  after,  a  God  in  our 
nature,  which  does  not  acknowledge  a  sense 


Pos 


(  753  ) 


Pra 


of  sin  or  guilt  as  we  understand  it,  nor  an 
instinctive  longing  for,  or  expectation 
of,  immortality  in  man,  gives  us  little 
ground  for  hope  that  the  exalted  love  and 
the  strict  morality  which  it  professes  would 
bear  fruit  in  practice  if  it  were  freed  from 
the  pressure  of  surrounding  Christian 
opinion.  It  seems,  by  its  negations,  rather 
to  be  the  philosophy  of  those  who  are  ab¬ 
sorbed  in  the  sense  of  life,  and  to  whom 
this  world  is  the  whole  of  existence.  Tak¬ 
ing  positivism  at  its  own  estimate,  it 
would  appear  to  be  easier  to  live  as  a  con¬ 
sistent  Christian  than  as  a  moderately 
good  positivist;  and  certainly  the  promise 
of  eternal  life  is  more  attractive  than,  at 
the  best,  the  possibility  of  an  idle  com¬ 
memoration  after  incorporation  into  the 
Supreme  Being  of  Humanity. — Benham: 
Diet,  of  Religion.  Comte’s  Philo  sop  hie  Pos¬ 
itive  was  translated  into  English  and  con¬ 
densed  by  Miss  Martineau  into  2  vols. 
(1853).  The  Catechism  was  translated  by 
Dr.  Congreve  (1858),  and  the  Politique 
Positive ,  published  in  London  (1875-77). 
See  also  Mill’s  essay  on  August  Co?nte  and 
Positivism ;  Fisk:  Outlines  of  Cosmic  Phi- 
losophy{\Zqf)\  Lewes:  History  of  Philosophy , 
vol.  ii. 

Possession,  Demoniacal.  See  Demo¬ 
niacs. 

Postils,  sermons  or  homilies.  They  fol¬ 
lowed  the  reading  of  the  Gospel,  whence 
the  name  {post  ilia ,  i.  e. ,  evangelica). 

Porter,  Alonzo,  D.  D.,  Protestant  Epis¬ 
copal  bishop  in  the  diocese  of  Pennsyl¬ 
vania;  b.  July  6,  1800,  in  La  Grange, 
N.  Y. ;  d.  on  shipboard  in  the  harbor  of  San 
Francisco,  July  4,  1865.  He  was  graduat¬ 
ed  at  Union  College  in  1818,  where  he 
filled  the  chair  of  mathematics  until  1825, 
when  he  was  elected  rector  of  St.  Paul’s, 
Boston,  Mass.  He  resigned  his  pastorate 
on  account  of  ill-health,  in  1831,  and  again 
assumed  the  duties  of  the  professorship  at 
Union.  He  was  chosen  bishop  of  the  dio¬ 
cese  of  Pennsylvania  in  1845.  His  service 
in  this  important  field  was  efficient  in  many 
directions.  He  took  a  deep  interest  in 
philanthropic  and  educational  work,  and 
laid  his  plans  with  far-sighted  wisdom. 
Devout  in  spirit,  able  in  counsel,  and  gifted 
with  remarkable  intellectual  strength,  his 
influence  was  felt  far  beyond  the  bounds  of 
his  diocese. 

Potter,  Right  Rev.  Henry  Codman, 
D.  D.  (Union  College,  Schenectady,  N.  Y. , 
1865;  Trinity  College,  Hartford,  Conn., 
1883),  LL.  D.  (Union  College,  Schenec¬ 
tady,  N.  Y.,  1881),  Episcopalian,  bishop 


of  New  York;  b.  at  Schenectady,  N.  Y., 
May  25,  1835;  was  graduated  at  the  Prot¬ 
estant  Episcopal  Theological  Seminary  of 
Virginia,  1837;  became  rector  of  Christ 
Church,  Greensburg,  Penn.,  1857;  St. 
John’s  Church,  Troy,  N.  Y. ,  1859;  assist¬ 
ant  minister  of  Trinity  Church,  Boston, 
1866;  rector  of  Grace  Church,  New  York 
City,  1868;  assistant  bishop  of  New  York, 
1883;  bishop,  1886.  He  has  published: 
Sisterhoods  and  Deaconesses  at  Hoyne  and 
Abroad  (New  York, 1871);  Gates  of  the  East: 
A  Winter  in  Egypt  and  Syria  (1876);  Ser¬ 
mons  of  the  City  (1881). 

Potts,  George,  an  eminent  Presbyterian 
minister;  b.  in  Philadelphia,  Penn.,  March 
15,  1802;  d.  in  New  York  City,  Sept.  15, 
1864.  After  graduating  at  the  Univer¬ 
sity  of  Pennsylvania,  1819,  and  at  the 
Princeton  Theological  Seminary,  1823,  he 
was  pastor  at  Natchez,  Miss.,  1823-35,  and 
in  New  York  City  from  1836  to  his  death. 
He  engaged  in  a  memorable  controversy 
with  Bishop  Wainwright,  on  the  claims  of 
Episcopacy,  and  published  No  Church 
Without  a  Bishop  (N.  Y.,  1844). 

Pouring,  the  form  of  baptism  in  the 
Church  of  Rome,  and  Protestant  commun¬ 
ions  holding  pedobaptist  views.  See 
Baptism,  Pedobaptist  View. 

Praemunire  {to  de fend  in  front  of),  a  term 
used  in  a  writ  passed  in  the  reign  of  Ed¬ 
ward  III.  Its  object  was  to  lessen  the  au¬ 
thority  of  the  pope,  and  it  ordained  that  no 
one  should  appeal  to  the  pope  against  the 
authority  of  the  sovereign,  or  on  matters 
belonging  to  his  jurisdiction.  Later  sover¬ 
eigns  have  given  the  name  to  other  statutes 
relating  to  their  authority,  but  differing  as 
to  the  offences  forbidden. 

Prayer.  In  its  wider  meaning,  and  as 
used  very  often  in  Holy  Scripture,  prayer 
includes  not  only  petition  to  God  for  our¬ 
selves  and  for  others,  but  also  confession 
of  sin,  thanksgiving  for  mercies  received, 
and  also  the  praise  and  adoration  of  God 
for  his  greatness  and  glory,  to  which  last 
the  term  “  worship  ”  is  properly  applied. 
These  various  aspects  of  prayer  are  abun¬ 
dantly  illustrated  in  the  Psalms,  the  great 
book  of  inspired  public  and  private  devo¬ 
tion.  Thus,  in  the  compass  of  one  Psalm 
we  sometimes  find  two  or  more  of  these 
elements  of  prayer  joined  together,  and 
this  may  remind  us  that  the  hard  line  we 
often  draw  between  prayer  and  praise  is  an 
artificial  one.  In  the  Collects,  and,  in¬ 
deed,  in  the  prayers  of  the  Western  Church 
generally,  petition  predominates  over  wor¬ 
ship  or  adoration;  but  in  the  longer  and 


Pra 


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Pra 


more  rhetorical  prayers  of  the  Eastern 
Church  adoration  holds  an  important 
place. 

We  read  of  prayer  ages  before  God  di¬ 
rectly  enjoined  it,  and  in  such  a  way  that 
we  can  only  believe  the  idea  of  prayer  to 
be  intuitive.  Man  naturally  turns  to  God 
in  prayer.  The  Psalmist  was  but  uttering 
a  universal  truth  when  he  said,  “  O  thou 
that  hearest  prayer,  unto  thee  shall  all  flesh 
come.”  (Psa.  lxv.  2.)  Nor  is  this  idea  of 
prayer  confined  to  those  who  know  one 
God.  In  various  ways  the  heathen  appeal 
to  their  gods;  they  hardly  enter  upon  any 
event  in  their  lives  without  first  of  all  ap¬ 
proaching,  in  some  form  of  prayer,  the 
powers  they  think  able  to  help  them.  This 
is  matter  of  history,  as  well  as  of  observa¬ 
tion  by  missionaries  now.  We  find  prayer 
made  to  God  throughout  Holy  Scripture, 
from  beginning  to  end,  accepted  by  him, 
and  answered  by  him.  Here  and  there,  as 
in  the  Psalms,  there  are  declarations  as  to 
the  kind  of  prayer  to  which  God  will  heark¬ 
en,  until  at  last,  in  the  New  Testament, 
Christ  was  plainly  set  forth  as  the  medium 
through  whom  it  is  to  be  offered,  and  the 
Holy  Spirit  was  made  known  as  cooperat¬ 
ing  with  the  human  spirit  in  its  utterance. 
Christians  pray  as  members  of  Christ;  God 
hears  and  answers  our  prayers  only  be¬ 
cause  we  are  members  of  his  beloved  Son. 
The  duty  of  prayer  is  inculcated,  not  only 
by  the  example  of  the  Old  Testament 
saints,  but  also  directly  by  our  Lord  and 
his  apostles.  (Matt.  vi.  5-13;  xviii.  19,  20; 
Luke  xviii.  1— 14 ;  John  xiv.  13,  14;  xvi.  24; 
Rom.  viii.  26;  1  Cor.  xiv.  15;  Eph.  vi.  18, 
19;  Phil.  iv.  6;  1  Thess.  v.  17;  James  i.  5; 
v.  13-18.) 

Remembering,  then,  the  many-sidedness 
of  prayer,  some  points  connected  with  it  in 
its  aspects  of  petition  for  ourselves,  or  of 
intercession  for  others,  require  examina¬ 
tion.  We  must  first  clearly  recognize  that 
God  puts  prayer  before  us  as  necessary  if 
we  would  gain  our  ends.  There  is  a  sig¬ 
nal  instance  of  this,  and  of  the  store  which 
God  sets  by  his  people’s  prayers,  when  our 
Lord  bade  his  disciples,  “  Pray  ye  the 
Lord  of  the  harvest,  that  he  will  send  forth 
laborers  into  his  harvest.”  (Matt.  ix.  38.) 
The  disciples  were  bidden  to  ask  God  to 
do  his  own  work,  and  thus  to  cooperate 
with  him  in  his  labor  of  love.  But  this  is 
only  a  sample  of  all  prayer.  God  is  ever 
seeking  the  salvation  and  well-being  of  his 
creatures,  and  yet  he  requires  them  to  ask 
him  for  those  very  things  of  which  he 
knows  they  stand  in  the  direst  need.  How 
there  can  be  a  place  for  petition  when  God 
foresees  everything  is  the  mystery  of 
prayer;  but  there  is  likewise  the  mystery 
of  our  freewill,  and  the  one  is  the  neces¬ 


sary  complement  of  the  other.  If  we  are 
free  to  rule  or  misrule  our  lives  and  con¬ 
duct,  our  very  nature  leads  us  to  prayer  in 
our  perplexities  and  distresses.  If  we  are 
free  to  wander,  we  must  appeal  to  a  guide. 
This  may  be  an  intellectual  difficulty,  but 
it  is  one  involved  in  the  mystery  of  God, 
and  in  the  mystery  of  our  own  being. 

In  the  present  day  other  difficulties 
have  been  raised  as  to  prayer  and  its  effi¬ 
cacy.  (1)  It  has  been  said  that  prayer  is 
merely  a  superstitious  custom,  handed  on 
from  generation  to  generation  in  civilized 
countries;  that  it  is  a  human  invention  al¬ 
together.  But,  unlike  other  superstitions 
which  have  crumbled  away  in  the  light  of 
truth  and  of  modern  discovery,  prayer  still 
holds  its  ground.  In  spite  of  all  that  is  al¬ 
leged  as  to  its  uselessness,  men  of  the 
acutest  intellect,  as  well  as  uncultured 
men,  still  pray,  and  still  believe  in  the 
power  of  prayer.  Besides  this,  we  cannot 
pass  over  the  fact  already  mentioned,  that 
prayer  is  an  intuitive  idea  with  man,  and 
is  not  due  to  education — that  it  fulfils  a 
universal  need  of  human  nature.  (2)  It 
is  said  that  prayer  is  unreasonable,  because 
request  is  made  for  things  contrary  to  the 
immutable  laws  of  nature.  It  is  needful 
to  state  this  objection  to  prayer  plainly. 
The  laws  of  nature  are  merely  statements 
of  the  orderly  condition  of  things  in  nature, 
a  summary  of  what  has  been  found  by 
competent  observers.  The  order  is  so 
perfect  that  we  do  not  look  for  any  devia¬ 
tion  from  it.  And  in  the  spiritual  world, 
as  far  as  we  know  it,  we  have  every  reason 
to  believe  that  law  likewise  reigns,  or,  to 
speak  more  correctly,  that  the  most  perfect 
order  prevails.  Thus  we  must  believe 
that  every  thought  of  our  hearts  is  the  re¬ 
sult  of  some  previous  combination  of  ideas, 
either  existing  there  already  or  introduced 
from  without.  Thoughts  do  not  come 
into  our  minds  by  chance.  Such  being 
what  we  understand  by  law,  we  can  sup¬ 
pose  that  prayer  may  be  answered,  or  ap¬ 
parently  answered,  in  two  ways.  Thus, 
fine  weather  may  be  prayed  for,  and  many 
natural  laws  acting  together  may  bring  it 
about  in  the  ordinary  course  of  things,  to 
all  appearance  as  a  direct  answer  to  the 
prayer;  or,  on  the  other  hand,  natural 
causes  not  sufficing  to  cause  fine  weather, 
God  may  see  fit  to  bring  about  the  result 
prayed  for  by  suspending  or  controlling 
some  of  the  laws  of  nature.  It  is  to  the 
latter  of  these  answers  to  prayer  that  ob¬ 
jection  is  made.  Again,  prayer  may  be 
made  for  some  spiritual  blessing,  and  the 
blessing  may  come,  either  from  ordinary 
causes,  i.  e. ,  as  a  result  of  the  religious 
circumstances  in  which  God  has  placed  us, 
or  he  may  put  a  fresh  thought  into  our 


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minds,  or  change  the  intensity  of  some 
feelings  already  there,  and  thus  bring  the 
blessing  prayed  for.  It  is  the  latter  case 
to  which  objection  is  made.  Objectors  re¬ 
gard  those  answers  to  prayer  for  temporal 
or  spiritual  blessings  which  come  in  the 
ordinary  course  of  natural  laws  as  the  only 
possible  ones;  they  look  upon  them  as 
mere  coincidences,  and  they  wholly  deny 
the  possibility  of  answers  of  the  latter  kiifd, 
because  they  are  contrary  to  unchangeable 
laws — in  short,  because  they  are  mirac¬ 
ulous,  and  miracles  are  incredible.  (The 
question  of  the  credibility  of  miracles 
is  discussed  in  the  articles  Miracles 
and  Resurrection,  and  reference  may  also 
be  made  to  the  article  on  Natural  Law.) 
But  there  is  also  a  class  of  theologians 
who  are  disposed  to  deny  that  miraculous 
answers  to  prayer  are  vouchsafed;  one  of 
them  has  recently  expressed  his  opinion 
as  follows:  “  To  the  best  of  my  under¬ 
standing,  we  do  well  and  reasonably  to  ask 
God — just  as  we  do  for  a  daily  sufficiency 
in  the  Lord’s  Prayer — to  bless  and  pre¬ 
serve  the  fruits  of  the  earth,  leaving  the 
immediate  process  to  the  ordinary  work¬ 
ings  of  his  all-wise  law;  and  then,  after 
doing  our  duty  in  the  matter,  to  trust  that, 
in  spite  of  appearances,  he,  ‘  in  perfect 
wisdom,  perfect  love,  is  working  for  the 
best.’  In  all  troubles,  temporal  or  spirit¬ 
ual,  we  do  well  to  put  them  up  before  God 
and  ask  for  his  guidance  to  do  our  duty 
toward  mitigating  or  relieving  them,  and 
to  take  to  heart  the  many  moral  lessons 
they  inculcate.  This  prayer,  with  the  un¬ 
derstanding,  I  deem  to  be  our  reasonable 
service  to  the  Almighty;  while,  according 
to  our  light  and  knowledge  of  God’s  world¬ 
wide  and  salutary  law  of  ‘  reaping  zuhat  zve 
sozv'  I  deem  it  unreasonable  to  ask  him 
to  contravene  this  law  for  our  special  or 
national  possible  benefit.”  This  writer 
would  think  it  unreasonable  to  be  asked  to 
pray  against  the  inundations  of  the  Thames 
in  Lambeth,  and  would  consider  the 
Thames  Embankment  authorities  the  prop¬ 
er  source  of  help.  True,  he  would  say, 
the  seasons  lately  have  been  unfavorable 
for  agriculture;  the  remedy  for  this  is  to 
alter  our  system,  rents,  etc.  And  he  goes 
on:  '*  Why  I  strike  against  special  petitions 
to  the  Almighty  to  intervene  directly  in 
certain  things  when  they  become  painful, 
is  because  we  practically  thereby  charge 
God  with  directly  and  specially  sending 
such  visitations,  when,  as  a  fact,  we  are 
but  reaping  what  we  or  others  have  culpa¬ 
bly  or  ignorantly  sown . I  do  not 

say  that  God  cannot  so  administer  his  law, 
moral  and  physical,  as  to  give  and  with¬ 
hold  what  we  ask.  I  simply  say  that,  to 
the  best  of  our  understanding,  acquired 


from  revelation  and  experience,  God  zvill' 
not  work  signs  and  wonders  that  we  may 
believe.”  Now,  as  nearly  as  the  whole- 
of  our  needs  and  adversities  can  be  traced 
to  the  culpable  or  ignorant  sowing  of  our¬ 
selves  or  others,  prayer,  according  to  this 
view,  should  be  limited  to  petitions  for 
patience  and  for  guidance  as  to  how  we 
can  best  help  ourselves.  Unquestionably 
these  are  right  objects  of  prayer,  since  all 
real  prayer  is  always  accompanied  by  work 
on  our  part;  but  it  is  impossible  to  accept 
them  as  the  whole,  or  even  the  most  im¬ 
portant,  matters  of  prayer,  without  ignor¬ 
ing  what  is  told  us  in  Holy  Scripture. 
Prayer  is  there  represented  to  us  as  the 
remedy  for  our  sins  and  their  effects,  and 
the  only  conditions  placed  upon  our  peti¬ 
tions  are,  that  they  must  be  according  to 
God’s  will,  and  the  outcome  of  a  sincere 
and  obedient  heart.  These  conditions  be¬ 
ing  fulfilled,  the  promise  is  that  God  will 
grant  us  our  requests,  whatever  they  may 
be.  (A  reference  to  the  texts  already 
named  will  make  this  clear.)  To  deny  this 
would  be  equivalent  to  denying  the  efficacy 
of  prayer  altogether,  except  as  a  moral 
agent  affecting  ourselves  only  as  a  kind  of 
religious  exercise;  for  it  must  be  remem¬ 
bered  that  even  if  we  only  believe  that 
God  will  give  us  patience,  and  guide  us  as 
to  how  we  should  help  ourselves,  we  yet 
admit — though  we  may  not  avow  it — the 
efficacy  of  prayer,  since  patience  and  guid¬ 
ance  are  themselves,  if  specially  granted, 
miraculous  gifts  of  God. 

For  the  sake  of  plainness,  it  may  be  add¬ 
ed  that:  (i)  No  distinction  can  be  made  be¬ 
tween  prayer  for  temporal  and  spiritual 
blessings;  both  alike  are  put  before  us  as 
proper  objects  of  prayer  in  Scripture,  and 
both  the  one  and  the  other  are  promised 
in  answer  to  it.  (2)  When  prayer  seems 
to  be  specially  answered,  we  can  rarely 
say  how  much  is  due  to  the  operation  of 
natural  laws,  how  much  to  some  modifica¬ 
tion  of  those  laws;  we  know  not  where 
ordinary  law,  so  to  speak,  ends,  and  where 
miracle  begins.  (3)  Taking  the  history  of 
the  Apostolic  Church  for  our  guide,  al¬ 
though  we  are  encouraged  to  make  known 
all  our  requests,  freely,  to  God,  we  are 
not,  generally  speaking,  led  to  expect  such 
an  answer  to  our  prayers  as  would  involve 
an  obvious  miracle — e.  g. ,  the  raising  of  the 
dead,  the  floating  of  a  hopelessly  sinking 
ship  in  mid-ocean — but  we  must  believe 
that  he  does  really  and  directly  answer 
prayer,  as  well  in  our  temporal  as  our 
spiritual  concerns,  though  we  know  it  not. 
By  a  logical  necessity  we  are  compelled  to 
take  one  side  or  the  other;  there  is  no 
middle  course.  Prayer,  in  the  Scripture 
sense  of  the  word,  is  and  can  be,  or  it  is 


Pra 


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Pre 


not  and  cannot  be,  answered. — Benham: 
Diet,  of  Religion. 

Prayer,  Book  of  Common.  See  Com¬ 
mon  Prayer,  Book  of. 

Prayer  for  the  Dead  was  offered  by  the 
Jews  in  later  times  (2  Macc.  xii.  43-45), 
and  the  custom  is  referred  to  by  Christian 
writers  at  a  very  early  period.  The  Prot¬ 
estant  Church  almost  universally  rejects 
this  ancient  usage.  See  Purgatory. 

Preachers,  Local.  See  Local  Preach¬ 
ers. 

Preaching  Friars.  See  Dominicans. 

Prebend  (Lat.  preebenda ,  an  allowance) 
was  originally  the  portion  of  food  allotted 
to  each  monk  at  the  common  table  where 
they  assembled,  Later  the  revenues  of 
the  Church  were  divided  among  the  monks 
and  clergy  according  to  their  station,  but 
the  term  was  still  used  to  denote  the  fixed 
income  which  each  one  received.  The 
prebends  were  either  preebendee  capitulares 
ox  preebendee  domicellares,  the  former  being 
those  held  by  a  regular  member  of  the 
chapter,  and  the  latter  by  a  junior.  They 
were  of  four  degrees  —  majores ,  media , 
minores  and  semi-preebendee.  The  holder  of 
a  prebend  is  called  a  prebendary. 

Precentor,  the  leader  of  the  choir  and 
musical  director.  In  the  churches  where 
there  are  no  organs  the  one  who  leads  the 
singing  is  called  a  precentor. 

Preconization  (Lat.  prceconisare ,  to  an¬ 
nounce  publicly),  the  notice  given  by  the 
pope,  in  the  assembly  of  the  cardinals,  of 
the  appointment  of  any  person  to  a  high 
ecclesiastical  position. 

Predestination,  a  word  used  to  denote 
the  eternal  purpose  of  God,  whereby  he 
has  preordained  whatever  comes  to  pass. 
See  Calvinism. 

Prelacy,  the  office  or  dignity  of  a  prelate 
or  bishop. 

Prelate,  a  term  used  to  designate  the 
highest  of  the  three  orders  of  the  ministry. 

Premillennialism.  See  Millenarianism. 

Premonstrants,  or  Premonstraten- 
sians,  a  once  powerful  and  numerous 
monastic  order  founded  in  the  early  part 
of  the  twelfth  century  by  Norbert.  At  one 
time  it  had  a  thousand  male  and  five  hun¬ 
dred  female  abbeys.  They  followed  the 


rules  of  St.  Augustine,  fasted  frequently, 
and  abstained  entirely  from  the  use  of 
meats.  Their  founder,  Norbert,  was  born 
at  Zanten,  on  the  Rhine,  and  died  at 
Magdeburg,  June  6,  1134.  He  was  a  rela¬ 
tive  of  the  emperor,  Henry  V. ,  and  after 
leading  a  life  of  pleasure  in  youth,  became 
a  preacher  among  the  poor  to  whom  he  dis¬ 
tributed  his  wealth  and  founded  his  order 
at  fTemontr e  (Proemonstratum),  a  place  be¬ 
tween  Rheims  and  Laon.  Honorius  II. 
confirmed  the  order  in_ii26,  and  for  several 
centuries  it  rivaled  the  Cistercian,  but 
when  decay  set  in  its  dissolution  was  rapid. 

Prentiss,  Elizabeth,  b.  at  Portland,  Me., 
Oct.  26,  1818;  d.  at  Dorset,  Vt. ,  Aug.  13, 
1878.  She  was  the  youngest  daughter  of 
Dr.  Edward  Payson.  She  married  the  Rev. 
George  L.  Prentiss  in  1845.  Her  home, 
after  1851,  was  in  New  York  City.  The 
first  and  most  popular  of  her  juvenile  books 
(. Little  Susy's  Six  Birthdays ),  was  published 
in  1853.  More  than  twenty  volumes  came 
from  her  pen,  among  them  The  Home  at 
Grey  lock,  and  Stepping  Heavenward.  Over 
seventy  thousand  copies  of  this  book  have 
been  sold  in  America.  See  Life  and  Letters 
of  Elizabeth  Prentiss ,  edited  by  her  husband 
(N.  Y.,  1882). 

Presbyter,  Presbyterians.  The  Greek 
word  presbuteros ,  senior  or  elder,  is  fre¬ 
quently5  used  in  the  Greek  translation  of 
the  Old  Testament  to  signify  a  ruler  or 
governor — one  chosen  not  for  his  age,  but 
for  his  merits  and  wisdom.  In  the  Chris¬ 
tian  Church  a  presbyter  or  elder  is  one  who 
is  set  apart  to  a  certain  office,  and  authorized 
to  discharge  the  several  duties  of  that  office 
and  station  in  which  he  is  placed.  The 
office  of  the  presbyter  consisted  in  feeding 
the  flock  of  God,  and  exhorting  and  con¬ 
vincing  the  gainsayers  by  sound  doctrine, 
baptizing,  and  celebrating  the  Eucharist, 
and  leading  the  public  prayers  of  the  con¬ 
gregation.  The  body  of  Christians  who 
call  themselves  Presbyterians  hold  that  all 
the  powers  and  rights  of  the  Christian  min¬ 
istry,  including  ordination,  are  held  and 
exercised  by  the  single  order  of  presbyters; 
that  there  is  no  order  in  the  Church  as 
established  by  Christ  and  his  apostles 
superior  to  that  of  presbyters;  that  all 
ministers,  being  ambassadors  of  Christ,  are 
equal  by  their  commission;  that  presbyter 
and  bishop ,  though  different  words,  are  of 
the  same  import;  and  that  prelacy  was 
gradually  established  upon  the  primitive 
practice  of  making  the  ?noderator,  or  speak¬ 
er  of  the  presbytery,  a  permanent  officer. 
This  is  the  point  of  controversy  between 
the  Presbyterians  and  Episcopalians.  They 
maintain  their  position  against  the  Episco- 


*  re 


(  757  ) 


Pre 


palians  by  the  following  Scriptural  argu¬ 
ments:  They  observe,  that  the  apostles 
planted  churches  by  ordaining  bishops  and 
deacons  in  every  city;  that  the  ministers 
who  in  one  verse  are  called  bishops  are  in 
the  next,  perhaps,  called  presbyters ;  that 
we  nowhere  read  in  the  New  Testament  of 
bishops,  presbyters,  and  deacons  in  any 
one  church,  and  that  therefore  we  must  of 
necessity  conclude  “  bishop  ”  and  “pres¬ 
byter  ”  to  be  two  names  for  the  same  office. 
They  take  the  passage  i  Pet.  v.  2-3,  and 
say  it  is  evident  that  the  presbyters  not 
only  fed  the  flock  of  God,  but  governed  it 
with  episcopal  powers,  and  that  Peter  him¬ 
self  as  a  church  officer  was  nothing  more 
than  a  presbyter  or  elder.  In  Heb.  xiii. 
7-17  and  1  Thess.  v.  12  the  bishops  are 
spoken  of  as  discharging  various  offices 
which  it  would  be  impossible  for  any  man 
to  perform  for  more  than  one  congregation, 
for  if  they  were  to  be  such  as  all  the  peo¬ 
ple  were  to  know,  esteem,  and  love ,  they 
could  not  have  been  diocesan  bishops, 
whom  ordinarily  the  hundredth  part  of  their 
flock  never  hear  nor  see.  Again,  in  James 
v.  14,  the  elders  whom  the  Apostle  James 
desires  the  sick  to  call  for  were  the  highest 
permanent  order  of  ministers ;  it  is  evident 
that  those  elders  cannot  have  been  diocesan 
bishops,  otherwise  the  sick  would  have 
been  often  without  the  reach  of  the  remedy 
proposed  for  them.  From  Acts  xx.  17, 
etc.,  where  St.  Paul  sends  from  Miletus  to 
Ephesus  to  call  the  elders  of  the  Church, 
the  Presbyterians  argue  that  there  was  in 
the  city  of  Ephesus  a  plurality  of  pastors 
of  equal  authority,  without  any  superior 
pastor  or  bishop  over  them,  for  the  apos¬ 
tle  directs  his  discourse  to  them  all  in  com¬ 
mon,  and  gives  them  equal  power  over  the 
whole  flock.  They  argue,  therefore,  that 
Paul  left  in  the  Church  of  Ephesus,  which 
he  had  planted,  no  other  successors  to  him¬ 
self  than  presbyter-bishops ,  or  Presbyterian 
ministers,  and  that  he  did  not  devolve  his 
power  upon  any  prelate.  Timothy,  whom 
the  Episcopalians  allege  to  have  been  the 
first  bishop  of  Ephesus,  was  present  when 
this  settlement  was  made  (Acts  xx.  5);  and 
had  he  been  their  bishop,  it  is  not  to  be 
supposed  that  the  apostle  would  have  de¬ 
volved  the  whole  episcopal  power  upon  the 
presbyters  before  his  face;  for  if  ever  there 
were  a  season  fitter  than  another  for  point¬ 
ing  out  the  duty  of  this  supposed  bishop 
to  his  diocese  and  his  presbyter’s  duty  to 
him,  it  would  have  been  when  St.  Paul  was 
taking  his  final  leave  of  them.  That  Tim¬ 
othy  resided  at  Ephesus,  and  was  by  the 
apostle  invested  with  authority  to  ordain 
and  rebuke  presbyters,  are  facts  about 
which  both  parties  are  agreed.  What,  then, 
was  his  office  in  that  city  ?  To  this  the 


Presbyterian  replies  that  his  power  was 
that  of  an  evangelist ,  2  Tim.  iv.  5,  and  not 
of  a  fixed  prelate.  It  will  thus  be  seen 
that  they  identify  the  office  of  bishop  with 
that  of  presbyter,  and  hold  the  presbvter- 
ate  to  be  the  highest  permanent  office  in 
the  Church,  every  faithful  pastor  of  a  flock 
being  successor  to  the  apostles  in  every¬ 
thing  in  which  they  were  to  have  any  suc¬ 
cessors. 

The  modern  Presbyterian  theory  of 
church  government  dates  from  the  Ref¬ 
ormation.  Luther  earnestly  taught  that 
all  Christians  are  priests  unto  God.  Ever* 
had  he  been  desirous  of  preserving  an 
Episcopal  form  of  government,  the  course 
which  the  Reformation  took  on  the  Contin¬ 
ent,  so  different  from  that  in  England, 
would  have  prevented  him.  It  was,  how¬ 
ever,  Calvin,  with  that  genius  for  organiza¬ 
tion  which  so  remarkably  characterized 
him,  who  established  the  Presbyterian 
form  of  government.  He  incorporated  his 
ideas  with  that  of  the  State  control,  and  so 
arranged  that  the  Council  of  State  in  con¬ 
sultation  with  the  people  should  choose 
the  presbyters,  each  of  whom  was  to  have 
his  allotted  work,  and  the  assembly  of 
whom  together  in  Consistory  were  to  deal 
with  all  cases  of  ecclesiastical  discipline. 
There  were  ministers  who  were  to  preach 
and  teach,  and  the  elders  who  ruled  the 
Church.  Both,  however,  were  recognized 
as  holding  spiritual  office.  His  idea  was 
adopted  in  the  Reformed  Church  of  France, 
and  also  in  Scotland,  where  there  are  now 
three  main  bodies  of  Presbyterians,  viz.: 
the  Established  Church,  the  Free  Church, 
and  the  United  Presbyterians.  In  Eng¬ 
land  Presbyterianism  was  started  in  1572 
at  Wandsworth,  when  a  presbytery  was 
opened  with  its  “  Book  of  Order.”  In  the 
struggles  between  the  House  of  Stuart  and 
the  House  of  Commons,  Presbyterianism 
represented  the  side  of  the  latter,  and  the 
downfall  of  Charles  I.  was  the  signal  for 
the  abolition  of  the  Episcopal  Church  on 
June  29,  1647.  The  famous  Westminster 
Assembly,  and  its  Catechism,  which  we 
have  noticed  in  its  place,  represents  the 
zenith  of  Presbyterianism  in  England. 
But  in  a  very  few  years  it  was  displaced 
by  Independency  under  Cromwell.  The 
result  was  that  Presbyterianism  became 
altogether  weakened  as  a  power  in  Eng¬ 
land,  and  on  the  Restoration  the  non- 
Episcopal  ministers,  most  of  them  Presby¬ 
terians,  were  ejected  from  their  livings. 
Even  in  Scotland  Presbyterianism  was 
downtrodden  until  the  Revolution.  In 
England,  where  it  had  not  gained  the  af¬ 
fection  of  the  people,  most  of  the  congre¬ 
gations,  in  reaction  from  Calvinism,  be¬ 
came  Unitarian.  Nevertheless,  Presby- 


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Pre 


terianism  upon  the  old  Puritan  lines  has 
been  revived  in  the  present  century  in 
England.  In  1836  two  Presbyteries  were 
opened  in  union  with  the  Church  of  Scot¬ 
land;  two  more  were  added  in  1839.  On 
the  Scottish  disruption,  in  1843,  the  Eng¬ 
lish  Presbyteries  severed  this  connection, 
and  joined  the  English  congregations  of 
the  “  United  Church.”  In  1876  they  were 
all  united  under  the  title  of  the  “  Presby¬ 
terian  Church  of  England.”  In  the  census 
of  1881,  275  congregations  were  returned, 
of  which  seventy-five  are  in  London.  One 
£>f  its  noblest  works  is  the  China  Mission. 

In  Ireland,  Presbyterianism  is  the  largest 
denomination  in  the  province  of  Ulster, 
where  there  is  a  large  population  of  Scot¬ 
tish  blood. — Benham:  Did.  of  Religion. 
See  Scotland,  Church  of. 

Presbyterian  Church  in  England.  See 

above. 

Presbyterian  Church,  The,  in  the  Unit¬ 
ed  States  of  America.  American  Pres¬ 
byterianism  came  to  these  shores  chiefly 
from  Scotland,  Holland,  Ireland,  and  Eng¬ 
land.  An  important  element  also  came 
from  German  Reformed  and  French  Hu¬ 
guenot  immigrants.  It  had  its  origin  in 
the  characteristics  of  these  various  peoples, 
but  it  has  become  thoroughly  American, 
strengthened,  of  course,  by  the  diversity 
of  elements  that  entered  into  the  begin¬ 
nings  of  its  history.  The  organized 
form  of  the  Presbyterian  Church  in  the 
United  States  dates  about  the  beginning 
of  the  eighteenth  century.  But  Presby¬ 
terianism  in  its  essential  features  existed 
in  this  country  long  before  that  period. 
Before  the  organization  of  the  first  Presby¬ 
tery  there  were  Presbyterian  churches  on 
Long  Island  and  in  New  Jersey,  organized 
by  the  descendants  of  the  Puritans.  So,  also, 
in  New  England  some  of  the  first  churches, 
as  that  at  Plymouth,  were  conformed,  as 
nearly  as  local  circumstances  permitted,  to 
the  French  Presbyterian  type.  New  Eng¬ 
land  Puritans  and  Scotch  dissenters  affili¬ 
ated  very  readily,  and  organized  churches 
which  became  Presbyterian  or  Congrega¬ 
tional,  according  to  circumstances.  It  is 
thought  thatjby  the  year  1700  there  were,  in 
New  York  and  New  Jersey,  from  ten  to  fif¬ 
teen  churches  of  New  England  descent 
and  life,  but  essentially  Presbyterian  in  or¬ 
ganization.  The  church  at  Jamaica,  Long 
Island,  was  probably  a  Presbyterian 
church,  although  it  did  not  come  into  con¬ 
nection  with  Presbytery  until  some  time 
after  its  organization.  The  first  Protes¬ 
tant  church  organized  on  this  continent 
was  that  of  New  Amsterdam  in  1638,  and 
this,  though  a  Reformed,  was  essentially  a 


Presbyterian  church.  The  foundation  of 
Presbyterianism  in  this  country,  as  an  or¬ 
ganized  body,  was  laid  by  Francis  Makemie, 
an  Irishman,  who  organized  a  church  at 
Snow  Hill,  Maryland,  in  1684.  On  this 
peninsula,  between  the  Atlantic  and  the 
Chesapeake,  in  a  colony  founded  by  a  Ro¬ 
man  Catholic  nobleman,  the  Presbyterian 
Church  of  the  United  States  began  its  ca¬ 
reer.  Makemie  had  the  fiery  heart  of  an 
apostle.  He  was  incessant  in  his  labors 
to  gather  into  folds  the  scattered  sheep  of 
the  wilderness.  He  crossed  the  ocean  to 
appeal  to  the  churches  of  England  and  Ire¬ 
land  for  help,  and  visited  New  England  for 
the  same  purpose.  He  not  only  labored 
in  season  and  out  of  season,  but  suffered 
persecution  for  the  cause  of  religious  lib¬ 
erty.  Gillette  says  of  him:  “  The  experi¬ 
ence  of  Makemie  in  a  New  York  prison,  or 
before  a  royal  judge,  reminds  us  of  Bax¬ 
ter  and  the  abuse  heaped  upon  him  by  the 
infamous  Jeffries,  while  the  history  of  the 
Virginia  dissenters  is  not  unworthy  a  place 
by  the  side  of  that  of  the  English  Non¬ 
conformists  of  1662.”  Makemie  pushed 
his  labors,  not  only  through  Maryland  and 
Virginia,  but  extended  them  as  far  as 
North  Carolina.  Emigrants  from  the  Old 
World  were  attracted  to  Maryland,  Dela¬ 
ware  and  Pennsylvania  by  the  more  liberal 
policies  prevailing  in  these  provinces.  Our 
Church,  therefore,  grew  with  considerable 
rapidity  in  those  regions,  and  the  begin¬ 
ning  of  the  eighteenth  century  was  signal¬ 
ized  by  the  organization  of  the  first  Pres¬ 
bytery  (in  1705),  in  the  Presbyterian 
Church  of  Philadelphia,  constituting  the 
Presbytery  of  Philadelphia,  the  first  in  the 
New  World.  The  seven  ministers  who 
were  present  were  Makemie,  Davis,  Wil¬ 
son,  Andrews,  Taylor,  McNish  and  Hamp¬ 
ton. 

Five  years  after  the  organization  of  that 
first  presbytery  they  had  four  congrega¬ 
tions  in  Maryland,  five  in  Pennsylvania, 
two  in  New  Jersey,  and  one  at  Elizabeth 
River  in  Virginia.  Six  years  after  that 
they  resolved  themselves  into  three  Pres¬ 
byteries,  Philadelphia,  New  Castle,  and 
Long  Island,  these  three  constituting  the 
Synod  of  Philadelphia.  The  churches  now 
numbered  seventeen.  In  the  province  of 
New  York  there  were  five  churches,  in  New 
Jersey  four,  in  Philadelphia  and  the  regions 
beyond,  six.  The  new  churches  of  Eliza¬ 
bethtown  and  Newark  with  their  pastors, 
Jonathan  Dickinson  and  Joseph  Webb,  came 
in  soon  afterward.  The  ministers  had  now 
increased  to  nineteen.  During  the  first  ten 
years  twenty-seven  had  been  enrolled,  five 
had  died,  and  three  had  withdrawn.  The 
Church  now  made  steady  progress.  There 
is  no  record  that  up  to  this  time  any  stand- 


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(  759  ) 


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ards  of  doctrine  had  been  adopted  by  the 
Synod.  It  is  presumed,  however,  that  as 
the  most  of  the  ministers  were  of  Scotch 
descent,  and  as  the  Scottish  Church  had 
adopted  the  Westminster  Confession  of 
Faith  and  Catechisms,  these  were,  at  least, 
the  informal  standards  of  the  young 
Church.  The  prevalence  of  error,  how¬ 
ever,  made  it  necessary  that  now  there 
should  be  formulated  for  adoption  some 
symbol  of  faith.  The  annual  meeting  of 
the  Synod  in  1739,  with  great  unanimity,  by 
an  “  adopting  act”  made  the  Westminster 
Confession  of  Faith  their  doctrinal  standard , 
“  as  being  in  all  the  essential  and  necessary 
articles  good  forms  of  sound  words  and 
system  of  Christian  doctrine,”  agreeing 
also  that  no  one  should  be  ordained  to  the 
ministry,  or  received  into  membership, 
who  had  scruples  as  to  any  part  of  that 
Confession,  “  save  only  about  articles  not 
essential  and  necessary  to  doctrine,  worship 
and  government.”  Where  differences  did 
exist  on  these  points  it  was  agreed  that 
they  would  treat  one  another  in  a  spirit  of 
mutual  forbearance  and  love.  At  an  early 
period,  however,  divisions  of  sentiment 
began  to  appear  in  different  parts  of  the 
Synod.  The  ministers  from  abroad,  as  we 
have  said,  were  for  the  most  part  Scotch: 
the  native  ministry  were  for  the  most  part 
of  New  England  antecedents.  The  former 
were  more  strict  in  their  doctrinal  ideas, 
laid  more  stress  on  scholarship — the  latter 
insisted  on  a  living  Christian  experience. 
The  former  were  more  rigid  in  their  de¬ 
mand  for  a  full  term  of  study;  the  latter 
were  disposed,  in  view  of  the  great  needs 
of  the  country,  to  make  exceptions  in  the 
case  of  students  for  the  ministry  who  were 
sound  in  doctrine,  but  had  had  limited  op¬ 
portunities  for  education.  At  this  time 
there  was  a  great  religious  awakening  in 
New  England,  under  the  leadership  of 
George  Whitefield,  which  extended  largely 
throughout  the  country.  This  was  the 
occasion  of  still  further  divisions.  The 
New  side  churches  welcomed  Whitefield 
and  the  ministers  who  were  with  him, 
espousing  the  cause  of  the  revival.  The 
Old  side  were  apprehensive  of  extremes, 
and  for  the  most  part  stood  aloof.  In  1740 
these  two  bodies  came  into  collision  in 
Synod.  The  Presbytery  of  New  Brunswick 
withdrew  in  1741,  and  with  it  went  the  Pres¬ 
bytery  of  New  York,  with  some  ministers 
and  churches  from  the  Presbytery  of  New 
Castle.  These,  in  1745,  met  and  organized 
•  the  rival  Synod  of  New  York.  This  un¬ 
fortunate  breach  was  happily  healed  in 
1758,  when  the  two  synods  united  under 
the  general  title  of  the  Synod  of  New  York 
and  Pennsylvania,  with  more  than  a  hun¬ 
dred  churches  under  its  care. 


The  next  twenty-five  years  were  memo¬ 
rable  in  the  history  of  American  Presbyte¬ 
rianism.  During  the  period  named  came 
the  war  with  the  British.  The  independ¬ 
ence  of  the  United  States  had  been  se¬ 
cured.  During  all  the  struggle  the  Pres¬ 
byterian  Church  was  an  absolute  unit  in 
the  defence  of  the  civil  and  religious  liberty 
of  the  country,  and  contributed  largely  to¬ 
ward  our  independence.  John  Wither¬ 
spoon,  the  leading  divine  of  that  period, 
was  a  signer  of  the  Declaration  of  Independ¬ 
ence,  and  in  Congress  made  one  of  the 
most  effective  pleas  for  the  liberty  of  the 
country,  declaring  that  he  staked  his  repu¬ 
tation  and  his  property  on  the  issue  of  that 
conflict.  The  Church  now  grew  with  great 
rapidity,  and  it  became  evident  that  there 
should  be  a  General  Assembly,  in  which  the 
various  synods  and  presbyteries  should  be 
united  in  one  church  court.  The  sixteen 
presbyteries  of  1788  were  distributed  into 
four  synods — New  York,  Philadelphia, 
Virginia,  and  the  Carolinas — and  a  General 
Assembly  composed  of  the  commissioners 
from  those  presbyteries  met  in  Philadel¬ 
phia,  Penn. ,  May,  1789.  The  First  Congress 
of  the  United  States  was  in  session  in  the 
city  of  New  York  at  the  same  time.  The 
constitutions  of  these  two  bodies  were 
thus  adopted  in  the  same  year. 

At  the  beginning  of  the  century  the 
Church  entered  on  a  new  era  of  prosperity. 
Missionaries  went  everywhere  with  the 
tide  of  emigration,  which  was  now  flowing 
into  western  New  York,  Pennsylvania,  and 
Ohio.  In  1801  the  plan  of  union  was  en¬ 
tered  into  between  the  Presbyterian 
Church  and  the  Congregational  Associa¬ 
tions  of  New  England,  by  which  it  was 
provided  that  they  should  mutually  help 
each  other  on  all  mission  ground;  Presby¬ 
terian  ministers  might  serve  Congrega¬ 
tional  churches,  Congregational  ministers 
Presbyterian  churches,  and  there  should 
be  no  rivalry  between  the  two  denomina¬ 
tions,  except  the  rivalry  of  good  works. 
This  plan  worked  for  a  number  of  years, 
and  resulted  in  the  large  increase  of  the 
churches  in  the  Western  States.  The 
Presbyterian  Church  at  the  time  of  the 
union  numbered  26  Presbyteries,  300  min¬ 
isters,  and  nearly  500  congregations.  Early 
in  the  century  there  were  many  revivals, 
especially  in  the  southwestern  part  of  the 
country.  In  them  zealsometimes  outrandis- 
cretion;  strange  doctrines  were  taught  and 
practices  fostered,  and  Presbyterian  order 
violated.  This  state  of  things  led  to  the 
organization  in  1811  of  what  is  now  known 
as  the  Cumberland  Presbyterian  Church 
(y.  v. ).  The  increase  of  the  Church  was  now 
very  rapid.  In  1834  it  contained  32  Synods, 
hi  Presbyteries,  and  about  1,900  minis- 


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Pre 


ters.  For  a  number  of  years,  however,  there 
had  been  indications  of  a  diversity  of  doc¬ 
trinal  beliefs  in  different  parts  of  the 
Church,  which  now  began  rapidly  to  de¬ 
velop  into  a  New  School  party,  which  was 
increasingly  antagonized  year  by  year  by 
what  came  to  be  known  as  the  Old  School 
portion  of  the  Church.  The  affiliations  of 
the  plan  of  union  tended  to  increase  the 
theological  diversities  within  the  Church. 
Many  were  in  favor  of  what  was  called  the 
New  Haven  or  Hopkinsian  theology. 
Albert  Barnes,  of  Philadelphia,  and  Lyman 
Beecher,  of  Cincinnati  were  both  subjected 
to  trial  and  censure  by  their  presbyteries, 
but  each  of  them  was  vindicated  by  the 
General  Assembly.  The  whole  Church 
was  now  plunged  into  controversy.  The 
agitation  arising  from  slavery  increased, 
and  divided  the  parties  still  further.  The 
New  School  wished  to  bear  strong  testi¬ 
mony  against  slavery  ;  the  Old  School — 
strong  in  the  Southern  States — resisted 
such  testimony.  So  on  grounds  partly  of 
doctrine,  but  more  of  polity,  the  breach 
widened. 

It  has  been  said  that  the  division  was 
between  the  more  progressive  and  the 
more  conservative  sides  of  the  Church; 
that  in  the  Old  School  there  were  stricter 
views  of  doctrines  and  discipline;  that 
the  New  School  was  decidedly  in  favor  of 
the  laxer  doctrines  of  New  England,  from 
which  many  of  them  had  originally  come. 
In  a  general  way  this  was  true,  but  the  se¬ 
verest  strain  on  the  Church  was  the  same 
that  a  quarter  of  a  century  later  plunged 
our  country  into  civil  war. 

In  1837  the  Old  School  party,  being  in 
the  majority  in  the  General  Assembly,  ex¬ 
scinded  three  of  the  synods  in  Western  New 
York,  and  one  in  Ohio, with  all  the  churches 
and  ministers  belonging  to  them.  Other 
measures  obnoxious  to  the  minority  were 
enacted.  Great  excitement  prevailed 
throughout  the  entire  Church.  A  con¬ 
vention  of  aggrieved  members  was  held 
at  Auburn,  New  York,  in  August,  1837, 
and  measures  were  taken  to  resist  what 
was  conceived  to  be  the  wrong  action  of 
the  Assembly.  The  next  year  the  New 
School  members  demanded  the  enrollment 
of  the  commissioners  from  the  exscinded 
synod.  This  was  refused,  and  so  the  two 
bodies  separated,  and  two  assemblies  were 
organized.  The  crisis  had  come.  The 
property  question,  after  a  jury  trial,  was 
decided  in  favor  of  the  New  School  As¬ 
sembly,  but  the  decision  was  overruled  on 
points  of  law,  and  a  new  trial  granted. 
No  further  action  was  taken. 

Each  denomination,  realizing  now  that 
they  were  hopelessly  separated,  proceeded 
with  its  work.  Both  of  these  Churches 


were  extended  over  the  whole  of  the 
United  States.  Both  had  mission  stations 
in  different  parts  of  the  heathen  world, 
their  collections  forming  a  large  part  of 
the  contributions  for  that  object  from  the 
United  States  of  America.  The  Old  School 
Presbyterians  had  seminaries  at  Princeton, 
Allegheny,  Columbia,  Danville,  and  Chi¬ 
cago.  The  New  School  Presbyterians 
held  Union  Seminary,  New  York,  Auburn, 
Lane  at  Cincinnati,  and  Blackburn  at  Car- 
linville,  Ill.  Each  Church  now  carried  on 
its  work  with  marked  prosperity,  both  at 
home  and  abroad.  Each  branch  was  equal¬ 
ly  active  in  fostering  educational  institu¬ 
tions  throughout  the  country.  So  the 
bodies  flourished  side  by  side,  each  grow¬ 
ing  gradually  more  confident  of  the  ortho¬ 
doxy  and  usefulness  of  the  other. 

The  Old  School  Assembly  established 
its  Board  of  Foreign  Missions  in  New 
York  in  1837.  Boards  of  Home  Missions 
and  Education  had  been  organized  long 
before  the  division.  These  were  supported 
by  the  Old  School,  the  New  School  prefer¬ 
ring  to  work  through  the  American  Home 
Mission  Society  and  the  Educational  So¬ 
ciety,  voluntary  organizations  in  which 
Congregationalists  participated.  The  New 
School  subsequently  organized  permanent 
committees  for  Home  Missions,  Educa¬ 
tion,  and  Publication,  through  which  their 
work  was  carried  on.  Their  foreign  work 
was  conducted  through  the  American 
Board  of  Commissioners  for  Foreign  Mis¬ 
sions. 

In  1861  the  Civil  War  broke  out,  an  event 
which,  in  the  providence  of  God,  was  the 
cause  of  the  reunion  of  the  two  Presby¬ 
terian  Churches  in  the  North.  The  Old 
School  Assembly  of  1861,  at  Philadelphia, 
took  strong  ground  in  behalf  of  the  Gov¬ 
ernment.  The  New  School  Assembly  did 
the  same.  The  Southern  commissioners 
left  the  Old  School  Assembly,  and  organ¬ 
ized  the  Southern  Presbyterian  Church. 
(See  following  article.)  The  abolition  of 
slavery,  which  followed  soon  after,  put  an 
end  to  all  controversy  between  the  two 
bodies.  Gradually  a  new  spirit  came  over 
them.  A  new  generation  had  come  to  the 
front.  The  Northern  churches  were  united 
in  common  cause.  The  New  School  had 
proven  their  soundness  in  the  faith,  vindi¬ 
cated  their  Presbyterianism,  and  the  inher¬ 
itance  of  a  common  faith  began  unmistak¬ 
ably  to  assert  its  power.  In  1866  the  two 
Assemblies  met  in  St.  Louis,  sat  down  to¬ 
gether  for  the  first  time  in  a  generation  at 
the  Lord’s  Table,  and  at  the  same  time 
appointed  a  joint  committee  to  consider  a. 
plan  for  the  reunion  of  the  Churches.  In 
1869  they  met  in  New  York.  Each  agreed 
to  the  propositions  submitted  by  the  joint 


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committee.  These  propositions  were  over¬ 
timed  to  the  Presbyteries.  At  the  next 
meeting  of  the  two  Assemblies  at  Pitts¬ 
burg  returns  from  the  Presbyteries  show¬ 
ed  an  overwhelming  majority  in  favor  of 
the  union.  Thus,  happily  the  breach  was 
healed,  and  the  two  Assemblies  met  in  the 
Third  Church  of  Pittsburg,  and  consum¬ 
mated  the  union.  It  was  a  grand  Church 
that  was  thus  reunited.  In  1837  the  minis¬ 
ters  had  numbered  2,140;  the  churches, 
2,865;  and  the  membership  less  than  a 
quarter  of  a  million.  But  in  1870,  the  year 
of  the  reunion,  the  ministers  numbered 
4,238;  the  churches,  4,526;  and  the  mem¬ 
bership,  446,561. 

To  commemorate  this  auspicious  event, 
the  churches  the  following  year  raised  a 
thank-offering  of  more  than  seven  millions 
of  dollars,  which  was  used  in  paying  church 
debts,  erecting  new  churches,  and  found¬ 
ing  and  endowing  educational  institutions. 
From  1870  dates  a  period  of  remarkable 
progress  in  every  department  of  church 
work.  Contributions  to  missionary  and 
educational  causes  advanced  rapidly.  En¬ 
tire  harmony  reigned  in  the  united  Church. 
Old  differences  were  forgotten,  and  under 
the  most  manifest  blessing  of  God  the 
Church  extended  her  lines  of  work  in  every 
direction.  In  eight  years  the  Church 
gained  nine  hundred  ministers,  and  twelve 
hundred  churches. 

In  1888  the  General  Assembly  observed 
in  the  city  of  Philadelphia  the  first  centen¬ 
nial  of  its  organization  with  most  impress¬ 
ive  and  enthusiastic  services.  The  review 
of  the  progress  of  a  hundred  years  was 
very  encouraging.  When  the  General  As¬ 
sembly  was  organized  in  1788  there  were 
only  419  churches,  and  not  more  than 
20,000  members.  Home  missions  were 
only  beginning;  foreign  missions  had  not 
been  born.  But  at  the  Centennial  there 
were  6,436  churches  reported,  and  about 
700,000  communicants.  The  Home  Board 
had  about  1,500  missionaries  on  a  field  that 
reaches  from  the  Atlantic  to  Alaska.  The 
Foreign  Mission  Board  maintained  a  force 
of  1,543  men  and  women,  ministers,  teach¬ 
ers,  and  physicians.  The  educational  his¬ 
tory  of  the  denomination  was  likewise 
shown  to  be  full  of  encouragement. 

There  are  now,  at  the  end  of  the  century, 
forty-six  colleges  under  Presbyterian  con¬ 
trol,  and  twelve  theological  seminaries  and 
institutions  with  which  theological  depart¬ 
ments  are  maintained.  The  Church  was 
never  so  well  equipped  for  her  work,  never 
more  united  in  her  doctrine  and  polity, 
never  more  enthusiastic  for  the  extension 
of  the  kingdom  of  Christ,  both  at  home  and 
abroad. 

By  the  report  of  the  General  Assembly 


(1890)  it  appears  there  are  now  twenty- 
nine  Synods,  211  Presbyteries,  5,936  minis¬ 
ters,  and  6,727  churches,  with  a  total 
membership  of  753,749.  Contributions  for 
Home  Missions  last  year  aggregated  $885,- 
518;  for  Foreign  Missions,  $709,735;  for 
church  erection,  $272,541 ;  for  education, 
$155,843;  and  for  ministerial  relief,  $272,- 
024.  The  total  amount  of  money  raised 
for  benevolent  purposes  was  about  $3,000,- 
000,  and  for  congregational  purposes  over 
$9,000,000. 

The  Presbyterian  Church  is  now  passing 
through  one  of  the  most  important  peri¬ 
ods  of  her  history.  The  General  As¬ 
sembly  of  1889  received  overtures  from  a 
number  of  Presbyteries,  asking  for  some 
revision  of  the  doctrinal  standards  of  the 
Church.  That  Assembly  sent  an  overture 
to  the  Presbyteries,  asking  whether  any 
revision  was  desired,  and  if  so,  in  what 
respect  and  to  what  extent.  About  two- 
thirds  of  the  Presbyteries  expressed  desire 
for  revision.  The  revision  desired  was,  in 
most  cases,  conservative — affecting  the 
doctrine  of  divine  decrees — the  statement 
about  elect  infants,  and  the  salvability  of 
the  heathen.  In  addition  to  the  changes  in 
these  particulars,  many  of  the  Presbyter¬ 
ies  wished  inserted  in  the  Confession  of 
Faith  more  explicit  statements  of  the  love 
of  God  for  all  mankind,  and  the  free  offer 
of  the  gospel  to  all  men. 

The  mind  of  the  Church  being  thus  un¬ 
mistakably  expressed  in  favor  of  a  revision 
of  the  standards,  the  Assembly  of  1890 
appointed  a  Committee  on  Revision,  con¬ 
sisting  of  fifteen  ministers  and  ten  ruling 
elders,  to  whom  the  work  was  committed, 
with  only  the  instruction  that  the  integrity 
of  the  Calvinistic  System  should  not  be  im¬ 
paired. 

On  this  committee  were  appointed  a 
number  of  those  who  were  opposed  to  re¬ 
vision.  Whether  this  committee  will  be 
able  to  agree  on  a  report,  and  whether  the 
report,  if  agreed  upon,  will  be  satisfactory 
to  the  Church  are  questions  which  the 
near  future  will  decide.  This  committee  will 
report  to  the  next  Assembly.  If  the  report 
is  adopted  by  the  Assembly,  it  will  then 
go  to  the  Presbyteries  for  their  approval. 

The  General  Assembly  was  also  over- 
tured  by  a  large  proportion  of  Presbyter¬ 
ies  to  take  steps  looking  to  the  formulation 
of  a  new,  brief,  and  simple  creed,  which 
should  express  in  clear  terms  the  substance 
of  the  system  of  doctrine.  The  Assem¬ 
bly  appointed  a  committee  to  correspond 
with  other  Presbyterian  bodies  through¬ 
out  the  world,  with  reference  to  the  joint 
formulation,  by  all  the  Reformed  Churches 
holding  the  Presbyterian  faith,  of  a  creed 
for  popular  use  in  the  Churches. 


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The  revision  of  the  standards  and  the 
adoption  of  a  consensus  creed  is  thus 
practically  assured.  Not  at  any  time  in 
the  history  of  Presbyterianism  in  this 
country  has  so  long  a  step  forward  been 
taken  as  that  taken  by  the  action  of  the 
last  Assembly.  It  marks  an  era  of  prog¬ 
ress,  in  which  not  only  Presbyterianism 
but  the  universal  Christian  Church  has  a 
profound  interest. 

Authorities. — Charles  Hodge:  Consti- 
ttitional  History  of  the  Presbyterian  Church 
in  the  United  States  of  America  (2  vols.); 
Gillett:  History  of  the  Presbyterian  Church 
in  the  United  States  of  America  (2  vols.); 
Baird:  A  History  of  the  New  School; 
Spence:  Early  History  of  the  Presbyterian 
Church  in  America;  Presbyterian  Re-union , 
a  memorial  volume,  1870;  McClintock  and 
Strong:  Cyclopcedia  of  Biblical ,  Theological 
and  Ecclesiastical  Literattire ,  art.  “  Presbyte¬ 
rian  Church;”  Schaff-Herzog:  Encyclopcedia 
of  Religious  Knowledge ,  art.  “  Presbyterian 
Churches;”  Centennial  Addresses  (Philadel¬ 
phia,  1888.) 

Charles  L.  Thompson. 

Presbyterian  Church,  The,  in  the  Unit¬ 
ed  States  '  (Southern).  The  origin  of 
this  branch  of  the  Presbyterian  Church  is 
given  as  follows  by  the  Rev.  Moses  D. 
Hoge,  D.  D.  (Schaff-Herzog:  Ency . ,  vol. 
iii. ,  pp.  1909-10):  “  In  May,  1861,  the 
General  Assembly  of  the  Presbyterian 
Church  (Old  School),  which  met  in  Phila¬ 
delphia,  adopted  a  paper  in  reference  to 
the  civil  war,  then  impending,  which  un¬ 
dertook  to  decide  for  the  whole  constitu¬ 
ency,  North  and  South,  a  question  upon 
which  the  most  eminent  statesmen  had 
been  divided  in  opinion  from  the  time  of 
the  formation  of  the  Constitution,  viz.: 
whether  the  ultimate  sovereignty,  the  jus 
summi  imperii ,  resided  in  the  people  as  a 
mass,  or  in  the  people  as  they  were  orig¬ 
inally  formed  into  colonies,  and  afterward 
into  States.  Presbyterians  in  the  South 
believed  that  this  deliverance,  whether 
true  or  otherwise,  was  one  which  the 
Church  was  not  authorized  to  make,  and 
that  in  so  doing,  she  had  transcended  her 
sphere,  and  usurped  the  duties  of  the 
State.  Their  views  upon  this  subject  found 
expression  in  a  quarter  which  relieves 
them  of  all  suspicion  of  coming  from  an 
interested  party.  A  protest  against  this 
action  was  presented  by  the  venerable 
Charles  Hodge,  D.  D.,  of  Princeton  The¬ 
ological  Seminary,  and  by  forty-five  others 
who  were  members  of  that  Assembly. 

“In  this  protest  it  was  asserted  ‘  that 
the  paper  adopted  by  the  Assembly  does 
decide  the  political  question  just  stated  in 
our  judgment  is  undeniable.  It  not  only 


asserts  the  loyalty  of  this  body  to  the  Con¬ 
stitution  and  the  Union,  but  it  promises, 
in  the  name  of  all  the  churches  and  minis¬ 
ters  whom  it  represents,  to  do  all  that  in 
them  lies  to  strengthen,  uphold,  and  en¬ 
courage  the  Federal  Government.  It  is, 
however,  a  notorious  fact,  that  many  of 
our  ministers  and  members  conscientiously 
believe  that  the  allegiance  of  the  citizens 
of  this  country  is  primarily  due  to  the 
States  to  which  they  respectively  belong, 
and  that  therefore,  whenever  any  State  re¬ 
nounces  its  connection  with  the  United 
States,  and  its  allegiance  to  the  Constitu¬ 
tion,  the  citizens  of  that  State  are  bound 
by  the  laws  of  God  to  continue  loyal  to 
their  State,  and  obedient  to  its  laws.  The 
paper  adopted  by  the  Assembly  virtu¬ 
ally  declares,  on  the  other  hand,  that  the 
allegiance  of  the  citizen  is  due  to  the 
United  States,  anything  in  the  Constitution 
or  laws  of  the  several  States  to  the  con¬ 
trary  notwithstanding . The  General 

Assembly,  in  thus  deciding  a  political 
question,  and  in  making  that  decision  prac¬ 
tically  a  condition  of  church  membership, 
has,  in  our  judgment,  violated  the  consti¬ 
tution  of  the  Church,  and  usurped  the 
prerogative  of  its  divine  Master.’  Presby¬ 
terians  in  the  South,  coinciding  in  this 
view  of  the  case,  concluded  that  a  separa¬ 
tion  from  the  General  Assembly  aforesaid 
was  imperatively  demanded,  not  in  the 
spirit  of  schism,  but  for  the  sake  of  peace, 
and  for  the  protection  of  the  liberty  with 
which  Christ  had  made  them  free.  Ac¬ 
cordingly,  ninety-three  ministers  and  rul¬ 
ing  elders,  who  had  been  commissioned 
for  that  purpose,  met  in  the  city  of  Au¬ 
gusta,  Ga. ,  on  the  4th  of  December,  1861, 
and  integrated  in  one  body,  under  the  title  of 
the  ‘  General  Assembly  of  the  Confederate 
States  of  America,’  adopting  at  the  same 
time  as  their  constitution  the  standards  of 
their  faith  and  order  which  they  had  always 
held.  After  the  close  of  the  war  the 
name  of  their  Church  was  changed  to  that 
of  4  The  Presbyterian  Church  in  the  Unit¬ 
ed  States.’  ” 

This  body,  in  1890,  reported  the  follow¬ 
ing  statistics:  2,321  churches,  1,145  minis¬ 
ters,  more  than  161,000  communicants, 
100,000  scholars  in  the  Sunday-schools, 
and  benevolent  contributions  amounting,  in 
1889,  to  $1,612,865.  It  sustains  missions 
in  China,  South  America,  Greece,  Italy, 
Mexico,  and  among  the  Choctaw  and  Cher¬ 
okee  Indians,  and  sustains  a  flourishing 
college  at  Brazil.  A  number  of  education¬ 
al  institutions  are  under  its  care  and  di¬ 
rection. 

Cumberland  Presbyterian  Church.  See 

article. 


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« 


The  Synod  of  the  Reformed  Presbyterian 
Church  in  North  America.  This  body 
of  Presbyterians  claims  tobe  “  the  lineal  ec¬ 
clesiastical  descendants  of  that  part  of  the 
Presbyterian  Church  of  Scotland  which  re¬ 
fused  to  accept  of  the  Revolution  settle¬ 
ment  of  1688.”  They  emigrated  in  small 
numbers  to  America, and  the  first  Reformed 
Presbytery  of  North  America  was  organized 
in  Philadelphia  in  1798,  and  the  first  synod 
in  the  same  city  in  1809.  They  accept  the 
Westminster  Confession  of  Faith  as  their 
chief  doctrinal  standard.  In  worship  they 
find  no  warrant  for  the  use  of  instrumental 
music,  or  hymns  of  human  composition,  and 
employ  in  this  service  the  psalms  of  inspi¬ 
ration.  They  testify  strongly  against  se¬ 
cret  oath-bound  associations,  and  do  not 
allow  their  members  to  join  such  societies. 
They  protest  against  the  sectilar  character 
of  the  United  States  Constitution,  since  it 
does  not  recognize  the  Bible  or  the  Chris¬ 
tian  Sabbath,  and  does  not  require  Chris¬ 
tian  qualifications  for  civil  officers.  For 
these  reasons  they  refuse  to  take  the  oath 
to  the  Constitution,  or  perform  any  civil  act 
that  involves  the  oath,  and  are  deeply  in¬ 
terested  in  seeking  amendments  to  the  Con¬ 
stitution  in  the  points  they  deem  defective. 
The  Church  has  now  (1890)  10,817  mem¬ 
bers,  124  ministers,  and  124  congregations. 
It  has  a  theological  seminary,  and  supports 
a  foreign  mission  at  Latakia,  Syria. 

Presbyterian  (Reformed)  Church  in  North 
America — General  Synod.  This  ecclesias¬ 
tical  body,  with  the  congregations  under 
its  care,  claims  tc  be  a  lineal  descendant  of 
the  Reformed  Presbyterian  Church  of 
Scotland.  The  line  or  links  of  descent 
may  be  easily  traced  in  history.  The  in¬ 
terval  of  Scottish  church  annals,  between 
1638  and  1649  inclusive,  has  generally  been 
regarded  as  the  brightest  period  of  refor¬ 
mation  in  the  land  of  the  covenants.  Dur¬ 
ing  this  interval  the  Westminster  Confes¬ 
sion  of  Faith,  the  Catechisms,  Larger  and 
Shorter,  with  several  supplementary  acts 
tc  the  First  and  Second  Books  of  Disci¬ 
pline  had  been  adopted.  The  National  Cov¬ 
enant  had  been  renewed.  The  Solemn 
League  and  Covenant  had  been  sworn  and 
subscribed  by  all  ranks  throughout  the 
kingdom.  In  this  deed  the  rights  of  peo¬ 
ple,  church,  and  sovereign  had  been  sedu¬ 
lously  guarded.  Never  since  the  days  of 
covenanting  in  ancient  Israel, were  a  people 
more  solemnly  bound  to  God  and  to  duty 
than  was  the  Reformed  Church  of  Scot¬ 
land,  when  Charles  II.,  in  1650,  was  wel¬ 
comed  to  the  throne.  With  apparent  sin¬ 
cerity  the  young  king  renounced  popery 
and  prelacy,  and  subscribed  the  covenant. 
His  duplicity,  however,  soon  became  man¬ 


ifest,  and  the  defeat  of  the  loyalist  forces 
by  Cromwell,  in  1651,  compelled  Charles 
to  retire  to  France.  His  recall  to  the  throne 
of  Britain,  in  1660,  was  a  dark  day  for 
Presbyterianism  in  Scotland.  Regardless 
of  his  oath,  he  proceeded  to  force  upon  the 
Scottish  people  prelatic  forms  and  cere¬ 
monies.  The  Church  was  divided  into 
factions,  and  twenty-eight  years  of  perse¬ 
cution  ensued.  Many  succumbed  to  the 
storm.  A  few  remained  faithful  and  be¬ 
came  the  true  exponents  of  the  Church’s 
faith,  as  held  during  the  period  known  in 
history  as  the  Second  Reformation.  Among 
these  Richard  Cameron  and  Donald  Car¬ 
gill  deserve  honorable  mention.  In  1680, 
when  the  “  Highland  Host  ”  had  been  let 
loose,  and  multitudes  were  being  impris¬ 
oned  and  put  to  death  because  they  dared 
to  worship  God  in  accordance  with  his 
word,  these  two  worthies  published  the 
“  Sanquhar  Declaration.”  In  this  docu¬ 
ment  the  ground  was  taken  that  when  a 
sovereign  violates  his  solemn  engagements 
with  his  subjects  and  becomes  a  tyrant 
his  subjects  are  no  longer  bound  to  sup¬ 
port  or  defend  him.  Although  this  senti¬ 
ment  was  denounced  as  treason,  and  a 
price  was  set  upon  the  heads  of  its  au¬ 
thors,  yet  in  less  than  ten  years,  by  the 
coronation  of  William  and  Mary  as  king 
and  queen  of  Britain,  it  received  a  most 
triumphant  endorsement  by  the  nation. 
The  same  sentiment  received  endorsement 
in  the  American  Revolution  of  1776. 

The  “revolution  settlement”  of  1688-89, 
by  which  Presbyterianism  was  established 
in  Scotland,  was  hampered  with  so  many 
Erastian  principles  that  a  large  number  of 
intelligent  and  faithful  covenanters  refused 
to  enter  into  the  communion  of  the  Estab¬ 
lished  Church.  For  more  than  sixteen 
years  they  remained  without  a  stated  min¬ 
istry.  At  length,  by  the  accession  of  Rev. 
John  McMillan  in  1706,  and  Rev.  Mr. 
Nairn  in  1743,  the  Reformed  Presbytery  of 
Scotland  was  constituted.  Through  this 
body  Reformed  Presbyterians  in  Scotland, 
Ireland,  British  America,  the  United 
States,  Northern  India,  and  Syria  have  re¬ 
ceived  their  ministry  according  to  Presbyte¬ 
rian  order.  By  ministers  sent  to  the  colonies 
of  America  from  the  Reformed  Presbyter¬ 
ies  of  Scotland  and  Ireland  a  Reformed 
Presbytery  was  constituted  on  this  continent 
in  1774.  In  1781-82  this  Presbytery  was 
dissolved.  In  1798,  in  the  city  of  Philadel¬ 
phia,  the  Reformed  Presbytery  was  recon¬ 
stituted  by  Rev.  James  McKinney  and 
Rev.  Wm.  Gibson.  In  1800  this  Presby¬ 
tery,  believing  that  American  slavery  was 
contrary  to  God’s  word,  adopted  a  resolu¬ 
tion  which  excluded  all  who  held  slaves 
from  her  communion.  In  1806  a  formulary 


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of  doctrine  and  principle  known  as  '*  Ref¬ 
ormation  Principles  ”  the  Testimony  of  the 
Church,  was  adopted.  In  this  document 
there  is  a  declaration  of  doctrinal  truth, 
arranged  under  suitable  heads,  accompa¬ 
nied  with  the  condemnation  of  error.  In 
1809,  from  the  Reformed  Presbytery, 
which  had  been  divided  into  the  Northern, 
Middle,  and  Southern  Committees,  was 
constituted  the  Synod  of  the  Reformed 
Presbyterian  Church  in  North  America. 
This  Synod  adopted  all  the  acts  of  the  Re¬ 
formed  Presbytery  of  which  it  became  the 
orderly  successor.  In  1823  the  General 
Synod  was  constituted  according  to  a  cer¬ 
tain  ratio  of  representation  from  the  differ¬ 
ent  presbyteries.  This  synod  meets  once 
a  year  by  adjournment,  and  not  by  being 
dissolved. 

The  Reformed  Presbyterian  Church  has 
always  been  a  zealous  advocate  of  the 
mediatorial  supremacy  of  the  Lord  Jesus 
Christ.  As  such  she  has  contended  that 
nations  living  under  the  light  of  the  gospel 
should  frame  their  constitutions  and  laws 
in  accordance  with  the  word  of  God,  and 
recognize  the  Mediator  as  their  Sovereign. 
At  an  early  date  in  the  history  of  the  Re¬ 
formed  Presbyterian  Church  in  the  United 
States,  differences  of  opinion  among  her 
members  touching  the  character  of  the 
United  States  Constitution  made  their  ap¬ 
pearance.  This  subject  had  been  made 
matter  of  “Free  Discussions”  in  the  Synod 
of  1831.  When  the  General  Synod  met  in 
Philadelphia  in  1833,  about  half  of  the  min¬ 
isters  and  ruling  elders  who  had  been  dele¬ 
gated  withdrew,  thus  diminishing  both  the 
ministry  and  membership  of  the  Church. 

In  1836  General  Synod  established  a 
mission  in  Northern  India,  and  in  1837 
the  Presbytery  of  Saharanpur  was  organ¬ 
ized  in  connection  with  said  Synod.  This 
mission  has  been  successful  in  training  up 
a  number  of  native  ministers,  who  are  now 
doing  a  good  work  in  Northern  India.  In 
1863  Synod  established  a  Freedmen’s  Mis¬ 
sion  in  Alexandria,  Virginia.  For  a  time 
several  ministers  and  two  female  teachers 
were  engaged  in  this  mission  enterprise. 

In  1883  Synod  established  a  native  mis¬ 
sion  at  Rurki,  Northern  India.  In  1884 
the  Synod  brought  from  India  to  the  United 
States  Mr.  Charles  G.  Scott.  He  has 
passed  through  the  theological  seminary, 
and,  subsequently,  he  was  graduated  from 
the  medical  department  of  the  University 
of  Pennsylvania.  Dr.  Scott  has  since 
joined  his  brother,  Rev.  George  W.  Scott. 
The  mission  now  numbers  two  native  mis¬ 
sionaries,  eight  catechists,  four  zenanas, 
sixteen  boys  in  the  orphan  school,  a  con¬ 
gregation  of  eighteen  communicants,  and 
about  fifty  adherents. 


This  Church  has  one  theological  semina¬ 
ry,  located  in  the  city  of  Philadelphia,  and 
organized  in  1809,  with  the  late  Rev.  Sam¬ 
uel  B.  Wylie,  D.  D.t  as  its  first  professor. 
The  faculty  consists  of  three  professors, 
and  the  number  of  students  in  attendance 
varies. 

The  form  of  government  in  this  Church 
differs  in  no  essential  element  from  that  of 
other  Presbyterian  bodies.  Adherence  to 
this  form  is  not  grounded  on  convenience 
or  custom,  but  upon  the  teachings  of  Holy 
Scripture.  This  appears  in  the  Church’s 
third  term  of  communion,  which  is  :  The 
Lord  Jesus  Christ  has  established  one 
permanent  form  of  church  government, 
and  this  form  is  by  divine  right  Presbyte¬ 
rian.  The  doctrinal  principles  of  this 
Church  are  embodied  in  the  Westminster 
Confession  of  Faith,  Catechisms,  Larger 
and  Shorter  and  Reformation  Principles 
Exhibited. 

The  Book  of  Psalms,  in  the  best  attain¬ 
able  version,  prose  or  metrical,  or  both,  is 
the  matter  of  praise  in  this  Church.  This 
praise  is  conducted  without  the  use  of  in¬ 
strumental  accompaniment,  and  congrega¬ 
tional  singing  is  a  marked  feature  of  wor¬ 
ship  on  the  Lord’s  Day. 

Sealing  ordinances  are  extended  only  to 
those  who  subscribe  to  the  subordinate 
standards  of  the  Church.  The  design  of 
this  is  not  to  unchurch  members  of  other 
denominations,  but  to  promote  order  and 
exhibit  the  real  unity  of  the  Church. 

The  pulpit  of  this  Church  has  been  in¬ 
variably  noted  for  sound  evangelical 
preaching.  Endeavoring  to  be  true  to  her 
name  and  history,  this  Church  is  an  advo¬ 
cate  of  all  the  moral  and  scriptural  reforms 
of  the  day.  The  movement  to  restrain  in¬ 
temperance  and  banish  from  the  land  the 
use  of  all  intoxicants  as  a  beverage  is  em¬ 
phasized  and  commended  by  the  supreme 
judicatory.  All  associations,  secret  or 
otherwise,  professing  to  be  of  a  religious 
character,  and  requiring  of  their  members 
the  solemnity  of  an  oath,  while  excluding 
from  their  ritual  the  name  of  Christ,  are 
condemned  by  this  Church,  and  connection 
therewith  is  inconsistent  with  good  stand¬ 
ing  in  the  same. 

Qualification  for  membership  in  this 
Church  has  always  been  reckoned  a  matter 
of  supreme  importance;  hence,  Sabbath- 
school  instruction,  and,  above  all,  family 
training,  have  been  made  prime  factors  in 
the  preparing  of  youth  for  a  place  in  the 
Church. 

This  Church  at  present  numbers  40  min¬ 
isters,  about  6,500  members,  and  4,000 
Sabbath-school  teachers  and  scholars.  In 
.various  ways  the  growth  of  this  Church 
has  been  retarded, but  the  day  is  breaking, 


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the  shadows  flee,  and  a  brighter  period  un¬ 
doubtedly  approaches.  See  Histories  of 
the  Church  of  Scotland ,  Reformation  Prin¬ 
ciples  Exhibited ,  Christian  Expositor  (ed. 
by  Rev.  Alexander  McLeod,  D.  D.),  and 
Minutes  of  General  Synod. 

David  Steele. 

The  United  Presbyterian  Church  of  North 
America  was  organized  in  the  city  of 
Pittsburg,  Pa.,  on  May  26,  A.  d. ,  1858,  by 
the  formal  union  of  the  Synod  of  the  Asso¬ 
ciate  Church  and  the  General  Synod  of  the 
Associate  Reformed  Church.  It  is  descend¬ 
ed  from,  and  is  the  principal  representative 
in  America  of,  the  dissenting  Churches  of 
Scotland,  and  retains  their  principal  char¬ 
acteristics. 

The  Associate,  or,  as  it  was  more  popu¬ 
larly  known,  the  Secession,  Church,  com¬ 
posed  of  those  who  separated  with  the 
Erskines  from  the  Established  Church  on 
account  of  corruptions  in  doctrine  and  op¬ 
pressive  administration,  was  early  repre¬ 
sented  in  the  American  colonies,  and  in 
1753  a  presbytery  was  formed.  The  con¬ 
gregations  increased,  so  that  a  few  years 
later  a  second  presbytery  was  organized. 
The  Reformed,  or  Covenanting  Church  of 
Scotland  also  organized  congregations  in 
various  parts  of  the  colonies.  These  two 
bodies,  separated  by  causes  local  to  Scot¬ 
land,  were  drawn  toward  each  other  by 
their  common  ancestry  and  their  common 
interest  in  the  struggle  of  the  colonies  for 
independence,  and  finally  concluded  a  union 
in  1782,  under  the  name  of  the  Associate 
Reformed  Church. 

A  few  of  the  Associate  people  declined 
to  accede  to  the  union,  and,  being  sustained 
by  the  Church  in  Scotland,  maintained  the 
organization.  Both  Churches  rapidly  in¬ 
creased,  extending  with  the  settlement  of 
the  country,  until  there  were  presbyteries 
in  the  South  and  in  the  West  as  far  as  the 
Scotch-Irish  immigration  pushed  its  way. 
They  were  distinguished  not  so  much  by 
real  doctrinal  differences  as  by  tradition, 
spirit,  and  discipline,  the  Associate  being 
the  more  conservative.  Dissensions  arose 
in  the  Associate  Reformed  Church,  which 
resulted  in  the  secession  of  a  considerable 
number  to  the  Presbyterian  Church,  and 
the  separation  of  the  body  into  three  inde¬ 
pendent,  coordinate  synods — New  York, 
the  South  and  the  West.  In  1856  the 
Synod  of  New  York  and  the  General  Synod 
of  the  West  united;  the  Synod  of  the  South 
remains  a  separate  body,  but  correspond¬ 
ence  is  maintained. 

The  Congregations  of  the  Associate  and 
the  Associate  Reformed  Churches  were  in 
substantially  the  same  territory,  and  so 
were  gradually  drawn  toward  each  other. 


After  an  extended  correspondence  and 
many  conferences,  a  union  was  formed  in 
the  year  1858,  under  the  name  of  The 
United  Presbyterian  Church  of  North 
America,  on  the  doctrinal  basis  of  the  West¬ 
minster  Confession  of  Faith,  modified  as  to 
the  power  of  the  civil  magistrate  in  refer¬ 
ence  to  spiritual  affairs,  the  Catechisms, 
Larger  and  Shorter,  and  a  statement  of 
doctVine,  in  eighteen  articles,  setting  forth 
more  clearly  the  distinguishing  tenets  of 
the  body,  and  defining  certain  points  not 
fully  stated  in  the  Confession  of  Faith. 
The  government  and  discipline  of  each 
body  was  continued  until  a  new  book  was 
prepared.  In  doctrine  the  United  Presby¬ 
terian  Church  is  strictly  Calvinistic,  giving 
great  prominence  to  the  absolute  sovereign¬ 
ty  of  God  in  grace  as  well  as  in  government, 
the  infinite  love  in  redemption  in  which  no 
human  merit  has  any  place,  and  the  un¬ 
bounded  freeness]of  the  gospel  offer  and  in¬ 
vitation.  The  verbal  inspiration  of  the 
Scriptures  is  taught;  the  Word  of  God  is 
held  to  be  the  supreme  law  for  the  con¬ 
science  and  life;  human  slavery  is  regarded 
as  such  a  violation  of  the  law  of  God  as  to 
exclude  from  the  communion  of  the  Church. 
Secret  oath-bound  societies  are  declared  to 
be  opposed  to  the  genius  and  spirit  of 
Christianity,  and  therefore  Church  mem¬ 
bers  ought  not  to  have  connection  with 
them.  In  the  worship  of  God,  the  Psalms 
of  the  Bible  are  used  to  the  exclusion  of 
human  compositions,  on  the  ground  that 
they  were  given  by  the  Holy  Spirit  for 
such  use  to  all  ages,  and  the  divine  Word 
is  the  best  expression  of  praise,  and  should 
not  be  displaced  by  the  human.  In  relation 
to  other  Churches,  the  position  is  that  of 
restricted  communion;  that  is,  members  of 
other  Churches  are  admitted  to  communion, 
not  on  a  general  and  promiscuous  invita¬ 
tion,  but  under  the  supervision  of  the  Ses¬ 
sion,  and  on  the  same  knowledge  of  faith 
and  Christian  character  required  of  those 
seeking  permanent  membership.  In  gov¬ 
ernment,  the  General  Assembly  has  appel¬ 
late  power  in  all  cases  of  discipline,  and 
before  any  regulation  can  be  made  bind¬ 
ing  on  the  Church,  or  any  change  be  made 
in  the  standards,  it  must  be  submitted 
by  overture,  and  receive  at  least  a  ma¬ 
jority  of  the  votes  of  the  whole  Church 
cast  in  the  Presbyteries,  each  minister  and 
ruling  elder  in  the  Presbytery  beingentitled 
to  vote. 

The  United  Presbyterian  Church  has  al¬ 
ways  held  a  high  standard  for  the  ministry, 
and  has  been  very  slow  to  admit  to  its  pul¬ 
pits  any  not  qualified  by  a  regular  academic 
and  theological  course.  In  colonial  times 
arrangements  were  made  for  the  careful 
training  of  students;  in  1794  the  Associate 


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Seminary  was  opened,  at  Service,  Pa.,  un¬ 
der  Dr.  John  Anderson,  and  ten  years  later 
the  Associate  Reformed  Seminary,  under 
Dr.  John  M.  Mason,  of  New  York,  began 
its  good  work.  There  are  at  present  two 
Theological  Seminaries;  one  at  Allegheny, 
Pa.,  and  the  other  at  Xenia,  O.,  with  an 
attendance  of  about  ninety  students.  There 
are  four  Colleges  under  synodical  control, 
viz:  Westminster,  at  New  Wilmington,  Pa.; 
Muskingum,  at  New  Concord,  O. ;  Mon¬ 
mouth,  at  Monmouth,  Ill.;  and  Cooper 
Memorial,  at  Sterling,  Kan.;  Franklin,  at 
New  Athens,  O.,  and  Amity,  at  College 
Springs,  Iowa,  are  practically  institutions 
of  this  Church. 

The  spirit  of  the  United  Presbyterian 
Church  is  very  conservative.  Changes  in 
law  or  custom  are  made  very  slowly. 
While  evangelistic  and  revival  services  are 
much  held  in  destitute  places,  pastors  de¬ 
pend  for  the  increase  of  their  congregations 
on  faithful  preaching  of  the  Word,  pastoral 
labor,  and  family  instruction.  A  special 
effort  is  made  to  maintain  home  instruction 
and  family  worship.  While  prominence  is 
given  to  denominational  doctrines  and  cus¬ 
toms,  cordial  relations  are  maintained  tow¬ 
ard  other  Churches,  and  there  is  the  most 
hearty  cooperation  in  all  the  great  evangel¬ 
ical  agencies  of  the  present  day. 

The  mission  work  of  the  Church  has 
been  very  greatly  blessed.  Its  Home  Mis¬ 
sion  work  is  carried  on  under  the  direction 
of  a  General  Committee,  composed  of  one 
member  from  each  Presbytery,  meeting  a 
week  before  the  General  Assemblv,  with 
an  Executive  Board  to  have  intermediate 
control.  The  work  among  the  Freedmen 
has  two  collegiate  institutions — Knoxville, 
Tenn. ,  and  Norfolk, Va. ,  one  normal  school, 
and  several  others  of  common  grade.  The 
foreign  missions  are  in  the  Punjab,  India, 
and  in  Egypt,  extending  the  whole  length  of 
the  valley  of  the  Nile;  they  rank  as  among 
the  most  successful  of  modern  missions. 
In  1889  they  reported  34  congregations, 
with  21  native  pastors,  and  8,812  commu¬ 
nicants,  18  licentiates,  165  other  presbyte- 
rial  employes,  and  nearly  10,000  pupils  in 
the  schools. 

The  statistics  of  the  whole  Church  in 
1890  were  as  follows:  Synods,  10;  Presby¬ 
teries,  59;  Ministers,  774;  Licentiates,  60; 
Students  of  Theology,  71;  Congregations, 
904;  Members,  103,921  ;  Missionary  So¬ 
cieties,  781;  Sabbath-schools,  1,010,  with 
10,260  officers  and  teachers,  and  92,557 
scholars;  Contributions,  $1,134,223;  Aver¬ 
age  per  member,  $12.34;  Average  salary 
of  pastors,  $1,000. 

A.  G.  Wallace. 

Presbyterium,  a  term  denoting  the  body 


of  elders,  whether  Jewish  (Luke  xxii.  66; 
Acts  xxii.  5)  or  Christian.  (1  Tim.  iv.  14.) 

Presbytery,  (1)  the  place  behind  the 
altar,  provided  with  seats  for  the  bishops 
and  presbyters  (priests),  and  protected  by 
rails  so  that  none  but  clergy  might  enter 
it.  (2)  An  ecclesiastical  court  of  Presby¬ 
terian  churches,  composed  of  all  the  min¬ 
isters,  and  one  elder  from  each  church  with¬ 
in  certain  stated  local  bounds.  This  court 
ranks  next  above  the  session,  and  has  juris¬ 
diction  over  the  ministers  composing  it, 
over  the  churches  within  its  bounds,  and 
over  candidates  for  the  ministry  and  licen¬ 
tiates. 

Presence,  The  Real.  See  Lord’s  SuP' 

PER. 

Presiding  Elders  are  officers  of  the 
Methodist  Episcopal  Church,  appointed  by 
the  bishops,  and  having  charge  of  local 
districts  within  the  bounds  of  a  conference. 
It  is  their  duty  to  visit  the  churches  at 
stated  intervals,  to  be  present  at,  as  far  as 
practicable,  and  hold  all  their  quarterly 
meetings.  They  hear  complaints,  receive 
and  try  appeals,  and  renew  all  licenses  ap¬ 
proved  by  the  quarterly  conferences.  Their 
decisions  are  subject  to  an  appeal  to  the 
next  Annual  Conference.  They  are  paid 
by  their  respective  districts.  The  office  is 
one  of  large  power  in  its  general  oversight 
of  spiritual  and  temporal  affairs.  See 
Discipline  of  the  Methodist  Episcopal  Church. 

Pressense  ( pra-son-sa  ),  Edmond  (De- 
hault)  de,  D.  D.  ( hon .,  Breslau,  1S69; 
Montauban,  1876;  Edinburgh,  1884), 
French  Protestant;  b.  in  Paris,  Jan.  24, 
1824;  studied  arts  at  the  University  of 
Paris;  theology  under  Vinet  at  Lausanne 
(1842-45);  and  under  Tholuck  and  Neander 
at  Halle  and  Berlin  (1846-47);  was  pastor  of 
the  Free  Evangelical  Congregation  of  the 
Taitbout  at  Paris  (1847-70);  deputy  to  the 
National  Assembly  from  the  Department  of 
the  Seine  (1871-76);  elected  a  life  senator 
of  France  (1S83).  Among  his  numerous 
writings,  some  of  the  best  known  are  his 
Life  of  Christ  (1866);  Mystery  of  Suffering , 
and  other  Discourses  (1868);  Dome  and  Italy 
at  the  Opening  of  the  (Ecumenical  Council 
(1872);  Study  of  Origins:  Problems  of  Being 
and  Duty  (1883). 

Pressly,  John  Taylor,  D.  D.,  a  promi¬ 
nent  minister  in  the  United  Presbyterian 
Church;  b.  in  Abbeville  District,  S.  C., 
March  28,  1795;  d.  at  Allegheny  City, Penn., 
Aug.  13,  1870.  He  was  graduated  at  Tran¬ 
sylvania  University,  Ky.,  in  1812,  and  in 
1816  was  ordained  pastor  of  the  Cedar 


Pri 


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Pri 


Spring,  S.  C.,  Associate  Reformed  Church. 
He  was  called  to  the  professorship  of  the¬ 
ology  in  the  seminary  at  Pittsburg  (1832), 
which  was  removed  to  Allegheny  the  fol¬ 
lowing  year.  He  here  engaged  in  pastoral 
duties  and  took  a  prominent  part  in  organ¬ 
izing  the  United  Presbyterian  Church, 
which  was  formed  in  1858  from  the  Asso¬ 
ciate  and  Associate  Reformed  Presbyterian 
churches.  He  was  eminently  successful 
as  a  pastor,  preacher,  and  teacher. 

Priesthood  and  Priest,  in  the  Old  Tes¬ 
tament.  “  Definition. — By  priesthood  is 
meant  the  office  of  a  priest,  or  the  priestly 
order;  and  a  priest  is  one  consecrated  to 
minister  in  matters  pertaining  to  God;  one 
appointed  to  a  ministry  through  which 
spiritual  as  well  as  other  help  and  guidance 
are  ordained  to  be  sought  and  secured 
from  above.  The  institution  of  a  class  of 
men  set  apart  to  this  office  is,  wherever  it 
exists,  witness  to  a  sense  of  the  need  of 
such  mediation,  and  to  a  faith  in  the  fact 
of  it,  or,  in  other  words,  is  both  a  confes¬ 
sion  of  the  sin  of  man  and  a  recognition  of 
the  grace  of  God,  as  well  as  an  assent  on 
the  part  of  the  worshipper  to  the  reception 
of  the  latter  on  God’s  own  terms.  The  ex¬ 
istence  of  such  an  institution  among  the 
Jews  at  any  rate  implies  this  much,  and  if 
this  no  longer  exists  within  the  Christian 
community,  it  is  because  the  dividing  wall 
between  priest  and  people  has  been  broken 
down,  and  each  man  has  by  Christ  been 
admitted  into  the  inner  sanctuary,  and  him¬ 
self  consecrated  a  priest  unto  God  for  the 
salvation  of  other  men,  while  Christ  him¬ 
self  is  revealed  as  the  one  High-Priest. 

“  The  priests  were  the  descendants  of 
Aaron,  and,  according  to  the  Levitical  law, 
they  possessed,  in  virtue  of  this  descent, 
the  exclusive  right  of  offering  to  God  the 
sacrifices  of  the  people,  at  first  in  the  Tab¬ 
ernacle  and  then  in  the  Temple  of  Jerusa¬ 
lem. 

“  (a)  Qualifications. — A  priest  must  have 
been  able  to  prove  his  descent  from  Aaron, 
and  he  was  bound  to  observe  certain  rules 
in  regard  to  marriage,  with  a  view  to  pre¬ 
serve  the  purity  of  the  priestly  stock,  and 
guard  the  sanctity  of  the  priestly  order. 
He  must  have  been  free  from  all  physical 
defect,  for  if  not  he  was  debarred  from  of¬ 
ficiating.  These  disqualifying  defects  are 
enumerated  in  Lev.  xxi.  16-23,  and  were 
afterwards  reckoned,  by  the  subtle  casuis¬ 
try  of  the  Jewish  rabbis,  to  amount  to  142. 
He  must  not  touch  the  body  of  a  dead  per¬ 
son,  or  attend  the  obsequies  of  any  one  ex¬ 
cept  a  blood  relation. 

“(^)  Consecration.— This  consisted  of  three 
steps:  (1)  the  washing  of  the  body  with 
pure  water;  (2)  investiture  with  the  priest¬ 


ly  garments;  and  (3)  a  series  of  sacrifices, 
accompanied  by  certain  symbolic  acts  sig¬ 
nificant  of  the  priestly  rank  and  function. 
(Exod.  xxix. ,  and  Lev.  viii.) 

“  (c)  The  dress. — The  material  of  the 
dress  which  was  worn  by  the  priest  only 
in  the  temple,  whether  on  duty  or  off,  was 
all  of  linen,  and  it  consisted  of:  (1)  short 
breeches  drawn  over  the  hips  and  thighs; 
(2)  a  white,  tight-fitting  cassock,  with  a 
diamond  pattern  upon  it,  of  one  woven 
piece,  which  reached  nearly  to  the  feet, 
and  which  was  gathered  round  the  body 
with  a  symbolically  ornamented  girdle; 
and  (3)  a  turban  or  cap  of  a  cup-shaped 
form.  Besides  these,  all  priests  would  ap¬ 
pear  to  have  also  worn  the  ephod  in  later 
times,  though  at  first  this  was  confined  to 
the  High-Priest,  and  they  always  went 
barefoot  when  engaged  in  the  service. 

“  (d)  Priestly  courses. — The  priests  were 
so  numerous  that  they  could  not  all  of¬ 
ficiate  at  once,  so  that  an  arrangement  had 
to  be  made  whereby  they  might  do  so  in 
regular  rotation.  Accordingly  the  whole 
body  of  the  order  was  divided  into  twenty- 
four  families,  or  courses  of  service,  each 
of  which  was  to  serve  in  rotation  for  a 
week — an  arrangement  which,  though  it  is 
traced  back  to  the  time  of  David  (1  Chron. 
xxix.  7-18),  appears  to  have  first  consoli¬ 
dated  itself  after  the  return  from  the  Cap¬ 
tivity.  The  twenty-four  divisions  were 
broken  up  into  more  or  fewer  subordinate 
ones,  each,  both  principal  and  subordinate, 
under  a  ‘  head,’  who  is  sometimes  desig¬ 
nated  an  ‘  elder.’  These  divisions,  though 
of  equal  standing  in  the  services  of  the 
sanctuary,  were  of  unequal  rank  in  the 
state,  those  from  which  the  high-priests 
were  drawn  naturally  acquiring  at  length 
greater  influence  and  importance  than  the 
rest,  to  the  ruin,  as  it  happened,  not  only 
of  the  order,  but  of  the  commonwealth  it¬ 
self. 

“  ( e )  Emoluments. — Before  the  Exile  the 
revenues  of  the  priests  would  appear  to 
have  been  at  once  slender  and  uncertain, 
and  to  have  been  derived  exclusively  from 
the  small  fraction  which  fell  to  their  share 
of  the  offerings  made  to  Jehovah.  But 
with  the  return  from  the  Captivity  these 
increased  to  an  enormous  extent,  and  this 
was  due  to  the  increase  of  political  power 
which  the  new  order  of  things  put  into  the 
hands  of  the  priesthood.  The  priestly 
function  from  this  time  became  the  sover¬ 
eign  one  of  the  state,  and  more  and  more 
of  the  offerings  of  the  people  and  the 
wealth  of  the  community  was  dedicated  to 
its  maintenance,  in  a  dignity  and  an  effi¬ 
ciency  proportionate  to  the  importance  now 
assigned  to  it.  The  priests  acquired  hence¬ 
forward,  if  not  earlier,  a  right  to  a  larger 


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share  of,  and  a  choicer  selection  from,  the 
offerings,  as  well  as  a  power  to  levy  tithes 
of  the  whole  people,  and  to  lay  claim  for 
the  service  of  the  Lord  to  the  first-born  of 
men  and  cattle.  (1)  Of  the  offerings  they 
now  received  the  whole  of  the  sin-offerings 
and  the  trespass-offerings,  and  nearly  all 
of  the  meat-offerings,  though  of  the  thank- 
offerings  they  received  only  two  parts — 
the  breast  and  the  right  shoulder — and  of 
the  burnt-offerings  little  more  than  the 
skins,  which,  however,  were  a  source  of  no 
small  revenue.  (2)  But  by  far  the  greater 
portion  of  their  revenue  was  derived  from 
dues  that  were  paid,  irrespective  of  the  sac¬ 
rifices  altogether,  viewed  in  the  light  of  a 
tax  for  the  support  of  the  temple  service 
and  its  ministers.  These  were  levied  part¬ 
ly  in  the  form  of  tithes,  partly  upon  the 
produce  of  the  soil,  and  partly  upon  the 
offspring  of  cattle.  (3)  In  addition  to  im¬ 
posts  on  these,  there  fell  to  the  priests  vo¬ 
tive-offerings,  or  the  ransom  of  them, 
things  specially  willed  away  to  their  ben¬ 
efit,  and  certain  indemnities,  as  for  prop¬ 
erty  unlawfully  appropriated,  and  that 
could  not  be  restored  to  its  rightful  owner. 
(4)  There  were  also  imposts  for  their  ben¬ 
efit  intended  to  defray  the  expenses  con¬ 
nected  with  public  worship,  the  chief  of 
which  was  the  half-shekel  tax,  which  every 
male  Israelite  of  twenty  years  old  and  up¬ 
wards  was  required  to  pay  every  year  in 
the  month  Adar.  All  these  and  other  im¬ 
posts,  added  to  the  free-will  offerings  of 
the  people,  naturally  contributed  to  in¬ 
crease  the  wealth  and  enhance  the  impor¬ 
tance  of  the  priestly  order  to  an  extent  of 
which  it  is  hardly  possible  to  form  any  ad¬ 
equate  conception.” — Bagster:  Bible  Helps. 

Priestley,  Joseph,  an  eminent  Unitarian 
writer  and  scientist;  b.  at  Fieldhead,  March 
13,  1733;  d.  at  Northumberland,  Pa.,  Feb. 
6,  1804.  He  early  developed  remarkable 
gifts  as  a  scholar,  and  while  attending  the 
grammar-school  he  studied  Latin,  Greek, 
Hebrew,  etc.  Ill-health  compelled  him  to 
relinquish  his  purpose  to  enter  the  minis¬ 
try,  and  he  engaged  in  mercantile  pursuits. 
In  1752  he  regained  his  strength  sufficiently 
to  enter  the  dissenting  academy  at  Daven- 
try.  He  became  minister  of  an  Independ¬ 
ent  congregation  at  Needham  Market, 
Suffolk,  in  1755,  and  at  Nantwich,  in  Ches¬ 
ter,  in  1758.  He  was  appointed  professor 
of  belles-lettres  at  the  dissenting  academy 
at  Warrington,  1767;  minister  at  Mill-Hill 
Chapel,  Leeds;  librarian  and  companion  to 
the  Earl  of  Shelburne,  1773;  minister  at 
Birmingham,  1780,  and  at  Hackney,  1791. 
It  was  during  these  years  that  he  became 
famous  for  his  scientific  discoveries.  In 
the  spring  of  1794  he  sailed  for  America, 


and  spent  the  remainder  of  his  life  on  the 
farm  of  his  son  at  Northumberland.  Dr. 
Priestley  was  a  sturdy  champion  of  Uni- 
tarianism,  and  wrote  several  theological 
works,  the  principal  of  which  are:  A  His¬ 
tory  of  the  Corruptions  of  Christianity  (1782); 
A  History  of  the  Early  Opinions  Concerning 
Jesus  Christ,  Compiled  from  Original  Writ¬ 
ers ,  Proving  that  the  Christian  Church  7 cas 
at  first  Unitarian  (1786).  While  at  Bir¬ 
mingham  he  wrote  a  reply  to  Burke’s  Reflec¬ 
tions  on  the  French  Revolution,  that  upheld 
the  French  Republic  so  earnestly  that  a 
brutal  mob  entered  and  sacked  his  house. 
His  political  and  religious  views  made  him 
unpopular  in  England,  but  his  personal 
character  was  above  reproach.  He  won 
enduring  fame  by  his  discoveries  in  chem¬ 
istry  and  physics.  His  statue  was  placed 
in  the  museum  of  Oxford  University  in 
i860,  and  another  was  unveiled  at  Birming¬ 
ham,  Eng.,  in  1874.  Most  of  his  laboratory 
came  into  the  possession  of  the  Smithsonian 
Institute,  Washington,  D.  C.,  in  1883.  See 
Memoirs  of  Dr.  Joseph  Priestley ,  to  the  Year 
1795,  written  by  Himself ;  with  a  Continua¬ 
tion  to  the  Time  of  his  Decease,  by  his  Son 
(London,  1806-1807),  2  vols. 

Primate,  a  title  originally  given  to  all 
metropolitans,  then  retained  only  by  the 
vicars  of  the  pope.  “  Their  rights — de¬ 
fined  partly  by  older  canons,  partly  by  cus¬ 
tom — consisted  in  confirming  the  bishops 
and  archbishops  elected ,  convening  national 
synods,  and  presiding  over  them,  receiving 
appeals,  superintending  the  districts,  and 
crowning  the  kings.  Gradually,  however, 
their  rights  were  absorbed  by  the  pope, 
and  their  position  became  in  reality  only 
one  of  honor.” — Jacobsen.  The  title  has 
been  retained  in  the  Church  of  England, 
where  the  archbishop  of  Canterbury  is 
primate  of  England;  the  archbishops  of 
Armagh  and  Dublin,  primates  of  Ireland; 
and  St.  Andrew’s,  of  Scotland. 

Prime,  Samuel  Iren^us,  D.  D.,  an  emi¬ 
nent  Presbyterian  minister  and  editor;  b. 
at  Ballston,  N.  Y. ,  Nov.  4,  1812;  d.  while 
on  a  vacation  trip  at  Manchester,  Vt.,  July 
18,  1885.  He  was  graduated  at  Williams 
College  in  1829,  and  studied  theology  at 
Princeton  Seminary,  1832-33.  He  was 
pastor  at  Ballston  Spa,  1833-35;  and  at 
Matteawan,  N.  Y.,  1837-40.  In  1840  he 
became  editor  of  the  New  York  Observer,  a 
position  which  he  occupied  until  his  death. 
He  held  many  positions  of  trust  and  influ¬ 
ence,  but  it  was  as  an  editor  and  author 
that  he  accomplished  a  noble  life-work. 
Among  his  publications  were:  Travels  in 
Europe  and  the  East  (1885);  Life  of  Samuel 
F.  B.  Morse  (1875);  Twenty -five  Years  of 


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the  Fulton  Street  Prayer-Meeting  (1882); 
Irenceus'  Letters ,  (three  series,  1882,  1885, 
and  1886,  containing  his  autobiography  in 
the  form  of  letters). 

Primitive  Methodist  Connection.  See 

Methodism,  p.  596. 

Prince,  Thomas,  Congregational  divine; 
b.  at  Sandwich,  Mass.,  May  15,  1687;  d. 
in  Boston,  Oct.  22,  1758.  After  graduat¬ 
ing  at  Harvard  College  in  1707,  he  trav¬ 
eled  abroad,  and  preached  for  several  years 
at  Combs,  and  other  places  in  England. 
Returning  to  Boston  in  1717,  he  was  or¬ 
dained  the  following  year  colleague  pastor 
of  the  Rev.  Dr.  Sewall,  of  the  Old  South 
Church.  He  was  a  man  of  learning  and 
pulpit  ability.  He  wrote  a  Chronological 
History  of  New  England  in  the  form  of  An¬ 
nals.  This  history,  of  deep  interest  to  an¬ 
tiquarians,  extends  from  1602  to  1633.  He 
also  wrote:  An  Account  of  the  Earthquakes 
of  New  England  ( 1 755);  New  England 
Psalm-Book  Revised  and  Improved  (1758), 
and  other  works.  He  bequeathed  his  li¬ 
brary  to  the  Old  South  Church,  and  by  it 
it  was  deposited  in  the  Boston  Public  Li¬ 
brary,  1866. 

Prior,  the  superior  of  certain  convents, 
who  ranked  next  to  the  abbot.  Where  a 
monastery  was  attached  to  a  cathedral  it 
was  ruled  by  the  prior,  as  in  this  case  the 
abbot  was  the  bishop.  There  were  two 
kinds  of  priors:  (1)  the  priores  claustrales , 
who  were  subordinate  to  the  abbots,  or 
acted  in  their  place,  and  (2)  th e  priores  con- 
ventuales,  who  were  in  charge  of  their 
monasteries. 

Priscillian,  an  heresiarch  of  the  fourth 
century,  was  a  Spaniard  of  good  family, 
considerable  wealth,  and  great  eloquence 
and  learning.  Numerous  heresies,  includ¬ 
ing  Gnosticism,  Manichseism,  Arianism, 
and  Sabellianism,  contributed  to  form  his 
system,  and  he  was  also  addicted  to  the 
practice  of  astrology  and  magic.  His  prin¬ 
ciples  were  ascetic,  and  he  has  been  falsely 
charged  with  secretly  encouraging  impu¬ 
rity.  He  allowed  his  followers  to  use 
deceit  to  conceal  their  opinions,  and  they 
were  in  the  habit  of  attending  Catholic 
services,  and  receiving,  but  not  consuming, 
the  consecrated  elements.  They  held  that 
Christ  was  not  a  real  man,  but  had  only 
assumed  the  appearance  of  one.  They 
fasted  on  Sundays  and  Christmas-Day. 
Women  were  allowed  to  officiate  in  their 
service.  The  system  was  mainly  built  on 
some  apocryphal  books,  but  Priscillian  rec¬ 
ognized  the  complete  canon  of  Scripture, 
altered  and  explained  to  support  his  views. 


Priscillianism  gained  many  converts, 
especially  of  the  weaker  sex.  About  A.  d. 
378  a  provincial  council  was  held  at  Sar¬ 
agossa,  at  which  the  heresy  was  condemn¬ 
ed.  ^Priscillian,  however,  found  supporters 
in  the  Bishops  Salvianus  and  Justantius, 
and  Hyginus  of  Cordova  who,  wishing  to 
convert  the  heretics,  was  consecrated  bish¬ 
op  of  Avila;  but  by  the  influence  of  the 
orthodox  party  these  were  banished  from 
Spain,  with  the  heresiarch.  After  a  time 
they  returned,  and,  by  means  of  bribery, 
procured  their  restoration  to  their  sees, 
and  the  banishment  of  Ithacius  and  Idacius, 
their  chief  opponents.  But  after  the  mur¬ 
der  of  Gratian,  Ithacius  succeeded  in  per¬ 
suading  the  usurper  Maximus  to  call  a 
council  at  Bordeaux  (a.  d.  384),  which 
condemned  the  heresy.  Priscillian  ap¬ 
pealed  to  Maximus,  but,  after  a  formal 
trial,  judgment  was  pronounced  against 
him,  and  in  spite  of  the  remonstrance  of 
Martin,  bishop  of  Tours,  he  was  put  to 
death,  with  six  of  his  companions,  by  be¬ 
heading  (a.  d.  385).  The  heresy  did  not 
disappear  with  the  death  of  its  founder. 
His  followers  flourished,  in  spite  of  their 
further  condemnation  at  the  Synod  of  To¬ 
ledo  (in  400),  till  the  sixth  century,  when 
they  began  to  diminish,  and  received  their 
death-blow  at  the  Synod  of  Braga  in  563. 
— Benham:  Did.  of  Religion. 

Priscillianists.  See  above. 

Probabilism,  the  theory  that,  in  all  mat¬ 
ters  where  there  is  any  doubt  as  to  the 
right  course  of  action,  there  is  no  sin  as 
long  as  the  probable  course  is  taken.  There 
are  some  glimpses  of  probabilism  in  the 
works  of  some  of  the  early  Greek  Fathers, 
but  the  doctrine  did  not  assume  any  im¬ 
portance  till  the  sixteenth  century,  when  it 
was  adopted  by  Medina,  a  Spanish  Domini¬ 
can,  and  in  the  following  century  was  held 
by  many  of  the  Jesuits.  It  soon  divided 
into  four  classes:  Probabilism  si?nple ,  that 
is,  the  doctrine  that  it  is  lawful  to  act  upon 
any  probable  opinion,  however  slight  its 
probability  ;  AEqui-probabilism ,  which  de¬ 
clares  that  an  opinion  may  be  acted  upon  if 
it  is  equally  probable  with  another;  Prob- 
abiliorism ,  in  which  only  the  more  probable 
opinion  may  be  acted  upon;  and  Tertior- 
ism ,  which  required  that  the  more  safe 
opinion  shall  be  followed,  even  if  it  be  the 
less  probable.  The  first  Jesuit  to  adopt 
probabilism  was  Gabriel  Vasquez.  It  was 
further  developed  by  Escobar,  Coninch, 
Hurtado  de  Mendoza,  and  Henriquez. 
There  were  very  many  who  were  hostile  to 
the  doctrines,  especially  in  France,  the 
most  famous  being  among  the  Jansenists. 
It  was  first  condemned  at  the  Council  of 


Pro 


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Pro 


the  Sorbonne  in  1620,  and  it  was  afterward 
condemned  by  several  of  the  popes,  not¬ 
ably  by  Innocent  XI.  In  the  last  century 
probabiliorism  was  the  more  popular  doc¬ 
trine,  but  in  the  present  century  that  theory 
has  entirely  disappeared,  and  probabilism 
is  the  only  existent  theory.  The  greatest 
modern  probabilist  writer  has  been  Liguori 
( q .  v. ). — Benham:  Did.  of  Religion. 

Probation,  Future,  a  term  used  to  denote 
the  doctrine,  held  by  some  modern  divines, 
that  the  offers  of  the  gospel  will  be  made 
to  men  in  the  next  life,  who  never  had  a 
probation  in  the  present  life.  See  Dorner: 
System  Christian  Doctrine ;  Schaff  :  Com. 
(Lange)  on  Matt.  xii.  32;  Craven:  Excur¬ 
sus  on  Hades  (Lange’s  Com.  on  Revelation); 
Farrar:  Eternal  Hope. 

Procession  of  the  Holy  Ghost.  See 

Filioque. 

Processions.  Ecclesiastical  processions 
are  first  mentioned  in  the  fourth  century. 
When  the  Arians  of  Constantinople  were 
not  allowed  to  worship  within  the  walls, 
they  marched  morning  and  evening  in  long 
processions  through  the  streets  to  their 
meeting-places  outside  the  gates.  These 
processions  made  such  an  impression  that 
Chrysostom,  with  much  pomp,  gathered 
the  orthodox,  and  with  the  priests  at  their 
head  they  marched  through  the  streets 
singing  hymns,  and  carrying  large  silver 
crosses  and  lighted  wax  tapers.  During 
the  Middle  Ages  processions  were  a  very 
important  part  of  the  ceremonial  life  of  the 
Roman  Church.  The  custom  of  having 
them  held  annually  in  Ascension  week 
(. Rogation  days)  still  survives  in  the  annual 
marching  about  the  boundaries  of  parishes 
in  England,  known  as  “  beating  the 
bounds.”  Processions,  especially  on  Palm 
Sunday,  are  still  retained  in  Roman  Catho¬ 
lic  countries. 

Procopius,  a  Bohemian  priest  who  suc¬ 
ceeded  Ziska  in  1424,  as  leader  of  the 
Hussite  army.  He  proved  himself  a  skill¬ 
ful  leader  and  wise  statesman.  In  1426  he 
defeated  the  Germans  at  Aussig,  routed  an 
army  of  Crusaders  in  1427,  and  again  put 
to  flight  the  forces  of  Germany  at  Tauss 
in  1431.  These  victories  were  followed  by 
the  Council  of  Basel,  in  which  Procopius 
and  fourteen  other  Bohemian  leaders  met 
for  conference  in  Jan.,  1433.  At  the  close 
of  the  conference  envoys  were  sent  to 
Prague.  The  Bohemians  sought  to  reduce 
the  town  of  Pilsen  that  alone  gave  alle¬ 
giance  to  the  Roman  Catholic  side.  The 
siege  was  unsuccessful,  and  opposition 
arose  in  the  army  against  Procopius,  who 


retired  from  leadership  (1433).  A  party 
was  organized  that  favored  the  restoration 
of  Sigismund  as  king  of  Bohemia.  The 
barons  of  Bohemia  and  Moravia  formed  a 
royalist  league.  Again  Procopius  placed 
himself  at  the  head  of  the  Taborites,  and 
met  the  army  of  the  barons  at  Lipan,  in 
May,  1434.  Procopius  was  killed,  and  the 
defeat  of  the  Taborites  ( q .  v.)  left  affairs  in 
the  hands  of  the  moderate  party. 

Prodicians,  a  sect  founded  by  Prodicus, 
a  heretic  of  the  second  century.  Their 
views  were  similar  to  those  of  the  Anti- 
nomian  Gnostics.  As  the  sons  of  God  they 
declared  that  they  were  exempt  from  all 
law.  They  did  not  keep  the  Sabbath,  and 
refused  to  submit  to  the  external  ordinances 
of  religion.  They  accepted  the  apocry¬ 
phal  writings  of  Zoroaster,  and  quoted 
them  as  authority. 

Propaganda,  a  committee  of  cardinals 
and  others  who  have  in  charge  the  mission¬ 
ary  operations  of  the  Roman  Catholic 
Church.  This  society  for  the  “  Propaga¬ 
tion  of  the  Faith,”  was  founded  in  1622  by 
Gregory  XV.  It  meets  at  Rome  weekly 
under  the  presidency  of  the  pope. 

Prophetic  Office  in  the  Old  Testament. 
“  Nothing  is  more  peculiarly  characteristic 
of  the  religion  and  history  of  Israel  than 
the  mission  of  the  prophets,  and  the  exer¬ 
cise  of  their  unique  gifts.  Greece  is  famous 
for  its  poets,  philosophers,  and  artists; 
Rome  for  its  soldiers,  statesmen,  and  legis¬ 
lators;  Israel  for  its  prophets.  The  proph¬ 
et  was  not  simply,  nor  was  he  chiefly,  a 
seer  of  the  future.  He  was  a  messenger 
of  Jehovah,  a  man  inspired  by  God  to  see 
his  Lord’s  will,  and  sent  forth  to  declare  it. 
But  while  the  true  prophet  of  God  was  all 
this,  a  multitude  of  professional  prophets 
existed — people  who  were  trained  to  exer¬ 
cise  prophetic  functions,  and  who  practiced 
them  as  a  profession — exciting  themselves 
with  music  and  wild  dances.  They  were 
the  dervishes  of  the  Jews.  Many  of  these 
men  were  not  divinely  inspired,  and  some 
of  them  were  directly  opposed  to  the  mind 
and  will  of  God.  It  is  important  to  ob¬ 
serve  the  distinction  between  the  two 
classes  of  men.  Sometimes  they  are  direct¬ 
ly  opposed  to  one  another — the  true  proph¬ 
ets  denouncing  the  professional  prophets, 
and  the  latter  persecuting  the  former. 
In  course  of  time  the  professional  order 
of  prophets  lost  every  spark  of  divine 
inspiration,  and  every  trace  of  a  special 
mission.  Then  it  became  a  mere  echo  of 
popular  cries,  and  a  base  organ  for  the 
flattery  of  king  and  court.  The  true  proph¬ 
ets,  on  the  contrary,  were  too  often  ‘  in 


Pro 


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Pro 


opposition.’  They  were  driven  to  take  up 
a  post  of  antagonism  to  popular  habits 
and  royal  wishes.  Sometimes,  Cassandra- 
like,  they  only  earned  hatred  for  their 
faithful  warnings.  But  they  always  en¬ 
deavored  to  keep  before  the  nation  the 
high  ideal  of  its  true  life.  Their  avocation 
was  public  and  largely  political.  They 
performed  the  function  in  the  state  which 
the  leader-writer  of  the  modern  newspaper, 
at  his  best,  aims  at  exercising,  i.  e. ,  they 
were  the  critics  and  censors  of  public 
policy.  At  the  same  time  they  took  note  of 
private  morals.  This  was  on  the  grounds 
of  a  theocratic  government.  God  was  the 
true  King  of  Israel,  and  the  prophets  con¬ 
stituted  his  ministry.  Austere  and  sub¬ 
lime,  they  stood  out  as  the  national  con¬ 
science  incarnate,  as  the  voice  of  God 
pleading  with  his  people.  This  lofty  voca¬ 
tion  was  not  confined  to  men.  It  was  seen 
in  women — anticipated  by  Deborah  in  a 
very  early  age  (Judg.  iv.  5),  and  fulfilled 
also  by  Huldah  at  a  later  date.  (2  Kings 
xxii.  14.) 

“  The  prophets,  whose  special  function 
it  was  to  interpret  from  time  to  time  the 
meaning  of  Jehovah’s  dealings  with  the 
nation,  may  be  distributed  into  five  differ¬ 
ent  classes,  according  to  the  part  they 
played  in  the  history  of  the  theocracy, 
each  one  affirming  a  principle  and  taking  a 
step  in  advance  of  his  predecessor,  as  well 
as  defining  more  clearly  the  ultimate 
destiny  of  the  nation,  and  the  final  purpose 
of  God  in  its  election.  These  classes  may 
be  named  after  their  conspicuous  and 
representative  members:  that  of  (1)  the 
Nebiim  (i.  e.,  prophets ),  (2)  Elijah,  (3) 
Amos,  (4)  Isaiah,  and  (5)  Jeremiah.” — Bag- 
ster:  Bible  Helps.  See  Oehler:  Old  Testa¬ 
ment  Theology ,  trans.  by  Professor  Day 
(New  York,  1883);  W.  Robertson  Smith: 
The  Prophets  of  Israel  (1882);  Green: 
Moses  and  the  Prophets  (1883). 

Propitiation,  a  sacrifice  offered  to  God  to 
arrest  the  punishment  of  sin  and  secure 
the  bestowment  of  his  favor.  Such  an  ef¬ 
fectual  sacrifice  was  Jesus  Christ;  he  is, 
therefore,  our  propitiation.  For  the  doc¬ 
trinal  statements,  see  Atonement. 

Proselytes.  While  this  term  is  applied  to 
converts  to  any  religion,  or  religious  sect, 
it  is  especially  applied  to  those  converted 
from  heathenism  to  the  Jewish  faith. 
There  were  two  classes  of  these  proselytes: 
(1)  “  Full  proselytes,  called  ‘  proselytes  of 
righteousness,’  who  were  circumcised,  and 
in  full  communion  with  the  synagogue. 
They  were  usually  more  fanatical  than  the 
native  Jews  (comp.  Matt,  xxiii.  15).  (2) 

Half  proselytes,  called  ‘  proselytes  of  the 


gate  ’  (from  Ex.  xx.  10,  ‘  Thy  stranger  that 
is  within  thy  gate  ’),  who  embraced  the 
monotheism  and  Messianic  hopes  of  the 
Jews,  without  submitting  to  circumcision, 
and  conforming  to  the  Jewish  ritual.  The 
latter  class  are  called  in  the  New  Testament 
religious,  devout,  God-fearing  persons. 
(Acts  xiii.  43,  50;  xvi.  14;  xvii.  4,  17;  xviii. 
7.)  They  were  among  the  first  converts, 
and  formed  generally  the  nucleus  of  Paul’s 
congregations.  To  these  half-proselytes 
belonged  Cornelius,  Lydia,  Timothy,  and 
Titus.” — Schaff:  Bible  Diet. 

Protestanten-Verein  ( Protestant  Union), 
an  association  of  German  rationalistic  min¬ 
isters  and  professors,  organized  in  1865  at 
Eisenach.  It  has  been  earnestly  opposed 
by  the  orthodox  influence  in  the  German 
Church,  and  has  made  but  little  progress. 

Protestants,  a  name  first  given  to  the  fol¬ 
lowers  of  Luther,  who  protested  against 
the  decree  of  the  Diet  of  Spires,  signed  by 
Charles  V.  and  other  Roman  Catholic 
princes  in  1592.  See  Reformation. 

Prote'vangelium.  See  Apocrypha. 

Proverbs.  “  The  Hebrew  title  of  this 
book  is  Mis  hie  { by- words,  proverbs,  simili¬ 
tudes);  in  the  LXX.  it  is  called  Paroinu'ai 
(Proverbs),  and  similarly,  in  the  Vulgate, 
Liber  Proverbiorum. 

“  It  is  a  manual  of  practical  rules  of  life, 
as  the  Psalms  are  a  manual  of  daily  devo¬ 
tion;  the  former  guiding  the  actions,  the 
latter  the  thoughts.  It  is  a  book  of  daily 
lessons  for  all  ages  and  states  of  men  and 
women.  ‘  Wisdom  ’  is  religion;  and  ‘  folly  ’ 
is  irreligion. 

“  It  may  be  divided  as  follows:  (1)  In¬ 
troduction,  the  value  of  wisdom’Ji.-ix. ).  (2) 
The  Proverbs  (strictly  so  called)  of  Solo¬ 
mon  (x. -xxii.  16).  (3)  Another  introduction 
on  the  study  of  wisdom  (xxii.  17-xxiv.). 

(4)  A  second  volume  of  true  Proverbs,  col¬ 
lected  by  those  who  were  set  by  Hezekiah 
to  restore  the  temple  worship,  among 
whom  were  Isaiah  and  Hosea  (xxv.-xxix. ). 

(5)  An  Appendix,  containing  the  instruc¬ 
tions  of  Agurto  his  pupils,  Ithieland  Ucal, 
and  of  the  mother  of  Lemuel  to  her  son 
(xxx. ,  xxxi.). 

“  It  is  generally  allowed  that  the  main 
portion  (x.-xxii.  16)  is  the  work  of  Solomon, 
consisting  of  Proverbs  composed  or  col¬ 
lected  by  himself,  and  that  the  other  por¬ 
tions  have  been  collected  and  added  to  it 
subsequently,  the  original  title  being  pre¬ 
served  for  the  whole  of  the  compilation, 
just  as  was  done  for  the  Psalms. 

“  Date  and  Authorship. — The  date  of  this 
final  arrangement  is  uncertain,  but  it  was 


Pro 


(  772  ) 


Pry 


most  probably  in  the  time  of  Hezekiah. 
Modern  critics  are  divided  in  their  opinion 
whether  the  first  part  of  the  book  (i.-ix. ) 
belongs  to  the  seventh  or  ninth  century 
b.  C. ,  and  the  arguments  on  either  side  are 
alike  inconclusive.  It  is  also  a  matter  of 
dispute  whether  it  is  earlier  or  later  than 
the  Song  of  Solomon  and  the  Book  of  Job, 
many  passages  in  the  latter  bearing  such  a 
striking  resemblance  to  the  Proverbs  as  to 
leave  no  doubt  that  the  writer  of  the  one 
book  was  familiar  with  the  other.  The 
Jews  attributed  the  Song  of  Solomon  to  the 
early  youth,  the  Proverbs  to  the  mature 
age,  and  Ecclesiastes  to  the  declining  years, 
of  Solomon,  while  others  have  assigned 
them  all  to  the  last  portion  of  his  life. 
There  has  never  been  any  doubt  of  the 
canonicity  of  the  book,  except  on  the  part 
of  some  writers  among  the  Jews  them¬ 
selves.” — “  Oxford  ”  Bible  Helps. 

Providence,  the  superintending  care 
Which  God  exercises  over  creation.  The 
arguments  for  the  providence  of  God  are 
generally  drawn  from  the  light  of  nature; 
the  being  of  a  God;  the  creation  of  the 
world;  the  wonderful  disposing  and  con¬ 
trolling  of  the  affairs  and  actions  of  men; 
the  various  blessings  enjoyed  by  God’s 
creatures;  the  awful  judgments  that  have 
been  inflicted,  and  the  wonderful  preserva¬ 
tion  of  the  Bible  and  the  Church  through¬ 
out  every  age, notwithstanding  the  attempts 
of  earth  and  hell  against  them.  Some  have 
denied  that  the  providence  of  God  reaches 
beyond  a  general  superintendence  of  the 
laws  of  nature,  and  say  that  he  never  inter¬ 
poses  in  the  particular  concerns  of  individ¬ 
uals.  This  would  be  to  render  his  govern¬ 
ment  imperfect,  and  would  leave  no  ground 
for  reposing  any  trust  under  its  protection, 
for  then  the  majority  of  human  affairs 
would  be  fortuitous,  without  any  regular 
direction,  and  tending  to  no  special  scope. 
But  the  uniform  doctrine  of  Scripture  is 
that  nothing  in  the  universe  happens  with¬ 
out  God,  that  his  hand  is  ever  active,  his 
decree  or  permission  intervening  in  all; 
that  nothing  is  too  great  or  unwieldy  for  his 
management,  nothing  too  minute  or  com¬ 
monplace  to  be  beneath  his  care;  that  while 
he  is  guiding  the  planets  in  their  course 
through  the  heaven,  or  ruling  the  nations 
of  the  world,  he  is  still  watching  over 
and  guiding  the  humblest  of  his  creatures. 
We  cannot,  it  is  true,  understand  the 
manner  in  which  Providence  interposes 
in  human  affairs,  and  we  are  equally  at 
a  loss  to  explain  how  it  directs  the 
motions  of  the  heavenly  bodies;  but  the 
fact  remains  that  there  does  exist  an  over¬ 
ruling  influence  in  the  moral  world,  as 
certainly  as  in  the  natural.  It  would  be 


impossible  to  conceive  God  acting  as  the 
Governor  of  the  world,  unless  he  were  to 
govern  all  the  events  which  happen  in  it; 
he  would  then  be  no  more  than  an  uncon¬ 
cerned  spectator  of  the  behavior  of  his 
subjects,  regarding  the  obedient  and  the 
rebellious  alike  with  an  eye  of  indifference. 
From  the  imperfection  of  our  knowledge 
to  ascertain  what  is  good  for  us,  and  from 
the  defect  of  our  power  to  bring  about  that 
good  when  known,  arise  all  those  disap¬ 
pointments  which  continually  prove  that 
man  is  not  master  of  his  own  lot;  that, 
though  he  may  devise ,  it  is  God  who  directs 
— God  who  can  make  the  smallest  incident 
an  effectual  instrument  of  his  providence 
for  overturning  the  most  carefully  elabo¬ 
rated  plans  of  man.  Accident ,  chance ,  and 
fortune  are  words  to  which  much  is  ascrib¬ 
ed  in  the  life  of  man;  but  what  are  they 
but  synonyms  for  the  unknown  operations 
of  Providence  ?  In  God’s  universe  noth¬ 
ing  happens  in  vain  or  without  a  cause:  in 
that  chaos  of  human  affairs  and  intrigues, 
or  that  mass  of  confusion  and  disorder  in 
which  we  can  see  no  light,  all  is  clearness 
and  order  in  the  sight  of  him  who  is  gov¬ 
erning  and  directing  all,  and  bringing  for¬ 
ward  every  event  in  its  due  time  and  place. 
— Benham:  Diet,  of  Religion. 

Provost  ( preepositus ),  a  name  first  given  to 
the  official  next  in  authority  to  the  abbot  in 
a  monastery.  According  to  the  rules  of 
St.  Benedict,  he  was  of  equal  rank  with 
the  diaconus.  The  term  is  now  used  in 
the  Roman  Catholic  Church  to  denote  the 
head  of  the  cathedral  chapter. 

Prudentius  of  Troyes,  a  native  of  Spain, 
whose  real  name  was  Galindo.  He  was 
appointed  bishop  of  Troyes  in  847,  and 
d.  April  6,  861.  He  supported  Gottschalk 
in  the  predestination  controversy,  and 
wrote  Ad  Hinkmarum  and  De  Breed,  contra 
Jo.  Scotum.  He  was  revered  as  a  saint  by 
his  diocese. 

Prussia  contained,  according  to  the  cen¬ 
sus  of  1880,  a  population  of  27,279,111,  of 
which  17,613,530  belonged  to  the  Evangel¬ 
ical  State  Church,  9,205,136  to  the  Roman 
Catholic  Church,  96,655  to  other  Christian 
denominations,  and  363,970  Jews.  The 
Protestants  are  chiefly  found  in  the  prov¬ 
inces  of  Brandenburg,  Pomerania,  Saxony, 
Hanover,  and  Schleswig-Holstein;  the  Ro¬ 
man  Catholics  in  the  provinces  of  East 
Prussia,  Silesia,  Westphalia,  and  Rhenish 
Prussia. 

Prynne,  William,  b.  at  Swanswick,  near 
Bath,  1600;  d.  in  London,  Oct.  24,  1669. 
He  was  graduated  at  Oxford,  and  gained 


Psa 


(  773  ) 


Psa 


great  notoriety  by  his  Histriomastix;  or ,  A 
Scourge  for  Stage  Players ,  for  which  he 
was  condemned  by  Archbishop  Laud  to 
pay  a  fine  of  three  thousand  pounds,  to 
stand  in  the  pillory,  and  to  lose  both  his 
ears.  He  was  again  imprisoned  for  libel 
in  1637,  but  was  released  by  the  Long  Par¬ 
liament.  He  became  member  of  Parlia¬ 
ment  for  Newport  in  1648,  and  was  the 
solicitor  in  the  trial  of  Laud  (1644),  and 
arranged  the  proceedings.  He  advocated 
the  cause  of  Charles,  and  in  1650  was  ex¬ 
pelled  from  the  House  of  Commons  be¬ 
cause  of  his  active  opposition  to  Cromwell. 
After  the  Restoration  he  was  appointed 
Keeper  of  the  Records  of  the  Tower.  His 
publications,  chiefly  on  religion  and  poli¬ 
tics,  amount  to  nearly  two  hundred. 

Psalms,  Book  of.  “  The  present  Hebrew 
name  of  the  book  is  Tehilltm ,  ‘  Praises.’ 
But  in  the  actual  superscriptions  of  the 
Psalms,  the  word  Tehillah  is  applied  only  to 
one,  Psalm  cxlv. ,  which  is,  indeed,  emphat¬ 
ically  a  praise-hymn.  The  LXX.  entitled 
them  Psalmoi,  or  ‘  Psalms.’  The  Christian 
Church  obviously  received  the  Psalter  from 
the  Jews,  not  only  as  a  constituent  portion 
of  the  sacred  volume  of  Holy  Scripture, 
but  also  as  the  liturgical  hymn-book  which 
the  Jewish  Church  had  regularly  used  in 
the  temple.  The  book  contains  150  psalms, 
and  may  be  divided  into  five  great  di¬ 
visions  or  books,  which  must  have  been 
originally  formed  at  different  periods. 
This  is  by  various  further  considerations 
rendered  all  but  certain.  Thus,  there  is  a 
remarkable  difference  between  the  several 
books,  in  their  use  of  the  divine  names 
Jehovah  and  Elohim,  to  designate  Almighty 
God.  In  Book  I.  (i.-xli.),  the  former  name 
prevails:  it  is  found  272  times,  while  Elo¬ 
him  occurs  but  fifteen  times.  In  Book  II. 
(xlii.-lxxii.),  Elohim  is  found  more  than 
five  times  as  often  as  Jehovah.  In  Book 
III.  (Ixxiii.-lxxxix. ),  the  preponderance  of 
Elohim  in  the  earlier  is  balanced  by  that 
of  Jehovah  in  the  latter  psalms  of  the  book. 
In  Book  IV.  (xc.-cvi.),  the  name  Jehovah 
is  exclusively  employed;  and  so  also,  vir¬ 
tually,  in  Book  V.  (cvii.-cl.),  Elohim  be¬ 
ing  there  found  only  in  two  passages  in¬ 
corporated  from  earlier  psalms.  We  find 
the  several  groups  of  psalms  which  form 
the  respective  five  books  distinguished,  in 
great  measure,  by  their  superscriptions 
from  each  other.  Book  I.  is,  by  the  super¬ 
scriptions,  entirely  Davidic;  nor  do  we 
find  in  it  a  trace  of  any  but  David’s  author¬ 
ship.  We  may  well  believe  that  the  com¬ 
pilation  of  the  book  was  also  David’s  work. 
Book  II.  appears  by  the  date  of  its  latest 
psalm,  Psa.  xlvi.,  to  have  been  compiled 
in  the  reign  of  King  Hezekiah.  It  would 


naturally  comprise,  first,  several  or  most 
of  the  Levitical  psalms  anterior  to  that 
date;  and,  secondly,  the  remainder  of  the 
psalms  of  David  previously  uncompiled. 
To  these  latter,  the  collector,  after  properly 
appending  the  single  psalm  of  Solomon, 
has  affixed  the  notice  that  ‘  the  prayers  of 
David,  the  son  of  Jesse,  are  ended  ’  (Psa. 
Ixxii.  20);  evidently  implying,  at  least  on 
the  prinid  facie  view,  that  no  more  com¬ 
positions  of  the  royal  Psalmist  remained. 
How  then,  do  we  find,  in  the  later  books, 
III.,  IV.,  V.,  further  psalms  yet  marked 
with  David’s  name  ?  The  name  David  is 
used  to  denote  in  other  parts  of  Scripture, 
after  the  original  David’s  death,  the  then 
head  of  the  Davidic  family;  and  so,  in 
prophecy,  the  Messiah  of  the  seed  of  David, 
who  was  to  sit  on  David’s  throne.  (1  Kings 
xii.  16;  Hos.  iii.  5;  Isa.  lv.  3;  Jer.  xxx.  9; 
Ezek.  xxxiv.  23-24.)  And  thus,  then,  we 
may  explain  the  meaning  of  the  later  Da¬ 
vidic  superscriptions  in  the  Psalter.  The 
psalms  to  which  they  belong  were  written 
by  Hezekiah,  by  Josiah,  by  Zerubbabel,  or 
others  of  David’s  posterity.  The  above 
explanation  removes  all  serious  difficulty 
respecting  the  history  of  the  later  books  of 
the  Psalter.  Book  III.,  the  interest  of 
which  centres  in  the  times  of  Hezekiah, 
stretches  out,  by  its  last  two  psalms,  to 
the  reign  of  Manasseh:  it  was  probably 
compiled  in  the  reign  of  Josiah.  Book  IV. 
contains  the  remainder  of  the  psalms  up  to 
the  date  of  the  captivity;  Book  V.,  the 
psalms  of  the  return.  There  is  nothing  to 
distinguish  these  two  books  from  each 
other  in  respect  of  outward  decoration  or 
arrangement,  and  they  may  have  been 
compiled  together  in  the  days  of  Nehemiah. 

“  Connection  of  the  Psalms  with  the  Is- 
raelitish  History. — The  psalm  of  Moses, 
Psa.  xc. ,  which  is  in  point  of  actual  date  the 
earliest,  faithfully  reflects  the  long,  weary 
wanderings,  the  multiplied  provocations, 
and  the  consequent  punishments,  of  the 
wilderness.  It  is,  however,  with  David 
that  Israelitish  psalmody  may  be  said  vir¬ 
tually  to  commence.  Previous  mastery 
over  his  harp  had  probably  already  pre¬ 
pared  the  way  for  his  future  strains,  when 
the  anointing  oil  of  Samuel  descended  upon 
him,  and  he  began  to  drink  in  special  meas¬ 
ure,  from  that  day  forward,  of  the  Spirit 
of  the  Lord.  It  was  then  that,  victorious 
at  home  over  the  mysterious  melancholy 
of  Saul,  and  in  the  field  over  the  vaunting 
champion  of  the  Philistine  hosts,  he  sang 
how  from  even  babes  and  sucklings  God 
had  ordained  strength  because  of  his  ene¬ 
mies.  (Psa.  viii.)  His  next  psalms  are  of 
a  different  character;  his  persecutions  at 
the  hands  of  Saul  had  commenced.  When 
David’s  reign  has  begun,  it  is  still  with  the 


Psa 


(  774  ) 


Psa 


most  exciting  incidents  of  his  history,  pri¬ 
vate  or  public,  that  his  psalms  are  mainly 
associated.  There  are  none  to  which  the 
period  of  his  reign  at  Hebron  can  lay  exclu¬ 
sive  claim.  Rut  after  the  conquest  of  Je¬ 
rusalem  his  psalmody  opened  afresh  with 
the  solemn  removal  of  the  ark  to  Mount 
Zion;  and  in  Psa.  xxiv.-xxix.,  which  belong 
together,  we  have  the  earliest  definite  in¬ 
stance  of  David’s  systematic  composition 
or  arrangement  of  psalms  for  public  use. 
Even  of  those  psalms  which  cannot  be  re¬ 
ferred  to  any  definite  occasion,  several  re¬ 
flect  the  general  historical  circumstances 
of  the  times.  Thus  Psa.  ix.  is  a  thanks¬ 
giving  for  the  deliverance  of  Israel  from 
its  former  heathen  oppressors.  Psa.  x.  is 
a  prayer  for  the  deliverance  of  the  Church 
from  the  high-handed  oppression  exercised 
from  within.  The  succeeding  psalms 
dwell  on  the  same  theme,  the  virtual  inter¬ 
nal  heathenism  by  which  the  Church  of 
God  was  weighed  down.  So  that  there  re¬ 
main  very  few,  e.g.,  Psa.  xv.-xvii.,  xix., 
xxxii.  (with -its  choral  appendage,  xxiii.), 
xxxvii. ,  of  which  some  historical  account 
may  not  be  given.  A  season  of  repose  near 
the  close  of  his  reign  induced  David  to 
compose  his  grand  personal  thanksgiving 
for  the  deliverances  of  his  whole  life,  Psa. 
xviii. ;  the  date  of  which  is  approximately 
determined  by  the  place  at  which  it  is  in¬ 
serted  in  the  history.  .(2  Sam.  xxii.)  It 
was  probably  at  this  period  that  he  finally 
arranged  for  the  sanctuary  service  that  col¬ 
lection  of  his  psalms  which  now  constitutes 
the  First  Book  of  the  Psalter.  • 

“  The  course  of  David’s  reign  was  not, 
however,  as  yet  complete.  The  solemn 
assembly  convened  by  him  for  the  dedica¬ 
tion  of  the  materials  of  the  future  temple 
(1  Chron.  xxviii.,  xxix.),  would  naturally 
call  forth  a  renewal  of  his  best  efforts  to 
glorify  the  God  of  Israel  in  psalms;  and  to 
this  occasion  we  doubtless  owe  the  great 
festal  hymns,  Psa.  lxv.-lxvii.,  lxviii.,  con¬ 
taining  a  large  review  of  the  past  history, 
present  position,  and  prospective  glories, 
of  God’s  chosen  people.  The  supplications 
of  Psa.  lxix.  suit  best  with  the  renewed 
distress  occasioned  by  the  sedition  of 
Adonijah.  Psa.  lxxi.,  to  which  Psa.  lxx. , 
a  fragment  of  a  former  psalm,  is  introduc¬ 
tory,  forms  David’s  parting  strain.  Yet 
that  the  psalmody  of  Israel  may  not  seem 
finally  to  terminate  with  him,  the  glories 
of  the  future  are  forthwith  anticipated  by 
his  son  in  Psa.  Ixxii.  Fora  time,  the  single 
psalm  of  Solomon  remained  the  only  addi¬ 
tion  to  those  of  David.  If,  however,  relig¬ 
ious  psalmody  were  to  revive,  somewhat 
might  be  not  unreasonably  anticipated  from 
the  great  assembly  of  King  Asa  (2  Chron. 
xv);  and  Psa.  1.  suits  so  exactly  with  the 


circumstances  of  that  occasion,  that  it  may 
well  be  assigned  to  it.  The  great  propheti¬ 
cal  ode,  Psa.  xlv.,  connects  itself  most  read¬ 
ily  with  the  splendors  of  Jehoshaphat’s 
reign.  And  after  that  psalmody  had  thus 
definitely  revived,  there  would  be  no  rea¬ 
son  why  it  should  not  thenceforward  man¬ 
ifest  itself  in  seasons  of  anxiety,  as  well 
as  of  festivity  and  thanksgiving — hence 
Psa.  xlix.  Yet  the  psalms  of  this  period 
flow  but  sparingly.  Psa.  xlii.-xliv.,  lxxiv. 
are  best  assigned  to  the  reign  of  Ahaz. 
The  reign  of  Hezekiah  is  naturally  rich 
in  psalmody.  Psa.  xl vi. ,  Ixxiii. ,  lxxv. ,  lxxvi. 
connect  themselves  with  the  resistance  to 
the  supremacy  of  the  Assyrians  and  the 
divine  destruction  of  their  host. 

“We  are  now  brought  to  a  series  of 
psalms  of  peculiar  interest,  springing  out 
of  the  political  and  religious  history  of  the 
separated  ten  tribes.  In  date  of  actual 
composition,  they  commence  before  the 
times  of  Hezekiah.  The  earliest  is  prob¬ 
ably  Psa.  lxxx,,  a  supplication  for  the  Is- 
raelitish  people  at  the  time  of  the  Syrian 
oppression.  All  these  psalms  (lxxx.- 
lxxxiii.)  are  referred  by  their  superscrip¬ 
tions  to  the  Levite  singers,  and  thus  bear 
witness  to  the  efforts  of  the  Levites  to 
reconcile  the  two  branches  of  the  chosen 
nation.  The  captivity  of  Manasseh  him¬ 
self  proved  to  be  but  temporary;  but 
the  sentence  which  his  sins  had  pro¬ 
voked  upon  Judah  and  Jerusalem  still 
remained  to  be  executed,  and  precluded 
the  hope  that  God’s  salvation  could  be  re¬ 
vealed  until  after  such  an  outpouring  of 
his  judgments  as  the  nation  never  yet  had 
known.  Labor  and  sorrow  must  be  the  lot 
of  the  present  generation;  through  these 
mercy  might  occasionally  gleam,  but  the 
glory  which  was  eventually  to  be  manifest¬ 
ed  must  be  for  posterity  alone.  The 
psalms  of  Book  IV.  bear  generally  the  im¬ 
press  of  this  feeling. 

“We  pass  to  Book  V.  Psa.  cvii.  is  the 
opening  psalm  of  the  return,  sung  prob¬ 
ably  at  the  first  Feast  of  Tabernacles. 
(Ezra  iii.)  The  ensuing  Davidic  psalms  may 
well  be  ascribed  to  Zerubbabel.  We  here 
pass  over  the  questions  connected  with  Psa. 
cxix. ;  but  a  directly  historical  character 
belongs  to  Psa.  cxx.-cxxxiv. ,  styled  in  our 
A.  V.  ‘Songs  of  Degrees.’  Internal  evi¬ 
dence  refers  these  to  the  period  when  the 
Jews  under  Nehemiah  were,  in  the  very 
face  of  the  enemy,  repairing  the  walls  of 
Jerusalem,  and  the  title  may  well  signify 
‘  Songs  of  goings-up  upon  the  walls,’  the 
psalms  being,  from  their  brevity,  well 
adapted  to  be  sung  by  the  workmen  and 
guards  while  engaged  in  their  respective 
duties.  Of  somewhat  earlier  date,  it  may  be, 
are  Psa.  cxxxvii.  and  the  ensuing  Davidic 


Psa 


(  775  ) 


Pto 


psalms.  Of  these,  Psa.  cxxxix.  is  a  psalm 
of  the  new  birth  of  Israel,  from  the  womb 
of  the  Babylonish  captivity  to  a  life  of 
righteousness;  Psa.  cxl.-cxliii.  may  be  a 
picture  of  the  trials  to  which  the  unrestor¬ 
ed  exiles  were  still  exposed  in  the  realms 
of  the  Gentiles.  Henceforward,  as  we 
approach  the  close  of  the  Psalter,  its 
strains  rise  in  cheerfulness;  and  it  fittingly 
terminates  with  Psa.  cxlvii. -cl. , which  were 
probably  sung  on  the  occasion  of  the  thanks¬ 
giving  procession  of  Neh.  xii.,  after  the 
rebuilding  of  the  walls  of  Jerusalem  had 
been  completed. 

“  Moral  Characteristics  of  the  Psalms. — 
Foremost  among  these  meets  us,  undoubt¬ 
edly,  the  universal  recourse  to  communion 
with  God.  Connected  with  this  is  the  faith 
by  which  the  Psalmist  everywhere  lives  in 
God  rather  than  in  himself.  It  is  of  the 
essence  of  such  faith  that  his  view  of  the 
perfections  of  God  should  be  true  and 
vivid.  The  Psalter  describes  God  as  he 
is;  it  glows  with  testimonies  to  his  power 
and  providence,  his  love  and  faithfulness, 
his  holiness  and  righteousness.  The 
Psalms  not  only  set  forth  the  perfections 
of  God,  they  proclaim  also  the  duty  of 
worshipping  him  by  the  acknowledgment 
and  adoration  of  his  perfections.  They 
encourage  all  outward  rites  and  means  of 
worship.  Among  these  they  recognize 
the  ordinance  of  sacrifice  as  an  expression 
of  the  worshipper’s  consecration  of  him¬ 
self  to  God’s  service.  But  not  the  less  do 
they  repudiate  the  outward  rite  when  sep¬ 
arated  from  that  which  it  was  designed  to 
express.  Similar  depth  is  observable  in  the 
view  taken,  by  the  psalmists,  of  human  sin. 
In  regard  to  the  law,  the  psalmist,  while 
warmly  acknowledging  its  excellence,  feels 
yet  that  it  cannot  so  effectually  guide  his 
own  unassisted  exertions  as  to  preserve 
him  from  error.  (Psa.xix. )  The  Psalms 
bear  repeated  testimony  to  the  duty  of  in¬ 
structing  others  in  the  ways  of  holiness. 
(Psa.  xxxii.,  xxxiv.,  li.)  This  brings  us  to 
notice,  lastly,  the  faith  of  the  psalmists  in 
a  righteous  recompense  to  all  men  accord¬ 
ing  to  their  deeds.  (Psa.  xxxvii.,  etc.) 

“  Prophetical  Character  of  the  Psalms. — 
The  moral  struggle  between  godliness  and 
ungodliness,  so  vividly  depicted  in  the 
Psalms,  culminates,  in  Holy  Scripture,  in 
the  life  of  the  Incarnate  Son  of  God  upon 
earth.  It  only  remains  to  show  that  the 
Psalms  themselves  definitely  anticipated 
this  culmination.  Now  there  are  in  the 
Psalter  at  least  three  psalms  of  which  the 
interest  evidently  centres  in  a  person  dis¬ 
tinct  from  the  speaker,  and  which,  since 
they  cannot  without  violence  to  the  lan¬ 
guage  be  interpreted  of  any  but  the  Mes¬ 
siah,  may  be  termed  directly  and  exclusive¬ 


ly  Messianic.  We  refer  to  Psa.  ii. ,  xlv., 
cx. ;  to  which  may,  perhaps,  be  added  Psa. 
lxxii.  It  would  be  strange  if  these  few 
psalms  stood,  in  their  prophetical  signif¬ 
icance,  absolutely  alone  among  the  rest: 
the  more  so,  inasmuch  as  Psa.  ii.  forms 
part  of  the  preface  to  the  First  Book  of  the 
Psalter,  and  would,  as  such,  be  entirely 
out  of  place,  did  not  its  general  th#me  vir¬ 
tually  extend  itself  over  those  which  fol¬ 
low,  in  which  the  interest  generally  centres 
in  the  figure  of  the  suppliant  or  worshipper 
himself.  And  hence  the  impossibility  of 
viewing  the  Psalms  generally,  notwith¬ 
standing  the  historical  drapery  in  which 
they  are  outwardly  clothed,  as  simply  the 
past  devotions  of  the  historical  David  or 
the  historical  Israel.  All  of  these  psalms 
which  are  of  a  personal  rather  than  of  a 
national  character  are  marked  in  the  super¬ 
scriptions  with  the  name  of  David,  as  pro¬ 
ceeding  either  from  David  himself,  or  from 
one  of  his  descendants.  It  results  from 
this,  that  while  the  Davidic  psalms  are 
partly  personal,  partly  national,  the  Levitic 
psalms  are  uniformly  national.  It  thus 
follows  that  it  was  only  those  psalmists 
who  were  types  of  Christ  by  external  office 
and  lineage,  as  well  as  by  inward  piety, 
that  were  charged  by  the  Holy  Spirit  to  set 
forth  beforehand,  in  Christ’s  own  name  and 
person,  the  sufferings  that  awaited  him, 
and  the  glory  that  should  follow.  The 
national  hymns  of  Israel  are,  indeed,  also 
prospective;  but  in  general  they  anticipate 
rather  the  struggles  and  the  triumphs  of 
the  Christian  Church  than  those  of  Christ 
himself.”' — Smith:  Die*,  of  the  Bible.  See 
Commentaries  of  Delitzsch  (Eng.  trans. 
1871),  3  vols. ;  Alexander  (1850),  3  vols. ; 
Perowne  (1864,  new  ed.,  1879),  2  vols.; 
Spurgeon:  Treasury  of  David,  7  vols. ;  T. 
W.  Chambers:  The  Psalter  a  Witness  to  the 
Divine  Origin  of  the  Bible  (1876). 

Psalter,  the  Book  of  Psalms  arranged 
for  use  in  worship.  In  the  Roman  Catholic 
Church  the  psalter  has  the  Psalms  arranged 
to  fit  different  services, while  in  the  Prayer- 
Book  they  are  divided  into  sections  for 
reading  in  the  daily  morning  or  evening 
service.  The  translation  is  that  of  Cran- 
mer’s,  known  as  the  Greek  Bible. 

Pseudepigrapha  of  the  Old  Testament. 

See  Apocrypha  of  the  Old  Testament. 

Pseudo-Isidorian  Decretals  is  the  com¬ 
mon  designation  of  a  large  collection  of 
spurious  letters  ascribed  to  the  popes  of 
the  first  three  centuries,  which  was  brought 
into  circulation  in  the  ninth  century. 

Ptolemae'us,  Ptol'emy  ( the  •warlike'),  the 


Pub 


(  776  ) 


Pun 


dynastic  name  of  the  thirteen  Macedonian 
kings  of  Egypt,  who  reigned  from  the  death 
of  Alexander  the  Great  down  to  B.  c.  43. 
See  art.  “  Ptolemaeus,”  in  Smith’s  Did.  of 
Biography  and  Diet,  of  the  Bible. 

Publican,  an  under-collector  of  the  Roman 
tribute.  (Matt,  xviii.  17.)  The  chief  collect¬ 
ors  were  men  of  wealth  and  political  influ¬ 
ence,  but  they  farmed  out  the  direct  work  of 
gathering  the  revenue  to  a  class  who  were 
notorious  for  their  greed  and  extortion. 
Those  who  engaged  in  this  service  were 
despised  by  the  Jews,  and  they  were  not 
allowed  to  enter  the  temple  or  the  syna¬ 
gogues,  or  to  give  testimony  in  a  court  of 
justice.  From  this  despised  class  our 
Lord  chose  one  of  his  apostles  (Matthew, 
or  Levi),  and  from  its  ranks  Zaccheus  was 
converted. 

Publicani,  or  Pauliciani,  a  name  given 
to  the  Western  Cathari  by  the  crusaders  of 
the  twelfth  century,  because  like  the  Paul- 
icians  of  the  East,  they  were  dualists. 

Pulpit,  an  elevated  place  in  a  church, 
from  which  the  sermon  is  preached.  For¬ 
merly  the  pulpit  was  used  for  the  reading 
of  the  Gospel,  and  the  sermon  was  preach¬ 
ed  from  the  altar  steps.  Since  the  thir¬ 
teenth  century  pulpits  of  great  architect¬ 
ural  beauty  have  been  built  in  connection 
with  noted  cathedrals.  •  In  Protestant 
churches  the  pulpit  is  more  conspicuous 
than  in  the  Roman  Catholic.  This  is  espe¬ 
cially  true  in  the  United  States. 

Punishment  Among  the  Hebrews. 
“  Death  was  the  punishment  of  striking  or 
even  reviling  a  parent  (Exod.  xxi.  15,  17); 
blasphemy  (Lev.  xxiv.  14,  16,23);  Sabbath¬ 
breaking  (Num.  xv.  32-36);  witchcraft 
(Exod.  xxii.  18);  adultery  (Lev.  xx.  10); 
rape  (Deut.  xxii.  25);  incestuous  and  un¬ 
natural  connection  (Lev.  xx.  11.  14,  16); 
man- stealing  (Exod.  xxi.  16);  idolatry 
(Lev.  xx.  2).  ‘  Cutting  off  from  the  peo¬ 

ple  ’  is  ipso  facto  excommunication  or  out¬ 
lawry,  forfeiture  of  the  privileges  of  the 
covenant  people.  (Lev.  xviii.  29.)  The 
hand  of  God  executed  the  sentence  in  some 
cases.  (Gen.  xvii.  14;  Lev.  xxiii.  30;  xx.  3, 
6;  Num.  iv.  15,  18,  20.)  Capital  punish¬ 
ments  were  stoning  (Exod.  xvii.  4);  burn¬ 
ing  (Lev.  xx.  14);  the  sword  (Exod.  xxxii. 
27);  and  strangulation ,  not  in  Scripture, 
but  in  rabbinical  writings.  The  command 
(Num.  xxv.  4,  5)  was  that  the  JBaal-peor 
sinners  should  be  slain  first,  then  impaled 
or  nailed  to  crosses ;  the  Heb.  there  (hoyua’) 
means  dislocated ,  and  is  different  from  that 
in  Deut.  xxi.  22  ( ihalitha  tolvi),  23.  The 
hanged  were  accounted  accursed;  so  were 


buried  at  evening,  as  the  hanging  body  de¬ 
filed  the  land;  so  Christ.  (Gal.  iii.  13.)  The 
malefactor  was  to  be  removed  by  burial 
from  off  the  face  of  the  earth  speedily, 
that  the  curse  might  be  removed  off  the 
land.  (Lev.  xviii.  25,  28;  2  Sam.  xxi.  6,9.) 
Punishments  not  ordained  by  law:  sawing 
asunder ,  and  cutting  with  iron  harrows 
(Isaiah,  Heb.  xi.  37);  Ammon,  in  retalia¬ 
tion  for  their  cruelties  (2  Sam.  xii.  31;  1 
Sam.  xi.  2);  pounding  in  a  mortar  (Prov. 
xxvii.  22);  precipitation  (Luke  iv.  29;  2 
Chron.  xxv.  12);  stripes ,  forty  only  allow¬ 
ed  (Deut.  xxv.  3),  the  Jews  therefore  gave 
only  thirty-nine;  the  convict  received  the 
stripes  from  a  three-thonged  whip,  strip¬ 
ped  to  the  waist,  in  a  bent  position,  tied  to 
a  pillar;  if  the  executioner  exceeded  the 
number  he  was  punished,  a  minute  accu¬ 
racy  observed  in  2  Cor.  xi.  24.  The  Abys- 
sinians  use  the  same  number  (Wolff: 
Travels ,  ii.  276).  Heaps  of  stones  were 
flung  upon  the  graves  of  executed  criminals 
(Josh.  xv.  25,26;  2  Sam.  xviii.  17);  to  this 
day  stones  are  flung  on  Absalom’s  sup¬ 
posed  tomb.  Outside  the  city  gates.  (Jer. 
xxii.  19;  Heb.  xiii.  12.)  Punishment  in  kind 
( lex  talionis )  was  a  common  principle.  ( Exod. 
xxi.  24,  25.)  Also  compensation,  restitu¬ 
tion  of  the  thing  or  its  equivalent  (vers.  18— 
36).  Slander  of  a  wife’s  honor  was  punish¬ 
ed  by  fine  and  stripes  (Deut.  xxii.  iS,  19).” 
— Fausset:  Bible  Cyctopcedia. 

Punishment,  Future.  The  moral  gov¬ 
ernment  of  the  universe  is  a  guarantee  of 
the  punishment  of  evil.  The  punishment 
inflicted  in  this  life  is  confessedly  only  par¬ 
tial,  and  it  is  a  matter  of  common  observa¬ 
tion  that  the  most  wicked  often  go  un¬ 
whipped  of  justice.  Misery  is,  indeed,  in¬ 
separable  from  sin,  yet  the  longer  and  the 
deeper  man’s  continuance  in  sin,  the  more 
insensible  he  becomes  to  its  consequences. 
The  more  a  man  deserves  penalty  the  less 
he  suffers  its  infliction.  Independent  of 
the  Scriptures,  accordingly,  reason  utters 
the  direful  prophecy  of  an  ultimate  retribu¬ 
tion.  The  divine  government  becomes  an 
appalling  riddle,  if,  at  the  end  of  their 
course,  there  remains  no  punishment  for 
the  wicked.  But  for  the  conviction  that 
retribution  is  only  delayed  and  that  it  is  ab¬ 
solutely  certain,  despair  must  settle  down 
upon  the  moral  universe  and  society  un¬ 
dergo  inevitable  dissolution.  God  is  not 
mocked.  His  righteous  abhorrence  of  sin 
is  no  mere  dream.  He  endures,  indeed, 
with  divine  long-suffering,  the  disobedience 
of  his  creatures,  yet  this  only  argues  that 
as  the  supreme  moral  judge  he  reserves 
the  final  verdict  and  its  execution  to  the 
great  and  terrible  day  of  his  wrath. 

The  Scriptures  are  fearfully  explicit  on 


Pun 


(  777  ) 


Pun 


this  subject.  They  denounce  frightful 
punishments  upon  all  who  continue  in  dis¬ 
obedience,  rebellion  and  unbelief.  They 
employ  the  most  horrible  imagery  to  ex¬ 
hibit  the  nature  of  the  sufferings  impending 
over  those  who  die  in  their  sins.  The  fact 
that  these  representations  are  largely  fig¬ 
urative  does  not  relieve,  but  heighten,  their 
awful  meaning.  They  show  that  whatever 
may  be  the  nature  of  the  torments  of  the 
damned,  it  is  something  so  dreadful  that 
only  the  terrific  description  of  him  who 
wept  over  sinners,  and  died  for  them,  can 
properly  and  faithfully  represent  it.  (John 
iii.  36;  Matt.  xiii.  41,  42;  2  Thess.  i.  8,  9; 
Rev.  xxi.  8;  xiv.  10;  xix.  20;  xx.  14,  15; 
Matt.  ii.  30;  v.  22,  29,  30;  xviii.  8;  xxv. 
41;  Mark  ix.  43-45;  Jude  6,  13. 

Future  punishment  will  necessarily  dif¬ 
fer  in  many  respects  from  temporal  retri¬ 
bution.  “  The  latter,”  says  Van  Ooster- 
zee,  “  was  partly  delayed  by  the  long-suf¬ 
fering,  partly  lessened  by  the  mercy,  of 
God,  partly  concealed  from  the  eyes  of 
others,  partly  confined  within  a  certain 
space;  in  the  future  retribution  the  oppo¬ 
site  of  all  this  will  be  the  case.”  The 
Scripture  representations  point  to  a  local 
habitation,  an  infernal  prison-house,  an  en¬ 
vironment  in  every  way  calculated  to  ag¬ 
gravate  the  woe  of  the  lost.  Viewed  sub¬ 
jectively  their  extreme  misery  may  be  re¬ 
garded  negatively  as  the  privation  of  all 
good,  the  desire  for  sensuous  things  re¬ 
maining  and  increasing,  while  the  means 
of  obtaining  them  are  no  more  at  hand; 
eternal  exclusion  from  the  favor  of  God, 
and  a  total  separation  from  every  element 
of  joy  and  blessedness;  with  a  terrible  real¬ 
ization  of  failure,  loss,  disgrace,  and  de¬ 
spair.  Such  are  the  inevitable  results,  the 
unfailing  natural  fruits  of  a  course  of  evil. 
But  God  will  also  visit  positive,  judicial, 
punitive  inflictions  upon  incorrigible 
transgressors.  The  activity  of  conscience, 
which  even  here  can  render  existence  in¬ 
supportable,  may  be  reckoned  in  part  with 
the  natural,  in  part  with  the  positive  pun¬ 
ishments  of  sin.  But  furthermore,  God, 
the  absolute  judge  of  the  living  and  the 
dead,  will,  by  a  distinct  personal  revelation 
of  his  wrath,  by  his  own  judicial  act,  smite 
the  enemies  of  his  law.  This  is  the  su¬ 
preme  import  of  future  retribution.  It  is 
not  mercy  that  casts  sinners  into  hell,  and 
the  soul  is  not  subjected  to  ineffable  pain 
for  the  sake  of  amendment,  or  for  the  pro¬ 
tection  of  others,  or  for  the  moral  good  of 
the  universe.  They  are  put  there  because 
that  is  their  fit  place;  because  they  have  de¬ 
served  it;  because  God  is  angry  with  the 
wicked,  and  because  he  is  just  and  cannot 
deny  himself. 

The  Scriptures  teach  unmistakably  that 


this  punishment  will  endure  forever.  So 
they  have  been  almost  invariably  interpret¬ 
ed  by  those  who  accept  this  authority  as 
final;  and,  on  the  other  hand,  some  of  the 
most  intelligent  opponents  of  the  Bible 
have  made  the  doctrine  of  everlasting  woe 
contained  in  it  a  ground  of  their  hostility 
to  it.  The  crucial  word  aidnios  receives 
from  the  Standard  Greek  lexicographers 
the  interpretation  of  duration  without  end, 
perpetual,  never-ceasing,  eternal,  everlast¬ 
ing.  It  occurs  seventy-one  times  in  the 
New  Testament,  there  being  in  no  instance 
a  probability  of  its  implying  limited  dura¬ 
tion.  The  blessedness  of  saints  is  parallel¬ 
ed  in  Matt.  xxv.  46  cf.  41  with  the  misery 
of  the  damned  by  this  term,  eternal  life 
and  eternal  pain  being,  without  any  quali¬ 
fication,  set  over  against  each  other.  Meyer 
holds  that  the  absolute  idea  of  eternity  in 
regard  to  the  punishment  of  hell  is  to  be 
regarded  as  exegetically  established  in  this 
passage.  The  Scriptures  admit  of  no  other 
deduction  than  that  the  sentence  of  the 
damned  is  irreversible,  and  its  enforcement 
absolutely  interminable.  (Luke  xvi.  26; 
Rev.  xiv.  11 ;  xxii.  11;  Matt.  xii.  32.) 

This  doctrine  has,  accordingly,  formed  a 
part  of  the  universal  faith  of  the  Church 
since  the  days  of  the  apostles.  It  is  found 
alike  in  all  the  Protestant  creeds  as  well  as 
the  Roman  Catholic.  Its  denial  or  qualifi¬ 
cation  has  been  uniformly  condemned  as 
heresy.  There  is  no  tenet  of  Christianity 
on  which  the  whole  Church  has  been  more 
unanimous  or  more  explicit. 

Against  a  doctrine  so  horrible  to  contem¬ 
plate  various  arguments  have  been  urged, 
especially  that  it  is  in  conflict  both  with  the 
justice  and  the  mercy  of  God.  But  man 
must  be  sure  that  he  has  an  adequate  con¬ 
ception  of  the  turpitude  of  sin  before  he 
assumes  to  review  the  justice  of  infinite 
holiness  in  punishing  it  eternally.  This 
cannot  be  reduced  to  a  question  of  eternal 
pains  for  temporal  sins,  for  there  is  every 
reason  to  believe  that  the  sinner  will  in¬ 
exorably  continue  in  his  opposition  to  the 
divine  will.  The  objection  urged  on  the 
score  of  infinite  benevolence  would  bear 
equally  against  all  retributive  consequences 
of  sin  upon  earth.  And  it  is,  in  fact,  not  the 
endless  duration  of  evil,  but  the  origin  of  it 
under  the  reign  of  infinite  goodness,  that  is 
the  appalling  problem  of  the  universe.  If 
the  presence  of  wickedness  and  pain  in  this 
world  are  not  incompatible  with  the  divine 
benevolence,  how  can  their  endless  con¬ 
tinuance  be  ? 

Stagger  as  it  may  at  this  doctrine  of 
revelation,  reason  has  failed  to  offer  any 
valid  objections  to  it,  and  the  theories 
which  have  been  devised  as  an  escape  from 
it,  Universalism,  Restorationism,  and  An- 


Pun 


(  778  ) 


Pur 


nihilation  ism,  create  insuperable  difficulties, 
as  irreconcilable  with  general  principles  as 
they  are  with  the  specific  teachings  of  the 
gospel.  For  a  summary  of  the  historic 
belief  in  eternal  punishment,  see  Remen- 
snyder’s  D 00771  Eternal  (New  York). 

E.  J.  Wolf. 

Punshon,  William  Morley,  LL.  D.,  a 
distinguished  Wesleyan  minister;  b.  at 
Doncaster,  May  29,  1824;  d.  in  London, 
April  14,  1881.  In  1842  he  became  a  local 
preacher  in  the  Wesleyan  Connection,  and 
in  1844  entered  the  college  at  Richmond, 
and  the  following  year  was  stationed  at 
Marden,  Kent.  His  fame  as  a  pulpit  or¬ 
ator  spread  rapidly.  After  filling  impor¬ 
tant  stations  he  came  to  London,  where  he 
remained  for  nine  years.  In  1868  he  visit¬ 
ed  Canada  as  a  delegate  from  the  British 
Wesleyan  Conference.  While  there  he 
married  the  sister  of  his  deceased  wife  and 
remained  for  some  time  in  Canada,  where 
he  was  honored  in  many  ways.  He  preach¬ 
ed  and  lectured  to  great  audiences,  both  in 
the  Dominion  and  the  United  States.  After 
the  death  of  his  second  wife  he  returned  to 
England  in  1873,  and  was  elected  president 
of  the  Wesleyan  Conference.  He  was  elect¬ 
ed  one  of  the  secretaries  of  the  Wesleyan 
Missionary  Society  in  1875,  and  continued 
in  this  service  until  his  death.  As  a  pulpit 
orator  he  was  almost  without  a  peer  in  his 
generation.  He  published:  Life  Thoughts 
(1863);  Sabbath  Chunes  (verses);  SermoTis 
aTid  Addresses. 

Purgatory  is,  according  to  Roman  Cath¬ 
olic  teaching,  “  a  place  or  state  where 
souls  departing  this  life  with  remission  of 
their  sins  as  to  the  guilt  or  eternal  pain, 
but  yet  liable  to  some  temporary  punish¬ 
ment  still  remaining  due,  or  not  perfectly 
freed  from  the  blemish  of  some  defects 
which  we  call  venial  sins,  are  purged  before 
their  admittance  into  heaven,  where  noth¬ 
ing  that  is  defiled  can  enter.” — Faith  of 
Catholics  (London,  1846). 

The  sufferings  of  those  in  this  state  are 
both  punitive  and  refining,  and  they  may 
be  alleviated  and  abridged  by  the  prayers 
of  their  brethren  still  in  the  flesh,  but 
principally  by  the  oblation  of  the  bloodless 
sacrifice  of  the  body  and  blood  of  Christ, 
and  also  “  by  works  of  mercy  done  in  faith 
for  their  memory.”  The  Scriptures,  while 
speaking  of  fire  as  a  figure  of  purification, 
and  even  as  a  symbol  of  punishment  and 
damnation,  contain  no  allusion  to  any  pu¬ 
rifying  process  between  death  and  resur¬ 
rection.  Judas  Maccabaeus  offered  pray¬ 
ers  and  sacrifices  for  the  dead  (2  Macc.  xii. 
40-46),  and  the  acceptance  of  the  Apocry¬ 
pha  as  canonical  by  Romanists  enables 


them  to  cite  this  passage  as  supporting  the 
dogma. 

Although  not  derived  from  the  Script¬ 
ures,  great  antiquity  can  be  claimed  for 
the  doctrine.  A  number  of  things  cooper¬ 
ated  in  its  development.  The  early  Chris¬ 
tians,  assured  of  inseparable  fellowship 
with  those  who  had  departed  in  the  Lord, 
not  only  continued  praying  for  them  at  the 
family  altar,  but  brought  oblations  for 
them  to  the  Eucharist,  which  they  were 
wont  to  celebrate  over  their  graves  on  the 
anniversary  of  their  decease,  and  special 
intercessions  were  made  for  them  in  con¬ 
nection  with  the  Sacrament.  When  the 
idea  of  a  sacrifice  was  substituted  for  that 
of  a  sacrament  these  oblations,  which  had 
been  merely  symbols  of  the  living  com¬ 
munion  which  continued  between  the  de¬ 
parted  and  those  who  remained,  were  re¬ 
garded  as  an  atoning  sacrifice  offered  for 
the  deceased  as  “  masses  for  their  souls.” 
The  doctrine  of  penance  and  the  belief  in 
an  intermediate  state  contributed  also  to 
the  establishment  of  the  idea.  Some  of 
the  earliest  Fathers  refer  to  the  oblations 
for  the  dead,  and  the  view  of  a  spiritual 
burning  in  this  world,  which  Origen  held 
continued  beyond  the  grave,  was  not  un¬ 
known,  but  the  idea  of  a  place  of  punish¬ 
ment  between  death  and  the  resurrection, 
in  which  the  venial  sins  of  believers  must 
be  atoned  for,  was,  according  to  Kurtz, 
quite  unknown  to  the  whole  ancient  Church 
down  to  the  age  of  Augustine,  and  to  the 
Greek  Church  till  even  after  his  day. 
Gregory  the  Great  (d.  604)  raised  it  into  an 
established  dogma  of  the  Western  Church. 

The  Scholastics  generally  taught  a  ma¬ 
terial  fire,  a  point  on  which  the  Greeks  dif¬ 
fered  from  the  Latins.  The  precursors  of 
the  Reformation  assailed  the  whole  doc¬ 
trine  of  purgatory,  and  the  Reformers  with 
one  mind  repudiated  it. 

While  rejecting  all  purgatorial  views  of 
the  intermediate  state,  eminent  Anglican 
divines  have  argued  in  favor  of  prayers  for 
souls  already  in  joy  and  felicity  from  the 
practice^unanimously  attested  by  the  ancient 
liturgies,  from  the  inscriptions  on  the  cat¬ 
acombs,  and  even  from  the  Scriptures. 
(2  Tim.  i.  16,  17;  iv.  19.)  E.  J.  Wolf. 

Purification,  “  in  a  biblical  sense,  is  the 
act  through  which  an  individual  became  fit 
to  approach  the  Deity,  or  to  mix  freely  in 
the  community,  in  cases  where  a  certain 
bodily  or  other  disability  had  kept  him  out 
of  the  pale  of  the  latter.  The  purification 
consisted  chiefly  in  expiations  and  ablutions, 
sometimes  accompanied  by  special  sacri¬ 
fices.  Priests  and  Levites  were  consecrated 
for  the  divine  service  by  ‘purification;’ 
proselytes  had  to  undergo  it  at  baptism; 


Pur 


(  779  ) 


Pur 


and  special  religious  acts  could  only  be 
performed  by  those  who  had  '  bathed  their 
bodies.’  Generally,  no  one  was  allowed 
to  enter  the  temple  or  synagogue  without 
having  washed  or  ‘  sanctified  ’  himself;  and 
in  the  post-exilian  period  bathing  was  con¬ 
sidered  (chiefly  by  the  Pharisees  and  Es- 
senes)  as  one  of  the  chief  duties  of  piety. 
In  general,  the  Mosaic  law  distinguishes 
between  ‘  clean  ’  and  ‘  unclean  ’  persons  as 
well  as  things,  calling  ‘  unclean  ’  all  that 
with  which  an  Israelite  is  not  to  come  in 
contact.  It  has  been  erroneously  assumed 
that  all  the  Levitical  laws  of  purity  and 
purification  have  a  physical  or  medical 
reason — that  is,  that  infection  was  to  be 
prevented  through  them;  but  this  can  only 
have  been  the  case  in  some  instances.  At 
the  same  time,  we  cannot  deny  that  we  are 
at  a  loss  for  the  general  principle  on  which 
they  were  based.  There  can  be  no  doubt 
that  cleanness,  like  every  other  virtue,  if 
not  enforced  on  religious  grounds,  would 
have  had  few  devotees  in  those  days,  and 
among  an  Eastern  people;  while,  again,  a 
hot  climate  requires  a  much  greater  atten¬ 
tion  to  outward  purity  than  more  temper¬ 
ate  zones.  Compared  with  the  Indian  and 
Persian  laws  in  this  respect,  the  Jewish 
ones  seem  much  less  minute  and  harassing. 
For  the  purification  from  the  severer  kinds 
of  uncleanness,  a  certain  ‘  water  of  unclean¬ 
ness’  (Lev.  xv.)  was  prepared;  and  the 
different  acts  to  be  performed  for  the  re¬ 
admission  of  the  leper  into  the  community 
(Lev.  xiv.  4-32)  show  plainly  that  his  was 
considered  the  last  stage  of  impurity. 
Identical  with  the  first  stage  of  the  leper’s 
purification  are  the  ceremonies  to  be  per¬ 
formed  in  the  case  of  infected  houses  and 
garments.  The  sixth  Seder  of  the  Mish- 
na,  in  11  treatises  (there  is  no  Gemara  to 
this  portion,  except  to  Niddah),  contains 
the  most  detailed  regulations  (as  fixed  by 
tradition)  on  this  point.  The  washing  of 
hands,  we  may  add  in  conclusion,  was  in 
later  times  considered  ritually  necessary, 
in  accoidance  with  the  Talmudical  maxim, 
that  ‘  every  table  should  properly  be  sanc¬ 
tified  unto  an  altar.’  All  the  Jewish  cere¬ 
monial  purifications  are  commonly  regard¬ 
ed  by  Christian  theologians  as  emblematic 
of  the  necessity  of  holiness  in  the  people  of 
the  Lord,  and  particularly  in  all  acts  of 
worship.  ” — Chambers :  Cyclopcedia. 

Pu'rim  (lots),  a  Jewish  festival  instituted 
to  commemorate  the  preservation  of  the 
Jews  from  the  massacre  ordered  by  Haman. 
(Esth.  ix.  20-32.)  The  name  had  its  origin 
from  the  circumstance  that  Haman  endeav¬ 
ored  to  decide  by  lots  as  to  the  day  on 
which  the  massacre  should  take  place. 
The  festival  is  celebrated  on  the  fourteenth 


and  fifteenth  of  the  month  Adar  (March). 
The  book  of  Esther  is  read  aloud  in  the  syn¬ 
agogue,  and  whenever  the  name  of  Ha¬ 
man  occurs  all  of  the  congregation  shout 
“  Let  his  name  be  blotted  out.”  The  fes¬ 
tival  ends  with  great  merriment. 

Puritans.  This  name  was  used  in  the 
primitive  Church  for  the  Novatians,  be¬ 
cause  they  would  never  admit  to  commun¬ 
ion  any  one  who  from  dread  of  death  had 
apostatized  from  the  faith.  In  the  sixteenth 
century  it  was  given  in  derision  by  their 
adversaries  to  the  Nonconformists  and 
Presbyterians.  These,  as  an  English  body, 
first  arose  from  those  who  had  fled  to  Ger¬ 
many  during  the  reign  of  Queen  Mary, 
and  who  returned  to  England  with  new 
ideas  at  the  accession  of  Queen  Elizabeth. 
They  refused  to  agree  to  the  Act  of  Uni¬ 
formity  which  the  queen  had  published,  on 
the  ground  that  it  was  too  favorable  to 
popery.  Unfortunately,  the  way  that  they 
were  met  did  not  tend  to  peace  whilst 
peace  was  still  within  reach.  They  urged 
the  Presbyterian  form  of  government  as 
that  of  the  New  Testament;  Archbishop 
Whitgift  met  them,  not  by  defending  the 
Episcopal  form,  and  maintaining  that  it 
was  in  accordance  with  primitive  Chris¬ 
tianity,  but  by  the  argument  that  the  form 
of  church  government  was  a  thing  indiffer¬ 
ent,  and  therefore  the  nation  might  choose 
whichever  it  thought  most  advisable.  Such 
an  argument  was  hardly  one  to  offer  to  deep¬ 
ly  religious  men,  as  certainly  some  of  them 
were,  and  when  they  resisted  it  they  were 
sent  to  prison.  But,  moreover,  the  old- 
fashioned  clergy  who  had  sung  mass  in  the 
days  of  Mary,  and  now  conformed  to  the 
Prayer-Book,  were  unhappy  and  listless 
under  the  change.  The  younger  spirits 
had  no  lingering  regrets  for  the  past,  and 
inclined  to  Puritanism.  Their  zeal  was  on 
this  side,  though  toward  the  end  of  Eliza¬ 
beth’s  reign  there  was  a  reaction  in  favor 
of  “  comely  forms  and  decent  order,”  which 
the  Puritans  in  their  hatred  of  mediaevalism 
had  somewhat  set  at  nought.  They  strove 
hard  for  ascendancy  in  Parliament,  prepar¬ 
ing  the  Book  of  Discipline  for  acceptance, 
and  urging  the  abolition  of  the  Book  of 
Common  Prayer.  But  public  opinion  as 
well  as  the  queen's  minister  went  against 
them. 

On  the  accession  of  King  James  I.  the 
Puritans  presented  a  petition  demanding  a 
revision  of  the  Prayer-Book.  A  conference 
was  called  to  discuss  the  matter,  and  the 
Puritans  were  defeated,  and  treated  un- 
courteously  and  harshly.  About  1620  some 
of  them  began  to  emigrate  to  America,  and 
founded  the  colonies  of  Massachusetts  and 
Connecticut.  It  is  said  that  during  twelve 


Pus 


( 780 ) 


Que 


years  the  emigrants  amounted  to  21,000 
persons.  The  tyrannical  conduct  of  Charles 
I.,  both  in  the  Church  and  Government, 
resulted  in  the  Great  Rebellion,  and  the 
overthrow,  for  the  time  being,  of  Church 
and  Throne.  In  September,  1642,  an  act 
was  published  abolishing  prelacy  in  Eng¬ 
land,  and  commanding  all  to  take  the  cov¬ 
enant.  It  is  said  that  the  number  of  clergy¬ 
men  who  were  rejected  for  refusing 
amounted  to  7,000,  and  that  more  were 
turned  out  by  the  Presbyterians  in  three 
years  than  were  deprived  by  the  Roman 
Catholics  in  Queen  Mary’s  time.  After  the 
Restoration  the  name  “Puritans”  was 
dropped,  and  that  of  Nonconformists  (q.  v.) 
adopted. — Benham:  Diet.  of  Religion.  See 
CONGREGATIONALISTS;  WESTMINSTER  AS¬ 
SEMBLY  ;  Presbyterian  Churches.  Neal: 
History  of  the  Puritans;  Bacon:  The  Gene¬ 
sis  of  the  New  England  Churches. 

Pu'sey,  Edward  Bouverie,  b.  1800;  d. 
at  Ascot  Priory,  Oxford,  Sept.  16,  1882;  “  a 
distinguished  clergyman  of  the  Church  of 
England;  from  1828  to  his  death  Regius- 
professor  of  Hebrew,  and  canon  of  Christ 
Church,  Oxford.  He  was  the  second  son 
of  the  Hon.  Philip  Bouverie  Pusey,  who 
was  the  youngest  brother  of  the  first  Earl 
of  Radnor;  and  he  was  educated  first  at 
Eton,  and  afterward  at  Christ  Church,  Ox¬ 
ford,  where  he  attained  high  honors.  Hav¬ 
ing  been  appointed  to  the  Regius-profes- 
sorship  at  the  early  age  of  twenty-eight,  he 
at  once  took  a  very  considerable  position 
among  his  contemporaries,  in  the  list  of 
whom  appear  the  names  of  some  of  the 
most  eminent  scholars  and  churchmen  of 
the  time;  and  when,  in  1833-40,  the  Tracts 
for  the  Times  appeared  (from  which  the 
name  of  ‘  Tractarians,’  given  to  a  section  of 
the  clergy,  was  derived),  Pusey  contributed 
to  the  series  the  Tracts  on  Fasting  and  on 
Baptism.  Indeed,  he  threw  himself  so 
heartily  into  the  movement  represented  by 
the  Tracts,  that  the  form  of  ecclesiasticism 
and  of  doctrine  they  advocated  became 
popularly  known  by  the  name  of  ‘  Pusey- 
ism;’  and  when  the  series  came  to  a  close, 
on  account  of  the  excitement  caused  by  the 
publication  of  Tract  XC.  (written  by  Dr. 
John  Henry  Newman,  and  which  argued 
that  the  ‘  Articles  ’  did  not  prevent  the 
holding  of  Roman  Catholic  doctrine),  Dr. 
Pusey  continued,  through  a  succession  of 
letters  and  pamphlets,  several  of  which 
were  in  many  ways  very  remarkable,  to 
maintain  the  doctrines  which  the  Tracts  had 
been  designed  to  enforce.  Eventually,  in 
1843,  in  consequence  of  a  sermon  preached 
by  him  before  the  University  on  the  sub¬ 
ject  of  the  ‘  Holy  Eucharist,’  in  which  he 
was  believed  to  have  argued  in  favor  of 


transubstantiation,  he  was  interdicted  from 
preaching  for  two  years.  From  this  time 
forward,  however,  he  continued  his  career, 
exerting  an  influence  almost  unparalleled 
both  in  Oxford  and  throughout  England: 
an  influence  which  was  due,  not  so  much  to 
his  teaching,  as  to  his  pure  and  noble  char¬ 
acter  and  his  profound  conscientiousness. 
Among  his  many  works  may  be  mentioned 
his  Commentary  on  the  Minor  Prophets 
(1862)  ;  LecHires  on  the  Prophet  Daniel 
(1864),  and  The  Church  of  England  a  Por¬ 
tion  of  the  One  Holy  Catholic  Church ,  an 
Eirenicon ,  in  reply  to  Dr.  Manning  (1865). 
He  also  projected  and  edited  throughout 
The  Anglo-Catholic  Library ,  and  was  one  of 
the  working  editors  of  The  Oxford  Library 
of  the  Fathers.  His  last  years  were  spent 
in  a  seclusion  rarely  broken  by  controver¬ 
sial  strife.  His  death  took  place  at  Ascot 
Priory,  and  he  was  buiied  in  the  Cathedral 
at  Oxford,  beside  his  wife  and  daughter, 
some  of  the  most  distinguished  men  in  Eng¬ 
land  following  his  remains  to  the  grave. 
Since  Dr.  Pusey’s  death,  a  large  Memorial 
Fund  has  been  raised  by  subscription  to  be 
devoted  to  objects  in  harmony  with  the 
tenor  of  his  life.” — Cassell  :  Cyclopcedia. 
See  Tractarianism. 

Pyx,  the  box  or  vessel  in  which  the  con¬ 
secrated  bread  is  kept  in  Roman  Catholic 
Churches.  When  it  contains  the  Host,  a 
lighted  lamp  is  kept  before  it.  Its  use  was 
prescribed  by  Innocent  III.  in  1215. 

Q. 

Quadragesima.  See  Lent. 

Quakers.  See  Friends. 

Quarles  (kwdrlz),  Francis,  b.  at  Stew¬ 
ards,  Essex,  1592;  d.  in  London,  Sept.  8, 
1644.  After  graduating  at  Cambridge  he 
studied  law  at  Lincoln’s  Inn;  was  a  servant 
of  Queen  Elizabeth  of  Bohemia;  secretary 
to  Archbishop  Ussher.  He  espoused  the 
cause  of  Charles  I.,  and  lost  all  in  the  fall 
of  that  monarch.  He  is  remembered  as  a 
sacred  poet,  in  whose  verses,  quaint  and 
labored,  there  are  many  noble  lines.  His 
Divine  Poems  were  published  in  1630,  and 
have  run  through  many  editions:  Etnbletns, 
Divine  and  Moral  (1635);  School  of  the 
Heart'.  Hieroglyphics  of  the  Life  of  Man 
(1638). 

Quarterly  Meeting.  See  Friends. 

Quartodecimani.  See  Paschal  Con¬ 
troversy. 

Queen  Anne’s  Bounty,  the  name  given 


Que 


(  78i  ) 


Rab 


to  a  fund  appropriated  to  increase  the  in¬ 
comes  of  the  poorer  clergy  of  England, 
created  out  of  the  first-fruits  and  tenths, 
which  before  the  Reformation  formed  part 
of  the  papal  exactions  from  the  clergy. 
The  first-fruits  are  the  first  whole  year’s 
profit  of  all  spiritual  preferments,  and  the 
tenths  are  one-tenth  of  their  annual  profits, 
both  chargeable  according  to  the  ancient 
declared  value  of  the  benefice;  but  the 
poorer  livings  are  now  exempted  from  the 
tax. 

Quesnel  ( ka'nel ),  Pasquier,  b.  in  Paris, 
July  14,  1634;  d.  in  Amsterdam,  Dec.  2, 
1719.  He  studied  theology  at  the  Sor- 
bonne,  and  was  ordained  in  1659.  Soon  after 
his  appointment  as  Director  of  the  Semi¬ 
nary  of  the  Oratory  he  began  the  publica¬ 
tion  of  his  Reflexions  Morales.  The  work 
met  with  great  public  favor,  but  his  ad¬ 
vocacy  of  Jansenist  views  incurred  the 
hostility  of  the  Jesuits,  and  he  was  com¬ 
pelled  to  seek  refuge  in  the  Netherlands. 
Here  he  continued  his  publication  of  the 
Reflexions.  In  1703  he  was  arrested  and 
put  in  the  dungeon  of  the  archiepiscopal 
palace  at  Brussels,  but  he  escaped  to  Hol¬ 
land,  and  made  his  home  at  Amsterdam, 
where  he  died  at  an  advanced  age.  He 
also  wrote  a  Life  of  Arnauld,  Traditions  of 
the  Roitian  Church ,  etc. 

Quinquagesima,  the  Sunday  before  Ash 
Wednesday.  It  was  so  named  from  the 
fact  that  it  is  fifty  days  before  Easter. 

Quietism.  See  Molinos;  Guyon. 

Quirinius  (Greek  Cyrenius ,  Luke  ii.  2.) 
His  full  name  was  Publius  Sulpicius 
Quirinius.  It  is  probable  that  he  was 
twice  governor  of  Syria;  the  first  time  from 
the  year  of  our  Lord’s  birth,  b.  c.  4  to  b.  c. 
1,  and  again  from  a.  d.  6  to  a.  d.  ii.  The 
“first  taxing  ”  or  enrollment  which  made 
it  necessary  for  Mary  and  Joseph  to  come 
to  Bethlehem  occurred  during  the  first 
governorship  of  Quirinius.  The  second 
census,  mentioned  by  Luke  (Acts  v.  37) 
and  by  Josephus,  took  place  A.  D.  6. 

R. 

Rabanus  ( rd-bd'noos ),  Maurus  Magnen- 
tius,  b.  at  Mayence  about  776;  d.  there, 
Feb.  4,  856.  He  was  educated  at  the 
cloister-school  of  Fulda,  and  for  a  time  was 
a  pupil  of  Alcuin  in  Tours.  From  here  he 
was  called  to  the  principalship  of  the  school 
in  Fulda,  which  under  his  guidance  became 
very  prosperous,  and  in  822  he  was  elected 
abbot  of  the  monastery.  This  position  he 
resigned  in  842  on  account  of  political  dis¬ 


turbances,  and  retired  to  a  church  which 
he  had  built  at  Petersberg.  In  847  he  was 
again  called  into  active  life  by  his  election 
as  archbishop  of  Mayence.  Eminent  as  a 
teacher  and  administrator,  his  fame  rests  on 
his  literary  works.  He  wrote  Commen¬ 
taries  on  the  Old  Testament,  on  the  Gos¬ 
pels  of  Matthew  and  John,  and  on  the 
Pauline  Epistles,  two  collections  of  homi¬ 
lies,  hymns,  text-books  for  his  school,  and, 
among  other  polemical  treatises,  one  relat¬ 
ing  to  the  book  on  Transubstantiation,  by 
Paschasius  Radbertus.  His  collected 
works  were  published  at  Cologne,  1627. 
Life ,  by  Spingler  (Ratisbon,  1856). 

Rabaut  {ra' bo),  Paul,  a  celebrated  Frencn 
Protestant  preacher  and  leader  in  a  time  of 
persecution;  b.  at  Bedarieux,  Jan.  9,  1718; 
d.  at  Nimes,  Sept.  25,  1794.  After  study¬ 
ing  theology  at  Lausanne  he  became  pastor 
of  Nimes  in  1744.  The  following  year  the 
spirit  of  persecution  again  broke  out  against 
the  Protestants  in  a  decree  forbidding  the 
assembling  of  congregations.  Rabaut  con¬ 
tinued  to  preach,  and  although  a  price  of  a 
thousand  livres  was  put  upon  his  head,  he 
escaped  arrest,  often  in  ways  that  seemed 
miraculous.  His  efforts  to  secure  the  re¬ 
lease  of  those  Protestants  who  had  been 
sent  to  the  galleys,  and  to  gain  a  legal 
recognition  of  the  baptism  and  marriage  of 
those  connected  with  Protestant  families 
were  met  by  further  persecutions,  and 
when,  in  1761,  the  governor  of  Guienne 
proposed  to  compel  Protestants  by  force 
to  have  their  children  baptized  and  their 
marriages  consecrated  by  Roman  Catholic 
priests,  Rabaut  in  a  pastoral  letter  advised 
his  people  to  emigrate  rather  than  to  sub¬ 
mit  to  the  Government.  Meanwhile  in¬ 
creasing  sympathy  was  elicited  in  favor  of 
the  Protestants,  and  in  1787  the  Edict  of 
Toleration  was  issued,  and  Rabaut  spent 
his  last  years  in  peace. 

Rab'bah.  See  Ammonites. 

Rabbinism,  a  form  of  Judaism  which 
prevailed  among  the  Jews  from  the  disper¬ 
sion  to  the  end  of  the  last  century.  It  may 
be  divided  into  two  periods,  the  first  from 
the  fifth  century  b.  C.  to  the  fifth  century 
A.  D. ,  and  the  second  from  the  fifth  century 
A.  D.  to  its  disappearance.  It  was  caused 
by  the  reorganization  of  the  social,  moral, 
and  religious  life  of  the  Jews  according  to 
the  Mosaic  Law,  which  brought  about  a 
union  between  school  and  government. 
The  Hebrew  was  rendered  into  Chaldee, 
and  was  added  to  by  explanations,  illustra¬ 
tions,  etc.,  and  a  tradition  was  formed 
which  became  in  the  eyes  of  the  people  of 
equal  importance  with  the  written  Law. 


Rab 


(  782  ) 


Rai 


Later  on,  the  Mishna  was  edited  by  Hillel 
and  Jehuda;  by  it  the  Mosaic  Law,  which 
had  formerly  been  treated  under  613  heads, 
was  now  reduced  to  six.  During  the  latter 
part  of  the  fourth  century  a  rivalry  grew 
up  between  the  Persian  and  Babylonian 
schools.  The  Babylonian  Talmud  was  re¬ 
arranged  by  Rabbi  Ashe,  the  head  of  the 
Rabbinical  schools;  the  Rabbinical  schools 
throughout  Persia  were  closed. 

The  second  epoch  of  Rabbinism  is  less 
interesting  than  the  first.  The  Babylonian 
Talmud  was  brought  to  Europe  and  trans¬ 
lated  into  Arabic.  Maimonides  succeeded 
in  reconciling  the  liberal  form  of  Rabbinism 
which  had  grown  up  in  Spain,  and  the  or¬ 
thodox  form  which  had  appeared  in  Gaul 
and  Italy,  and  it  flourished  till  the  thir¬ 
teenth  century,  when  the  persecutions  of 
the  Inquisition  partly  destroyed  it.  How¬ 
ever,  the  Cabbala  was  studied  till  the  last 
century,  when  Moses  Mendelssohn  rose 
against  it.  At  the  present  time  Rabbinism 
is  superseded  by  rationalism. — Benham: 
Did.  of  Religion. 

Rab'saris,  the  title  of  an  Assyrian  officer 
mentioned  in  2  Kings  xviii.  17;  Jer.  xxxix. 
3.  13- 

Rab'shakeh,  the  title  of  an  Assyrian  offi¬ 
cer,  sent  with  Rabsaris  and  Tartan,  by 
Sennacherib  to  Hezekiah  with  a  demand, 
couched  in  insolent  terms,  that  he  should 
surrender  Jerusalem.  (2  Kings  xviii.  17-37.) 

Ra'ca,  a  term  of  contempt  often  used  by 
the  Jews.  (Matt.  v.  22.)  It  is  derived 
from  the  Aramaic  reka,  “worthless.”  It 
is  a  less  severe  term  of  opprobrium  than 
“fool.” 

Ra'chel.  See  Jacob. 

Radbertus,  Paschasius,  a  prominent  ec¬ 
clesiastical  writer  who  flourished  in  the 
first  half  of  the  ninth  century.  Very  little 
is  known  of  his  personal  life.  Born  at 
Soissons,  toward  the  close  of  the  eighth 
century,  he  entered  the  monastery  of 
Corbie  in  814,  where  he  became  abbot 
in  844.  Ten  of  his  works  have  been  pre¬ 
served,  but  the  most  important  is  his  De 
Corpore  et  Sanguine  Domini ,  the  first  com¬ 
prehensive  treatise  regarding  the  Lord’s 
Supper.  Up  to  this  time  two  entirely  op¬ 
posite  views  had  been  held  regarding  this 
doctrine,  without  controversy ;  one  consid¬ 
ering  the  elements  of  the  Supper  as  mere 
symbols,  while  the  other  saw  in  the  bread 
and  wine  the  actual  body  and  blood  of 
Christ.  Radbertus  attempted  to  combine 
and  harmonize  these  views.  His  book  was 
attacked  both  by  Ratramus  and  Rabanus 


Maurus.  According  to  later  Roman  Cath¬ 
olic  writers,  he  is  the  champion  of  tran- 
substantiation. 

Raffles,  Thomas,  D.  D.,  LL.  D.,  an  emi¬ 
nent  Congregational  minister;  b.  in  Lon¬ 
don,  May  17,  1788;  and  from  1812  until  his 
death,  Aug.  18,  1863,  was  pastor  at  Liver¬ 
pool.  Among  other  writings  he  produced 
some  hymns  that  have  been  widely  used. 
See  his  Life ,  by  his  son,  T.  S.  Raffles  (1864). 

Ragged  Schools  have  for  their  purpose 
the  teaching  of  vagrant  children  and  their 
rescue  from  a  criminal  life.  The  earliest 
school  of  the  kind  is  said  to  have  been  or¬ 
ganized  in  Rome,  near  the  close  of  the  last 
century,  by  Giovanni  Borgia,  an  illiterate 
mason.  The  name,  however,  came  into 
general  use  to  designate  the  schools  insti¬ 
tuted  by  John  Pounds,  a  poor  shoemaker, 
at  Portsmouth,  in  1819.  He  kept  up  this 
work,  with  great  success,  until  his  death 
in  1839.  In  1838  a  Ragged  Sunday-school 
was  opened  in  London,  and  at  the  present 
time  there  are  a  large  number  of  the  schools 
doing  an  efficient  work  in  that  city.  Dr. 
Thomas  Guthrie  became  deeply  interested 
in  the  organization  of  these  schools  at 
Edinburgh  and  elsewhere.  His  famous 
Plea  for  Ragged  Schools  appeared  in  1847. 

Ra'hab,  the  harlot  of  Jericho,  who  hid 
and  protected  the  spies  of  Israel,  and  as  a 
reward  was  saved  with  her  family  when 
Jericho  was  destroyed.  (Josh.  ii. ;  vi.  22- 
25.)  Her  name  is  found  among  the  heroes 
of  faith  (Heb.  xi.  13),  and  in  James  ii.  25 
she  is  said  to  have  been  justified  by  works. 
According  to  1  Chron.  ii.  4,  compared  with 
Matt.  i.  4,  she  married  Salmon,  “  prince  ” 
of  Judah,  and  thus  became  the  ancestress 
of  David  and  our  Lord.  Rahab  is  used  as 
a  symbolical  term  for  Egypt.  (Psa.  lxxxvii. 
4;  lxxxix.  10;  Isa.  Ii.  9.) 

Raikes,  Robert,  founder  of  Sunday- 
schools;  b.  at  Gloucester,  Eng.,  Sept.  14, 
1735;  d.  there,  April  5,  1811.  His  father 
was  a  printer,  and  edited  and  published  the 
Gloucester  fournal.  The  son  in  after-life 
succeeded  to  this  business.  When  but  a 
young  man  he  often  visited  the  jail  of  the 
city,  and  called  public  attention  to  its 
bad  condition  in  his  paper,  until  a  radical 
change  for  the  better  was  brought  about. 
In  1781  he  became  interested  in  the  welfare 
of  the  poor  and  ragged  groups  of  children, 
whom  he  met  playing  on  the  streets.  Se¬ 
curing  the  hired  services  of  four  women, 
he  opened  schools  to  teach  them  to  read, 
and  on  Sunday  they  instructed  all  who 
would  come  together  in  reading  and  the 
catechism.  His  work  met  with  great  sue- 


Ral 


(  783  ) 


Ram 


cess,  and  the  plan  was  taken  up  in  other 
places,  and  has  grown  into  the  system  of 
Sunday-schools  that  gathers  millions  for 
instruction  each  Lord’s  Day.  See  Sunday- 
Schools. 

Rale(r47),  Sebastian,  French  Jesuit  mis¬ 
sionary  to  the  North  American  Indians; 
b.  in  Fianche-Comt6,  1657  or  1658;  d.  at 
Norridgewock,  Me.,  Aug.  23,  1724.  He 
came  to  Quebec  in  1689,  an(i  labored  among 
the  Abnakis,  a  few  miles  above  the  city. 
In  1691  or  1692  he  was  with  the  Algonquins 
in  the  Illinois  country.  Returning  to  the 
East  he  settled  at  Norridgewock,  on  the 
Kennebec,  where  he  built  a  chapel  (1698), 
and  gained  so  great  an  influence  among  fhe 
Abnakis  that  he  was  accused  of  inciting  the 
attacks  on  the  Protestant  settlers  of  the 
Maine  coast.  In  1705,  1722,  and  1724  Nor¬ 
ridgewock  was  attacked  by  the  settlers, 
who  had  put  a  price  on  the  head  of  Rale. 
The  first  time  the  chapel  was  burned,  and 
the  second  time  his  house  was  pillaged, 
and  his  papers  carried  off,  among  them  a 
manuscript  dictionary  of  Abnaki,  now  at 
Harvard  College  Library  (printed  in  1833); 
the  third  time  Rale  was  killed.  See  his 
Memoir ,  by  Con  vers  Francis  in  Spark’s 
Am.  Biog.  (2d  series,  vol.  vii.). 

Raleigh,  Alexander,  an  English  Inde¬ 
pendent  minister;  b.  at  Kirkcudbright, 
Scotland,  Jan.  3,  1817;  d.  in  London,  April 
19,  1880.  With  limited  school  advantages 
he  was  in  business  in  London  from  1835  to 
1840,  when  he  studied  theology  at  Black¬ 
burn  College.  He  was  first  settled  in 
Greenock,  Scotland,  1844;  Rotherham, 
Eng. ,  1850-55;  Glasgow,  1855-59;  and  ftom 
1859  to  his  death,  in  London.  His  chief 
works  are:  Quiet  Resting-Places ;  The  Story 
of  Jonah  the  Prophet;  The  Little  Sanctuary , 
and  Other  Meditations;  Thoughts  for  the 
Weary  and  Sorrowful.  Dr.  Raleigh  was 
twice  elected  chairman  of  the  Congrega¬ 
tional  Union. 

Ramadan  (from  ramida ,  to  glow  with 
heat),  the  ninth  month  of  the  Moham¬ 
medan  year,  observed  as  a  fast  in  honor  of 
the  giving  of  the  Koran.  The  month  of 
fasting  is  followed  by  three  days  of  feast¬ 
ing,  called  the  Little  Beiram. 

Ra'mah  ( high  place),  the  name  of  several 
towns  in  Palestine.  (1)  A  city  in  Benja¬ 
min,  near  Gibeah  (Josh,  xviii.  25;  Judg. 
xix.  13),  occupied  by  Saul.  (1  Sam.  xxii.  6.) 
Its  naturally  strong  site  was  fortified  by 
Baasha,  but  his  work  was  stopped  by  the 
king  of  Judah,  aided  by  the  Syrians.  (1 
Kings  xv.  17-22;  2  Chron.  xvi.  1-6.)  It 
was  here  that  Nebuchadnezzar  placed  under 


guard  the  captives  he  had  taken  at  Jerusa¬ 
lem,  among  whom  was  the  prophet  Jere¬ 
miah.  (Jer.  xxxi.  15;  xxxix.  8-12;  xl.  1.) 
The  place  was  reoccupied  after  the  captiv¬ 
ity.  (Ezra  ii.  26;  Neh.  vii.  30.)  It  is  iden¬ 
tified  with  er-Ram ,  about  five  miles  north 
of  Jerusalem.  (2)  A  place  on  the  border 
of  Asher,  identified  by  Robinson  with 
Rameh ,  about  thirteen  miles  southeast  of 
Tyre.  This  site  is  accepted  by  the  Pal. 
Memoirs,  but  they  call  the  place  Ramia. 

(3)  A  fortified  place  of  Naphtali  (Josh.  xix. 
36);  it  is  probably  identical  with  Rameh , 
ten  miles  northwest  of  the  sea  of  Galilee. 

(4)  A  name  for  Ramoth-gilead.  (2  Kings 

viii.  29;  xxix. ;  2  Chron.  xxii.  6);  a  city  of 
the  Amorites  (Deut.  iv.  43),  then  of  Gaul, 
and  a  city  of  refuge.  Many  travelers  have 
identified  it  with  Es-Salt,  twenty-five  miles 
east  of  the  Jordan,  and  thirteen  miles  south 
of  the  Jabbok.  Dr.  Merrill,  after  most 
careful  explorations  in  this  region,  identi¬ 
fies  it  with  Gerosh,  about  twenty-five 
miles  northeast  of  Es-Salt.  (5)  A  place  in¬ 
habited  by  the  Benjamites  after  the  exile. 
(Neh.  xi.  33.)  (6)  The  birthplace,  home 

and  burial-place  of  the  prophet  Samuel. 
(1  Sam.  i.  1;  ii.  11;  viii.  4;  xv.  34;  xvi.  13; 
xix.  18;  xxv.  1;  xxviii.  3.)  The  name  was 
a  contraction  of  Ramathaim-zophim.  It 
was  on  an  eminence  south  of  Gibeah,  and  in 
the  district  called  “  Mount  Ephraim.”  The 
exact  position  of  the  place  is  a  much-dis¬ 
puted  and,  as  yet,  unsolved  problem. 

Rame'ses  (son  of  the  sun),  a  city  and 
province  in  Egypt;  called  also  Raam'ses. 
(Gen.  xlvii.  11;  Ex.  xii.  37;  Num.  xxxiii. 
3,  5.)  It  corresponds  without  doubt  to  the 
district  of  Goshen.  The  precise  location 
of  the  city  is  unknown.  See  Exodus. 

Ram'mohun,  Roy,  a  Hindoo  religious 
reformer;  b.  at  Burdwan,  Bengal,  1772;  d. 
at  Stapleton  Park,  near  Bristol,  Eng.,  Sept. 
27>  1833.  He  was  a  Brahman,  but  was  led 
to  renounce  polytheism  by  the  reading  of 
the  Koran.  He  translated  the  Vedanta,  or 
Resolution  of  all  the  Veds,  and  in  1820 
published  selections  from  the  New  Testa¬ 
ment  under  the  title,  7'he  Precepts  of  Jesus, 
the  Guide  to  Peace  and  Happiness.  He 
wrote  an  Apology  for  the  Pursuit  of  Final 
Beatitude.  He  believed  in  the  divine  mis¬ 
sion  of  Jesus,  but  did  not  accept  his 
divinity.  In  the  early  part  of  1830  he 
founded  at  Calcutta  the  Brahmiya  Somaj 
from  which  came  the  Brahmo  Somaj  (q.  v.). 
In  the  same  year  he  came  to  England  as 
representative  of  the  sovereign  of  Delhi  to 
obtain  an  increase  of  stipend,  which  was 
granted  by  the  East  India  Company. 
While  in  England  he  worshiped  with  the 
Unitarians. 


Ran 


(  784  ) 


Ranee  ( ron'sd ),  Armand  Jean  le  Bou- 
thillier  de,  b.  in  Paris,  Jan.  9,  1626;  d. 
at  Soligny-la-Trappe,  Oct.  12,  1700.  He 
was  a  precocious  scholar,  and  in  youth 
pleasure-loving.  Converted  at  twenty-five 
he  resigned  all  his  benefices,  distributed 
his  wealth  among  the  poor,  and  retired  to 
La  Trappe,  where  he  spent  the  rest  of  his 
life,  and  organized  the  most  severe  dis¬ 
cipline  known  in  the  monastic  system. 
He  was  a  prolific  writer.  See  Trappists. 

Randell,  Benjamin.  See  Free-Will  Bap¬ 
tists. 

Ranke,  Leopold  von,  a  famous  histo¬ 
rian;  b.  at  Wiche,  Thuringia,  Dec.  21,  1795; 
d.  in  Berlin,  May  23,  1886.  He  studied  at 
Leipzig;  became  head  teacher  in  the  Frank¬ 
fort  (on  the  Oder)  gymnasium  in  1818;  and 
after  1825  was  professor  of  history  at  the 
University  of  Berlin.  In  1827,  under  the 
direction  of  the  Prussian  Government,  he 
conducted  historical  researches  at  Rome, 
Venice,  and  Vienna.  In  1841  he  was  ap¬ 
pointed  historiographer  of  Prussia,  and  in 
1866  ennobled.  He  continued  his  labors  as 
a  historian  with  great  success  into  advanced 
life.  Of  his  works  pertaining  to  religious 
history  that  have  been  translated,  the  most 
important  are:  The  History  of  the  Rotncin 
and  Germanic  Peoples ,  from  1494  to  1538  ; 
The  Popes  of  Rome,  their  Church  and  their 
State,  especially  of  the  Conflict  with  Protes¬ 
tantism  in  the  Sixteenth  and  Seventeenth 
Centuries ,  3  vols. ;  German  History  in  the 
Ti?nes  of  the  Refor?nation;  Universal  His¬ 
tory,  vol.  i. 

Ranters,  an  Antinomian  sect  which  ap¬ 
peared  in  England  in  1645.  They  professed 
themselves  incapable  of  sinning  and  in  the 
condition  of  Adam  in  Paradise.  At  their 
public  meetings  they  stripped  themselves 
naked  and  were  guilty  of  gross  lewdness. 
The  name  was  afterward  applied  to  the 
Primitive  Methodists,  because  of  their  vo¬ 
ciferous  earnestness  and  violent  gesticula¬ 
tions. 

Raph'ael,  “  one  of  the  seven  holy’  an¬ 
gels  which  ...  go  in  and  out  before  the 
glory  of  the  Holy  One.”  (Tob.  xii.  15.) 
According  to  another  Jewish  tradition, 
Raphael  was  one  of  the  four  angels  which 
stood  round  the  throne  of  God  (Michael, 
Uriel,  Gabriel,  Raphael).  In  Tobit  he  ap¬ 
pears  as  the  guide  and  counselor  of  Tobias. 

Rappists,  a  name  given  the  followers  of 
George  Rapp,  a  weaver  by  trade,  who  was 
b.  at  Iptingen,  Wiirtemberg,  1770,  and  d. 
at  Economy,  Penn.,  Aug.  7,  1847.  He  be¬ 
came  the  leader  of  a  society  which  sought 


Rat 


to  carry  out  the  principles  which  they 
thought  were  inculcated  in  the  New  Testa¬ 
ment.  They  held  their  property  in  com¬ 
mon,  and  for  this  reason  soon  came  into 
conflict  with  the  government  authorities. 
Emigrating  to  the  United  States  in  1803, 
they  first  settled  on  Conequenessing  Creek, 
in  Butler  County,  Penn.,  and  called  the 
place  Harmony.  In  1815  they  bought  a 
tract  of  twenty-four  thousand  acres  on  the 
Wabash,  Ind.,  and  removed  thither.  New 
Harmony,  as  it  was  called,  was  sold  to 
Robert  Owen,  in  1824,  and  the  Rappists 
then  made  their  home  at  Economy,  seven¬ 
teen  miles  northwest  of  Pittsburg,  on  the 
Ohio  River. 

Rashi,  the  celebrated  Jewish  commenta¬ 
tor;  b.  in  1040  at  Troyes  in  France.  He 
was  a  man  of  extraordinary  attainments  in 
many  branches  of  learning,  and  traveled  in 
Italy,  Greece,  Germany,  Palestine,  Egypt, 
and  Persia,  studying  under  the  greatest 
scholars  of  the  time.  His  chief  work  is  a 
commentary  on  the  entire  Old  Testament, 
giving  both  the  literal  sense  and  also  alle¬ 
gorical  illustrations.  The  first  volume  ap¬ 
peared  at  Reggio  in  1475  and  was  the  first 
book  ever  printed  in  Hebrew. 

Raskolniks.  See  Russian  Church. 

Rationalism,  the  setting  up  of  reason 
as  the  supreme  arbiter,  and  causing  the 
Scriptures  and  the  mysteries  of  Christian¬ 
ity  to  be  interpreted  and  judged  by  it  alone. 
Such  a  system  was  the  natural  outcome  of 
the  Reformation  so  far  as  this:  the  tradi¬ 
tional  method  was  abandoned,  for  men 
claimed  the  right  of  appealing  to  the  Script¬ 
ures  against  it.  The  authority  of  the 
Church  to  impose  fetters  on  opinion  was 
denied  when  Luther  burned  the  pope’s 
bull.  It  thus  became  necessary  to  find 
another  basis  of  belief,  and  it  was  in  good 
faith  that  the  early  German  rationalists  de¬ 
clared  that  the  evidence  for  Christianity 
was  found  in  its  harmonizing  with  the  in¬ 
stincts  and  needs  of  the  soul.  It  was  later 
developments,  which,  ignoring  the  pres¬ 
ence  of  sin  in  the  world,  and  of  the  dark¬ 
ness  produced  by  sin,  exalted  reason  above 
mystery,  and  proceeded  to  eliminate  every¬ 
thing  supernatural  from  religion,  to  dis¬ 
credit  miracles,  or  to  regard  them  as 
Oriental  exaggerations  of  natural  opera¬ 
tions,  and  to  question  the  inspiration  of  the 
Bible. — Benham:  Diet,  of  Religion.  See 
Kant;  Deism;  Miracles;  Evidences;  In¬ 
spiration,  and  Revelation. 

Ratisbon,  Conference  of,  which  met  in 
May,  1541,  was  a  continuation  of  the  one 
held  in  Worms  the  previous  year.  It  was 


Rat 


(  785  ) 


Rec 


the  last  attempt  which  Charles  V.  made  to 
settle  the  religious  differences  of  the  time 
without  resort  to  arms. 

Ratramnus,  a  monk  in  the  monastery  of 
Corbie,  Picardy,  in  the  ninth  century.  He 
wrote  against  the  doctrine  of  transubstan- 
tiation  as  taught  by  Paschasius  Radbertus. 
This  book,  De  Corpore  et  Sanguine  Domini , 
was  condemned  two  centuries  later  as  a 
supposed  work  of  John  Scotus  Erigena. 
In  1526  John  Fisher,  bishop  of  Rochester, 
quoted  it  against  CEcolampadius  as  a  repre¬ 
sentative  of  the  Roman  Catholic  doctrine 
of  the  Eucharist. 

Rauch,  Frederick  Augustus,  Ph.  D., 
first  president  of  Marshall  College,  Mer- 
cersburg,  Penn.;  b.  at  Kirckbracht,  Hesse- 
Darmstadt,  July  27,  1806;  d.  at  Mercers- 
burg,  Penn.,  March  2,  1841.  He  was  edu¬ 
cated  at  the  University  of  Marburg,  and 
studied  theology  and  philosophy  at  Giessen 
and  Heidelberg.  Just  after  receiving  an 
appointment  to  an  ordinary  professorship 
at  Heidelberg,  he  came  under  the  displeas¬ 
ure  of  the  government  for  some  political 
sentiments  he  had  expressed,  and  he  found 
refuge  in  this  country,  in  1831.  He  taught 
at  Easton  and  then  at  York,  Penn.,  and  in 
1835,  when  Marshall  College  was  founded 
at  Mercersburg,  he  was  chosen  president, 
and  professor  of  biblical  literature  in  the 
theological  seminary.  His  early  death 
frustrated  his  literary  plans,  but  his  ability 
as  a  scholar  and  thinker  left  an  abiding 
influence  upon  the  college  and  the  circle 
in  which  he  moved.  See  Mercersburg 
Theology. 

Rauhe  Haus.  See  Wichern. 

Ravenna  was  founded,  according  to 
Strabo,  by  the  Thessalians.  From  the 
time  of  Julius  Caesar  far  on  in  the  history 
of  the  later  empire,  it  was  an  important 
military  and  naval  station,  and  a  place  of 
confinement  for  military  prisoners.  It  was 
originally  situated  on  the  Adriatic,  but 
owing  to  the  deposits  from  the  delta  of  the 
river  Po,  it  is  now  distant  five  or  six  miles 
from  the  sea.  Ravenna  has  an  interesting 
ecclesiastical  history.  According  to  a 
doubtful  tradition  Christianity  was  intro¬ 
duced.  here  as  early  as  79  A.  D.  by  Apolli- 
naris,  a  disciple  of  Peter,  who  is  said  to 
have  suffered  martyrdom  for  the  destruc¬ 
tion  of  a  temple  of  Apollo.  Ravenna  has 
been  the  seat  of  twenty-five  synods,  and 
while  the  Emperor  Honorius  made  it  his 
residence  he  convened  there,  about  419,  an 
assembly  of  bishops  to  decide  the  rival 
claims  of  Boniface  and  Eulalius*  to  the 
papal  chair.  This  was  the  beginning  of  a 


long  struggle  for  the  independence  of  the 
Roman  see. 

Raymond  Martini,  a  Dominican  monk 
and  learned  Orientalist;  b.  at  Suberts  in 
Catalonia,  early  in  the  th  rteenth  century; 
d.  after  1284.  He  was  a  missionary  among: 
the  Spanish  Jews,  and  went  to  Tunis  to> 
convert  the  Mohammedans,  against  whom 
he  wrote  Pugio  fidei ,  and  a  work  refuting 
the  Koran,  which  has  perished. 

Reader.  See  Lector. 

Real  Presence.  See  Lord’s  Supper; 

T  RANSUBSTANTIATION. 

Realists,  the  opponents  of  the  Nomi¬ 
nalists  ( q .  v.)  among  the  Schoolmen  of  the 
Middle  Ages.  Their  main  doctrine,  which 
is  also  attributed  to  Aristotle,  was  that 
“  Universals  ”  (y.  v.)  have  an  independent 
existence;  nay,  that  they,  or  Ideas,  are,  the 
only  real  existences,  inasmuch  as  all  visible 
things  grow,  change,  and  perish.  Wise 
men  perish,  but  their  wisdom  is  eternal. 
•Universals  exist,  therefore,  independently 
of  things,  and  of  our  conceptions  of  them, 
in  the  divine  intellect.  And  the  supreme 
reason  of  man  is  to  have  his  thoughts  in 
conformity  with  the  divine  ideals.  Real¬ 
ism,  therefore,  accepting  the  divine  origin 
of  the  Church,  taught  complete  submission 
to  authority,  and  the  necessity  of  looking 
to  God  only  for  revelation  and  light.  The 
founder  of  this  school  of  thought  was  An¬ 
selm,  and  the  work  was  taken  up  and  car¬ 
ried  on  by  Thomas  Aquinas  and  William 
of  Champeaux. — Benham:  Did.  of  Re¬ 
ligion. 

Re'chabites,  descendants  of  Jonadab  or 
Jehonadab,  son  of  Rechab.  (2  Kings  x.  15.) 
They  worshiped  the  true  God,  and  prac¬ 
tised  circumcision,  but  they  were  not  reck¬ 
oned  among  the  children  of  Israel.  Jonadab 
gave  command  to  his  people  not  to  drink 
wine,  build  houses,  or  plant  vineyards,  but 
to  dwell  always  in  tents.  The  loyalty  with 
which  the  Rechabites  kept  these  counsels 
is  held  up  as  an  example  of  constancy  to 
Judah  by  the  prophet  Jeremiah.  (Jer.  xxxv.) 
The  Rechabites  still  dwell  in  the  northeast 
of  Medina.  They  do  not  mingle  with  the 
Jews,  who  consider  them  as  “  false  breth¬ 
ren  ”  because  they  do  not  observe  the  Law. 

Recluse,  a  term  frequently  given  to  all 
persons  who  withdraw  from  the  world  tc 
spend  their  days  in  meditation,  but  prop¬ 
erly  applied  to  those  hermits,  especially 
monks  and  nuns,  who,  at  their  own  request, 
were  sealed  up  in  their  cells,  to  remain 
until  death.  This  privilege  was  only  ac- 


Rec 


(  786  ) 


Red 


corded  by  the  express  permission  of  the 
abbot,  and  only  a  bishop  could  allow  re¬ 
cluses  to  leave  their  cells.  This  practice 
prevailed  most  widely  in  the  eleventh  and 
twelfth  centuries. 

Recollects,  a  minor  branch  of  the  Fran¬ 
ciscan  order  of  monks.  The  name  is  sup¬ 
posed  to  have  been  given  them  by  Clement 
VII.,  who,  in  1531,  granted  houses  to  such 
as  possessed  “  the  Spirit  of  Recollection.” 
From  its  foundation  the  Order  of  St.  Fran¬ 
cis  has  been  divided  into  two  parties,  the 
Conventualists  and  the  Observants,  the 
former  living  in  monasteries  under  a  not 
very  strict  rule,  and  the  latter  following 
more  exactlj'-  the  laws  of  their  founder, 
especially  those  relating  to  poverty.  At 
the  end  of  the  sixteenth  century  the  Ob¬ 
servants  in  Italy  were  named  by  the  reign¬ 
ing  pope  “  Reformed  Franciscans.”  They 
spread  very  rapidly  in  France  during  the 
seventeenth  century,  and  were  in  great 
favor  at  court.  It  was  in  this  country  that 
we  find  the  term  “  Recollects”  most  fre¬ 
quently  in  use.  They  stood  their  ground 
well  all  through  the  agitation  caused  by 
the  Jansenist  movement,  and  refused  to 
relax  their  rules  in  the  slightest  degree. 
The  order  was  suppressed  at  the  Revolu¬ 
tion,  but  has  lately  reappeared  in  a  few 
towns  in  France. — Benham:  Did.  of  Re¬ 
ligion. 

Reconciliation.  See  Atonement. 

Rector,  a  clergyman  who  has  the  charge 
and  care  of  a  parish,  and  possesses  all  of 
the  tithes. 

Redeemer,  Orders  of  the.  (i)  The 
order  in  Spain  was  founded  by  Alfonso  I., 
as  a  reward  for  courage  in  fighting  against 
the  Moors.  It  was  abolished  after  their 
conquest.  (2)  In  Italy,  by  Vincenzo  of 
Mantua,  for  the  defence  of  the  Catholic 
faith:  abolished  in  the  eighteenth  century. 
(3)  In  Greece,  by  King  Otto  I.,  in  1844,  as 
a  reward  of  merit.  The  king  is  the  Grand 
Master. 

Redemption  “  is  a  fundamental  concep¬ 
tion  of  Christianity,  and  the  name  Redeem¬ 
er  is  applied  to  Christ  as  a  comprehensive 
designation  of  his  work.  It  presupposes  a 
state  of  bondage  and  restraint,  in  which 
man  fails  to  reach  the  development  for 
which  his  powers  adapt  him,  and  stands  in 
a  false  relation  to  God.  This  disturbance 
of  our  relation  to  God  is  called  sin.  If 
there  were  no  sin,  there  would  be  no  re¬ 
demption.  Redemption  is,  therefore,  lib¬ 
eration  from  sin  and  its  evil  consequences. 
The  promise  of  redemption  which  God 


gave  after  the  fall  (Gen.  iii.  15)  was  re¬ 
newed  to  the  children  of  Israel  in  various 
forms:  as  a  deliverance  from  enemies 
(Exod.  xx.  2),  and  from  the  hand  of  the  un¬ 
godly  (Psa.  xii.;  xxxi.  15),  a  conception 
which  still  prevailed  in  New  Testament 
times  (Luke  i.  71),  and  from  guilt  and  sin 
(Psa.  li. ;  Isa.  xliii.  24,  25;  liii. ,  etc.)  Je¬ 
hovah  is  expressly  called  the  Redeemer 
of  Israel.  The  promises  of  the  Old 
Testament  were  fulfilled  in  Christ.  The 
redemption  from  the  yoke  of  the  Roman  do¬ 
minion,  which  the  mass  of  his  contempo¬ 
raries  expected,  he  did  not  procure.  His 
redemption  is  an  infinitely  higher  and  bet¬ 
ter  one,  from  sin  and  all  evil,  and  extends 
to  all  mankind.  (John  iii.  16,  17.)  The 
New  Testament  speaks  of  it  under  a  va¬ 
riety  of  figures,  as  a  payment  of  a  ransom 
(lutrou),  and  a  rescue  from  a  lost  condition 
(apdleia).  It  is  regarded  as  a  deliverance 
from  guilt,  whereby  the  forgiveness  of  sins 
is  made  possible  (Eph.  i.  7;  Col.  i.  14,  etc.), 
the  curse  of  the  law  (Gal.  iii.  13;  iv.  5);  and 
the  wrath  of  God.  (Rom.  v.  9;  1  Thess.  i. 
10;  v.  9.)  This  is  the  juridical  side  of 
redemption.  It  has  also  an  ethical  side, 
and  includes  deliverance  from  the  power 
and  dominion  of  sin.  In  this  sense,  Christ 
has  redeemed  us  from  all  unrighteousness, 
as  his  own  possession,  purifying  us  unto 
good  works  (Tit.  ii.  14;  1  Pet.  i.  18  sq.), 
and  has  overcome  the  world,  whose  temp¬ 
tation  leads  us  into  evil  (John  xvi.  33; 
1  John  v.  4,  etc.),  and  has  broken  the  pow¬ 
er  of  the  prince  of  this  world — the  devil. 
(John  xii.  31;  Col.  ii.  15.)  Redemption 
also  has  a  physical  aspect,  and  when  Christ 
returns  again  to  raise  the  quick  and  the 
dead  there  will  be  no  more  pain  and  death 
for  the  believing  (Rev.  xxi.  4),  but  eternal 
life.  (Rom.  v.  10;  vi.  22.)  The  original 
motive  of  redemption  was  the  love  of  God, 
which  wills  not  the  death  of  the  sinner. 
(John  iii.  16;  1  Tim.  ii.  4.)  In  order  to  ac¬ 
complish  it  God  sent  his  Son  into  the 
world,  who  gave  himself  as  our  ransom, 
even  unto  death  (Matt.  xx.  2S;  John  x.  11, 
15;  1  Tim.  ii.  6),  becoming  a  curse  on  the 
cross  to  deliver  us  from  the  curse  of  the 
law.  (2  Cor.  v.  21;  Gal.  iii.  13.)  What  he 
began  in  his  humiliation  on  earth,  he  is 
consummating  in  his  state  of  exaltation. 
Christ  is  himself  redemption  (John  xiv.  6; 
xi.  25,  26),  offered  to  all  men,  on  condition 
of  their  repentance  and  turning  from  their 
evil  ways  (2  Cor.  vii.  10;  James  v.  20,  etc.), 
believing  in  the  Lord  Jesus  Christ  (Rom. 
i.  16;  Eph.  ii.  8),  and  confessing  his  name. 
(Rom.  x.  9,  13.)  The  sinner  must  work 
out  his  own  salvation  with  fear  and  trem 
bling  (Phil.  ii.  12),  dying  to  sin,  and  living 
unto  righteousness.  (1  Pet.  ii.  24.)  The 
post-apostolic  writers  bring  out  the  differ- 


Red 


(  787  ) 


Red 


ent  aspects  under  which  the  work  of  re¬ 
demption  is  presented  in  the  New  Testa¬ 
ment;  but  the  majority  of  the  Fathers 
<Trenaeus,  Origen,  Gregory  of  Nyssa,  Am¬ 
brose,  Augustine,  etc.),  treated  it  as  a  ju¬ 
dicial  transaction,  in  which  Jesus  gave  up 
his  life  to  the  devil  in  payment  for  man¬ 
kind.  Gregory  Nazianzen,  opposing  this 
-conception,  treated  it  as  a  conflict  between 
Christ  and  Satan  for  the  possession  of 
man.  ( Oral .  xlv.)  As  heathenism,  the 
manifestation  of  sin’s  dominion,  began 
to  be  overcome,  the  Church  began  to  re¬ 
gard  redemption  from  the  standpoint  of  its 
power  and  effects  upon  the  soul  itself. 
Athanasius  carried  out  the  idea  that  the  Lo¬ 
gos  assumed  human  nature,  and  gave  him¬ 
self  up  to  death  because  the  justice  and  ve¬ 
racity  of  God  demanded  the  death  of  man¬ 
kind,  as  he  had  threatened,  for  sin.  Basil 
the  Great,  Cyril  of  Alexandria,  Cyril  of 
Jerusalem,  Hilary,  and  John  of  Damascus 
held  to  this  conception.  It  was  Anselm  of 
Canterbury  who  laid  the  most  stress  on 
man’s  guilt,  and  worked  out  his  doctrine 
in  the  famous  treatise,  Why  God  Became 
Mail  ( Cur  Deus  Homo).  Starting  with  the 
conception  of  the  divine  justice  and  the 
majesty  of  the  law,  he  asserted  the  neces¬ 
sity  of  an  equivalent  for  the  violation  of 
the  law.  This  could  be  furnished  only  by 
the  innocent  and  infinite  Son  of  God.  This 
doctrine  of  the  atonement  was  further  de¬ 
veloped  by  Hugo  of  St.  Victor,  Alexander 
-of  Hales,  Albertus  Magnus,  Bonaventura, 
Thomas  Aquinas,  and  Duns  Scotus.  The 
Reformers,  accepting  this  view,  developed 
the  doctrine  in  such  a  way  as  to  render  its 
practical  workings  very  different  from  what 
they  are  in  the  Roman  Catholic  Church, 
which  imposes  burdens  and  penances  upon 
the  sinner,  admits  works  of  supererogation, 
and  grants  to  the  priesthood  the  powers  of 
binding  and  loosing.  The  Protestant 
churches  regard  redemption  as  the  work 
of  divine  mercy,  accomplished  by  the  in¬ 
carnation,  obedience,  and  death  of  Christ, 
and  made  efficacious  by  the  faith  of  the 
sinner.  This  work,  which  is  already  ac¬ 
complished,  acts  upon  the  intellectual  nat¬ 
ure  of  man  as  a  deliverance  from  darkness 
unto  light  (Col.  i.  13),  and  upon  his  moral 
nature,  delivering  his  will  from  the  bond¬ 
age  of  sin,  and  endowing  it  with  the  power 
to  choose  and  execute  works  of  righteous¬ 
ness.  Christ  redeems  us  from  the  world, 
the  flesh,  and  the  devil;  and  faith  in  him 
overcomes  the  world.  (1  John  v.  4.)  Re¬ 
demption  also  affects  man’s  physical  nature 
by  delivering  him  from  death;  Christ  him¬ 
self  being  the  resurrection  and  the  life 
(John  xi.  25),  having  broken  the  power  of 
death  by  his  own  resurrection.  He  who 
believes  in  Christ  already  has  eternal  life 


(John  iii.  36)  dwelling  in  him.  And,  when 
Christ  returns,  ‘our  vile  bodies  shall  be 
changed  yito  the  likeness  of  his  glorious 
body  (Phil.  iii.  21),  and  we  shall  be  trans¬ 
lated  into  the  communion  of  the  blessed. 
This  is  redemption  in  its  narrowest  sense. 
(Rom.  viii.  23;  1  Cor.  i.  30;  Eph.  i.  14.)” 
— Schoberlein  in  Schaff- Herzog:  Ency. ,  vol. 
iii.,  pp.  2002,  2003.  See  Atonement. 

Redemptorists,  an  order  founded  in  1732 
by  St.  Alphonsus  Maria  de  Liguori  {q.  v. ), 
its  chief  object  being  to  provide  a  set  of 
men  to  work  amongst  the  poor.  In  this  he 
received  the  assistance  of  Falcoia,  bishop 
of  Castellamare,  and  the  work  was  begun 
at  Scala,  where  he  had  previously  founded 
a  community  of  nuns.  In  1749  the  order 
was  confirmed,  and  its  rules  approved  by 
Benedict  XIV.  He  gave  it  first  the  title  of 
the  “  Congregation  of  the  Most  Holy 
Saviour,”  but  as  there  was  an  order  of  the 
same  name  in  another  part  of  Italy,  the 
pope  ordained  that  the  title  should  be 
changed  to  that  of  the  “  Most  Holy  Re¬ 
deemer,”  to  prevent  confusion.  The  mem¬ 
bers,  who  were  called  Redemptorists,  had, 
in  addition  to  the  general  vows  of  obedi¬ 
ence,  poverty,  and  chastity,  to  take  an  oath 
that  they  would  work  diligently  in  the 
order  till  their  death.  Their  great  object 
was  to  be  the  conversion  of  the  most  poor 
and  miserable,  especially  those  living  in 
great  cities,  who  would  otherwise  be  left  to 
a  large  extent  destitute.  Besides  this, 
Liguori  insisted  on  constant  study  among 
his  disciples  as  a  means  toward  being  of 
more  use  to  the  Church.  The  order  still 
exists  in  most  countries  of  Europe,  al¬ 
though  at  different  times,  through  revolu¬ 
tions  and  various  other  causes,  it  has  been 
banished.  It  was  introduced  into  England 
in  1843,  and  has  now  six  houses  in  the 
British  Isles.  The  nuns  are  called  Re- 
demptoristines;  they  live  in  strict  enclos¬ 
ure,  and  employ  their  whole  time  in  pray¬ 
ing  for  the  success  of  the  Redemptorist 
missions.  The  chief  seat  of  government  is 
Rome,  where  the  head  of  the  order,  who 
has  the  title  of  Rector  Major,  superintends 
the  general  working  of  the  society  in  all 
parts  of  the  world.  He  is  elected  for  life, 
but  the  heads  of  the  different  houses,  who 
are  appointed  by  him,  assisted  by  six 
councillors,  can  only  hold  office  for  three 
years. — Benham:  Did.  of  Religion. 

Red  Sea,  the  sea  between  Egypt  and 
Arabia,  1,450  miles  long,  and  230  miles 
broad.  At  its  northern  extremity,  it  is  di¬ 
vided  into  two  gulfs,  the  Gulf  of  Suez, 
about  180  miles  long  and  the  Gulf  of  Aka- 
bah,  about  100  miles  long.  Its  name  among 
the  Hebrews,  Syrians,  and  Egyptians  was 


Ref 


(788) 


Ref 


“  The  Sea  of  Reeds;”  and  the  “  Red  Sea” 
among  the  Greeks  and  Romans.  The  de¬ 
rivation  of  the  Hebrew  name  is  uncertain; 
reeds  are  rare  along  the  shores  of  the  sea 
although  it  is  said  they  are  found  at  the 
two  points  familiar  to  the  Hebrews.  Some 
think  the  derivation  of  the  Greek-Roman 
name  is  from  the  red  corals  which  abound 
Mn  the  waters  and  were  much  used  as  orna¬ 
ments  by  the  Hebrews  and  Syrians;  others 
derive  it  from  Edoyn  (red).  For  reference 
to  the  passage  of  the  Israelites  through  the 
Red  Sea,  see  Exodus  of  Israel. 

Reformation.  To  give  in  detail  the  his¬ 
tory  of  the  great  religious  revolution  of  the 
sixteenth  century  would  be  almost  to  write 
the  history  of  Europe.  Our  object  in  the 
following  article  will  simply  be  to  indicate 
the  causes  and  the  occasions  which  pro¬ 
duced  the  mighty  changes  in  the  several 
countries,  and  the  most  prominent  results. 
Let  it  be  remembered  that  causes  and  occa¬ 
sions  are  by  no  means  synonyms.  An  oc¬ 
casion  furnishes  reason  for  present  action, 
but  the  causes  lie  further  back.  Henry 
VIII. ’s  divorce  was  the  occasion  of  Eng¬ 
land’s  breach  with  Rome,  but  the  causes 
had  been  gathering  for  whole  generations 
before. 

As  far  back  as  the  twelfth  century  St. 
Bernard,  called  “  the  last  of  the  Fathers,” 
had  sadly  cried  out  that  he  longed  before 
he  died  to  see  the  Church  of  God  as  it  was 
in  the  ancient  days.  And  the  cry  had 
gathered  strength  in  succeeding  years. 
The  great  councils  of  the  fifteenth  century 
— Pisa,  Constance,  Basel — had  called  for 
“  purification  of  head  and  members.”  And 
so  there  is  also  a  long  list  of  illustrious 
names — Gerson,  Grostete,  Bradwardine, 
Colet,  Sir  Thomas  More — men  who  would 
have  been  indignant  at  any  suspicion 
thrown  upon  their  faithfulness  to  the 
Church,  who  were  urgent  in  their  demands 
for  reform.  Bossuet,  in  his  Variations  des 
Eglises  Protestantes,  attempts  to  break  the 
force  of  this  fact  by  saying  that  these  doc¬ 
tors  never  thought  of  changing  the  faith  of 
the  Church,  or  of  correcting  her  worship, 
or  of  subverting  the  authority  of  her  prel¬ 
ates,  and  chiefly  that  of  the  pope.  But 
unhappily  the  conscience  of  men  came  to 
the  conviction  that  the  practical  evils  of  the 
Church  had  their  root  in  doctrine.  The 
shameful  sale  of  indulgences  and  masses 
came  out  of  corrupt  teaching  concerning 
the  intermediate  state.  So,  again,  when  it 
was  seen  that  in  one  year  nearly  a  thou¬ 
sand  pounds  were  offered  at  the  shrine 
of  St.  Thomas  a  Becket,  and  during  the 
same  period  not  one  penny  at  the  altar 
of  Christ,  it  is  no  wonder  if  the  suspicion 
arose  that  errors  had  crept  into  the  Church 


concerning  saintly  intercession  and  invo¬ 
cation. 

Of  the  manifold  causes  which  wrought 
together  to  produce  the  Reformation,  three 
stand  out  the  most  prominent: 

(1)  The  Papacy. — No  Roman  pontiff — 
not  Gregory  VII.,  nor  Innocent  III. — ever 
advanced  loftier  claims  than  did  Boniface 
VIII.,  when,  in  1302,  he  addressed  to  the 
Christian  world  his  bull  Unam  Sanctam 
( q .  v.).  That  was  the  culminating  point  of 
papal  power,  and  the  two  centuries  that 
followed  saw  its  rapid  decline.  The  re¬ 
moval  of  the  papal  court  to  Avignon 
brought  more  clearly  to  the  light  its  cor¬ 
ruptions  and  cruelties,  and  exhibited  the 
supreme  pontiff  as  the  puppet  of  the 
French  king.  The  Great  Schism,  which 
followed  and  lasted  through  forty  years, 
gave  a  still  ruder  shock  to  traditional  rev¬ 
erence  for  the  see.  At  this  moment,  too, 
the  nations  of  modern  Europe  were  con¬ 
solidating  and  settling  their  national  life,  a 
state  of  things  which  “  could  not  fail  to  give 
an  impulse,  hitherto  unknown,  in  calling 
up  the  nationality  of  many  a  Western  State, 
in  satisfying  it  that  the  papal  rule  was  not 
essential  to  its  welfare,  and  in  thereby  add¬ 
ing  strength  to  local  jurisdictions.”  (Hard¬ 
wick’s  Reformation .)  How  strong  this  im¬ 
pulse  was  may  be  seen  in  the  fact  that  at 
the  Council  of  Constance  the  vote  was 
taken,  not  by  individuals,  but  by  nations — 
viz.,  the  English,  German,  French,  and 
Italian.  That  method  of  voting  was  the 
precursor  of  national  reformations.  To  this 
must  be  added  the  personal  character  of 
the  popes  themselves.  Blunt’s  statement 
is  no  exaggeration  when  he  says  that  “  for 
sixty  years  before  the  final  breach  was 
made,  there  had  not  been  a  pope,  except 
Clement  VII.,  who  could  be  called  even  a 
decent  Christian.”  (Blunt’s  Refortnalion,  p. 
242.)  It  is  a  shame  even  to  mention  the 
deeds  of  vileness  which  make  up  the  life  of 
such  men  as  Pope  Alexander  VI. 

(2)  The  revival  of  letters  and  the  impulse 
given  by  it  to  human  intellect  was  a  second 
cause  of  the  demand  for  reformation.  The 
revival  of  learning  in  Italy  —  and  Italy  led 
the  way  in  everything  in  those  days — was, 
in  its  temper,  simply  pagan.  The  Decame¬ 
ron  of  Boccaccio  was  saturated  with  the  pa¬ 
gan  spirit.  An  eclogue  of  Geraldini  on  the 
Passion  spoke  of  the  Lord  Jesus  Christ  as 
“  Daphnis,”  and  “  Daphnis  in  an  odorifer¬ 
ous  garden  ”  is  the  commencement  of  the 
agony  in  Gethsemane.  At  the  court  of  the 
Medici  it  was  a  characteristic  of  good  so¬ 
ciety  to  dispute  the  fundamental  principles 
of  Christianity;  and  the  narratives  of  Holy 
Scripture  and  the  mysteries  of  the  Faith  be¬ 
came  subjects  of  derision.  Leo  X.,  in  all 
probability,  was  an  infidel.  “  Marvelous,’* 


Ref 


(  789  ) 


Ref 


says  Dr.  J.  M.  Neale,  “  was  the  infatuation, 
which  could  expend  all  its  zeal  in  the  dis¬ 
covery  of  the  last  books  of  Tacitus  and 
Livy,  in  the  production  of  the  purest  Cice¬ 
ronian  Latin,  in  the  erection  of  Classical 
churches,  and  which  could  pay  for  all  these 
pagan  amusements  by  the  infamous  mis¬ 
sion  of  Tetzel,  unconscious  of  the  ap¬ 
proaching  earthquake,  regarding  the  dis¬ 
content  of  one  German  monk  as  something 
that  might — it  mattered  not  which  of  the 
two — be  hushed  at  the  stake  or  silenced  by 
the  sop  of  a  fat  benefice.”  The  very  great¬ 
ness  of  the  evil  brought  a  reaction,  and 
thoughtful  men  endeavored  to  stay  the 
general  corruption  by  revived  religious 
conviction.  But  the  attempt  failed  through 
two  causes.  The  one  was  the  timidity  ex¬ 
pressed  in  the  saying  attributed  to  Cardinal 
Pole,  that  men  “  ought  to  content  them¬ 
selves  with  their  own  inward  convictions, 
and  not  concern  themselves  to  know  if 
errors  and  abuses  existed  in  the  Church.” 
The  other  was  the  irreformable  character 
•of  the  Roman  court.  Meanwhile,  let  the 
causes  have  been  what  they  may,  this  pa¬ 
gan  tendency  was  remarkably  kept  in  check 
in  England,  though  signs  of  it  appeared  all 
through  from  Chaucer  to  Shakespeare. 
'Signs — but  only  on  the  surface:  none  of 
the  great  English  writers  can  be  charged 
with  the  moral  foulness  and  scornful  unbe¬ 
lief  of  the  Continental  paganism. 

(3)  The  third  cause  of  the  cry  for  refor¬ 
mation  lay  in  the  tremendous  sense  of  re¬ 
sponsibility  which  rests  on  the  reason  and 
conscience  of  individuals  with  reference  to 
their  belief,  and  the  necessity  which  they 
feel  rests  upon  them  of  personal  faith  in, 
and  personal  communion  with,  the  Lord. 
The  other  causes  live  in  the  outward  world: 
this  dwells  in  each  man’s  soul.  It  was  a 
mark  of  Western  theology,  as  contrasted 
with  the  Eastern,  that  whereas  the  latter 
loved  to  meditate  upon  God  and  upon  the 
Christian  doctrines  as  defined  in  the  creeds, 
the  Western  Church  contemplated  more 
practically  the  great  phenomena  of  human 
nature  and  the  relation  of  the  soul  to  God. 
And  Christian  anthropology,  it  has  been 
well  said,  “  ranged  itself  under  two  heads 
— the  objective  one  of  the  sacraments  and 
ordinances  of  the  Church  as  such;  and  the 
subjective  one  of  the  progress  of  grace  in 
the  heart  of  each  one  of  us.”  (Foulkes’s  Di¬ 
visions  of  Christendom.}  The  mediaeval 
divines  had  mainly  concerned  themselves 
with  the  former  of  these  two  heads,  though 
not  exclusively  so,  for  the  “  Friends  of 
God  ”  and  the  Mystics  had  eagerly  incul¬ 
cated  personal  earnestness  in  religious  life. 
But,  taken  as  a  whole,  mediaeval  Christian¬ 
ity  was  preeminently  the  sense  of  corporate 
membership,  and  an  exaggerated  idea  of 


the  value  of  a  perfunctory  discharge  of 
routine  and  merely  external  duties  ;  “  the 
form  of  godliness  without  the  power  ”  was 
the  result.  This,  probably,  more  than 
anything  else,  honeycombed  the  Church 
with  corruption.  And  this  furnishes  the 
key  to  the  preaching  of  Luther  and  its 
mighty  effect  upon  men.  It  was  the  pas¬ 
sionate  assertion  of  personal  religion  and 
individual  responsibility. 

The  cry  for  reform,  then,  was  general 
before  the  great  revolution  appeared.  By 
what  method  might  it  be  looked  for  ?  That 
which  most  commended  itself  to  the 
thoughtful  men  of  those  days  was  the  con¬ 
voking  of  a  general  council.  Attempts 
had  been  made,  but  in  vain;  and  in  1460 
Pope  Pius  II.  forbade  any  attempt  “  to  in¬ 
voke  the  aid  of  councils,  under  pain  of 
damnation.”  This  seemed  to  close  that 
door.  Yet  men  hoped  even  against  hope. 
Constitutional  reform  had  taken  strong 
hold  in  France.  When  pagan  Leo  X.  was 
succeeded  by  Adrian  VI.  men  hoped  again, 
especially  when  that  pontiff  declared  that 
“  many  abominations  had  existed  for  a  long 
time,  yea  in  the  Holy  See  itself;”  but  he 
died  after  a  brief  pontificate,  and  the  Roman 
Curia  was  confirmed  in  its  resolution  to  re¬ 
sist  all  change.  But  Luther’s  preaching 
had  by  this  time  stirred  the  waters  too 
profoundly  to  suffer  any  further  stagnation. 
Men’s  hearts  were  moved  to  their  very 
depths,  and  the  cry  for  reformation  was  too 
universal  to  be  put  down.  Two  methods 
remained.  The  one  was  a  movement  un¬ 
der  individual  leaders,  the  other  the  asser¬ 
tion  of  the  rights  of  autonomous  national 
Churches,  as  against  papal  centralization. 
The  one  marked  the  movement  in  Germany 
and  Switzerland:  the  other  was  pursued  in 
England.  And  this  last  was  no  after¬ 
thought.  It  was  a  recurrence  to  the  prac¬ 
tice  of  the  purest  ages  of  the  faith.  In  all 
time  and  everywhere,  national  synods  had 
discussed  and  dealt  with  the  heresies, 
errors,  and  evils  of  national  churches, 
whether  such  evils  and  heresies  had  grown 
up  within  or  been  thrust  in  from  without. 
The  method  was  an  old  one  revived,  not  a 
new  one  invented.  (Hardwick  on  the  Arti¬ 
cles,  ch.  i.)  The  special  occasions  which 
set  the  causes  in  operation  will  be  seen  as 
we  now  glance  through  the  history  of  each 
nation. 

Germany. — On  Oct.  31,  1517,  Luther’s 
conflict  with  the  Church  of  Rome  began, 
when  he  boldly  attacked  the  doctrine  of 
“  Indulgences.”  This  date  has  been  kept 
throughout  Protestant  Germany  as  the 
Festival  of  the  Reformation.  Luther  soon 
had  to  defend  himself  against  the  charge  of 
insubordination.  The  arguments  which 
his  opponents  advanced  rested  upon  the 


Ref 


(  790  ) 


Ref 


supreme  power  of  the  pope;  e.  g. ,  one  of 
these  arguments  was  that  “  the  pope  alone 
has  power  to  determine  those  things  which 
are  of  faith,”  and  another  was  that  “  Chris¬ 
tians  are  to  be  taught  that  the  Church 
holds  many  things  as  Catholic  verities 
which  yet  are  placed  neither  in  the  Canon 
of  the  Bible,  nor  among  the  more  ancient 
Fathers.”  Luther  replied,  quoting  Augus¬ 
tine,  that  the  canonical  books  of  Scripture 
alone  are  an  infallible  guide.  Luther  was 
now  led  to  inquire  more  fully  into  the 
authority  of  the  pope;  consequently  he 
was  cited  on  Aug.  7,  1518,  to  appear  in 
Rome,  to  answer  the  charge  of  heresy. 
Eventually,  however,  his  trial  took  place 
before  the  papal  legate,  Cardinal  Cajeta- 
nus,  at  Augsburg,  on  Oct.  10.  Luther 
persisted  in  denouncing  the  doctrine  of  in¬ 
dulgences,  and  denied  the  authority  of 
papal  edicts  when  unsupported  by  Holy 
Scripture,  the  ancient  Fathers,  or  the  de¬ 
cisions  of  General  Councils.  He  was 
ordered  peremptorily  to  recant.  Luther, 
however,  fearing  violence,  escaped  by 
night  from  Augsburg  (Oct.  16),  and  re¬ 
turned  to  Wittenberg.  In  July,  1519,  an 
important  theological  debate  took  place  at 
Leipzig,  between  Carlstadt  (who  had  join¬ 
ed  the  new  movement,  but  who  eventually 
pushed  his  principles  to  such  extravagant 
lengths  that  he  was  silenced  by  Luther)  on 
the  one  side,  and  Eck,  a  very  learned 
champion  of  the  papacy,  on  the  other. 
During  the  debate  Luther  spoke,  and  ad¬ 
vanced  a  step  farther  in  his  conflict  with 
the  papal  power.  He  denied  (1)  that  the 
Latin  Church  is  exclusively  the  Church  of 
Christ;  (2)  that  the  ascendancy  of  the  pope 
of  Rome  was  of  Divine  institution;  (3)  that 
the  councils  of  the  Church  are  infallible. 
The  result  of  this  boldness  was  his  excom¬ 
munication  by  Pope  Leo  X.  in  June,  1520. 
The  papal  bull  was  publicly  burnt  at  Wit¬ 
tenberg  the  same  year.  Luther  at  this 
time  attracted  many  followers;  among 
others,  Martin  Bucer — who  subsequently 
took  refuge  in  England,  and  received  a 
theological  professorship  at  Cambridge — 
and  Melanchthon,  a  brilliant  and  earnest 
student  at  Wittenberg.  In  1521,  Melanch¬ 
thon  drew  up  a  text-book  for  Lutheran 
divines,  entitled  Loci  Communes  Renan 
Theologicarum;  it  contained  a  calm  state¬ 
ment  of  their  special  doctrines,  supported 
by  Scriptural  proofs.  Meanwhile,  in  1520, 
Luther  had  appealed  to  the  Christian  poten¬ 
tates  of  the  German  nation  to  summon  a 
council  for  redressing  grievances  and  re¬ 
moving  abuses  in  the  Church;  and  later  in 
the  same  year  he  published  The  Babylo¬ 
nish  Captivity  of  the  Churchy  a  violent  treatise 
against  the  mediaeval  doctrine  concerning 
the  Sacraments;  he  reduces  them  in  num¬ 


ber  from  seven  to  two,  and  lays  very  great 
'stress  on  the  necessity  of  faith,  without 
which  the  sacraments  convey  no  benefit. 
The  prospect  of  his  excommunication 
caused  Luther  to  bring  forward  another 
doctrine  of  great  importance,  viz.,  that  all 
Christians  are  the  priests  of  God,  quoting 
Rev.  i.  6  and  other  texts  in  support. 
Henry  VIII.  replied  to  this  by  stating  that 
for  the  same  reason  all  Christians  must  be 
kings.  Luther,  however,  used  this  doctrine 
for  giving  more  importance  to  the  laity, 
and  for  reducing  the  tyranny  of  the  papal 
priesthood.  Luther’s  views  were  popular, 
and  at  length  the  Elector  Frederick  became 
an  ardent  champion  of  the  Reformation 
movement.  In  1521  Luther  was  summon¬ 
ed  by  the  Emperor  Charles  V.  to  appear 
before  the  Diet  at  Worms.  On  this  oc¬ 
casion  he  made  his  memorable  stand,  say¬ 
ing  that  unless  he  were  convicted  of  heresy 
by  the  testimony  of  Scripture,  he  could 
not  and  would  not  retract  anything,  add¬ 
ing,  “  Here  stand  I,  I  can  no  farther;  God 
help  me.  Amen.”  In  spite  of  opposition, 
the  Diet  eventually  proclaimed  the  im¬ 
perial  bann  against  Luther  as  a  heretic  and 
outcast  from  the  Church  of  God,  and  his 
writings  were  prohibited.  On  his  way 
back  to  Wittenberg,  he  was  secured  by  the 
order  of  his  friend  and  patron,  the  Elector 
of  Saxony,  and  carried  off  to  a  safe  shelter 
in  the  Castle  of  Wartburg.  Here  Luther 
worked  actively  with  his  pen,  his  most  im¬ 
portant  work  being  the  Translation  of  the 
New  Testament  into  the  Saxon  dialect. 
During  Luther’s  retirement,  some  of  the 
Reformers,  headed  by  Carlstadt,  had 
broken  out  into  extravagances,  and  many 
sympathizers  had  in  consequence  shrunk 
from  throwing  in  their  lot  with  the  Re¬ 
formers.  At  this  period,  too,  the  fanatical 
and  lawless  sect  of  the  Anabaptists  had 
started  into  birth.  Luther,  in  consterna¬ 
tion,  reappeared  at  Wittenberg  on  March 
7,  1552,  to  save  his  work  from  destruction; 
he  silenced  the  ultra  -  Reformers,  undid 
their  work,  and  in  his  own  teaching  laid 
great  stress  on  the  necessity  of  Christian 
quietness  and  charity.  The  Peasants’ 
War,  in  1524,  brought  the  Lutheran  doc¬ 
trines  into  fresh  discredit;  although  Lu¬ 
ther  sternly  denounced  the  insurgents,  and 
preached  obedience  to  the  civil  magistrate, 
still  much  of  his  influence  was  gone,  owing 
to  the  revolutionary  proceedings  of  fanati¬ 
cal  Reformers.  In  this  year,  Erasmus, 
who  had  been  an  exceedingly  able  advocate 
of  Reformation  principles,  went  over  to 
the  opposite  side,  and  violently  attacked 
Luther  and  his  teaching.  The  .states  of 
the  empire  now  formed  themselves  into 
religious  leagues,  either  in  opposition  to 
or  in  defense  of  the  new  doctrines.  The 


Ref 


(  79i  ) 


Ref 


“League  of  Torgau  ”  (1526)  was  consti¬ 
tuted  of  those  princes  who  supported  re¬ 
form;  they  agreed  to  stand  by  each  other  in 
case  they  were  attacked  “  on  account  of  the 
Word  of  God,  or  the  removal  of  abuses.” 
The  Diet  of  Spires,  which  opened  im¬ 
mediately  afterward,  recommended  many 
reforms,  such  as  allowing  the  clergy  to 
marry  (Luther  had  already  married  an 
escaped  nun),  restoring  the  chalice  in  the 
Eucharist  to  the  laity,  and  that  private 
masses  should  be  abolished.  The  em¬ 
peror,  however,  refused  his  sanction  to 
these  reforms;  whereupon  the  individual 
States  took  it  upon  themselves  to  work  out 
their  own  reforms;  so,  in  1527,  in  Saxony, 
“  visitors”  were  nominated  by  the  Elector 
to  examine  into  the  condition  of  each  par¬ 
ish;  the  visitors  did  not  interfere  with  old 
institutions,  provided  they  were  not  repug¬ 
nant  to  Scripture;  their  motto  was  to  re¬ 
form  and  correct,  not  to  destroy  and  abol¬ 
ish.  The  Reformation,  however,  received 
a  check  at  the  new  Diet  of  Spires,  which 
assembled  in  1529.  The  reforming  edict 
of  the  former  Diet  (1526)  was  repealed, 
and  the  emperor  was  angry  and  intolerant. 
The  Reformers  hereupon  drew  up  their 
protest  against  these  proceedings,  and  so 
obtained  for  themselves  and  their  posterity 
the  name  of  “  Protestants.”  Their  in¬ 
fluence,  however,  was  now  much  weakened 
by  internal  divisions.  A  new  set  of  Re¬ 
formers,  headed  by  Zwingli,  and  opposed 
to  the  Lutherans  in  their  opinions  as  to 
the  sacraments  and  other  doctrines  of  the 
Gospel,  arose  in  parts  of  southern  Ger¬ 
many,  and  in  Switzerland.  The  Conference 
of  Marburg  was  held  in  1529,  in  order  to 
bring  about  an  understanding  between  the 
two  sets  of  Reformers,  but  without  suc¬ 
cess.  At  this  conference  the  Lutherans 
drew  up  and  agreed  upon  fifteen  dogmatic 
definitions;  these  were  revised  and  increas¬ 
ed  to  seventeen  at  the  Conference  of 
Schwabach  (Oct.,  1529),  and  subscription 
to  them  became  a  necessary  condition  of 
membership  in  the  league  of  Reformers 
referred  to  previously.  These  seventeen 
articles  were  finally  revised  by  Melanch- 
thon,  and  were  incorporated  in  the  cele¬ 
brated  Confession  of  Augsburg — an  apology 
for  Lutheranism,  presented  to  the  Emperor 
Charles  V.  at  the  Diet  of  Augsburg  (1530). 
The  Confession  is  remarkably  clear  and 
outspoken,  but  humble  and  modest  in  tone. 
In  setting  forth  the  articles  of  the  Luther¬ 
an  Reformed  Faith,  it  was  seen  that  the 
Reformers  held  almost  everything  in  com¬ 
mon  with  the  Catholic  Church;  for  the 
errors  and  abuses  which  they  rejected  they 
gave  their  reasons,  taken  from  Scripture 
and  the  early  Fathers  of  the  Church. 
After  the  Lutheran  views  had  been  dis¬ 


cussed,  the  Diet,  with  threats,  ordered  the 
Reformers  to  conform  in  all  things  to  the 
established  usage  of  the  Roman  Church. 
Owing  to  these  threats  the  Reformers  en¬ 
tered  into  a  covenant,  called  the  “  Smal- 
cald  League  ”  (1531),  by  which  they 

agreed  to  help  each  other  for  six  years  in 
defending  their  faith.  They  also  sought 
the  aid  of  France  against  their  own  em¬ 
peror — a  fatal  and  unpatriotic  thing  to  do. 
Charles  V.  was  now  glad  to  pacify  the 
Protestant  Reformers,  in  order  to  concen¬ 
trate  his  forces  against  the  Ottoman  Turks, 
who  were  attacking  his  dominions.  Ac¬ 
cordingly  the  Peace  of  Niiremburg  was 
signed  (July,  1532),  by  which  it  was  agreed 
that  the  present  state  of  things  was  to  con¬ 
tinue  until  a  “  General  Free  Council  ” 
could  authoritatively  settle  the  matters  in 
dispute.  Pope  Paul  III.  attempted  to  calL 
a  council  at  Mantua  in  1537,  but  the  Lu¬ 
therans  could  not  regard  it  as  a  free  coun¬ 
cil,  so  the  attempt  failed.  The  Lutherans 
then  issued  a  manifesto,  embodying  their 
principles,  and  called  the  “  Smalcald 
Articles,”  because  issued  by  the  Prot¬ 
estant  League  of  that  name  (1537).  At 
the  same  time  the  emperor,  his  brother 
Ferdinand,  and  many  powerful  princes 
formed  themselves  into  “  the  Holy 
League,”  for  the  purpose  of  opposing  the 
Reformation.  In  1541  the  Colloquy  of 
Ratisbon  was  held  between  champions  of 
the  Reformed  and  Unreformed  faith,  and, 
although  an  agreement  was  nearly  arrived 
at,  yet  in  the  end  the  matters  in  dispute 
were  in  the  same  position  as  before.  An¬ 
other  fruitless  council  was  held  at  Ratis¬ 
bon  in  the  beginning  of  1546,  followed 
quickly  by  the  death  of  the  great  Reform¬ 
er,  Luther,  in  February  of  the  same  year. 
He  held  his  opinions  firmly  to  the  last. 
He  had  proved  them,  and  found  that  they 
did  not  fail  him  in  the  hour  of  his  need; 
but  his  last  days  were  saddened  by  the  re¬ 
ligious  animosities  of  the  age,  by  the  divis¬ 
ions  among  the  Reformers  themselves,  and 
especially  by  the  rise  and  growth  of  Zwin- 
glianism.  Immediately  after  his  death  a 
terrible  religious  war  broke  out  between 
the  Romanists  and  Reformers.  The  Lu¬ 
therans  struck  the  first  blow,  but  the  em¬ 
peror  had  been  openly  making  his  prepa¬ 
rations  for  bloodshed  before  this.  The 
pope  granted  plenary  indulgence  to  all  who 
fought  against  the  Lutheran  “  heresy.” 
The  Protestants  were  utterly  defeated  at 
the  battle  of  Miihlberg  (April  24,  1547). 
In  May  of  the  following  year  the  Diet  of 
Augsburg,  under  Charles  V. ,  issued  an 
edict  called  the  Interim  A ugustanum.  This 
was  a  formulary  of  faith  and  worship  for 
the  Protestants  to  adopt,  as  a  temporary 
arrangement,  until  a  general  council  settled 


Ref 


(  792  ) 


Ref 


matters.  The  “  Interim”  was  opposed  to 
the  Reformed  faith,  but  it  made  two  con¬ 
cessions,  by  legalizing  the  marriage  of 
such  ecclesiastics  as  had  already  taken 
wives, and  by  tolerating  communion  in  both 
kinds.  It  met  with  great  opposition  among 
the  more  strict  Lutherans:  the  more  mod¬ 
erate  tried  to  modify  its  operation,  and 
were  in  danger  of  compromising  their  faith, 
when,  in  1552,  Maurice,  the  Elector  of  Sax¬ 
ony,  took  the  field  on  their  behalf.  The 
war  was  ended  honorably  for  the  Reform¬ 
ers  by  the  “  Peace  of  Augsburg”  (1555). 
It  was  agreed  that  every  land  proprietor 
should  be  free  to  choose  between  the  old 
religion  and  that  embodied  in  the  Confession 
of  Augsburg  (1530);  his  tenants  and  depend¬ 
ents  were  expected  to  follow  his  example. 
Meanwhile  the  long-promised  council  met 
at  Trent  in  1545,  but  by  its  protracted  and 
wearying  disputes  all  hope  was  dispelled 
of  its  effecting  any  speedy  reformation  of 
existing  abuses.  The  two  great  religious 
parties,  the  Romanists  and  the  Reformers 
or  Protestants,  lived  in  comparative  quiet¬ 
ness  for  the  remainder  of  the  century;  but 
in  the  latter  part  of  it,  owing  to  the  divis¬ 
ions  among  the  Lutheran  and  Swiss  Re¬ 
formers,  and  to  the  persevering  zeal  of  the 
Jesuits,  founded  in  1540,  Protestantism  in 
Germany  greatly  declined;  whole  districts 
were  gradually  brought  back  to  allegiance 
to  Rome.  The  Reformed  faith  was  to  go 
through  another  terrible  ordeal — the  Thirty 
Years’  War  (1618-48) — before  it  was  finally 
recognized  and  supported  by  the  German 
Government  by  the  Peace  of  Westphalia 
(1648). 

The  Reformation  spread  through  the 
following  States  in  the  German  Empire: 

The  Electorate  of  Saxony ,  the  starting- 
place  of  the  movement,  and  where  as  early 
as  1527  the  majority  of  the  people  em¬ 
braced  the  Reformed  Faith. 

Ducal  Saxony  yielded  in  1539,  Leipzig, 
Dresden,  and  other  chief  towns  joining  the 
movement. 

Hessen,  under  Philip,  eagerly  received 
Lutheran  doctrines  in  1526. 

Bavarian  Brandenburg  joined  in  1528,  at 
the  Diet  of  Anspach. 

Electoral  Brandenburg  did  not  cast  off  the 
papal  yoke  till  1539. 

Liineburg  joined  in  1527;  Scriptural 
preaching  was  enforced,  but  ritual  and 
worship  remained  much  as  before. 

Mecklenburg ,  Holstein,  and  Pomerania 
also  were  among  the  first  to  join. 

A  few  years  later,  in  1535,  IVurtemberg 
and  other  minor  States  joined  the  Protes¬ 
tant  League. 

Frederick,  Elector  Palatine,  and  his  peo¬ 
ple,  took  the  same  side  in  1546. 

In  the  Duchy  of  Bavaria,  the  Reforma¬ 


tion  made  much  progress  at  first  among 
the  people,  but  owing  to  the  opposition  of 
the  civil  power,  and  to  the  efforts  of  the 
Jesuits,  Lutheranism  was  extinguished  in 
the  duchy  before  the  century  closed. 

In  East  Friesland  and  in  Silesia  Luther¬ 
anism  had  a  peaceful  triumph  about  the 
year  1527. 

The  rapid  spread  of  the  movement  in 
Germany  was  almost  entirely  owing  to  the 
influence  of  Luther;  in  1523  he  is  said  to 
have  issued  as  many  as  183  books  or 
pamphlets  in  promoting  the  cause;  his 
writings  were  perfectly  clear  and  practical, 
and  adapted  to  influence  the  people.  The 
force  of  his  arguments,  his  homely  illus¬ 
trations,  his  simple  boldness,  and  especial¬ 
ly  his  deep  earnestness,  completely  won 
the  people  and  made  them  ardent  cham¬ 
pions  of  the  Reformation.  Melanchthon’s 
influence,  though  of  a  different  nature,  was 
also  very  great  in  forwarding  the  move¬ 
ment;  his  learned  lectures  at  the  Univer¬ 
sity  of  Wittenberg  were  the  means  of  rais¬ 
ing  up  many  able  coadjutors  in  the  work  of 
Reformation;  but  the  Lutherans  were 
chiefly  indebted  to  Melanchthon  for  the 
Confession  of  Augsburg  and  other  symbol¬ 
ical  writings  containing  systematic  state¬ 
ments  of  Lutheran  doctrines;  by  these  the 
truth,  after  it  had  been  discovered,  was 
preserved  and  kept  intact  for  themselves 
and  their  posterity.  He  died  in  1560.  The 
masses  of  the  people,  however,  were  prob¬ 
ably  most  influenced  by  the  itinerant  friars 
who  went  from  village  to  village,  and  town 
to  town,  preaching  the  doctrines  of  Luther. 

Eastern  Prussia  received  Lutheran 
preachers  in  1523,  and  George  Polentz,  one 
of  the  Prussian  bishops,  embraced  the  Lu¬ 
theran  doctrines,  and  promoted  the  Refor¬ 
mation.  In  1525  the  whole  country  was 
converted.  A  German  liturgy,  adhering 
as  much  as  possible  to  ancient  usage,  was 
introduced.  Convents  were  converted 
into  hospitals,  and,  for  the  instruction  of 
the  clergy,  Postils,  or  explanatory  ser¬ 
mons  on  the  Epistles  and  Gospels,  were 
regularly  sent  from  Wittenberg.  In  1548 
the  Reformers  were  aided  by  a  large  influx 
of  Bohemian  Protestant  refugees,  and  so 
became  independent  of  aid  from  Witten¬ 
berg. 

Polish  Prussia  became  reformed  about 
1560,  Sigismund  Augustus  being  their  sov¬ 
ereign. 

In  Dc7imark  Lutheranism  was  first  taught 
at  Wiburg,  in  Jutland,  by  John  Tausen, 
who  had  studied  under  Melanchthon  at  Wit¬ 
tenberg.  Lutheran  preachers  came  in 
1526.  When  Frederick  I.  was  crowned 
King  of  Denmark  (1523),  the  Danish  hie¬ 
rarchy  required  him  to  extirpate  the  “  her¬ 
etics  of  Luther’s  school.”  Hence  the  king. 


Ref 


(  793  ) 


Ref 


though  personally  favorable  to  reform,  was 
unable  to  advance  the  work  immediately; 
but  in  1526  he  passed  over  to  the  side 
of  the  Reformers,  and  in  1527,  at  a  diet 
held  at  Odense,  “  liberty  of  conscience  ” 
was  granted  to  both  parties.  In  1530  the 
Danish  Protestants  issued  a  manifesto 
at  Copenhagen  similar  to  the  Augsburg 
Confession,  holding  fast  to  "all  Lutheran 
doctrines.  Christian  III.,  who  succeeded 
his  father  on  the  throne  in  1533,  was 
an  ardent  Reformer;  he  had  attended  the 
Diet  at  Worms  (1521),  and  had  listened 
with  admiration  to  Luther.  The  Reforma¬ 
tion  now  spread  throughout  the  whole  of 
Denmark;  bishops  were  deposed,  and 
twelve  Superintendents  established  in  the 
ancient  sees.  In  the  University  of  Copen¬ 
hagen  three  Divinity  professors  were  ap¬ 
pointed  to  lecture  ,  on  the  Old  and  New 
Testaments  and  on  the  Fathers.  A  Danish 
liturgy  was  compiled  on  Lutheran  models. 
Christian  III.  joined  the  Protestant  League 
in  1538.  The  Confession  of  Augsburg  was 
accepted  by  Denmark  in  1569. 

Norzvay  and  Iceland ,  after  brief  struggles, 
gave  in  their  adherence  to  Lutheranism 
about  1539. 

All  these  countries  have  remained  Lu¬ 
theran  to  the  present  day. 

Sweden. — Students  from  Wittenberg  had 
brought  Lutheranism  into  Sweden  in  1519. 
Gustavus  Vasa,  crowned  in  1523,  support¬ 
ed  the  Reformers  in  his  kingdom.  Accord¬ 
ingly  when  Brask,  bishop  of  Linkoping, 
began  a  persecution  of  “  the  heretics,” 
the  king  interfered  on  their  behalf.  In 
1524  a  council  was  called  to  prepare  the 
Church  for  the  changes  that  were  to  be 
made  by  the  court.  The  king  constituted 
himself  supreme  in  matters  ecclesiastical, 
appointed  and  deposed  bishops  on  his  own 
authority,  seized  a  large  part  of  the  eccle¬ 
siastical  revenues,  suppressed  monaster¬ 
ies,  and  organized  the  Church  much  on  the 
same  model  as  the  Reformed  Church  in 
Denmark.  He  advocated  the  use  of  near¬ 
ly  all  the  ancient  service-books  and  ritual, 
'until  the  people  were  better  instructed; 
and  this  course  was  adopted  by  the  clergy 
at  the  Synod  of  Orebro  in  1529.  One  great 
characteristic  of  the  Reformed  Church  of 
Sweden  is  that  the  government  of  the 
Church  by  bishops  has  been  preserved  and 
perpetuated  to  the  present  day.  Lawrence 
Peterson,  a  moderate  Lutheran,  was  made 
archbishop  of  Upsala.  In  1539,  however, 
the  king  threatened  to  constitute  the  Swe¬ 
dish  Church  on  the  Presbyterian  model,  but 
the  threat  was  not  accomplished.  In  1544 
the  Reformation  changes  were  established 
throughout  the  kingdom.  These  changes, 
however,  led  to  an  insurrection  among  the 
poorer  classes,  urged  on  in  several  cases  by 


the  Romish  priests  (1537-1543).  The  insur¬ 
rection  was  quelled,  but  another  reaction 
occurred  in  1576,  when  King  John  intro¬ 
duced  a  new  liturgy,  based  on  the  missal 
authorized  by  the  Council  of  Trent;  it  was 
adopted  by  the  diet  in  1577,  two  bishops 
strongly  protesting  against  it,  viz.,  Linkd- 
ping  and  Strengness;  the  king,  moreover, 
entrusted  the  management  of  a  college  at 
Stockholm  to  certain  Jesuits  whom  he 
had  invited  from  Louvain.  But  when  Lu¬ 
theranism  was  just  at  its  lowest  ebb,  the 
king  suddenly  changed  his  course;  the  Jes¬ 
uits  were  compelled  to  leave  the  country, 
and  Lutheranism  regained  the  ground  it 
had  lost.  At  the  kirk-mote  held  at  Upsala 
in  1593,  the  Augsburg  Confession  was 
adopted  by  Sweden;  the  followers  of  Zwin- 
gli  and  Calvin  were  denounced,  the  Roman¬ 
izing  liturgy  of  King  John  was  revoked, 
and  the  service-book  of  Lawrence  Peter¬ 
son  took  its  place.  Luther’s  short  cate¬ 
chism  became  also  the  recognized  manual 
of  instruction. 

Poland. — Sigismund  I.,  king  of  Poland 
from  1548  to  1572,  tolerated  Lutheranism, 
and  during  his  reign  it  penetrated  among 
all  classes.  Large  numbers  of  Protestant 
refugees  from  Bohemia  came  to  Poland  in 
1548,  and  aided  in  spreading  the  Lutheran 
doctrines.  An  ecclesiastical  synod  held  at 
Piotrkow,  in  1551,  advocated  the  most  bit¬ 
ter  persecution  of  the  Protestants.  On  the 
other  hand,  the  Polish  Diet  in  1552  was  fa¬ 
vorable  to  them.  The  Protestant  Reform¬ 
ers,  however,  were  greatly  weakened  by 
the  desertion  of  their  champion,  Oricho- 
vius,  formerly  a  student  at  Wittenberg, 
who  rejoined  the  Roman  Church  in  1559. 
After  Sigismund’s  death,  most  of  the  suc¬ 
ceeding  kings  favored  the  Romanists. 
Stephen  Bathori  came  to  the  throne  in 
1575,  and  proclaimed  himself  favorable  to 
religious  toleration,  saying  that  God  had 
reserved  to  himself  the  government  of 
men’s  consciences.  He  was,  notwithstand¬ 
ing,  a  patron  of  the  Jesuits,  and  winked  at 
their  persecution  of  the  Protestants.  He 
was  'succeeded  by  Sigismund  III.  (1587- 
1632),  Crown  Prince  of  Sweden,  whose 
parents  had  resisted  Protestantism  in  Swe¬ 
den.  In  this  reign  Protestantism  in  Po¬ 
land  was  completely  overthrown.  This 
result  was  brought  about  partly  by  the  Jes¬ 
uits,  and  partly  by  serious  divisions  among 
the  Reformers  themselves.  The  cause  of 
the  Reformers  was  also  greatly  weakened 
by  some  of  their  number  adopting  the  Anti- 
Trinitarian  heresy. 

Bohemia  and  Moravia. — The  followers  of 
John  Huss,  the  great  Bohemian  Reformer, 
entered  into  negotiations  with  Luther  in 
1519.  In  Feb.,  1520,  Luther  writes,  after 
reading  the  works  of  John  Huss,  that  “  I, 


Ref 


(  794  ) 


Ref 


without  being  conscious  of  it,  have  both 
taught  and  held  all  the  things  of  John  Huss 
.  .  .  in  brief,  we  are  all  Hussites  without 
knowing  it.”  An  alliance  was  soon  form¬ 
ed  between  the  Bohemians  and  Lutherans. 
In  1532  the  Bohemians,  with  the  sanction 
of  Luther,  presented  a  formal  statement  of 
their  tenets  to  George,  Margrave  of  Brand¬ 
enburg,  followed  in  1535  by  a  regular 
“  Confession  of  Faith  to  Ferdinand,  King 
of  Bohemia.”  At  the  breaking  out  of  the 
religious  war  in  1546,  the  country  sent  an 
army  to  aid  the  Protestants;  after  the 
disastrous  battle  at  Miihlberg  (April  24, 
1547),  they  were  subject  to  severe  persecu¬ 
tion.  Many  were  ordered  to  leave  their 
country  within  six  weeks,  and  a  thousand 
of  them  settled  in  Prussia  (1 548).  The 
Jesuits  began  to  work  against  them  in  1552. 
The  three  divisions  of  Protestants,  viz., 
Lutheran,  Swiss,  and  Bohemian  Breth¬ 
ren,  now  united  and  presented  the  Confes¬ 
sion  of  their  faith  to  Maximilian  II.  in 
1575,  and  again  to  Rudolph  II.  in  1608. 
In  1609  perfect  religious  equality  was 
granted  to  them,  but  it  was  soon  with¬ 
drawn.  The  Jesuits  were  successful  in 
once  more  getting  rid  of  Protestantism  in 
1627,  when  Ferdinand  II.,  a  former  pupil 
in  their  school,  rigorously  banished  all 
who  had  held  fast  to  the  Reformed  Faith. 
Many  fled  to  Moravia  and  formed  the  nu¬ 
cleus  of  the  Moravian  Church,  which  con¬ 
tinues  to  this  day.  Protestantism  subse¬ 
quently  revived  in  Bohemia,  and  in  1781 
Joseph  II.  issued  in  its  behalf  the  Edict  of 
Toleration.  There  are  now  about  100 
Protestant  congregations  in  the  country, 
the  majority  of  them  belonging  to  the 
Swiss  or  Calvinistic  division  of  Reformers. 

Hungary  and  Transylvania. — As  early  as 
1521  we  find  traces  of  Protestantism  in 
these  countries,  for  in  that  year  George 
Szakmary,  archbishop  of  Gran,  ordered  a 
condemnation  of  Luther’s  books  to  be  read 
from  the  pulpits  of  the  principal  churches. 
Severe  edicts  against  Lutheranism  were 
issued  in  1523  and  1525.  But  in  spite  of 
these  the  Reformation  triumphed  in  sev¬ 
eral  towns  and  districts;  students  who  had 
been  sent  to  Wittenberg  returned  and 
taught  the  Lutheran  doctrines.  In  1527 
King  Ferdinand  I.  complained  that  even 
Anabaptists  and  Zwinglians  were  gaining 
ground.  Monks  and  nuns  were  driven 
from  their  cloisters.  In  1533  John  Honter, 
on  his  return  from  Switzerland,  established 
a  printing-office  at  Cronstadt  for  publishing 
Protestant  teaching.  About  the  same  time 
a  Magyar  translation  of  the  New  Testa¬ 
ment  by  Matthew  Devay,  a  former  pupil 
at  Wittenberg,  appeared.  He  was  called 
the  Luther  of  Hungary.  Eventually  he 
joined  the  Swiss  school  of  Reformers 


(about  1544),  and  was  followed  by  the  great 
majority  of  Hungarian  Protestants.  They 
drew  up  their  Confession  of  Csenger  in 
1557,  and  it  still  remains  their  standard  of 
orthodoxy.  In  Transylvania  the  majority 
of  the  Reformers  were  Lutheran;  religious 
liberty  was  granted  to  them  in  1557.  It  is 
said  that  only  three  families  of  the  mag¬ 
nates  then  adhered  to  the  pope,  the  nobil¬ 
ity  were  nearly  all  reformed,  and  the 
people  thirty  to  one  in  favor  of  the  new 
doctrine;  but  owing  to  divisions,  and  the 
heresy  of  the  Anti-Trinitarians,  the  Jesuits 
regained  a  great  part  of  the  country  (1579- 
1588).  In  the  latter  year,  however,  the 
Jesuits  were  forcibly  expelled.  After  a 
further  reaction  under  Rudolph  II.,  full 
religious  liberty  was  secured  by  the  treat¬ 
ies  of  Nikolsburg  (1622)  and  Linz  (1645). 

Spain. — Luther’s  writings  were  circu¬ 
lated  in  Spain  as  early  as  1520,  and  con¬ 
verts  were  made  in  great  numbers,  espe¬ 
cially  in  Seville  and  Valladolid.  But  the 
cruelties  of  the  Inquisition  successfully 
extirpated  Protestantism  from  the  country, 
and  in  1570  hardly  a  trace  of  it  remained. 
The  accession  of  Philip  II.,  in  1559,  “  the 
Nero  of  Spain,”  had  made  its  destruction 
only  a  matter  of  time.  Among  the  more 
prominent  of  Spanish  Reformers  were  two 
brothers,  Juan  and  Alfonso  de  Valdes, 
Rodrigo  de  Valero,  Egidius,  Domingo  de 
Rojas,  and  Dryander,  who  published  a 
Castilian  translation  of  the  New  Testament 
in  1543,  and  in  1548  took  refuge  in  England, 
ana  was  made  professor  of  Greek  at  Cam¬ 
bridge. 

Italy . — Lutheranism,  between  the  years 
1530  and  1542,  made  good  progress  in  dif¬ 
ferent  parts  of  the  country,  e.  g. ,  in  the 
Duchy  of  Ferrara,  where  Calvin  and  other 
Reformers  took  refuge  about  1535;  in 
Naples,  where  Juan  de  Valdes  was  Spanish 
Secretary;  throughout  the  Republic  of 
Venice,  in  Modena,  Milan,  Lucca,  and 
other  places,  and  even  at  Bologna  in  the 
Papal  States.  But  in  1542  Cardinal 
Caraffa,  afterwards  Pope  Paul  IV.,  brought 
the  cruelties  of  the  Inquisition  to  bear 
upon  the  Protestants,  and  quickly  exter¬ 
minated  them.  Two  of  the  principal  Re¬ 
formers,  Bernardino  Ochino  and  Peter 
Martyr,  an  able  scholar  and  formerly 
canon  of  the  Augustinians,  took  refuge  in 
England  in  1547.  Ochino  was  made  a 
prebend  of  Canterbury,  and  Peter  Martyr, 
professor  of  divinity  at  Oxford.  At  the 
accession  of  Queen  Mary,  in  1553,  both 
fled  from  England  and  took  refuge  at 
Zurich.  Ochino  was  subsequently  accused 
of  advocating  Anti  -  Trinitarianism  and 
polygamy. 

Switzerland. — The  Reformation  in  Swit¬ 
zerland  was  commenced  under  the  leader- 


Ref 


(  795  ) 


Ref 


ship  of  Huldreich  Zwingli,  born  in  1484, 
seven  weeks  after  the  birth  of  Luther;  he, 
too,  like  Luther,  was  educated  for  the 
priesthood,  being  ordained  in  1506.  In 
1513  he  began  to  devote  himself  to  the 
study  of  the  Bible,  and  especially  to  the 
New  Testament,  in  order,  as  he  says,  that 
he  might  draw  the  doctrine  of  Christ  direct 
from  the  fountain;  he  did  not  place  much 
value  on  the  writings  of  the  Fathers,  but 
looked  forward  to  a  time  when  “Divine 
Scripture  alone  would  be  precious  among 
Christians.”  Unlike  Luther,  he  had  no 
reverence  for  ancient  uses  and  traditions 
of  the  Church,  and  abolished  as  far  as  he 
could  every  such  use  not  specially  men¬ 
tioned  in  the  New  Testament.  He  came 
into  contact  with,  and  was  greatly  influenc¬ 
ed  by,  Erasmus  in  1514  and  following  years. 
His  first  efforts  at  reform  began  in  1517, 
when  at  Einsiedeln  he  exerted  himself  to 
abolish  image-worship  and  other  corrup¬ 
tions.  In  1519  he  was  appointed  to  a 
preachership  at  Zurich,  and  here  he  soon 
took  a  commanding  position,  his  talents  and 
force  of  character  being  very  conspicuous. 
It  was  his  custom  to  explain  the  Scriptures 
to  his  people,  instead  of  reproducing  the 
mediaeval  interpretations  of  them;  he  is 
said  also  to  have  done  a  good  work  in 
purifying  the  morals  as  well  as  the  worship 
of  the  citizens.  In  1519  we  find  him  suc¬ 
cessfully  resisting  the  disgraceful  sale  of 
Indulgences.  The  papal  authorities  evi¬ 
dently  wished  to  retain  Zwingli  on  their 
side.  For  this  purpose  the  pope,  Leo  X. , 
granted  him  a  pension  of  fifty  gulden,  and 
made  him  one  of  his  chaplains  in  1518. 
Pope  Adrian  also  wrote  him  a  cajoling  let¬ 
ter.  But  in  1512  the  bishop  of  Constance 
formally  accused  the  Zwinglians  of  dis¬ 
obedience,  in  breaking  the  fasts  of  Lent; 
public  opinion,  however,  was  now  entirely 
on  the  side  of  Zwingli,  and  the  bishop’s 
action  was  futile.  Zwingli  about  this  time 
married,  against  the  law  of  the  Church;  he 
kept  his  marriage  secret,  however,  till 
1524.  In  1523  a  sweeping  change  was 
effected  in  Zurich,  the  authority  of  the 
bishop  was  destroyed,  the  ancient  liturgy 
was  swept  away,  the  mass  was  reduced  to 
a  memorial,  and  the  monasteries  were  con¬ 
verted  into  schools.  The  bishop  of  Con¬ 
stance  and  several  cantons,  including 
Lucerne,  Freyburg,  and  Zug,  protested  in 
vain  at  these  changes  — Zwingli’s  ascen¬ 
dancy  was  now  complete.  Meanwhile,  the 
Reformation  had  been  making  headway  in 
Basel.  Its  chief  author  was  CEcolampadius, 
a  friend  of  Melanchthon  and  Erasmus;  he 
was  made  a  preacher  in  the  cathedral  of 
Basel  in  1515,  where  he  set  forth  the  Re¬ 
formed  opinions;  in  1522  he  allied  himself 
to  Zwingli.  The  bishop  and  his  party  op¬ 


posed  the  movement,  but  the  Senate  assert¬ 
ed  the  supremacy  of  the  Bible,  and  permit¬ 
ted  disputations  to  be  held,  in  which  many 
papal  doctrines  were  openly  attacked 
(1524).  The  canton  of  Berne  was  disposed 
to  follow  in  the  footsteps  of  Zurich  and 
Basel.  In  1526  a  general  assembly  of 
twelve  Swiss  cantons  was  held  at  Baden, 
and  the  Zwinglian  doctrines  condemned  by 
a  majority  of  nine  out  of  the  twelve  can¬ 
tons.  Yet  the  Reformation,  in  spite  of  this 
severe  check,  still  continued  to  make  way. 
The  hatred,  however,  between  the  oppos¬ 
ing  parties  culminated  on  the  battlefield  of 
Cappel,  where  Zwingli  was  slain  (1531)  and 
his  followers  routed.  Zwingli’s  teaching 
in  regard  to  original  sin,  the  sacraments, 
and  predestination  was  at  variance  with 
all  other  branches  of  the  Church.  With 
regard  to  Christian  baptism,  he  represent¬ 
ed  it  as  standing  on  the  same  level  with 
John’s  baptism — merely  a  sign;  yet  at  the 
Conference  of  Marburg,  in  1529,  he  signed 
the  statement  of  the  Lutherans  that  baptism 
is  not  “  a  naked  sign,  but  a  work  of  God, 
by  which  we  are .  regenerated.”  Hence 
Luther  considered  him  guilty  of  dishonesty 
and  insincerity. 

The  death  of  Zwingli  was  closely  follow¬ 
ed  by  that  of  CEcolampadius;  but  the  work 
of  reformation  was  carried  on  by  two  able 
successors,  Henry  Bullinger  and  Oswald 
Myconius;  the  latter, *a  bosom  friend  of 
Zwingli,  had  been  forcibly  expelled  from 
Lucerne  in  1522.  Another  prominent  Re¬ 
former  was  William  Farel,  a  refugee  from 
France,  who  was  very  successful  at  Berne, 
Neufchatel,  Basel,  and  especially  in  Gene¬ 
va,  where  he  brought  about  the  overthrow 
of  the  papal  power  in  1535.  But  a  far 
greater  leader  now  appeared  on  the  scene 
in  the  person  of  John  Calvin;  in  him  began 
the  second  generation  of  Reformers.  Born 
in  1509,  at  Noyon,  in  Picardy,  he  was  orig¬ 
inally  destined  for  holy  orders,  but  event¬ 
ually  devoted  himself  to  jurisprudence  at 
Orleans  and  Bourges  Universities.  He 
first  began  the  work  of  reformation  in  Paris, 
but  some  of  the  more  violent  and  indis¬ 
creet  Reformers  there  having  posted  up 
anti-papal  placards,  he  fled  to  Basel  in 
October,  1534.  It  is  remarkable  that  al¬ 
though  Calvin  was  unusually  severe  in  his 
general  character,  yet  he  was  deficient  in 
Christian  heroism,  and  describes  himself 
as  being  “  naturally  timid,  and  of  a  soft 
and  faint-hearted  disposition.” 

At  Basel  Calvin  drew  up,  in  1536,  his 
Institutes  of  the  Christian  Religion ,  which 
quickly  became  the  text-book  for  Calvinists 
generally.  In  it  are  contained  all  his  dis¬ 
tinctive  doctrines.  Calvin  succeeded  in 
getting  his  principles  adopted  in  Lausanne 
this  same  year.  But  in  Geneva  the  people 


Ref 


(  796  ) 


Ref 


rebelled  against  the  severity  of  his  disci¬ 
pline,  and  both  he  and  Farel  were  banished 
in  1538.  He  was  invited  to  return,  how¬ 
ever,  and  he  did  so  in  1541,  thenceforth 
exercisingdespotic  power.  He  established 
a  consistory,  consisting  of  twelve  lay 
elders  and  six  ministers,  Calvin  himself 
presiding,  and  exercising  a  controlling  in¬ 
fluence.  To  this  body  was  entrusted  the 
jurisdiction  over  the  religion  and  morals 
of  the  whole  community,  together  with  the 
power  of  excommunication.  The  decisions 
of  this  tribunal  were  marked  by  great 
sternness  and  severity;  in  1553,  by  its 
orders  Servetus  was  burned  for  heresy. 
In  1549  Calvin  brought  about  the  religious 
union  of  the  cantons  of  Switzerland  by  the 
Consenstis  Tigurinus ,  and  so  consolidated 
the  Swiss  Reformation.  By  this  Consen¬ 
sus  the  sacraments  are  treated  as  much 
more  than  mere  outward  signs,  as  Zwingli 
treated  them.  Calvin  spoke  of  them  as 
“  organs  ”  which  God  uses  for  conferring 
grace;  but  he  restricted  the  benefits  of  the 
sacraments  to  “  the  elect.”  Cavin  died  in 
1564,  and  was  succeeded  by  Beza,  who 
continued  for  a  time  to  uphold  the  stand¬ 
ard  of  Geneva.  But  in  1569  a  powerful 
reaction  began  under  Carlo  Borromeo, 
archbishop  of  Milan,  a  man  of  great  piety, 
and  devoted  to  the  Church  of  Rome.  The 
Jesuits  were  busy  in  different  parts  of  the 
country,  and  in  1586  the  Romish  cantons 
formed  themselves  into  “  The  Golden 
League,”  to  resist  the  Calvinists,  and  at 
the  beginning  of  the  next  century  the  Cal¬ 
vinists  lost  still  more  ground, owing  to  the 
inroads  of  the  Duke  of  Savoy,  and  the 
titular  bishop  of  Geneva,  Francis  de 
Sales.  Peace  was  not  finally  concluded 
till  after  the  battle  of  Vilmergen,  1712. 

France .  —  The  earliest  Reformer  in 
France  was  Jacques  Lefevre,  who  in  1512 
was  engaged  with  Bri^onnet,  bishop  of 
Meaux,  in  the  reformation  of  that  diocese, 
both  men  being  persuaded  that  the  papal 
religion  of  that  day  was  not  a  true  form  of 
Christianity.  In  1523  the  Theological  Fac¬ 
ulty  of  Paris,  called  the  Sorbonne,  having 
previously  condemned  Luther’s  writings, 
began  the  work  of  persecuting  the  French 
Reformers.  The  monarch,  Francis  I.,  pro¬ 
fessed  to  be  neutral,  but  he  took  no  meas¬ 
ures  to  pacify  the  perpetrators  of  the  savage 
massacres  of  the  Protestants.  In  1534 
Calvin  and  others  fled  from  the  country; 
in  1545  the  towns  of  Merindol  and  Cabri- 
eres,  with  twenty-eight  villages,  were  lit¬ 
erally  destroyed,  as  many  as  4,000  people 
being  slain.  In  spite  of  all  this,  the  Re¬ 
formers  had  increased  in  importance  in 
1547,  when  Francis  I.  was  succeeded  by 
his  son,  Henry  II.,  who  married  Catherine 
de’  Medici,  niece  of  Pope  Clement  VII. 


During  this  reign  the  persecution  went  on 
with  even  greater  severity;  but,  nothing 
daunted,  the  Reformers  in  Paris  organized 
themselves,  in  1555,  as  a  distinct  congrega¬ 
tion,  adopting  the  Calvinistic  discipline  of 
Geneva,  and  in  1559  they  issued  their  first 
Confession  of  Faith. 

France,  at  this  time,  was  divided  into 
two  rival  parties,  one  headed  by  the  Dukes 
of  Guise,  the  other  by  the  Bourbon  family. 
The  Bourbons  now  allied  themselves  with 
the  Protestants,  or  Huguenots,  as  they 
were  called  in  France,  and  the  Guises  be¬ 
came  the  champions  of  the  Roman  Cath¬ 
olics.  The  two  parties  were  inspired  with 
mutual  hatred  of  each  other.  In  1560  a 
Huguenot  conspiracy  to  rid  the  kingdom 
of  the  Guises  was  discovered;  the  chief 
mover  was  Geoffrey  de  la  Barre,  a  friend 
of  Calvin.  On  the  other  hand,  the  cardinal 
of  Lorraine  tried  to  force  every  Frenchman, 
at  the  peril  of  his  life,  to  sign  a  creed, 
drawn  up  by  the  Sorbonne,  and  which  he 
called  the  “  Huguenots’  rat-trap.”  A  con¬ 
ference  between  the  two  parties  took  place 
at  Poissy  in  1561,  Theodore  Beza  and  Peter 
Martyr  representing  the  Huguenots;  but 
no  good  result  followed.  By  this  time  the 
Huguenots  had  greatly  increased  in  the 
country,  and  were  being  continually  aided 
by  disciples  of  Calvin  sent  from  Geneva; 
in  January,  1562,  they  were  granted  relig¬ 
ious  liberty,  but  shortly  afterward  the  mas¬ 
sacre  of  several  of  their  number  at  Vassy 
rekindled  the  strife,  and  civil  war  broke 
out.  The  Huguenot  leaders  were  the 
Prince  of  Conde  and  Admiral  de  Coligny. 
At  the  battle  of  Dreux  (Dec.,  1562),  the 
Huguenots  were  routed  ;  immediately 
afterward  the  Duke  of  Guise  was  assassi¬ 
nated  by  a  fanatical  Huguenot.  Peace  was 
concluded  at  Orleans,  and  the  Pacification 
of  Amboise  (March,  1563)  secured  a  certain 
amount  of  religious  liberty  to  the  Hugue¬ 
nots.  A  second  religious  war  raged  from 
1567-70.  At  the  battle  of  Jarnac  (1569)  the 
Prince  of  Conde  was  taken  prisoner,  and 
subsequently  assassinated.  The  peace  of 
St.  Germain-en-Laye  was  concluded  in 
1570,  by  which  the  Huguenots  were  to  be 
free  to  worship  in  their  own  way;  but  in 
1572,  by  an  act  of  gross  treachery,  under 
the  guidance  of  Catherine  de’  Medici,  a 
massacre  of  the  Huguenots  was  planned, 
and  carried  out  under  circumstances  of  great 
atrocity  on  St.  Bartholomew’s  Day  (1572). 
Over  twenty  thousand  Protestants  were 
murdered  in  different  parts  of  France, 
among  them  Admiral  Coligny.  The  Cal¬ 
vinists  rose  again,  and  the  Guise  family  en¬ 
tered  into  an  alliance  with  Philip  II.  of 
Spain  in  order  to  extirpate  Protestantism. 
But  in  1589  the  Protestant  prince,  Henry 
of  Navarre,  came  to  the  throne  as  Henry 


Ref 


(  797  ) 


Ref 


IV.  Four  years  later,  in  order  to  stop 
further  bloodshed,  Henry  IV.  renounced 
Protestantism;  perfect  religious  liberty, 
however,  was  granted  to  the  Huguenots 
by  the  “  Edict  of  Nantes  ”  (1598),  solemnly 
declared  to  be  perpetual  and  irrevocable. 
But  the  despotism  of  Richelieu,  and  the 
revocation  of  the  Edict  of  Nantes  by  Louis 
XIV.,  in  1685,  overthrew  the  Reformation 
in  France. 

Netherlands. — The  country  had  been  pre¬ 
pared  for  the  Reformation  (1)  by  the  cruel¬ 
ties  of  the  Spanish  Inquisition,  which  had 
aroused  hatred  tc  the  papal  power;  (2)  by 
the  writings  of  Erasmus,  a  native  of  Rot¬ 
terdam,  exposing  the  vices  of  the  age,  in 
1 500 ;  (3)  by  the  writings  of  Luther.  The 
Emperor  Charles  V. ,  born  at  Ghent  in  1500, 
was  lord  of  these  provinces,  and  mercilessly 
persecuted  all  who  held  the  “  new  opin¬ 
ions;”  in  1521  he  issued  an  edict  against 
the  writings  of  Luther,  “  whether  in  Latin, 
Flemish,  or  any  other  modern  language.” 
The  first  two  martyrs  suffered  at  Brussels 
in  1523,  whereupon  Luther  wrote  his 
Epistle  to  the  Christians  in  Holland  and 
Brabant.  In  1525  converts  abounded,  and 
executions  became  fearfully  numerous,  the 
victims  during  Charles’s  reign  being  reck¬ 
oned  by  thousands,  among  them  being  the 
Englishman,  William  Tyndaie,  who,  in 
1536*  was  put  to  death  at  Vilvorden,  near 
Brussels;  he  had  translated  the  New  Testa¬ 
ment  into  English  in  1525,  and  had  also 
exerted  great  influence  in  Belgium.  These 
measures  not  succeeding,  Charles  V.  in¬ 
troduced  the  terrors  of  the  Inquisition  to 
subdue  Protestantism  (in  1550).  Philip  II., 
who  succeeded  his  father  in  1560,  carried 
on  the  work  of  persecution.  Many  troubles 
came  upon  the  Reformers,  owing  to  their 
being  confounded  with  the  fanatical  and 
lawless  Anabaptists,  who  abounded  in  the 
country;  so  in  1562  they  drew  up  The  Belgic 
Confession ,  containing  the  doctrines  of  their 
faith.  This  Confession  is  based  on  The 
Confession  of  the  French  Reformers ,  and  so 
is  distinctly  Calvinistic.  In  1566  the  Belgic 
Confession  was  ratified  at  a  Synod  of  Re¬ 
formers,  held  at  Antwerp.  Meanwhile  the 
continued  persecution  was  exasperating  all 
classes  against  the  Government.  At  length, 
when  the  Duke  of  Alva,  at  the  head  of  a 
Spanish  army,  renewed  the  massacres,  the 
Protestants  took  the  field  under  the  Prince 
of  Orange,  Philip  van  Marnix,  and  many 
other  nobles,  in  1568.  A  desperate  strug¬ 
gle  ensued,  ending  in  the  independence  of 
Holland  in  1579,  the  seven  northern  prov¬ 
inces  separating  from  the  remaining  ten. 
In  1581  the  Roman  religion  was  forbidden 
in  the  new  kingdom,  and  Protestantism 
had  triumphed  in  every  quarter,  aided  ma¬ 
terially  by  the  Protestant  University  of 


Leyden.  The  neighboring  provinces,  under 
the  Spanish  Duke  of  Parma,  entered  into 
an  agreement  at  Arras,  in  1579,  to  help  in 
counteracting  the  Reformation;  and  this, 
coupled  with  the  aid  of  the  Jesuits,  finally 
caused  the  papacy  to  be  reestablished  in  a 
great  part  of  the  country. 

England. — It  has  been  thoughtfully  said 
that  the  downfall  of  the  papal  power  in 
England  began  from  the  shameful  day 
when  the  miserable  King  John  laid  his 
crown  at  the  feet  of  Cardinal  Pandulph, 
and  shocked  the  sense  of  the  English  nation 
by  that  shameful  enormity.  From  that 
time  a  reaction  against  papal  tyranny  be¬ 
gan,  and  the  history  of  the  Plantagenet 
kings  is  continually  marked  by  struggles 
between  papal  tyranny  and  national  inde¬ 
pendence.  The  growth  of  intelligence  and 
piety  in  the  English  universities,  as  wit¬ 
nessed  in  the  lives  of  such  men  as  Dean 
Colet,  Sir  Thomas  More,  Linacre,  and  oth¬ 
ers,  was  another  factor  in  the  great  move¬ 
ment.  Erasmus  had  visited  Oxford  in  1497, 
and  was  professor  of  Greek  at  Cambridge 
in  1505-1508.  The  immediate  occasion  of 
the  breach  was  the  quarrel  between  Henry 
VIII.  and  Pope  Clement  VII.  concerning 
the  king’s  divorce,  which  resulted,  in  1534, 
in  the  overthrow  of  the  pope’s  authority 
in  England.  Henry  had  already  assumed 
the  title  of  “  Supreme  Head  of  the  Church 
in  England,”  and  the  Convocations  of 
Canterbury  and  York  had  acknowledged 
the  title,  with  this  limitation,  “  so  far  as 
may  be  consistent  with  the  law  of  Christ  ” 
(1531).  Henceforth,  appeals  to  Rome  were 
forbidden,  and  a  Court  of  Delegates  ap¬ 
pointed  by  the  king  was  the  ultimate 
Court  of  Appeal  in  all  ecclesiastical  cases. 
Thus  far  the  English  bishops  and  clergy 
had  accepted  the  changes;  but  beyond  this 
neither  they  nor  the  king  seemed  to  con¬ 
template  any  reformation  of  doctrine  or 
manners.  Henry  VIII.  remained  attached 
to  the  mediaeval  system  until  his  death. 
Although  he  suppressed  monasteries,  it 
was  not  done  to  benefit  the  Church,  but  to 
meet  his  own  requirement.  So  far  from 
being  a  Reformer,  he  was  the  great  ob¬ 
stacle  to  the  progress  of  Reformation. 
Cranmer,  who  had  been  made  archbishop 
of  Canterbury  in  1532  for  espousing  the 
king’s  cause  in  the  matter  of  his  divorce, 
was  still  a  believer  in  the  Roman  doctrine 
of  transubstantiation.  In  1536  the  Con¬ 
vocation  of  Canterbury  issued  ten  Articles 
of  Religion,  retaining  all  the  old  doctrines, 
but  cutting  away  flagrant  abuses  connected 
with  them.  The  sermon  at  the  opening  of 
this  Convocation  was  preached  by  Latimer, 
bishop  of  Worcester,  who  afterward  was 
one  of  the  most  prominent  of  the  Reform¬ 
ers.  In  1537  an  English  translation  of  the 


Ref 


(  798  ) 


Ref 


Bible  was  presented  by  Cranmer  to  Henry 
VIII. ,  and  The  Bishop' s  Book;  or,  1'he  In¬ 
stitution  of  a  Christia?i  Man ,  was  issued. 
But  from  this  time  the  Anti-Reforming 
party,  headed  by  Gardiner,  bishop  of  Win¬ 
chester,  and  Tunstall,  bishop  of  Durham, 
gained  the  upper  hand,  the  king  siding 
with  them.  Thus,  in  1539,  “  The  Six  Ar¬ 
ticles  ”  were  enacted  for  abolishing  diver¬ 
sity  of  opinion.  They  enforced  belief  in 
(1)  transubstantiation;  (2)  communion  in 
one  kind;  (3)  celibacy  of  the  clergy;  (4) 
absolute  obligation  of  vows  of  chastity, 
etc.;  (5)  private  masses;  (6)  compulsory 
confession.  In  1543  an  Act  of  Parliament 
was  passed  denouncing  Tyndale’s  “  false 
translation  ”  of  the  Bible,  and  forbidding 
the  use  of  the  New  Testament  in  English 
to  “  women  and  artificers,  prentices, 
journeymen,  serving-men.  husbandmen, 
and  laborers.”  Cranmer,  however,  still 
managed  to  retain  his  influence  with  the 
king,  and  in  1541  and  1542  a  revised  and 
purified  form  of  the  Sarum  Breviary  was 
issued  for  use  in  the  Canterbury  diocese. 
In  1544  a  Litany  in  English  was  published 
by  Convocation,  and  preparations  were 
being  made  for  a  new  service-book  in  Eng¬ 
lish  up  to  the  time  of  the  king’s  death  in 
1547- 

In  the  reign  of  Edward  VI.  (1547-1553) 
the  Reformation  made  rapid  strides.  The 
Protector,  Somerset,  supported  the  move¬ 
ment,  though  probably  on  selfish  grounds. 
Royal  injunctions  were  at  once  issued  di¬ 
recting  the  clergy  to  provide  one  book  of 
the  whole  Bible,  of  the  largest  volume,  in 
English,  within  three  months,  and  within 
twelve  months,  the  Paraphrase  of  Erasmus, 
also  in  English,  upon  the  Gospels;  both  of 
these  being  set  up  in  churches  for  the  use 
of  parishioners.  Gardiner,  bishop  of  Win¬ 
chester,  refused  to  obey,  and  was  commit¬ 
ted  to  the  Fleet  (Sept.  25,  1547);  he  was 
deposed  from  his  bishopric  for  noncon¬ 
formity  in  1551.  The  first  act  in  Edward’s 
reign  legalized  communion  in  both  kinds. 
The  first  book  of  Homilies  also  appeared 
this  year,  for  the  instruction  of  ignorant 
preachers  and  their  flocks.  Meanwhile  a 
Committee  of  Divines,  under  Archbishop 
Cranmer,  was  engaged  in  compiling  Ser¬ 
vice-Books  in  English.  In  1548  they  pro¬ 
duced  an  English  Order  of  the  Co?nmunion , 
and  shortly  afterward  the  Book  of  Com¬ 
mon  Prayer,  which  came  into  general  use 
on  Whitsunday,  1549.  Bonner,  bishop  of 
London,  refused  to  adopt  its  use,  and  was 
deprived,  Sept.  21,  1549.  This  book  was 
compiled  from  the  old  Offices;  it  retained 
all  the  traditions  and  sentiments  of  the  past 
that  were  not  considered  wrong  in  them¬ 
selves.  The  compilers  sought  to  restore 
the  worship  of  the  Church  to  the  model  of 


the  early  Church  before  the  rise  of  medi¬ 
aeval  errors.  On  this  account  the  book  was 
obnoxious  to  many  ultra-Reformers,  espe¬ 
cially  to  John  Knox,  who  had  received  a 
preachership  at  Berwick-on-Tweed,  and 
who  was  even  offered  the  Bishopric  of 
Rochester,  in  order  to  urge  Cranmer  on 
to  a  more  violent  Reformation. 

The  state  of  parties  in  England  was  now 
greatly  affected  by  the  arrival  of  a  multi¬ 
tude  of  foreign  Protestants  in  1549.  Bucer, 
a  Lutheran,  became  professor  of  divinity 
at  Cambridge,  and  Peter  Martyr,  a  follower 
of  Zwingli,  at  Oxford.  John  Hooper,  also, 
who  had  retreated  to  Zurich  in  1539,  re* 
turned  to  England  this  year,  an  ardent  and 
persistent  advocate  of  Zwingli’s  views  con¬ 
cerning  the  sacraments;  he  refused  to  wear 
the  vestments  prescribed  in  the  Prayer- 
Book,  and  was  committed  to  the  Fleet, 
1551.  He  soon  complied,  however,  and 
was  consecrated  bishop  of  Gloucester  in 
the  same  year.  All  these  sought  to  intro¬ 
duce  much  greater  changes.  Meanwhile, 
Cranmer’s  views  concerning  the  Eucharist 
had  undergone  a  change:  he  had  renounced 
transubstantiation,  and  followed  Calvin  in 
believing  a  real,  virtual,  but  not  a  corporal 
presence.  Ridley,  bishop  of  London,  held 
the  same  views ;  the  result  was,  that  a 
second  Prayer-Book  was  introduced  in 
November,  1552,  with  a  few  alterations  in 
the  Communion  Service  to  suit  the  mod¬ 
ified  views,  but  the  book  still  remained  in 
accordance  with  the  doctrines  of  the  early 
Church.  In  1553  a  regular  Confession  of 
Faith  of  forty-two  articles  was  published, 
based  upon  the  Confession  of  Augsburg  of 
1530,  differing  in  one  important  point,  viz., 
in  the  doctrine  of  the  Eucharist,  which 
followed  Calvin’s  tenets. 

The  death  of  Edward  VI.,  in  July,  1553, 
and  the  accession  of  Queen  Mary  threat¬ 
ened  utter  destruction  to  the  Reformation. 
Mary  had  inherited  from  her  mother,  Cath¬ 
erine  of  Aragon,  a  thorough  hatred  of  the 
Reformers’  teachings.  Immediately,  there¬ 
fore,  the  old  Latin  service-books  were 
reintroduced;  the  Book  of  Common  Prayer 
forbidden;  the  Romish  doctrine  of  tran¬ 
substantiation  reaffirmed  by  Convocation, 
five  members  only  opposing  it.  This  may 
be  accounted  for  partly  by  the  fact  that 
the  rapid  changes  during  the  latter  part  of 
the  last  reign,  under  the  influence  of  the 
foreign  Reformers  and  the  extreme  views 
of  Hooper,  had  caused  a  reaction,  and  part¬ 
ly  by  the  fact  that  the  leading  Reformers 
were  silenced  and  imprisoned,  including 
Bishops  Coverdale,  Hooper,  Latimer, 
Cranmer,  Ridley,  Holgate  of  York,  and 
Farrar  of  St.  David’s.  Many  more,  reck¬ 
oned  at  800,  fled  from  the  country.  Bish¬ 
ops  Bonner,  Tunstall,  and  Gardiner,  who 


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had  been  deprived  in  the  last  reign,  were 
now  restored  to  their  sees,  and  in  1554 
England  was  once  more  brought  under  the 
supremacy  of  Rome,  through  the  agency 
of  Cardinal  Pole.  Meanwhile,  some  of 
the  Reformers,  who  had  settled  at  Frank¬ 
fort  (1554),  sought  to  reject  the  second 
Prayer-Book,  on  the  ground  of  its  being 
still  superstitious.  Calvin  and  Knox  joined 
in  condemning  the  book,  but  through  the 
influence  of  Dean  Cox,  in  March,  1555,  the 
English  residents  were  ordered  by  the 
Senate  of  Frankfort  to  conform  to  the 
Prayer-Book,  whereupon  the  malcontents, 
under  John  Knox,  retired  to  Geneva,  and 
cut  themselves  off  from  the  English  Re¬ 
formers.  Far  worse  troubles  were  occur¬ 
ring  in  England.  Mary,  provoked  by  the 
violent  language  of  some  of  the  Reformers, 
and  by  the  insurrection  under  Wyatt,  and 
influenced  by  her  marriage  with  the  big¬ 
oted  Philip  of  Spain,  began  a  most  bitter 
persecution  in  1555.  As  many  as  288  per¬ 
sons  are  said  to  have  been  burnt  for  their 
religion,  including  Cranmer  and  four  other 
bishops,  Hooper,  Farrar,  Ridley,  and  Lat¬ 
imer.  Cranmer,  after  being  induced  by 
disgraceful  artifices  to  make  a  recantation, 
was  executed  at  Oxford  (March  21,  1556), 
holding  fast  to  the  Reformed  faith.  Car¬ 
dinal  Pole  was  consecrated  archbishop  of 
Canterbury  on  the  following  morning;  but 
both  he  and  the  Queen  died  in  November, 
1558.  The  mistaken  policy  of  persecution 
had  destroyed  any  chance  the  papal  su¬ 
premacy  might  have  had  in  England.  The 
death  of  Mary  was  felt  as  a  relief,  and  the 
accession  of  Elizabeth  hailed  with  joy. 

Elizabeth’s  first  efforts  were  directed  to 
quieting  religious  controversy  and  strife. 
A  royal  order,  dated  December  27,  1558, 
silenced  all  pulpits.  In  1559  the  acts  of 
the  late  reign  in  reference  to  religion  were 
all  repealed,  and  the  royal  supremacy 
once  more  established,  the  Queen,  how¬ 
ever,  refusing  the  title  of  “  Supreme 
Head,”  preferring  to  be  called  “  Supreme 
Governor.”  The  Prayer-Book,  revised 
by  Edmund  Guest,  bishop  of  Rochester, 
was  reissued  on  June  24.  A  few  of  the 
changes  in  the  second  book  of  Edward  VI. 
were  omitted  or  modified,  and  the  whole 
book  was  brought  more  into  conformity 
with  the  first  book  of  Edward  VI.  With 
one  exception — Kitchen,  bishop  of  Llan- 
daff — all  the  Marian  bishops  refused  to  take 
the  Oath  of  Supremacy  to  Queen  Eliza¬ 
beth,  and  were  deprived  of  their  sees. 
Matthew  Parker  was  duly  consecrated 
archbishop  of  Canterbury  at  Lambeth  by 
Bishops  Barlow,  Scory,  Coverdale,  and 
Hodgkin;  the  remaining  bishoprics  were 
filled  by  Reforming  prelates.  When  Con¬ 
vocation  assembled  in  1562  the  Forty-two 


Articles  of  Edward  VI.  were  remodeled 
and  reissued  as  the  Thirty-nine  Articles 
in  their  present  form.  New  troubles  now 
began  to  vex  the  Reformed  Church.  The 
refugees,  some  of  whom  we  saw  quarrel¬ 
ing  among  themselves  at  Frankfort,  1554, 
now  flocked  back  to  England,  many  of  them 
imbued  with  Genevan  principles.  On  their 
arrival  they  immediately  raised  opposition 
to  the  Prayer-Book,  and  the  established 
customs  of  the  Church,  advocating  a  more 
radical  reformation.  The  malcontents 
were  nicknamed  Puritans  (y.  v.),  and 
some  of  the  more  advanced  of  them  sep¬ 
arated  themselves  entirely  from  the  com¬ 
munion  of  the  Church  (1567)  but,  owing 
to  the  firmness  of  Archbishop  Parker,  the 
doctrines  and  discipline  of  the  Church,  as  it 
had  been  established, were  preserved  intact. 

A  second  separation  began  in  1570,  when 
the  Romanists,  on  the  arrival  of  Pope 
Pius  V.’s  Bull  of  Excommunication,  cut 
themselves  off  from  the  Church  of  England. 
Shortly  afterward  Romish  plots  and  in¬ 
trigues  came  to  light,  resulting  in  repres¬ 
sive  measures  being  taken  against  the 
Catholics.  Executions  became  frequent, 
especially  after  Babington’s  plot  to  assas¬ 
sinate  the  queen;  and  all  their  hopes  were 
shattered  by  the  destruction  of  the  Spanish 
Armada  in  1588.  As  the  Romanists  de¬ 
clined,  the  Puritans  increased  in  numbers 
and  influence;  but  all  their  endeavors  to 
model  the  Church  after  the  fashion  of  the 
Reformed  Churches  on  the  continent  were 
frustrated  by  the  firm  rule  of  Archbishops 
Whitgift  and  Bancroft  (1604).  Thus  the 
Reformed  Church  of  England  has  come 
down  to  us — not  a  new  Church,  but  merely 
purged  from  distinctively  Romish  doc¬ 
trine,  and  freed  from  papal  oppression. 
Cranmer,  in  all  the  changes  that  he  made, 
continually  appealed  to  the  Word  of  God 
and  the  custom  of  the  primitive  Church  as 
his  authority.  Unbroken  ties  of  holy 
orders,  the  preservation  of  the  ancient 
doctrines,  organization  and  traditions  of 
the  Church,  a  Prayer-Book  compiled  al¬ 
most  entirely  of  pre-Reformation  materials, 
prove  the  present  Reformed  Church  of 
England  to  be  one  and  the  same  with  the 
Church  of  Christ  that  had  existed  in  this 
land  from  the  earliest  times. 

Scotland. — Owing  to  the  frequent  alli¬ 
ances  between  Scotland  and  France,  the 
work  of  Reformation  did  not  begin  under 
favorable  auspices  in  Scotland,  the  French 
influence  being  employed  to  uphold  the 
“  old  religion.”  Accordingly,  when  Pat¬ 
rick  Hamilton,  a  student  at  the  Protestant 
University  at  Marburg,  in  Hesse,  return¬ 
ed  to  Scotland,  and  preached  against  the 
corruptions  of  the  Church,  he  was  burnt 
at  the  stake  (1528).  Yet  after  Hamilton’s 


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death  the  new  opinions  rapidly  spread — so 
rapidly  that  in  1535  the  Scotch  Parliament 
passed  a  severe  Act  against  all  who  held 
“  the  damnable  opinions  of  the  great 
heretic,  Luther.”  Many  Reformers  took 
refuge  in  England,  as  that  country  had,  in 
1534,  thrown  off  its  allegiance  to  the  pope. 
The  Papal  Church  in  Scotland  now  saw 
the  need  of  reformation,  and  in  1541  pass¬ 
ed  an  Act  requiring  clerics  of  every  rank 
“  to  reform  themselves  in  habit  and  man¬ 
ners  to  God  and  man;”  and  in  1543  the 
Parliament  allowed  all  persons  to  have  “a 
good  and  true  translation,”  in  English  or 
Scotch,  of  the  Holy  Bible.  In  1545  Car¬ 
dinal  Beatoun,  the  “  Wolsey  of  Scotland,” 
an  able  and  powerful  man,  but  guilty  of 
the  grossest  irregularities,  began  a  bitter 
persecution.  Among  his  victims  was 
George  Wishart,  who  was  put  to  death 
March  1,  1546.  This  act  of  violence  caused 
the  celebrated  John  Knox,  Scotland’s  Re¬ 
former,  to  rebel  against  Rome,  and  to 
avow  his  sympathy  with  the  Protestants. 
Cardinal  Beatoun  was  himself  murdered 
on  May  29  following,  and  Knox  showed 
his  approval  by  taking  refuge  with  the 
murderers  in  the  town  of  St.  Andrew’s 
(April,  1547).  The  town  capitulated  to 
the  French  (July),  and  Knox  was  taken, 
with  other  prisoners,  to  Rouen,  and  de¬ 
tained  there  till  February,  1549.  Knox 
had  been  ordained  to  the  priesthood  in 
1530;  after  studying  the  writings  of  St. 
Augustine,  his  fiery  and  fearless  temper 
roused  him  into  the  greatest  hostility  to 
the  Church  of  Rome;  justly  indignant  at 
her  many  abuses,  he  speaks  of  that  Church 
as  “  the  synagogue  of  Satan,”  and  of  the 
pope  as  “  the  man  of  sin.”  Upon  his  re¬ 
lease  from  Rouen,  the  English  Privy 
Council  gave  him  a  preachership  at  Ber- 
wick-on-Tweed,  and  in  1551  a  royal  chap¬ 
laincy.  But  on  the  accession  of  Queen 
Mary,  in  1553,  Knox  left  England  and 
settled  at  Geneva,  where  for  about  five 
years  he  lived  in  constant  intercourse  with 
Calvin.  Meanwhile,  in  Scotland,  the  Re¬ 
formers,  under  the  Earl  of  Argyle,  re¬ 
nounced  “  the  congregation  of  Satan,  with 
all  the  superstitious  abomination  and  idol¬ 
atry  thereof,”  and  formed  themselves  into 
what  they  called  “  the  Congregation  of 
Jesus  Christ”  (1558),  adopting  for  their 
liturgy  the  English  Prayer-Book  of  1552. 
(In  1564  the  English  Liturgy  was  replaced 
by  the  Prayer-Book  used  by  the  English 
at  Geneva,  and  which  had  received  the 
approval  of  Calvin.)  Knox  returned  to 
Scotland  on  May  2,  1559,  a  thorough  Cal¬ 
vinist.  The  violence  of  his  preaching  at 
once  roused  the  passions  of  the  people  to 
such  a  height  that  abbeys  and  churches 
were  sacked,  monuments  destroyed,  and 


many  kindred  acts  of  violence  perpetrated. 
Knox  lost  no  time  in  completing  the  work 
of  reformation.  A  Protestant  League  was 
formed  on  May  31 , and  began  its  workby  de- 
creeingthe  suspension  of  the  queen  regent, 
Mary  of  Guise.  The  queen  now  placed  her¬ 
self  at  the  head  of  herarmy.and  troops  were 
sent  from  France  to  aid  her  in  subduing 
her  disaffected  subjects.  Knox  and  his 
party  made  a  treaty  with  England,  Feb. 
27,  1560.  A  religious  war  was  only  pre¬ 
vented  by  the  death  of  Mary  of  Guise  on 
June  10.  On  Aug.  17  “  The  Confession 
of  Faith  ”  of  the  Protestants  was  adopted 
by  the  Scotch  Parliament,  and  immediately 
afterward  bills  were  passed  abolishing  the 
mass  and  the  jurisdiction  of  the  pope. 
The  Reformers,  considering  themselves  as 
exclusively  the  “  Congregation  of  Christ 
Jesus,”  felt  it  their  duty  to  utterly  erad¬ 
icate  all  traces  of  the  old  religion,  just  as 
the  Canaanites  were  driven  out  by  the 
Hebrews.  So  not  only  old  customs  and 
traditions  in  worship  and  ritual,  but  Epis¬ 
copacy,  also,  was  abolished  in  1562,  and 
“  Superintendents  ”  appointed  in  their 
place.  Two  bishops,  viz.,  Alexander 
Gordon,  of  Galloway,  and  Adam  Bothwell, 
of  Orkney,  conformed  to  the  new  religion. 
In  the  midst  of  these  changes  (1561)  Mary 
Queen  of  Scots  returned  from  France;  but 
the  Reformed  Faith  was  so  firmly  planted 
that  she  was  powerless  to  prevent  its 
growth.  Knox  and  his  followers  assailed 
her  with  great  harshness  and  severity, 
boldly  calling  upon  her  to  renounce  her 
idolatrous  religion,  and  protesting  against 
the  mass  in  her  private  chapel.  Event¬ 
ually  she  was  forced  to  abdicate  (1567), 
partly  on  the  ground  that  she  was  plotting 
to  restore  the  old  religion.  It  is  said  that 
the  murders  of  Rizzio  (the  queen’s  secre¬ 
tary,  and  also  a  pensioner  of  the  pope)  and 
of  John  Black,  a  learned  champion  of  medi- 
aevalism,  on  the  same  night  in  Holyrood 
Palace,  were  committed  in  order  to  frus¬ 
trate  the  intended  persecution.  In  January, 
1572,  the  titles  of  “Archbishop”  and 
“  Bishop”  were  restored  to  the  “  Super¬ 
intendents,”  but  they  were  still  only  bish¬ 
ops  in  name.  In  November  of  the  same 
year  Knox  died.  A  further  change  took 
place  in  1592,  when,  under  the  influence  of 
Andrew  Melville,  Presbyterianism  was 
established  in  the  place  of  the  nominal 
Episcopacy.  In  1610  Episcopacy  in  its 
English  form  was  established  by  the  king, 
but  only  to  be  again  rejected  by  the  peo¬ 
ple  in  1639.  The  last  hopes  of  a  reaction 
in  Scotland  had  been  extinguished  with 
the  execution  of  Mary  Queen  of  Scots  in 
1587.  Except  as  regards  Church  govern¬ 
ment,  the  Scotch  Reformation  was  entirely 
Calvinistic. 


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Ireland. — The  Irish  Parliament  in  1537 
rejected  the  papal  supremacy  at  the  insti¬ 
gation  of  Henry  VIII.,  and  accepted  the 
royal  supremacy  in  its  place.  A  great 
part  of  the  clergy,  however,  headed  by 
Archbishop  Cromer,  of  Armagh,  remained 
faithful  to  the  pope.  But  as  the  sees  fell 
vacant,  English  prelates  were  appointed  in 
their  place  favorable  to  the  reform  of  the 
Church;  very  little,  however,  was  done 
during  Henry’s  reign,  beyond  suppressing 
monasteries.  Edward  VI.  ’s  first  act  enjoin¬ 
ed  communion  under  both  kinds  in  Ire¬ 
land  as  well  as  in  England.  The  first 
Prayer-Book  of  Edward  VI.  was  used  for 
the  first  time  on  Easter  Day,  1551,  in 
Christchurch  Cathedral,  Dublin,  George 
Browne  being  archbishop;  arrangements 
were  made  for  the  Prayer  -  Book  to  be 
translated  into  Irish,  and  also  into  Latin, 
but  the  plan  fell  through.  Archbishop 
Dowdall,  who  succeeded  Cromer  in  1543, 
was  deprived  for  refusing  to  use  the  Eng¬ 
lish  Prayer-Book  (Oct. ,  1551),  and  hence¬ 
forth  the  archbishops  of  Dublin  held  the 
Primacy.  In  Mary’s  reign  the  papal  su¬ 
premacy  was  restored,  and  with  it  the 
mediaeval  ritual  and  doctrines.  In  1554 
Archbishop  Dowdall,  restored  to  his  see, 
acting  under  a  commission,  deprived  the 
archbishop  of  Dublin  and  three  other  prel¬ 
ates  favorable  to  the  Reformation.  In 
Elizabeth’s  reign,  with  two  exceptions,  the 
Irish  bishops  retained  their  sees;  but  after 
1570,  the  date  of  the  pope’s  Bull  of  Ex- 
communication,  rival  bishops  were  nom¬ 
inated  both  by  the  queen  and  the  pope. 
The  Irish  translation  of  the  New  Testa¬ 
ment  was  not  issued  till  1602.  In  1585 
Bishop  Walsh,  of  Ossory,  was  murdered 
in  his  house  while  engaged  on  the  work. 
The  degraded  and  ignorant  state  of  the 
people,  and  of  many  of  their  ministers, 
was  the  great  barrier  which  stood  in  the 
way  of  a  general  Reformation. — Benham: 
Did.  of  Religion.  For  a  full  index  of  the 
literature  of  the  Reformation,  see  Appen¬ 
dix  to  Professor  George  P.  Fisher’s  able 
and  interesting  History  of  the  Reformation 
(New  York,  1873). 

Reformed  Church,  The,  in  America. 
This  body  was  formerly  known  as  the  Re¬ 
formed  Dutch  Church,  but  the  word  Dutch , 
which  indicated  the  nationality  and  lan¬ 
guage  of  its  founders,  was  removed  from 
its  title  in  the  year  1867.  It  is  Calvinistic 
in  doctrine,  Presbyterian  in  government, 
and  partly  liturgical  in  worship.  The 
doctrinal  standards  are  threefold:  (1)  The 
Belgic  Confession,  so  called,  because  its 
author,  Guido  de  Bres,  was  a  Belgian.  It 
comprises  37  articles,  was  adopted  by  the 
Synod  of  Antwerp  in  1566,  and  has  ever 


since  been  held  as  a  standard  by  the 
Churches  in  the  Netherlands  and  in  Amer¬ 
ica.  (2)  The  Catechisms:  (a)  The  Heidel¬ 
berg.  This  was  prepared  at  Heidelberg  in 
1563,  by  Ursinus  and  Olevianus,  by  direc¬ 
tion  of  the  Elector,  Frederick  III.,  to  be 
used  in  the  churches  and  schools  of  the 
Palatinate.  It  is  the  exponent  of  a  living 
Christianity  rather  than  a  dogmatic  system. 
It  was  adopted  at  once  by  the  Reformed 
Church  of  the  Netherlands.  That  Church, 
as  well  as  the  Reformed  Church  in  Amer¬ 
ica,  requires  the  regular  exposition  of  the 
Catechism  from  the  pulpit  on  the  Lord’s 
Day.  (h)  The  Compendium  of  the  Christian 
religion,  which  is  an  abridgment  of  the 
Heidelberg  Catechism,  and  which  was 
adopted  by  the  Synod  of  Dort  as  a  manual 
of  instruction  of  candidates  for  the  Lord’s 
Supper.  (3)  The  Canons  of  the  Synod  of 
Dort,  which  contain  the  explanations  made 
by  that  synod  of  such  portions  of  the  Con¬ 
fession  and  Catechism  as  relate  to  the 
five  points  in  controvers)7  between  the  Re¬ 
monstrants  and  Contra-Remonstrants.  The 
doctrine  of  the  Church  may  be  fairly  stated 
as  moderate  Calvinism.  Ministers  and 
professors  of  theology  are  required  to  sub¬ 
scribe  to  these  standards,  but  of  private 
members  a  knowledge  only  of  the  great 
fundamentals  of  the  Christian  religion  is 
required. 

The  form  of  government  is  Presbyterian, 
and  of  presbyters  or  elders  there  are  two 
classes:  those  who  both  teach  and  rule, 
who  are  called  ministers,  and  those  who 
only  rule,  who  are  called  elders.  Besides 
these  is  the  office  of  professor  of  theology, 
who  trains  men  for  the  ministry,  and  of 
deacon,  whose  peculiar  function  it  is  to 
take  care  of  the  poor.  The  minister  is  the 
official  teacher  and  pastor,  the  elders  and 
deacons  are  associated  with  him  in  the  con¬ 
sistory,  of  which  body  he  is  ex-officio  presi¬ 
dent.  Elders  and  deacons  are  chosen  or 
approved  by  the  communicants,  and  a 
church  may  have  as  many  as  it  deems  nec¬ 
essary,  and  there  need  not  be  the  same 
number  of  each.  In  all  spiritual  matters, 
as  admitting,  dismissing  or  disciplining 
members,  or  appointing  delegates  to  the 
Classis,  or  whatever  pertains  to  doctrine  or 
worship,  the  elders  alone  have  a  voice,  as 
constituting  with  the  pastor  the  spiritual 
court,  which  corresponds  to  the  session  in 
the  Presbyterian  Church.  They  are  also 
charged  to  assist  the  pastor  in  visitations 
of  the  flock,  and  to  be  vigilant  against  the 
intrusion  into  the  pulpit  of  preachers  of 
unsound  doctrine,  or  of  immoral  life.  The 
deacons,  besides  their  peculiar  function  of 
care  for  the  poor,  are  joined  with  the  minis¬ 
ters  and  elders  in  one  board,  and  as  such 
they  “  have  an  equal  voice  in  whatever  re- 


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lates  to  the  temporalities  of  the  Church,  to 
the  calling  or  dismission  of  a  minister,  or 
the  choice  of  their  own  successors.”  The 
title  of  incorporation  of  a  church  is  usually 
“minister,  elders  and  deacons.”  Elders 
and  deacons  are  elected  for  a  term  of  two 
years,  but  may  be  reelected  indefinitely. 
The  mode  of  election  is  threefold;  it 
may  be  made  by  the  consistory;  or  the  con¬ 
sistory  may  submit  a  double  number  of 
nominations  to  the  choice  of  the  communi¬ 
cants,  or  the  communicants  may  nominate 
and  elect,  without  the  intervention  of  the 
consistory.  In  all  cases  the  names  are 
published  on  three  successive  Lord’s  Days 
to  the  congregation,  to  give  opportunity 
for  objections,  and  so  to  secure  the  tacit 
approval  of  all.  The  Great  Consistory  is 
composed  of  all  the  members  who  have 
been  elders  or  deacons,  but  are  out  of  act¬ 
ive  service.  It  is  an  advisory  body  which 
may  be  called  for  consultation  when  a  min¬ 
ister  is  to  be  chosen,  or  some  other  matter 
of  great  importance  demands  considera¬ 
tion. 

The  next  higher  assembly  is  the  Classis, 
which  is  a  court  of  appeal  from  the  decis¬ 
ion  of  the  consistory.  It  is  composed  of 
the  ministers  within  a  certain  district,  and 
an  elder  delegated  from  each  one  of  the 
churches  of  the  district.  It  licenses  and 
ordains,  dismisses  and  disciplines  minis¬ 
ters,  approves  calls,  forms  and  disbands 
congregations.  It  has  a  general  oversight 
of  the  churches,  and  makes  an  annual  report 
to  the  Particular  Synod.  It  corresponds  to 
the  presbytery  of  the  Presbyterian  Church. 

The  Particular  Synod  is  a  court  of  ap¬ 
peal  from  the  decisions  of  the  Classis.  It 
is  constituted  of  ministers  and  elders  dele¬ 
gated  by  the  Classes,  and  has  the  power  to 
form  new  Classes,  and  to  transfer  a  Church 
from  one  Classis  to  another.  It  reports 
annually  to  the  General  Synod. 

The  General  Synod  is  the  final  court  of 
appeal  in  all  judicial  cases.  It  is  the  high¬ 
est  judicatory  of  the  Church,  meeting  an¬ 
nually,  and  is  composed  of  ministers  and 
elders  nominated  by  the  Classes,  and  ap¬ 
pointed  by  the  Particular  Synods.  It  has 
entire  control  of  the  theological  schools, 
corresponds  with  other  bodies  of  Chris¬ 
tians,  has  charge  of  missionary  and  other 
agencies,  and  a  general  superintendence  of 
the  work  of  the  Church. 

The  worship  is  partly  free  and  partly 
liturgical.  There  is  an  order  of  worship 
prescribed  by  the  Constitution;  and  forms 
for  the  administration  of  the  sacraments, 
for  ordaining  ministers,  elders,  and  dea¬ 
cons,  and  forexcommunication  and  readmis¬ 
sion  are  prescribed.  The  Liturgy  contains 
many  other  forms,  the  use  of  which  is 
optional.  The  present  tendency  is  to  re¬ 


store  much  of  the  liturgical  element  that 
prevailed  in  the  time  of  the  Reformation. 
In  many  Churches  not  only  are  the  com¬ 
mandments  read,  but  the  Lord’s  Prayer  and 
Creed  are  recited  and  the  psalter  is  read 
responsively.  No  psalms  or  hymns  may 
be  sung  in  public  worship  but  such  as  have 
been  approved  by  the  General  Synod. 

This  church  is  one  of  the  smaller  denom¬ 
inations  of  Christians  in  the  country,  num¬ 
bering  at  the  present  time  546  churches, 
566  ministers,  and  88,812  communicants. 
At  the  same  time  it  is  one  of  the  oldest  of 
the  denominations.  From  its  history  the 
causes  of  its  limited  spread  may  be  learned. 
As  early  as  1626  public  worship  was  es¬ 
tablished  in  New  Amsterdam  by  two  Krank- 
besoeckers,  or  visitors  of  the  sick,  officials 
of  the  Reformed  Church  of  the  Nether¬ 
lands,  and  in  1628  a  church  was  organized 
by  the  Rev.  Jonas  Michaelius  with  fifty 
members,  Dutch  and  Walloons,  which  exists 
at  the  present  day  under  the  title  of  the 
Collegiate  Reformed  Dutch  Church  of  New 
York  City.  Michaelius  was  succeeded  by 
Rev.  Everardus  Bogardus  in  1633,  and  with 
him  came  Adam  Roelandsen  to  take  charge 
of  the  parochial  school  which  has  maintain¬ 
ed  an  uninterrupted  existence  to  the  pres¬ 
ent  time.  Bogardus  married  the  widow, 
Annetie  Jans,  whose  farm  came  into  the 
possession  of  Trinity  (Episcopal)  Church, 
and  brought  in  time  great  wealth  to  that 
corporation.  The  first  church  edifice  was 
a  plain  wooden  structure  on  Broad  Street 
between  Pearl  and  Bridge  Streets,  and  the 
second  was  built  in  1642  within  the  walls 
of  Fort  Amsterdam  on  the  Battery.  The 
surrender  of  the  province  of  New  Nether¬ 
lands  to  the  English  took  place  in  1664,  at 
which  time  it  contained  less  than  10,000 
Dutch  inhabitants,  and  New  Amsterdam 
was  a  village  containing  about  1,500  peo¬ 
ple.  There  were  eleven  churches  and  seven 
ministers  in  the  whole  province,  including 
one  church  at  New  Amstel,  Del.  By  the 
Articles  of  Surrender,  the  Dutch  were 
guaranteed  many  rights  and  privileges,  and 
especially  all  that  pertained  to  ecclesiasti¬ 
cal  relations  and  affairs.  The  English 
military  chaplains  were  courteously  al¬ 
lowed  to  officiate  in  the  church  in  the  Fort 
whenever  it  was  not  occupied  by  the  Dutch 
congregation.  The  Dutch  withdrew  from 
it  entirely  in  1693,  when  their  new  church 
in  Garden  Street  was  completed,  after 
which  time  only  the  English  used  it  until  its 
destruction  by  fire  in  1741.  Although  the 
Dutch  immigration  well-nigh  ceased  after 
the  surrender,  yet  churches  were  formed 
by  the  Dutch-speaking  people  in  all  their 
settlements.  These  were  chiefly  along  the 
Hudson  and  Mohawk  rivers,  on  Long  and 
Staten  Islands,  in  northern  New  Jersey,  in 


t 


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the  valley  of  the  Raritan,  and  in  eastern 
Pennsylvania.  Very  many  Huguenots 
identified  themselves  with  these  churches, 
and  they  were  a  very  important  element  in 
them.  Most  of  them  were  familiar  with 
the  Dutch  language,  for  they  had  found 
refuge  and  had  sojourned  in  Holland  after 
leaving  their  native  France. 

The  long  period  of  144  years,  from  1628 
to  1772,  was  a  period  of  contest  with  diffi¬ 
culties  and  of  struggles  for  life.  The 
churches  were  not,  during  these  years, 
united  in  an  independent  American  organ¬ 
ization,  but  were  completely  under  the  ju¬ 
risdiction  of  the  ecclesiastical  authorities 
in  the  Netherlands.  From  them  they  re¬ 
ceived  their  ministers,  and  by  them  alone 
cases  of  discipline  could  be  finally  decided. 
The  great  distance  between  the  two  coun¬ 
tries,  the  infrequency  of  communication, 
the  expense  and  danger  attending  inter¬ 
course,  the  poverty  of  the  churches,  the 
lack  of  educational  institutions,  and  of  au¬ 
thority  to  ordain  even  well-qualified  per¬ 
sons  made  continuous  vacancies  in  many 
churches  inevitable,  and  a  settlement  of 
difficulties  and  progressive  measures  well- 
nigh  impossible.  Two  parties  naturally 
arose  out  of  this  state  of  things,  the  one 
zealous  for  immediate  ecclesiastical  in¬ 
dependence,  the  other  opposing  it.  The 
progressive  party  was  called  the  Coetus, 
from  the  name  of  the  advisory  body  that 
had  been  formed  in  1747;  the  other  was 
called  the  Conferentie.  The  bitter  contro¬ 
versy  that  was  carried  on  by  these  parties 
for  fifteen  years  was  a  great  hindrance  to 
the  prosperity  and  progress  of  the  Church, 
for  many  were  led  to  seek  peace  in  other 
communions.  In  1772  a  plan  of  union 
which  had  been  agreed  upon  the  previous 
year  by  the  two  parties  was  approved  by 
the  Classis  of  Amsterdam,  and  by  this  plan 
provision  was  made  for  the  education  and 
ordination  of  ministers  in  this  country,  and 
the  virtual  independence  of  the  American 
churches  was  secured.  Complete  inde¬ 
pendence,  however,  was  not  obtained  until 
1794,  when  a  constitution  embracing  the 
church  orders  of  the  Synod  of  Dort  and  a 
body  of  explanatory  articles  was  adopted. 

The  transfer  of  the  government  to  the 
English  was  a  disadvantage  to  the  Dutch 
churches;  for  thenceforth  the  colony  was 
English,  the  English  language  was  used  in 
the  courts  and  legislative  bodies,  and  all 
official  acts  were  published  in  it;  the  Dutch 
schools  were  rapidly  superseded  by  the 
English;  the  royal  governors  were  the  of¬ 
ficial  patrons  of  the  Episcopal  Church  and 
labored  for  its  interests,  claiming  that  in 
the  colonies,  as  in  the  mother-country,  it 
was  the  church  by  law  established;  more¬ 
over,  all  who  were  ambitious  for  advance¬ 


ment  in  public  life  were  tempted  to  become 
its  adherents. 

But  perhaps  the  most  serious  hindrance 
of  all  was  the  persistent,  exclusive  use  of 
the  Dutch  language  in  public  worship,  un¬ 
til  the  year  1764,  when  the  Rev.  Archibald 
Laidlie,  D.  D.,  was  called  from  Flushing, 
Zeeland,  to  officiate  in  English,  in  the  Col¬ 
legiate  Church  of  New  York.  His  first 
sermon  in  that  language  was  preached  in 
the  Middle  Dutch  Church,  corner  of  Lib¬ 
erty  and  Nassau  Streets.  This  was  the 
small  beginning  only.  The  Dutch  language 
maintained  its  supremacy,  even  in  New 
York,  until  after  the  Revolution;  and  in 
many  country  churches  English  was 
scarcely  known  until  after  the  openingof  the 
present  century.  Immigrants  from  Great 
Britain  of  the  Calvinistic  faith  and  Presby¬ 
terian  order  could  not  worship  where  the 
Dutch  language  was  used;  the  young 
people  of  Dutch  families,  whose  education 
had  been  in  English,  and  whose  knowledge 
of  the  Dutch  was  confined  to  the  colloqui¬ 
alisms  of  domestic  life,  naturally  resorted 
to  English  services.  Where  the  question 
of  introducing  English  was  proposed,  it 
awakened  strong  opposition  on  the  part  of 
the  older  people,  and  resulted  in  delay, 
strife  and  litigation.  Many  who  desired 
peace  resorted  to  other  churches,  and  then 
the  innovation  was  made:  the  strong  op- 
posers  of  it  went  to  the  Episcopal  and 
Presbyterian  churches,  where  they  could 
hear  nothing  but  English.  Such  were  the 
chief  difficulties  which  the  Dutch  churches 
encountered,  and  wrestled  with  so  many 
years,  causing  a  loss  of  ground  that  can 
never  be  recovered,  and  giving  to  other 
Protestant  denominations  advantages  that 
can  never  be  taken  from  them. 

The  early  and  long-continued  efforts  of 
the  churches  were  directed  to  making  pro¬ 
vision  for  the  training  of  young  men  for 
the  ministry.  In  1766  a  charter  was  ob¬ 
tained  for  a  college  called  Queen’s,  to  be 
established  in  New  Jersey.  On  account  of 
some  defects  in  this  charter,  a  new  one  was 
sought  and  obtained  in  1770,  under  which 
it  went  into  operation,  and  continued,  with 
several  interruptions,  until  1825,  when  it 
was  revived  under  the  name  of  Rutgers, 
and  has  since  advanced  to  its  present  flour¬ 
ishing  condition.  In  1784  the  Synod  elect¬ 
ed  Rev.  Dr.  John  H.  Livingston  professor 
of  theology,  and  Rev.  Dr.  Hermanus  Meyer 
instructor  in  sacred  literature.  In  1807  a 
union  was  formed  between  the  college  and 
the  theological  school,  and,  until  long  after 
the  revival  of  the  college  in  1825,  the  pro¬ 
fessors  of  theology  taught  in  the  college. 
Dr.  Livingston  had  been  educated  at  the 
University  of  Utrecht;  was  a  pastor  of  the 
Collegiate  Church  of  New  York  City,  pre- 


4 


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sided  over  the  convention  that  adopted  the 
plan  of  union  in  1771;  was  the  chief  framer 
of  the  Constitution  of  1794;  the  compiler 
of  the  English  psalmody  for  the  Church; 
the  originator  of  the  movement  for  the 
endowment  of  two  professorships,  and  the 
leading  spirit  in  the  Church  until  his  death, 
in  1825. 

At  New  Brunswick  there  is  a  Grammar 
School  for  the  preparation  of  students  for 
college.  At  Holland,  Mich.,  is  Hope  Col¬ 
lege,  chartered  in  1866;  and  also  the  West¬ 
ern  Theological  School;  and  at  Orange 
City,  Iowa,  is  the  Northwestern  Academy. 
Students  preparing  for  the  ministry,  who 
need  pecuniary  aid,  receive  it  through  the 
Board  of  Education,  which  distributes  the 
income  of  many  scholarships  and  special 
funds,  and  moneys  contributed  directly  by 
the  churches. 

Missions  have  received  special  attention. 
The  calls  of  the  first  ministers  required 
them  to  labor  for  the  conversion  of  the 
Indians,  and  this  was  done  with  consider¬ 
able  success  by  Megapolensis  and  others 
at  Albany,  Schenectady,  Schoharie,  and  in 
New  Jersey.  Much  mission  work  was 
done  by  pastors  among  scattered,  destitute 
churches.  Before  the  close  of  the  last  cen¬ 
tury  Dutch  churches  united  with  Baptists 
and  Presbyterians  in  a  missionary  organi¬ 
zation.  Afterward,  contributions  of  money 
and  men  were  made  for  a  number  of  years 
through  the  American  Board,  until,  in 
1857,  independent  denominational  effort  was 
inaugurated.  Since  then  the  work  of  for¬ 
eign  missions  has  been  prosecuted  with 
great  interest  and  success.  The  Amoy 
Mission  in  China  was  begun  in  1844;  the 
Arcot  Mission  in  India  in  1854;  and  the 
Japan  Mission  in  1859.  Of  mission  churches 
there  are  fifty-one;  ordained  missionaries, 
twenty-three;  native  pastors,  twenty-six; 
communicants,  5,089;  expenditures  for 
1888,  $96,641.41. 

Missionary  work  in  this  country  was  for 
a  long  time  confined  to  communities  using 
the  Dutch  language,  and  after  that  a  lack 
of  men  and  means  hindered  extension.  In 
1831  the  Board  of  Domestic  Missions  was 
formed,  and  the  churches  not  only  aided 
feeble  churches  already  existing,  but 
passed  beyond  to  occupy  fields  in  Western 
New  York,  and  since  that  time  to  the  Far 
West,  even  to  Dakota.  The  Holland  im¬ 
migration,  which  began  under  the  lead  of 
Rev.  Dr.  A.  C.  Van  Raalte  in  1835,  and 
still  continues,  has  added  greatly  to  the 
strength  of  the  Church  in  the  West.  In  the 
year  1888,  ninety-three  missionary  pastors 
serving  120  churches  and  stations  were 
aided,  and  the  total  disbursements  were 
$35,333.49.  Forthe  Church  Building  Fund, 
which  aids  feeble  churches  in  erecting 


houses  of  worship,  $17,413.33  were  re¬ 
ceived.  There  is  also  a  Board  of  Publica¬ 
tion  for  the  publishing  of  books  and  tracts; 
also  Widows’  and  Disabled  Ministers’ 
Funds. 

The  Christian  Intelligencer ,  one  of  the 
oldest  religious  weeklies  in  New  York,  is 
devoted  to  the  interests  of  this  denomina¬ 
tion,  and  the  Mission  Field  is  a  monthly 
representing  the  Boards.  See  Corwin: 
Manual  of  the  Reformed  Church  in  America; 
Demarest:  The  Reformed  Church  in  Amer¬ 
ica;  Centennial  Discourses;  Centennial  of 
the  Theological  Seminary  at  New  Brunswick; 
Gunn:  Life  of  Livingston. 

David  D.  Demarest. 

Reformed  Episcopal  Church,  The,  was 
organized  in  the  city  of  New  York,  in  1873, 
under  the  leadership  of  Rev.  George  David 
Cummings,  assistant  bishop  of  the  Protes¬ 
tant  Episcopal  Diocese  of  Kentucky.  In 
the  controversies  growing  out  of  the  Trac- 
tarian  ( q .  v.)  or  Oxford  movement,  two 
parties,  known  as  the  High-Church  and 
evangelical,  sought  for  the  ascendant  in¬ 
fluence  in  the  Protestant  Episcopal  Church 
in  America.  The  evangelical  party  desired 
to  extirpate  ritualistic  practices,  and  asked 
for  a  modification  of  the  baptismal  office 
by  which  the  word  “  regenerate  ”  might  be 
dropped,  or  made  optional.  They  were 
disappointed  in  securing  these  changes. 
In  1871  the  Rev.  Dr.  Cheney,  of  Chicago, 
was  inhibited  from  preaching,  by  Bishop 
Whitehouse,  and  tried  on  the  charge  of 
omitting  the  word  “regenerate”  when 
performing  the  rite  of  baptism.  Dr. 
Cheney  continued  to  preach,  and  was  for¬ 
mally  deposed  from  the  ministry  by  Bishop 
Whitehouse,  who  also  forbade  Bishop 
Cummings,  who  had  been  active  in  the 
councils  of  the  evangelical  party,  from 
preaching  in  the  diocese  of  Illinois,  a 
prohibition  which  he  disregarded.  During 
the  meeting  of  the  Evangelical  Alliance  in 
New  York  City  in  the  autumn  of  1873, 
Bishop  Cummings  participated  in  a  com¬ 
munion  service  in  a  Presbyterian  Church. 
For  this  act  he  was  bitterly  assailed  by  the 
representatives  of  the  High-Church  party. 
Bishop  Cummings,  reluctantly  convinced 
that  he  ought  not  longer  to  remain  in  a 
church  where  the  great  majority,  as  it 
seemed  to  him,  denied  the  brotherhood  of 
believers  in  Christ,  and  where  ritualistic 
tendencies  were  so  strong,  withdrew,  in 
Nov.,  1873,  from  the  ministry  of  the  Prot¬ 
estant  Episcopal  Church.  The  Reformed 
Episcopal  Church  was  organized,  Dec.  2, 
1873,  in  New  York  City.  Eight  clergymen 
and  twenty  laymen  united  in  this  move¬ 
ment,  and  Bishop  Cummings  was  elected 
the  presiding  officer  of  the  Church.  At 


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the  same  time  they  set  forth  the  following 
Declaration  of  Principles: 

I.  The  Reformed  Episcopal  Church, 
holding  “  the  faith  once  delivered  unto  the 
saints,”  declares  its  belief  in  the  Holy 
Scriptures  of  the  Old  and  New  Testaments 
as  the  Word  of  God  and  the  sole  Rule  of 
Faith  and  Practice:  in  the  Creed  “  com¬ 
monly  called  the  Apostles’  Creed;  ”  in  the 
Divine  institution  of  the  Sacraments  of 
Baptism  and  the  Lord’s  Supper;  and  in  the 
doctrines  of  grace  substantially  as  they  are 
set  forth  in  the  Thirty-nine  Articles  of  Re¬ 
ligion. 

II.  This  Church  recognizes  and  adheres 
to  Episcopacy,  not  as  of  divine  right,  but 
as  a  very  ancient  and  desirable  form  of 
church  polity. 

III.  This  Church,  retaining  a  Liturgy 
which  shall  not  be  imperative,  or  repressive 
of  freedom  in  prayer,  accepts  the  Book  of 
Common  Prayer  as  it  was  revised,  propos¬ 
ed,  and  recommended  for  use  by  the  Gen¬ 
eral  Convention  of  the  Protestant  Episco¬ 
pal  Church,  a.  D.  1785,  reserving  full 
liberty  to  alter,  abridge,  enlarge,  and 
amend  the  same,  as  may  seem  most  con¬ 
ducive  to  the  edification  of  the  people, 
“  provided  that  the  substance  of  the  faith 
be  kept  entire.” 

IV.  This  Church  condemns  and  rejects 
the  following  erroneous  and  strange  doc¬ 
trines  as  contrary  to  God’s  Word: 

(1)  That  the  Church  of  Christ  exists 
only  in  one  order  or  form  of  ecclesiastical 
polity: 

(2)  That  Christian  ministers  are 
“priests”  in  another  sense  than  that  in 
which  all  believers  are  “  a  royal  priest¬ 
hood  :  ” 

(3)  That  the  Lord’s  Table  is  an  altar  on 
which  the  oblation  of  the  Body  and  Blood 
of  Christ  is  offered  anew  to  the  Father: 

(4)  That  the  Presence  of  Christ  in  the 
Lord’s  Supper  is  a  presence  in  the  elements 
of  Bread  and  Wine: 

(5)  That  Regeneration  is  inseparably 
connected  with  Baptism. 

The  Reformed  Episcopal  Church  recog¬ 
nizes  but  two  orders  in  the  ministry — the 


presbyterate  and  the  diaconate.  A  bishop 
is  simply  the  first  presbyter  in  a  synod. 
They  do  not  constitute  a  separate  house, 
as  in  the  Protestant  Episcopal  Church,  but 
vote  in  council  with  other  presbyters,  and 
are  subject  to  confirmation  or  appointment 
by  the  General  Council.  The  statistics 
of  the  Reformed  Episcopal  Church  for 
1890  shows  79  Presbyters  (including  S 
bishops),  29  deacons,  with  106  parishes  in 
the  United  States  and  Canada,  and  about 
10,000  communicants.  See  Life  of  George 
David  Cummings ,  by  his  wife  (N.  Y.,  1878); 
also  Canons  and  Joitrnals  of  General  Coun¬ 
cils  from  1873  to  1890. 

Reformed  (German)  Church  in  the  Unit¬ 
ed  States.  In  the  doctrinal  controversies 
that  arose  in  the  progress  of  the  Reforma¬ 
tion,  there  were  those  in  Germany  and 
Switzerland  who  did  not  altogether  indorse 
the  views  either  of  Luther  or  Zwingli. 
The  mediating  spirit  of  Melanchthon  and 
the  influence  of  Calvin  developed  a  type  of 
theology  which  found  expression  in  the 
Catechism  prepared  at  the  command  of 
Frederick  III.,  elector  of  the  Palatinate,  by 
Zacharias  Ursinus  and  Casper  Olevianus, 
professors  in  the  University  at  Heidelberg. 
This  Catechism,  first  published  in  1563,  be¬ 
came  the  doctrinal  standard  of  the  Reform¬ 
ed  Church  in  Germany,  Holland,  and  else¬ 
where,  and  is  the  only  doctrinal  confession 
of  the  German  Reformed  Church  in  the 
United  States.  As  early  as  1684  there  were 
those  from  the  Palatinate  who  sought 
refuge  in  this  country  from  religious  per¬ 
secution.  Colonies  were  formed  along  the 
Delaware,  the  Lehigh,  the  Susquehanna,  in 
New  York,  Maryland,  Virginia,  and  North 
and  South  Carolina.  The  attention  of  the 
Synod  of  Holland  was  called,  not  far  from 
1730,  to  the  fact  that  many  Germans  who 
held  to  the  Reformed  Confession  had  set¬ 
tled  in  America  and  desired  religious  privi¬ 
leges.  The  first  minister  to  take  the  reg¬ 
ular  charge  of  a  congregation  was  Philip 
Boehm,  who  came  to  this  country  in  1720, 
and  for  some  time  engaged  in  the  calling  of 
a  school-teacher.  Other  ministers  followed, 
and  in  1746  Michael  Schlatter  (y.  v.),  who 
has  been  called  “  the  missionary  father  of 
the  German  Reformed  Church  in  America,” 
began  his  labors.  The  first  Synod  was  or¬ 
ganized  in  1747,  under  the  care  of  the  Re¬ 
formed  Classis  of  Amsterdam,  with  five 
ordained  ministers  and  forty-six  organized 
churches.  Subsequently  the  Synod  of  Ohio 
and  adjacent  States  was  formed,  but  there 
was  no  organic  union  with  the  mother- 
synod.  This  fact  brought  about  a  change 
in  the  constitution,  adopted  in  1863,  by 
which  a  General  Synod  was  organized, 
composed  of  delegates  elected  by  the 


Ref 


(  806  ) 


Reh 


Classes  and  meeting  triennially.  This  is  the 
highest  judicatory  of  the  Church. 

The  Reformed  Church  has  several  theo¬ 
logical  seminaries  and  colleges  under  its 
care,  and  maintains  a  board  of  foreign  mis¬ 
sions  which  has  missionaries  in  Japan, 
India,  and  among  the  North-American  In¬ 
dians.  The  Home  Missionary  work,  es¬ 
pecially  among  German  emigrants,  is  act¬ 
ively  prosecuted. 

Doctrinally,  the  Reformed  Church  in  the 
United  States  holds  to  the  Calvinistic  in 
distinction  from  the  Lutheran  view  of  the 
Lord’s  Supper,  and  is  presbyterial  in  its 
form  of  government.  The  Heidelberg 
Catechism  is  the  accepted  standard  of  doc¬ 
trine  and  faith.  Liturgical  forms  of  service 
are  provided,  but  a  certain  degree  of  free¬ 
dom  is  allowed  congregations  in  their  use. 
The  statistics  of  the  church,  as  given  in 
1890,  include  1,535  churches,  813  ministers, 
and  194,044  communicants.  See  Lewis 
Mayer:  History  of  the  Geri?ian  Reformed 
Church ;  H.  Harbaugh:  Life  of  Rev.  Michael 
Schlatter;  Fathers  of  the  Reformed  Church , 
5  vols. 

Reformed  Presbyterian  Church.  See 

Presbyterian  Church. 

Regeneration  “is  a  theological  expres¬ 
sion  denoting  the  spiritual  change  which 
passes  on  all  men  in  becoming  Christians. 
There  are  various  interpretations  of  the 
mode  and  meaning  of  this  change,  but  its 
necessity  in  some  shape  or  another  may  be 
said  to  be  admitted  by  all  branches  of  the 
Christian  Church.  By  all,  man  is  sup¬ 
posed,  as  the  condition  of  his  becoming 
truly  Christian,  to  pass  from  a  state  of  nat¬ 
ure  to  a  state  of  regeneration;  from  a  state 
in  which  he  obeys  the  mere  impulses  of 
the  natural  life  to  a  state  in  which  a  new 
and  higher — a  divine — life  has  been  awak¬ 
ened  in  him.  The  words  of  our  Lord  to 
Nicodemus,  ‘  Verily,  verily,  I  say  unto 
thee,  except  a  man  be  born  again,  he  can¬ 
not  see  the  kingdom  of  God,’  are  accepted 
as  the  expression  of  this  universal  neces¬ 
sity  by  the  Christian  Church.  It  may  be 
further  stated  that  every  branch  of  the 
Christian  Church  recognizes,  although  un¬ 
der  very  different  conditions,  the  Holy 
Spirit^as  the  author  of  this  change.  The 
change,  in  its  real  character,  is  spiritual, 
and  spiritually  induced.  According  to  cer¬ 
tain  sections  of  the  Christian  Church,  how¬ 
ever,  the  change  is  inseparably  involved 
with  Christian  baptism,  in  all  cases;  while 
other  sections  do  not  acknowledge  any  es¬ 
sential  connection  between  baptism  and 
regeneration.  In  the  view  of  the  former, 
baptism  constitutes  always  a  real  point  of 
transition  from  the  natural  to  the  spiritual 


life.  The  grace  of  baptism  is  the  grace  of 
regeneration;  the  laver  of  baptism  is  the 
laver  of  regeneration,  not  merely  in  any 
formal  sense,  but  in  a  real  and  living  sense, 
so  that  every  baptized  person — or  at  least 
every  rightly  baptized  person — has  already 
become  a  Christian  truly,  although  he  may 
fall  away  from  the  grace  that  he  has  re¬ 
ceived.  This  is  what  is  commonly  called 
the  High-Church  doctrine  of  regeneration. 
In  the  view  of  others,  regeneration  is  a 
special,  conscious  process,  which  takes 
place  independently  of  baptism,  or  of  any 
other  outward  fact  or  ceremony.  It  im¬ 
plies  a  sensible  experience — an  awakening, 
whereby  men  come  to  see  the  evil  of  sin, 
and  the  divine  displeasure  against  sin,  and, 
through  the  Holy  Spirit,  are  born  again, 
put  away  their  former  evil  life,  and  begin 
to  live  a  new,  divine  life;  and  many  Chris¬ 
tians  have  spoken  with  rapture  of  this  ex¬ 
perience ,  of  its  thoroughness,  its  sudden¬ 
ness,  its  immediateness.  There  are  dif¬ 
ferent  shades  of  opinion  on  the  subject, 
some  holding  it  as  a  condition  of  regenera¬ 
tion,  that  the  regenerate  should  be  able  to 
recount,  or  at  least  give  some  precise  idea 
of  the  time  and  manner  of  the  change 
through  which  they  have  passed;  others 
repudiating  such  views  as  savoring  of 
fanaticism,  yet  holding  no  less  to  the 
spiritual  definiteness  of  the  change,  inde¬ 
pendently  of  church  forms  of  any  kind ;  and 
such  views, in  contradistinction  to  the  High- 
Church  doctrine,  have  received  the  name 
of  evangelical.  The  idea  that  regeneration 
is  essentially  involved  in  baptism,  or  iden¬ 
tical  with  baptism,  is  supposed  by  many 
Christians  to  be  a  peculiar^  unevangelical 
idea,  opposed  to  the  spirituality  and  free¬ 
dom  of  divine  grace.” — Chambers:  Cyclo¬ 
pedia. 

Regula  Fidei,  a  term  used  by  the  Fathers 
in  the  latter  part  of  the  second  century  to 
designate  the  fundamental  doctrines  of 
Christianity,  or  rules  of  faith.  These 
were  finally  developed  into  the  Apostles’ 
Creed,  which  is  the  regula  fidei  in  the  West¬ 
ern  Church.  The  Eastern  Church  requires 
the  Nicene  Creed. 

Regular,  one  who  has  taken  the  vows  of 
a  monastic  house,  and  is  bound  to  live  ac¬ 
cording  to  its  rules.  Regular  benefices  were 
those  that  could  be  bestowed  only  on  the 
members  of  some  regular  Order. 

Rehobo'am  ( enlarger  of  the  people ),  a  son 
of  Solomon  by  the  Ammonite  princess 
Naamah  (1  Kings  xiv.  21),  who  came  to 
the  throne  at  the  age  of  forty-one  and 
reigned  seventeen  years  (b.  c.  975~957)* 
When  he  was  anointed  at  Shechem  he  was 


Rei 


(  807  ) 


Rel 


met  by  representatives  of  the  ten  tribes, 
who  demanded  relief  from  the  crushing 
burden  of  taxation  that  Solomon  had  laid 
upon  them.  Following  the  advice  of  his 
young  courtiers,  Rehoboam  gave  an  inso¬ 
lent  reply  to  this  request,  and  the  ten 
tribes  revolted.  Only  Judah  and  a  part  of 
Benjamin  remained  loyal  to  him.  He  was 
admonished  by  the  prophet  Shemaiah  to 
forbear  his  purpose  to  put  down  the  revolt 
by  force  (1  Kings  xii.  24),  but  continual 
wars  prevailed  between  the  two  parties. 
The  Egyptian  king  Shishak  invaded  Judah 
and  took  Jerusalem.  Rehoboam  gained  an 
ignominious  peace  by  surrendering  all  the 
royal  treasure. 

Reid,  Thomas,  D.  D.,  founder  of  Scot¬ 
tish  philosophy;  b.  at  Strachan,  Kincar¬ 
dineshire,  of  which  place  his  father  was 
minister,  1709;  d.  at  Glasgow,  1796.  He 
studied  at  the  Marischal  College,  Aber¬ 
deen,  and  was  appointed  librarian;  resign¬ 
ing  this  post  in  1736,  he  visited  London, 
Oxford,  and  Cambridge,  and  after  a  year 
he  settled  at  New  Machar,  Aberdeenshire, 
as  parish  minister.  Here  he  wrote  an  es¬ 
say  on  the  application  of  mathematics  to 
morals,  with  a  view  to  contradicting  an  as¬ 
sertion  made  by  Dr.  Cheyne  that  there  is 
a  close  affinity  between  them.  The  essay 
met  with  such  success  that  Reid  was  elect¬ 
ed,  in  1752,  professor  of  moral  philosophy 
at  King’s  College,  Aberdeen;  and  in  1763 
he  was  chosen  to  occupy  the  same  post  at 
the  University  of  Glasgow,  as  the  succes¬ 
sor  of  Dr.  Adam  Smith.  His  Inquiry  into 
the  Human  Mind ,  published  in  1764,  pro¬ 
cured  for  him  the  decree  of  D.  D.  from 
the  University  of  Aberdeen.  From  this 
time  till  his  death  he  continued  to  write  on 
metaphysics,  natural  law,  and  philosophy, 
and  in  order  to  do  so  uninterruptedly  he 
resigned  his  professorship  in  1781.  Essays 
on  the  Intellectual  Powers  appeared  in  1785; 
Essays  on  the  Active  Power  of  the  Human 
Mind ,  in  1788;  a  treatise  on  Platter  and 
Mind ,  and  Physiological  Reflections  on  Mus¬ 
cular  Motion.  Reid  has  been  called  by  F. 
D.  Maurice  “  the  philosopher  of  conscious¬ 
ness.”  “Common  sense”  is  a  phrase 
which  recurs  over  and  over  in  his  writings, 
he  meaning  by  it  the  sense  which  is  com¬ 
mon  to  men,  and  which  belongs  to  philos¬ 
ophers  so  far  as  they  care  to  take  up  the 
position  of  men.  His  senses  convey  to 
him  certain  ideas,  but  that  implies  that  he 
himself  is  the  centre  of  these  ideas — he  the 
living  recipient.  But  having  got  so  far,  he 
was  perforce  carried  on  further.  When, 
beyond  all  outward  phenomena  and  all  sen¬ 
sations,  he  perceived  an  inner  self  inde¬ 
pendent  of  them,  he  came  to  discern  that 
man  has  certain  obligations  of  right  and 


wrong — certain  duties.  The  easy-going 
philosophy  of  Hume,  making  sensible  ex¬ 
perience  the  all  in  all  of  human  life,  seem¬ 
ed  unsatisfying  to  Reid,  and  he  wrote  to 
the  popular  philosopher,  courteously  argu¬ 
ing  against  the  shallowness  of  his  conclu¬ 
sions.  Hence,  as  the  above-named  critic 
remarks,  arose  a  Scotch  philosophy,  basing 
itself  upon  “consciousness.”  —  Benham: 
Did.  of  Religion.  See  his  Life ,  by  Stewart; 
ed.  of  his  Works ,  by  Hamilton. 

Reimarus  ( ri-md'roos ),  Hermann  Samu¬ 
el,  the  author  of  the  famous  Wolfenbiittel 
Fragments ;  b.  at  Hamburg,  Dec.  22,  1694; 
d.  there,  March  1,  1768.  He  studied  at 
Jena  and  Wittenberg,  and  became  rector  of 
the  gymnasium  in  Weimar  (1723),  and  in 
Hamburg  (1729).  He  was  an  extreme  rad¬ 
ical  among  German  rationalists.  See 
WoLFENBUTTEL  FRAGMENTS. 

Reinhard,  Franz  Volkmar,  b.  at  Vohen- 
strauss,  in  the  upper  Palatinate,  March  12, 
1 753 ;  d.  in  Dresden,  Sept.  6,  1812.  He 
studied  theology  at  Wittenberg,  and  be¬ 
came  professor  there  in  1780,  and  court 
preacher  at  Dresden  in  1792.  While  hold¬ 
ing  rationalistic  theories,  he  retained  the 
principal  tenets  of  supranaturalism.  His 
collected  sermons  comprise  thirty-five  vol¬ 
umes,  and  his  System  der  Christlichen  Moral 
(i788-i8i5)passed  through  several  editions. 

Reland,  Hadrian,  b.  at  Ryp,  near  Alk- 
maar,  July  17,  1676;  d.  at  Utrecht,  Feb. 
5,  1718.  He  studied  Oriental  languages 
and  ecclesiastical  antiquities  in  Amsterdam, 
and  was  appointed  professor  at  Utrecht  in 
1689.  His  chief  work:  Palcestina  ex  Monu- 
mentis  Veteribus  Illustrata  (1714)  is  still  an 
authority  in  the  study  of  ancient  Palestine. 

Relics  (Lat.  reliquice ,  remains)  originally 
designated  the  remains  of  saints  and  mar¬ 
tyrs;  but  in  time  came  to  signify  anything 
which  had  once  belonged  to  the  deceas¬ 
ed  person.  The  respect  with  which  relics 
were  regarded  was  such  that  the  Synod  of 
Nicaea  (787)  commanded  that  no  church 
should  be  consecrated  without  them.  The 
desire  to  obtain  relics  resulted  in  filling 
the  churches  with  spurious  articles.  In 
Roman  Catholic  countries  the  worship  of 
relics  still  continues,  but  it  is  forbidden  in 
all  Protestant  churches. 

Religion  comes  from  the  Latin,  either, 
according  to  Cicero,  from  relegere ,  “  to  re¬ 
consider  ”  or  “  read  over;”  or,  according  to 
Lactantius  and  others  (which  seems  the 
more  probable  derivation),  from  religare 
“  to  bind  fast.”  The  word  is  sometimes 
used  as  synonymous  with  “  sect;”  but  in  a 


Rel 


(  808  ) 


Ren 


practical  sense  it  is  generally  considered 
as  the  same  with  “  godliness,”  or  a  life  de¬ 
voted  to  the  worship  and  fear  of  God.  Dr. 
Doddridge  thus  defines  it:  “  Religion  con¬ 
sists  in  the  resolution  of  the  will  for  God, 
and  in  a  constant  care  to  avoid  whatever 
we  are  persuaded  he  would  disapprove,  to 
dispatch  the  work  he  has  assigned  us  in 
life,  and  to  promote  his  glory  in  the  hap¬ 
piness  of  mankind.”  The  foundation  of 
all  religion  rests  on  the  belief  of  the  exist¬ 
ence  of  God.  Religion  has  been  divided 
into  natural  and  revealed.  These  are  dis¬ 
cussed  under  Natural  Theology  and 
Revelation.  The  religions  which  exist 
in  the  world  are  usually  classified  under 
four  heads — Pagan,  Jewish,  Mohammedan, 
and  Christian — to  the  articles  dealing  with 
which  the  reader  is  referred. 

Religious  Dramas.  At  a  very  early  pe¬ 
riod  the  dramatic  element  began  to  develop 
in  connection  with  Christian  services.  The 
keeping  of  festivals  like  Easter  were  ac¬ 
companied  by  recitations  that  were  cast  in 
the  form  of  rhymed  dialogues,  and  cos¬ 
tumes  were  added  to  represent  the  angels, 
the  soldiers  keeping  watch,  etc.  The 
Christmas  and  Easter  plays  were  most 
frequent  and  elaborate  during  the  twelfth 
and  thirteenth  centuries.  They  were  com¬ 
posed  and  acted  by  the  clergy  in  the 
churches  until  1210,  when  Innocent  III.  for¬ 
bade  the  use  of  churches  for  this  purpose, 
and  would  not  allow  the  clergy  to  take  part 
in  them.  The  plays  were  then  produced 
in  the  public  squares,  and  became  more 
elaborate  and  historical  in  character.  A 
new  kind  of  drama  came  in  vogue,  called 
moralities ,  in  which  the  biblical  text  was 
abandoned,  and  allegorical  characters 
adopted.  From  this  time  there  developed 
the  secular  drama.  In  Catholic  Germany 
the  religious  drama,  called  mysteries,  has, 
in  some  cases,  continued  its  representations 
until  the  present  time.  See  Ober-Ammer- 
gau. 

Religious  Houses,  a  term  which  partic¬ 
ularly  designates  those  houses  used  by 
monks,  nuns,  penitents,  and  others  wishing 
to  lead  a  religious  life  of  seclusion. 

Religious  Liberty.  See  Persecution; 
Toleration. 

Relly,  James,  a  Unitarian  preacher,  about 
the  middle  of  the  eighteenth  century,  who 
became  the  founder  of  the  Universalists  in 
London.  His  followers  were  known  as 
Rellyanists;  but  the  London  society  did 
not  last  long.  Relly  was  a  voluminous 
writer,  a  careful  student  of  Scripture,  and 
a  good  controversialist.  His  principal 


work  is  Union ;  or,  A  Treatise  of  the  Con¬ 
sanguinity  and  Affinity  between  Christ  and 
his  Church,  in  which  he  elaborates  his  doc¬ 
trinal  views,  and  shows  the  ground  on 
which  they  rest.  He  said  that  Christ  had 
made  satisfaction  for  all  the  human  race, 
and  bore  their  sins  in  his  body,  so  that  he 
knew  nothing  of  demanding  justice  on  the 
sinner;  and  he  maintained  that  the  state  of 
unbelievers  after  death  cannot  be  a  state  of 
punishment,  because  Christ,  who  tasted 
death  for  every  man,  bore  the  chastisement 
of  their  peace.  He  admitted  the  doctrine 
of  misery  in  a  future  state  only  so  far  that 
men  in  unbelief  did  not  know  what  Jesus 
had  done  for  them  by  the  sacrifice  of  him¬ 
self,  and,  therefore,  might  be  oppressed 
with  guilt  and  fear;  but  he  looked  forward 
to  a  time  of  universal  restitution,  when  all 
mankind  would  be  brought  to  a  knowledge 
of  salvation.  His  earliest  convert  was  John 
Murray,  who  had  been  a  disciple  of  White- 
field;  he,  shortly  after  joining  Relly,  went 
to  America,  and  there  founded  the  Uni¬ 
versalists  (<7.  v. ). — Benham:  Did.  of  Re¬ 
ligion. 

Remigius,  St.,  b.  probably  in  437;  d. 
Jan.  13,  533.  He  was  elected  bishop  of 
Rheims  in  459  and  was  the  means  of  the 
conversion  of  Clovis  to  Christianity.  He 
has  left  four  letters.  For  political  pur¬ 
poses  Hincmar  of  Rheims  invented  two 
fictions  regarding  Remigius:  (1)  that  he 
anointed  Clovis  with  oil;  (2)  that  he  re¬ 
ceived  a  letter  from  Pope  Hormisdas  recog¬ 
nizing  him  as  primate  of  France. 

Remonstrants,  a  name  given  to  the  Ar- 
minians  who,  in  1610,  presented  a  remon¬ 
strance  to  the  States  of  Holland , complaining 
of  the  sentence  which  the  Synod  of  Dort 
had  passed,  condemning  them  as  heretics. 
The  Remonstrants  were  headed  by  Episco- 
pius  and  Grotius.  See  Arminians. 

Rem'phan,  occurring  only  in  Acts  vii. 
43,  which  is  a  quotation  from  Amos  v.  26, 
where  the  Hebrew  has  Chinn.  The  god  is 
usually  identified  with  Saturn,  or  Molech, 
the  star  god. 

Renata,  Duchess  of  Ferrara,  daughter  of 
Louis  XII.  of  France,  and  Anne  of  Bre¬ 
tagne;  b.  at  Blois,  Oct.  25,  1511;  d.  at 
Montargis,  June  12,  1575.  She  was  highly 
educated,  and  in  1528  married  Hercules  of 
Este  who,  in  1534,  became  Duke  of  Ferrara. 
She  early  favored  Protestantism,  and  en¬ 
couraged  the  translation  of  the  Bible  into 
Italian.  Calvin  came  to  Ferrara  in  1535, 
and  the  friendship  then  formed  with  Renata 
only  ceased  with  his  death.  At  the  instiga¬ 
tion  of  her  husband  she  became  a  victim  of 


Rep 


(  809  ) 


Res 


the  Inquisition  and  was  imprisoned  in  1554 
as  a  heretic  in  the  old  castle  of  Este.  She 
was  soon  released  upon  making  a  forced 
recantation.  After  the  death  of  her  hus¬ 
band  in  1559,  she  returned  to  France  and 
openly  espoused  the  Reformation.  She 
lived  for  a  time  in  Paris,  but  in  order  to 
have  the  privilege  of  Protestant  services 
she  made  her  home  at  Montargis  in  1563. 
See  Sophia  W.  Weitzel:  Retiee  of  France , 
Duchess  of  Ferrara  (N.  Y.,  1883). 

Repentance,  a  term  used  for  the  sor¬ 
row  for  sin  which  produces  newness  of 
life.  The  Greek  word  most  frequently 
used  in  the  New  Testament  for  repentance 
is  metanoia ,  which  signifies  a  change  of 
mind  and  disposition.  Another  word 
which  is  also  used  is  metamelomoi,  which 
signifies  anxiety  or  uneasiness  upon  the 
consideration  of  what  is  done.  True  re¬ 
pentance  involves  a  real  hatred  of  sin,  on 
the  ground  that  it  is  offensive  to  God;  sor¬ 
row  on  account  of  the  wrong  done  to  God 
and  man,  and  a  hearty  desire  and  reso¬ 
lution  to  forsake  everything  repugnant  to 
the  Divine  Will.  Repentance  is  preceded 
by  regeneration,  the  chief  difference  be¬ 
tween  the  two  being  that  the  latter  is  the 
work  of  the  Holy  Spirit,  while  the  former 
is  the  effort  made  by  the  human  will  to  act 
in  accordance  with  the  Spirit.  The  Roman 
Catholics  hold  that  repentance  imposes 
certain  exercises,  obligations,  and  burdens 
on  those  who  have  sinned,  and  these  are 
known  as  penances.  At  the  Reformation, 
however,  Luther  defined  repentance  as  a 
“  transmutation  of  the  mind  and  affections,” 
and  declared  that  ‘it  consisted  in  faith  in 
God,  and  sorrow  for  past  sins.  The  Pie¬ 
tists  laid  a  great  stress  upon  the  necessity 
of  repentance,  and  held  that  it  necessitated 
a  great  spiritual  struggle,  which  led  to  a 
controversy  between  them  and  the  Luther¬ 
ans.  Others,  again,  hold  and  teach  that  the 
essence  of  repentance  consists  in  the  change 
of  mind  and  attitude  toward  God,  and  the 
turning  tozuard  him,  irrespective  of  the 
amount  of  sorrow  for  sin  consciously  ex¬ 
perienced.  Appealing  to  the  Scripture, 
they  urge  that  it  is  called  repentance  (or 
change  of  mind  or  heart)  “  toward  God;” 
and  that  we  are  expressly  taught  by  Paul 
(2  Cor.  vii.  9,  10)  that  true  godly  sorrow 
luorkethy  or  produces,  repentance,  being 
therefore  a  means  to  it,  and  so  distinct. 
It  is  also  urged  that  in  the  case  of  the 
young  man  who  refused  to  go  into  the 
vineyard,  but  “afterward  repented  and 
went,”  the  essence  of  his  repentance  con¬ 
sisted  not  in  the  amount  of  contrition  he 
may  have  felt,  which  was  only  of  value 
for  the  effect  produced,  but  in  the  fact  that 
he  changed  in  his  own  mind  or  will  toward 


his  father’s  command,  and  did  what  he  had 
refused  to  do.  It  has  been  said  further 
that  the  distinction  so  drawn  is  not  a  vain 
or  meaningless  one,  since  God  “  com¬ 
mands  ”  men  everywhere  to  repent,  and 
the  lack  of  a  conscious  sorrow  they  do  not 
feel  is  made  by  many  an  excuse  for  inability 
to  obey;  whereas  it  is  urged  that  God 
never  commands  any  man  to  do  what  his 
conscience  does  not  tell  him  he  might  do, 
and  that  if  the  command  were  clearly  in¬ 
terpreted  and  understood  to  mean  the  giv¬ 
ing  up  or  surrender  of  the  will  to  God, 
which  every  man  feels  he  might  do,  a 
great  and  real  practical  hindrance  to  many 
would  be  taken  away.  All  agree  that  the 
evidences  of  true  repentance  are  to  be 
sought  and  found  in  works  “  meet  ”  for  it. 
— Benham:  Did .  of  Religion. 

Reph'idim.  See  Wilderness  of  the 
Wandering. 

Requiem,  a  mass  for  the  dead  performed 
in  the  Roman  Church,  so  called  from  the 
opening  words,  Requiem  ceterna7n  dona  eis 
domine  (“  Give  them,  O  Lord,  eternal 
rest”).  Some  musical  compositions  per¬ 
formed  on  special  occasions  of  mourning 
are  called  requiems. 

Reredos  (French  arriere  dos ),  the  screen 
at  the  back  of  an  altar.  Beautiful  ex¬ 
amples  are  to  be  seen  in  some  of  the 
English  cathedrals. 

Reservation,  Mental,  is  a  trick  which 
Jesuits  teach,  by  which  it  is  possible  for  a 
man  to  tell  a  lieor  commit  perjury:  namely, 
by  adding  mentally  some  qualification  to 
the  words  spoken.  This  abominable  doc¬ 
trine  was  first  taught  by  the  Jesuit  Sanchez 
(d.  1610),  and  further  developed  by  Palao, 
Escobar,  and  others. 

Residence  refers  to  the  rules  for  the 
residence  of  ecclesiastics  in  their  place  of 
office.  At  a  very  early  date  it  was  found 
necessary  to  forbid  absence.  Before  the 
Reformation  the  accumulation  of  benefices 
made  the  evil  of  non-residence  very  great. 
This  was  checked  in  part  by  the  action  of 
the  Council  of  Trent. 

Restoration  is  the  doctrine  of  the  ulti¬ 
mate  recovery  of  all  rational  creatures  to 
the  favor  of  God  and  eternal  felicity.  A 
Scriptural  term,  apokatastasis  (Acts  iii.  21), 
offers  somewhat  of  a  basis  for  the  idea,  and 
a  number  of  Scripture  texts — Rom.  v.  18; 
xi.  32;  1  Cor.  xv.  21  ff. ;  Eph.  i.  10;  Phil.  i. 
10  f. ,  etc.  — admit  of  an  interpretation 
which  favors  it.  Origen  (d.  254)  held  that 
souls  dying  impenitent  would,  after  pass- 


Res 


(  810  ) 


Res 


ng  through  “  an  unlimited  and  illimitable 
series  of  worlds  and  of  world  develop¬ 
ments,”  finally  all  be  led  back  to  God.  He 
maintained  this  view  asacorollary  from  the 
inspired  teachings  that  all  things  shall  be 
brought  under  the  feet  of  Christ;  but  his 
mind  was  also  influenced  by  certain  specu¬ 
lations  concerning  the  attributes  of  God, 
the  constitution  of  man,  and  the  character 
of  sin.  Later  fathers  in  the  Greek  Church, 
among  them  Gregory  of  Nyssa,  have  been 
credited  with  similar  views,  but  a  Council 
at  Constantinople  in  543  condemned  the 
opinions  of  Origen  as  heretical.  They  were 
not  agitated  subsequently  by  any  one  of 
prominence  until  the  time  of  John  Scotus 
Erigena,  in  whose  pantheistic  system  the 
Apokatastasis  formed  but  a  part  of  the 
universal  process  by  which  all  individual¬ 
ity  is  extinguished,  and  all  things  are  at 
last  reabsorbed  in  God.  Only  a  few  fa¬ 
natical  spirits  broached  the  idea  in  the 
Middle  Ages,  but,  in  the  general  upheaval 
of  the  Reformation,  Denck  and  leading 
Anabaptists  busily  spread  the  “  Origenistic 
heresy,”  that  the  damned,  including  Satan 
and  his  angels,  will  finally  have  salvation. 
God  is  love,  they  argued,  and  the  punish¬ 
ment  he  inflicts  can  only  be  designed  to 
effect  ultimate  reformation.  The  Reform¬ 
ers,  on  the  other  hand, unanimously  repudi¬ 
ated  such  a  tenet,  and  all  the  Confessions 
of  the  sixteenth  century  agree  on  this 
point  with  the  Consensus  of  the  Church. 

Advocates  of  the  doctrine  of  restoration 
appeared  again  near  the  end  of  the  seven¬ 
teenth  century,  the  members  of  the  “  Phila¬ 
delphian  Society  ”  claiming  personal  reve¬ 
lations  on  the  subject.  Oetinger,  the 
mystic  pietist,  adopted  it  as  a  part  of  his 
system,  and  even  Bengel  is  said  to  have 
accepted  it,  though  like  Origen  he  admitted 
that  it  was  a  dangerous  doctrine  for  the 
masses.  It  is  the  chief  characteristic  of 
the  Universalist  denomination,  and  has  al¬ 
ways  been  a  favorite  notion  of  the  Ration¬ 
alists.  Schleiermacher  taught  that  it 
would  make  an  inexplicable  “  dissonance  ” 
in  God’s  universe,  if  a  portion  of  God’s 
creatures  were  debarred  forever  from  par¬ 
ticipation  in  the  redemption  of  Christ. 

The  Scriptures  sometimes  cited  in  sup¬ 
port  of  Restoration  have  reference  either 
to  the  universality  of  the  provisions  of 
grace,  or  to  the  totality  of  those  who  are 
God’s  children,  or  else  to  the  universality 
of  the  homage  which  both  friend  and  foe 
will  at  last  render  to  God.  And  if  isolated 
or  obscure  utterances  are  not  solved  by 
this  explanation,  their  proper  interpreta¬ 
tion  cannot  be  in  conflict  with  the  oft-re¬ 
peated  and  clear  declarations  of  the  Lord 
and  his  apostles.  (Cf.  Matt.  xii.  32;  xxv. 
41;  xxvi.  24;  Mark  ix.  48;  xiv.  31.) 


Apparent  contradictions  on  this  subject 
meet  us,  indeed,  in  human  thought  as  well 
as  in  Scripture.  See  Martensen  :  Chris¬ 
tian  Dogmatics ,  §§  283-289.  Theological 
considerations,  he  allows,  point  to  ulti¬ 
mate  universal  salvation,  but  anthropolog¬ 
ical  premises  to  the  dark  goal  of  eternal 
damnation.  This  supposed  autonomy  pro¬ 
nounces  the  Crux  of  thought,  which  it  is 
impossible  for  the  Church  to  solve  while 
she  remains  in  the  stream  of  time  and  in 
the  course  of  development. 

E.  J.  Wolf. 

Restorationists.  See  Universalists. 

Resurrection  of  the  Dead.  “  (1)  Definition 
and  Biblical  Notices.  —  The  term  ‘  resur¬ 
rection  ’  is  a  figurative  one,  taken  from  the 
conception  of  the  deposit  of  the  dead  body 
under  the  ground.  It  stands  in  antithesis 
to  the  body’s  lying  or  resting  in  the  grave. 
The  essential  reference  of  the  term,  how¬ 
ever,  is  to  the  revivification  of  the  dead, 
and  the  resumption  of  bodily  and  spiritual 
existence  by  them  after  a  period  of  inter¬ 
ruption.  The  firm  belief  in  the  resurrec¬ 
tion  and  the  eternal  life  is  one  of  the  prod¬ 
ucts  of  Christianity,  and  rests  upon  the 
resurrection  of  Christ.  Outside  of  Chris¬ 
tian  circles,  death  is  and  always  has  been 
the  king  of  terrors.  In  the  Old  Testament 
the  hope  of  the  resurrection  becomes  clear¬ 
er  and  clearer  as  revelation  progresses. 
The  prophets  declare  that  the  righteous 
shall  participate  in  the  consummation  of 
the  kingdom  of  God.  The  resurrection  of 
the  righteous  is  distinctly  referred  to  in 
Isa.  xxvi.  19  sqq.  Ezekiel  could  not  have 
used  the  imagery  of  chap,  xxxviii.  if  he 
had  not  known  about  it;  and  Daniel  (xii. 
2,  3)  distinguishes  between  the  resurrec¬ 
tion  of  the  just  and  unjust.  Although  this 
hope  does  not  seem  to  us  to  be  referred  to 
in  Psa.  xvi.  9  sqq. ,  xlviii.  14;  lxviii.  20,  it 
certainly  is  in  Psa.  xlix.  15;  lxxxiii.  22  sqq. 
The  Book  of  Job  also  assures  the  continua¬ 
tion  of  the  communion  of  the  righteous  with 
God  after  death,  in  xix.  25,  27.  The  New 
Testament  everywhere  assumes  or  states 
the  doctrine  of  the  resurrection.  Christ 
calls  himself  the  ‘  resurrection  and  the  life.’ 
(John  xi.  25.)  Paul  (Rom.  viii.  11)  con¬ 
ceives  of  this  resurrection  as  already  be¬ 
gun  in  the  soul.  He  that  hath  the  Son  of 
God  hath  the  eternal  life  already  begun  in 
him.  (John  iii.  36;  1  John  v.  12.)  The  res¬ 
urrection  from  the  dead  is  regarded  as  one 
of  the  elementary  truths  of  Christianity 
(Heb.  vi.  1),  and  although  Paul  gives  a 
sort  of  an  argument  for  it  in  1  Cor.  xv. , 
yet  it  may  be  said  that  the  doctrine  is  con¬ 
sidered  so  indisputable  as  not  to  be  deem¬ 
ed  in  need  of  proof  by  the  writers  of  the 


Ret 


(  8n  ) 


Rev 


New  Testament.  It  takes  its  root  in  the 
nature  of  God,  in  his  relation  to  believers 
as  his  children. 

“  (2)  Mode. — In  regard  to  the  manner  of 
the  resurrection  we  must  confess  that  we 
know  only  in  part.  All  human  theories  are 
mere  guesses.  We  are  shut  up  to  the 
Bible:  God  (Rom.  iv.  17,  etc.)  or  Christ 
(John  vi.  39)  raises  from  the  dead.  This 
act  will  be  consummated  at  the  end  of  the 
world,  or  the  second  coming  of  Christ. 
According  to  1  Thess.  iv.  16  sq. ,  and  1 
Cor.  xv.  23  sqq.,  the  righteous  will  be 
raised  first,  and  take  part  in  the  judgment 
with  Christ;  then  will  follow  the  resurrec¬ 
tion  of  the  rest.  In  reference  to  the  rela¬ 
tion  of  the  body  of  the  resurrection  to  the 
present  body,  we  may  say  in  general  that 
it  will  be  subject  to  all  the  laws  of  the  eter¬ 
nal  life.  We  shall  participate  in  the  glory 
of  God  and  be  like  Christ.  There  will  be 
a  spiritual  body.  (1  Cor.  xv.  44  sqq.)  Au¬ 
gustine  ( Serm .  99)  defined  it  by  the  attri¬ 
butes,  impassibility,  lucidity, alertness,  etc. 
The  main  point  is  its  freedom  from  the 
service  of  sin  and  all  mere  sensualism. 
We  can  form  to  ourselves  some  conception 
of  it  from  the  transfiguration  of  Christ 
(Matt,  xxvii.  1  sqq. )  and  by  the  words  used 
by  Paul,  ‘We  shall  be  changed.’  (1  Cor. 
xv.  51.)  The  difference  of  the  sexes  will 
continue,  but  there  will  be  no  prolongation 
of  the  sexual  passion.  We  shall  be  like 
the  angels.  (Luke  xx.  36.)  The  identity 
of  the  resurrection  body  with  the  earthly 
body  cannot  be  denied.  Origen  and  others 
hold  to  the  survival  of  the  eternal  form 
and  appearance  ( tb  eidos );  others  hold  to 
the  survival  only  of  the  individuality,  the 
essential  nature  which  forms  the  body; 
others  hold  that  already  here  on  earth 
there  is  an  organ  or  body  of  the  soul,  the 
ethereal  body,  which  exists  between  the 
physical  body  and  the  soul.  The  consum¬ 
mation  of  this  ethereal  or  spiritual  body 
occurs  at  the  resurrection,  and  its  present 
relation  to  its  future  condition  is  repre¬ 
sented  by  the  relation  of  the  seed  to  the 
ripe  fruit.  But  why  should  not  the  soul 
be  its  own  ethereal  body?  The  soul  itself, 
as  J.  H.  Fichte  says,  forms  the  body;  and 
the  body  of  the  resurrection  will  corre¬ 
spond  to  the  individuality  of  the  soul,  and 
to  the  present  body  so  far  as  it  is  charac¬ 
teristic  of  the  individual.” — Robert  Kiibel , 
Professor  of  Theology  at  Tubingen,  in  Her¬ 
zog’s  Real-Ency.  (trans.  in  Schaff-Herzog: 
Ency. ,  vol.  iii.,  p.  2032).  See  the  various 
works  on  systematic  theology;  Alger:  His¬ 
tory  of  the  Doctrine  of  a  Future  Life  (  Phila. , 
'  1864). 

Retreats  is  a  term  denoting  the  time  in 
which  members  in  the  Roman  and  Angli¬ 


can  Churches  seek  special  retirement  for 
spiritual  meditation  and  prayer.  For  a 
long  period  it  has  been  customary  for 
members  of  religious  communities  in  the 
Roman  Church  to  go  into  retreat  some  time 
each  year,  and  a  series  of  “  Exercises  ”  for 
use  on  such  occasions  were  prepared  by 
Loyola.  They  are  called  Mauresa,  from 
the  place  where  they  were  written.  In 
recent  years  the  practice  of  going  into  re¬ 
treats  has  been  revived  to  a  considerable 
extent  in  the  Anglican  Church.  They  are 
held  both  for  men  and  women,  under  the 
conduct  of  a  clergyman  of  experience,  and 
usually  last  from  one  to  three  days. 

Retribution.  See  Punishment,  Future. 

Reu'ben.  See  Tribes. 

Reuchlin,  Johann,  an  eminent  German 
Hebrew  scholar;  b.  at  Pforzheim,  Feb.  22, 
1455;  d.  at  Stuttgart,  June  30,  1523.  In 
youth  he  was  precocious  as  a  scholar. 
After  the  fashion  of  his  time,  he  studied  in 
many  places.  From  Heidelberg,  in  1496, 
he  went  to  Rome  in  1498,  where  he  gave 
special  attention  to  Hebrew.  Returning  to 
Stuttgart  in  1501,  he  was  chosen  judge  of 
the  Swabian  League.  His  Rudiments  of  the 
Hebrew  Language  appeared  in  1506,  and 
made  possible  the  free  study  of  the  original 
Scripture.  In  1509  a  converted  Jew  named 
Johann  Pfefferkorn,  of  Cologne,  advised 
Maximilian  to  burn  all  the  books  of  the 
Rabbis,  and  the  emperor  named  a  commis¬ 
sion  to  consider  the  matter.  Reuchlin,  as 
a  member  of  this  commission,  wrote  an 
opinion  that  the  act  would  be  very  disas¬ 
trous  to  Christian  learning,  and  arguing  in 
the  interest  of  religious  toleration.  This 
led  to  a  bitter  persecution  of  Reuchlin  by 
the  monks  of  Cologne  and  others,  but  in 
his  final  trial  by  a  commission  appointed 
by  Leo  X.,  the  monks  were  compelled  to 
pay  his  expenses,  and  apologize  for  the 
wrong  done  him.  In  1519  he  went  to  Ingol- 
stadt,  where  he  received  an  annual  stipend 
from  the  Duke  of  Bavaria.  Two  years 
later,  on  the  breaking  out  of  the  plague, 
he  returned  to  Stuttgart.  Besides  his  He¬ 
brew  Grammar,  Reuchlin  wrote  a  treatise 
on  civil  law,  and  other  works. 

Revelation  ( Apocalypse )  of  John  the  Di¬ 
vine.  “  This  is  the  only  prophetic  book  of 
the  New  Testament,  and  much  of  it  re¬ 
mains  still  unfulfilled.  It  closes  the  Canon 
of  Scripture,  and  the  revelation  of  God  to 
man.  There  is  satisfactory  evidence  of  its 
genuineness.  Justin  Martyr,  living  sixty 
years  after  its  supposed  date,  ascribes  it  to 
John;  Papias  acknowledges  its  inspiration; 
Irenaeus  (disciple  of  Polycarp,  who  was 


Rev 


(  812  ) 


John’s  own  disciple)  testifies  to  the 
apostle’s  authorship,  and  that  he  had  him¬ 
self  received  the  explanation  of  one  passage 
in  it  from  those  who  had  conversed  with 
the  apostle  about  it.  To  these  may  be 
added  Clement  of  Alexandria,  Theophilus, 
Tertullian,  Origen,  Cyprian,  Jerome,  Atha¬ 
nasius,  etc. 

“John,  after  a  vain  attempt  had  been  made 
to  martyr  him,  was  banished  by  Domitian 
to  Patmos;  but  on  the  emperor’s  death 
(a.  d.  96)  he  returned,  under  a  general  am¬ 
nesty,  to  Ephesus,  and  resumed  the  super¬ 
vision  of  the  Church  there.  While  in  exile 
he  saw  and  recorded  these  visions,  in  the 
introductory  chapters  of  which  incidental 
evidence  is  furnished  that  a  considerable 
interval  must  have  elapsed  between  the 
foundation  of  the  Asiatic  Churches  and  the 
composition  of  this  book:  e.  g. ,  they  are 
reproached  for  faults  and  corruptions  that 
do  not  speedily  arise;  the  Nicolaitans  had 
separated  themselves  into  a  sect;  there  had 
been  open  persecutions,  and  Antipas  had 
been  martyred  at  Pergamos  (ii.  13). 

“  Summary .  I.  Prefatory :  The  divine 
authority  of  the  record.  The  narrative  of 
the  first  vision,  respecting  the  Churches  of 
proconsular  Asia  (i.). 

“II.  The  Messages  to  the  Seven  Churches 
(ii. ,  iii. ),  viz. : 

“  (1)  Ephesus  :  reproof  for  forsaking  its 
first  love  and  first  works. 

“(2)  Smyrna:  commendation  of  works, 
poverty,  endurance  of  persecution. 

“(3)  Pergamos:  reproof  for  false  doc¬ 
trine,  immoral  conduct,  idolatrous  pollu¬ 
tion. 

“  (4)  Thyatira  :  reproof  to  one  party  for 
similar  corruptions;  commendation  to  the 
other  for  their  fidelity. 

“(5)  Sardis:  reproof  for  spiritual  dead¬ 
ness  with  mere  nominal  life. 

“  (6)  Philadelphia  :  approval  of  its  stead¬ 
fastness  and  patience. 

“  (7)  Laodicea:  rebuke  for  lukewarmness. 

“  These  predictions  have  long  been  ful¬ 
filled;  but  much  of  the  book  is  still  a  mys¬ 
tery,  though  generally  regarded  as  pro¬ 
phetic  of  the  history  of  the  Church  from  the 
close  of  the  first  century  to  the  end  of  time. 
By  some  the  major  part  is  considered  to 
have  had  its  fulfillment  in  the  early  ages  of 
the  Church;  by  others  to  have  been  grad¬ 
ually  realized  by  successive  religious  re¬ 
vivals  and  persecutions;  by  others  it  is 
regarded  as  a  picture  of  the  historical 
epochs  of  the  world  and  the  Church.  Its 
outline  is  as  follows: 

“III.  The  Prophetic  Visions:  viz.: 

“(1)  The  divine  glory,  sealed  book,  and 
the  Lamb  (iv. ,  v. ). 

“  (2)  The  vision  of  the  opening  of  six 
seals;  the  sealing  of  144,000  Israelites;  the 


Rev 


worship  by  innumerable  multitudes  of 
saints;  and  the  opening  of  the  seventh  seal 
(vi.,  vii. ). 

“  (3)  The  vision  of  an  angel  offering  in¬ 
cense  on  the  golden  altar,  followed  by  the 
sounding  of  six  trumpets  ( viii. ,  ix.). 

“  (4)  The  vision  of  an  angel  with  an  open 
scroll;  seven  thunders,  and  the  angel’s 
proclamation  (x.);  measuring  the  temple 
and  altar;  the  two  witnesses;  sounding  of 
the  seventh  trumpet  (x. ,  xi.). 

“(5)  The  vision  of  the  woman  and  the 
dragon;  the  conflict  between  Michael  and 
the  dragon;  rescue  of  the  woman;  the  ris¬ 
ing  of  a  beast  from  the  sea,  and  of  another 
from  the  earth  (xii.,  xiii. ). 

“(6)  The  vision  of  the  Lamb  and  the 
144,000  on  Mount  Zion;  the  proclamations 
of  the  three  angels;  the  harvest  and  vintage 
(xiv.). 

“  (7)  The  pouring  out  of  the  seven  vials 
of  wrath  (xv.,  xvi.);  the  woman  sitting 
upon  the  beast  (xvii.);  the  angel’s  proc¬ 
lamation  of  the  fall  of  Babylon,  followed 
by  songs  of  praise  and  triumph  (xviii., 
xix.  1-10). 

“(8)  The  vision  of  the  ‘Word  of  God,’ 
attended  by  the  faithful,  who  destroy  the 
three  great  enemies,  viz.,  the  beast,  false 
prophet,  and  confederate  kings  (xix.  11-21); 
the  binding  of  the  dragon  for  1,000  years; 
the  reign  of  righteousness,  and  final  con¬ 
flict  (xx.  1-10). 

“(9)  Visions  of  the  last  judgment,  the 
new  heaven,  new  earth,  new  Jerusalem 
(xx.  11-xxii.  5),  with  closing  addresses 
from  the  angel,  Christ,  and  John,  enjoining 
the  universal  proclamation  of  these  visions, 
attesting  the  certainty  and  speedy  accom¬ 
plishment  of  the  predictions,  and  concluding 
with  final  benediction  (xxii.  6-21).” — “  Ox¬ 
ford  ”  Bible  Helps.  For  literature,  see  art. 
in  McClintock  and  Strong:  Ency.,  and 
Schaff-Herzog:  Ency.,  by  B.  B.  Warfield. 

Revelation.  “  The  word  Revelation  stands 
for  the  Act  of  God  in  making  truth  known 
to  men,  and  then,  in  a  secondary  sense, 
for  the  truth  itself  which  is  thus  made 
known.  Inspiration  is  the  name  of  the 
special  divine  influence  under  which  the 
writers  of  the  Bible  worked.  We  speak 
of  the  revelation  of  God  in  the  Bible,  and 
of  the  inspiration  of  the  writers  of  the 
Bible.  In  order  to  understand  the  ques¬ 
tions  which  have  been  raised  on  these  two 
subjects,  it  is  important  that  we  should 
discriminate  between  them  in  thought,  but 
in  fact  they  are  closely  connected.  It  is 
the  association  of  the  two  that  gives  its 
supreme  value  to  the  Bible.  This  is  rec¬ 
ognized  as  a  book  of  unique  character, 
because,  as  we  have  seen,  it  is  an  inspired 
record  of  divine  revelation.  The  supreme 


Rev 


(813) 


Rhe 


revelation  is  a  self-manifestation  of  God. 
He  has  broken  the  silence  of  eternity, 
emerged  from  the  darkness  of  the  unseen 
spiritual  world  and  made  himself  known  to 
his  children.  But  we  have  also  a  divine 
revelation  of  the  heart  of  man  given  to  us 
in  the  pages  of  the  Bible — in  the  chronicles 
of  Israel,  the  psalms  of  David,  the  epistles 
of  apostles.  And  further,  the  thoughts  of 
God  about  man,  the  will  of  God  in  regard 
to  human  duty  and  destiny,  the  way  of 
life  and  the  Divine  method  of  redemption 
are  all  matters  of  revelation.  God  has  re¬ 
vealed  himself  and  his  truth  in  deeds  as 
well  as  words.  The  whole  story  of  Israel, 
especially  in  the  epic  incidents  of  the  Ex¬ 
odus,  is  one  great  revelation  of  God 
through  action  and  in  history.  Voices,  vis¬ 
ions,  and  dreams  were  early  channels  of 
revelation.  Prophets  in  the  Old  Testament 
times,  and  apostles  in  the  Christian  era 
appeared  as  the  commissioned  messengers 
of  God  and  of  Christ.  But  all  other  forms 
of  revelation  are  secondary  to  the  living 
manifestation  of  the  Father  in  his  Son. 
The  highest  revelation  is  that  brought  to 
us  in  the  person — the  life,  character,  words, 
and  actions  of  our  Lord  Jesus  Christ  (see 
Heb.  i.  1-3).  Revelation  has  been  gradual 
and  progressive.  God  did  not  make  known 
to  Abraham  all  that  he  revealed  to  St. 
Paul.  The  divine  self-manifestation  given 
to  the  Jews  is  far  exceeded  by  that  vouch¬ 
safed  to  Christians.  We  have  a  historical 
revelation — one  given  at  different  times 
and  by  advancing  stages.  The  neglect  of 
this  truth  has  led  to  great  confusion  in 
comparing  Scripture  with  Scripture.  Al¬ 
though  the  acorn  is  vitally  identical  with 
the  oak,  it  would  be  absurd  to  limit  our 
notion  of  the  full-grown  tree  out  of  con¬ 
sideration  for  the  seed  from  which  it 
sprang,  or  to  complain  of  a  discord  and 
contradiction  in  nature  because  the  one  was 
not  identical  in  shape  and  size  with  the 
other.  The  difficulties  rising  out  of  the 
seeming  inconsistency  between  various 
parts  of  the  Bible,  and  the  objections 
which  have  been  urged  against  earlier  por¬ 
tions  of  Scripture  by  viewing  them  in  the 
full  light  of  the  New  Testament,  chiefly 
result  from  the  great  mistake  of  ignoring 
the  progressive  course  of  revelation.  When 
this  is  recognized  they  assume  a  very  dif¬ 
ferent  character. 

“  Revelation  is  often  self-evidencing. 
The  veil  is  lifted  so  that  we  may  see  truth 
with  our  own  eyes.  A  discovery  which 
we  could  never  have  reached  by  ourselves 
is  brought  to  us,  but  after  it  has  been  thus 
once  made  known  we  can  now  recognize 
its  truth.  It  is  like  the  solution  of  an 
enigma  when  the  key  has  been  supplied. 
The  highest  truth  convinces  us  of  its  own 


worth  by  its  very  elevation.  But  further 
confirmation  has  been  added.  To  contem¬ 
poraries  miracles  were  sometimes  given 
as  ‘  signs  ’  attesting  the  authority  of  a 
divine  messenger.  For  us  the  great  results 
of  revelation  in  the  history  of  Christendom 
afford  the  principal  proofs  of  the  reality  of 
the  revelation.  This  test  has  been  supplied 
us  by  our  Lord  as  the  rule  for  judging 
between  the  true  and  the  false  prophet. 

4  By  their  fruits  ye  shall  know  them.’ 
(Matt.  vii.  15-18.)” — Bagster:  Bible  Helps. 
See  Inspiration. 

Reverend  (abbreviated  Bev.),  a  title  now 
given  to  the  clergy  generally.  Archbishops 
are  called  “most  reverend;”  bishops 
“  right  reverend;  ”  and  deans  “  very  rev¬ 
erend.”  At  the  time  of  the  Reformation 
great  objection  was  raised  to  the  title,  and 
some  still  reject  its  use. 

Revised  Version.  See  Bible,  p.  109. 

Reynolds,  Edward,  Church  of  England; 
b.  at  Southampton,  1599;  d.  at  Norwich, 
Jan.  16,  1676.  Educated  at  Oxford,  he  be¬ 
came  Preacher  of  Lincoln’s  Inn  and  Rector 
of  Braynton  in  Northamptonshire.  He 
was  a  member  of  the  Westminster  Assem¬ 
bly;  and  contemporary  authority  speaks  of 
him  as  “  the  pride  and  glory  of  the  Pres¬ 
byterian  party.”  He  succeeded  Dr.  Fell 
as  vice-chancellor  of  Oxford  University 
and  dean  of  Christ  Church.  He  was  eject¬ 
ed  from  his  deanery  by  the  Independents, 
but,  after  the  Restoration,  was  appointed 
chaplain  to  the  king  and  warden  of  Merton 
College.  When  the  bishopric  of  Norwich 
was  offered  him  he  accepted  it,  but  did  not 
surrender  his  Presbyterian  views.  For 
sixteen  years  he  discharged  his  duties  as 
bishop  with  great  zeal.  In  the  Assembly 
he  was  on  the  committee  appointed  to  draw 
up  the  Confession  of  Faith,  and  in  1661  he 
was  a  member  of  the  Savoy  Conference. 

Reynolds,  John,  D.  D.  (sometimes  writ¬ 
ten  Rainolds);  b.  at  Pinho,  Devonshire, 
154.9;  d.  at  Oxford,  May  21,  1607.  He  was 
dean  of  Lincoln  (1593),  and  then  president 
of  Corpus  Christi,  Oxford.  He  was  one 
of  the  four  Puritans  who  represented  their 
party  at  the  Hampton  Court  Conference 
(q.  v.).  He  is  said  to  have  first  proposed 
the  present  Authorized  Version  of  the 
Bible,  and  translated  most  of  the  prophets. 
See  Neale:  History  of  Ike  Puritans  ;  J.  I. 
Mornbert:  Handbook  of  English  Versions , 
pp.  338,  345. 

Rhe'gium  (breach),  a  city  on  the  extreme 
southwestern  coast  of  Italy.  Paul  was  de¬ 
tained  here  for  a  day  while  on  his  way  to 


Rhe 


(  814  ) 


Ric 


Rome.  (Acts  xxviii.  13.)  It  is  now  called 
Pheggio,  and  is  a  flourishing  commercial 
town  of  about  10,000  inhabitants,  and  the 
capital  of  Calabria. 

Rhetoric,  Sacred.  See  Homiletics. 

Rhodes  ( a  rose),  an  island  in  the  Medi¬ 
terranean,  ten  miles  distant  from  the  coast 
of  Asia  Minor.  The  city  of  Rhodes  at  the 
western  end  of  the  island  early  became  the 
centre  of  an  extensive  commerce.  The 
brazen  statue  at  the  entrance  of  the  harbor, 
known  as  the  Colossus  of  Rhodes,  was  one 
of  the  seven  wonders  of  the  world.  Paul 
visited  the  city  on  his  return  from  his  third 
missionary  tour.  (Acts  xxi.  1.)  The  isl¬ 
and  prospered  in  the  reign  of  Alexander, 
but  in  the  time  of  Vespasian  fell  into  the 
hands  of  the  Romans,  and  gradually  de¬ 
clined.  In  the  Middle  Ages  it  was  held 
by  the  Knights  of  St.  John,  but  was  cap¬ 
tured  by  the  Turks  in  1522,  and  is  now 
under  their  rule.  The  island  has  a  pop¬ 
ulation  of  about  30,000,  of  which  21,000 
are  Turks. 

Rice,  Nathan  Lewis,  an  eminent  Pres¬ 
byterian  divine  and  controversialist;  b.  in 
Garrard  Co.,  Ky.,  Dec.  29,  1807;  d.  in 
Bracken  Co.,  Ky.,  June  11,  1877.  After 
studying  at  Centre  College,  Danville,  Ky., 
and  Princeton,  N.  J.,  he  became  pastor 
(1883)  at  Bardstown,  Ky.  He  established 
an  academy  there,  and  also  a  newspaper, 
the  Westei'ii  Protestant ,  afterward  merged 
in  the  Louisville  Presbyterian  Herald.  In 
1823  he  had  a  famous  debate  with  Alexan¬ 
der  Campbell,  founder  of  the  Disciples,  on 
the  subject  of  baptism.  From  1844  to  1853 
he  was  pastor  in  Cincinnati,  and  held  three 
public  debates:  (1)  with  Rev.  J.  A.  Blanch¬ 
ard,  on  slavery  (1845);  (2)  with  Rev.  E. 
Pingree,  on  universal  salvation;  (3)  in 
1851,  with  Rev.  J.  B.  Purcell  (afterward 
archbishop),  on  Romanism.  From  1853  to 
1858  he  was  pastor  in  St.  Louis,  and  editor 
of  the  St.  Louis  Presbyterian ;  1858-61,  pas¬ 
tor  in  Chicago,  and  from  1859  theological 
professor;  1861-67,  pastor  in  New  York 
City;  1S60-74,  president  of  Westminster 
College,  Mo.,  and  from  1874  till  his  death 
professor  of  theology  in  the  Danville,  Ky., 
Seminary.  Besides  his  debates  he  publish¬ 
ed:  God  Sovereign,  and  Man  Free ;  Romanism 
not  Christianity  (N.  Y.,  1847);  Baptis?n 
(St.  Louis,  1855);  Immortality  (Phila.). 

Richard  of  St.  Victor,  b.  in  Scotland  in 
the  twelfth  centur)r.  He  became  prior  of 
the  Augustine  abbey  of  St.  Victor,  in  Paris, 
in  1160,  and  d.  1173.  He  wrote  several 
moral,  theological,  and  mystical  works,  as 
De  Statu  Interioris  Ho?ninis,  De  Eruditione 


Interioris  Hominis,  De  Verbo  Incarnato , 
De  Trinitate,  De  Emmanuele ,  and  De 
Gratia  Conte?nplationis . 

Richelieu,  Armand  Jean  du  Plessis, 
Duke  de,  cardinal,  was  b.  at  Paris  in 
1585.  He  was  educated  for  a  military 
career,  but  his  brother,  the  bishop  of 
Lu$on,  giving  up  his  see  and  entering  a 
convent,  Armand  was  looked  upon  as  his 
successor.  He  therefore  applied  himself 
to  the  study  of  divinity,  took  his  doctor’s 
degree,  and  was  consecrated  bishop  in  1607. 
He  gained  the  favor  of  Marie  de’  Medici, 
mother  of  King  Louis  XIII.,  and  became 
her  almoner;  but  on  a  quarrel  breaking 
out  between  Marie  and  her  son,  Richelieu 
was  banished  to  his  diocese.  He  after¬ 
wards  arranged  a  reconciliation  between 
them,  and  gained  influence  over  both.  He 
was  made  a  cardinal  in  1622,  and  in  1624 
gained  a  seat  in  the  Council,  and  became 
Prime  Ministerof  France.  His  three  great 
objects  throughout  his  ministerial  career 
were:  (1)  to  render  the  power  of  the  crown 
absolute,  and  to  humble  the  feudal  nobility; 
(2)  to  annihilate  the  Huguenots  as  a  political 
party;  (3)  to  reduce  the  power  of  the 
House  of  Austria,  both  in  its  German  and 
Spanish  branches,  and  to  extend  that  of 
France.  In  order  to  gain  the  latter  object 
he  assisted  the  Protestant  Grisons  against 
the  Roman  Catholic  insurgents  ofValtelina, 
while  in  France  he  was  doing  his  utmost 
against  the  Huguenots,  thus  showing  that 
he  cared  much  more  about  their  politics 
than  their  religion.  Richelieu’s  death, 
which  took  place  at  Paris  m  1642,  caused 
much  rejoicing  to  the  people,  on  account 
of  the  burdens  which  he  had  laid  upon 
them.  He  was  buried  in  a  mausoleum 
erected  by  Girardon  in  the  church  of  the 
Sorbonne. — Benham:  Diet,  of  Religion. 

Richmond,  Legh,  Church  of  England; 
b.  at  Liverpool,  Jan.  29,  1772;  d.  at  Tur- 
vey,  Bedfordshire,  May  8,  1827.  He  was 
graduated  at  Trinity  College,  Cambridge, 
1794,  and  in  1797  became  a  curate  on  the 
Isle  of  Wight,  where  he  remained  until 
1805,  when  he  was  made  rector  of  Turvey. 
He  wrote  several  books,  but  his  fame  rests 
upon  The  Annals  of  the  Poor  (1814),  2  vols. ; 
which  contains  The  D airyman' s  Daughter, 
The  Negro  Servant,  and  The  Young  Cot¬ 
tager.  Previous  to  1849  four  million  copies 
of  the  first-named  tract  had  been  circulated, 
in  nineteen  languages.  See  his  Me?noirs, 
edited  by  Bishop  G.  T.  Bedell  (Phila., 
1846). 

Richter,  Christian  Friedrich  Gott¬ 
lieb,  M.  D.,  an  eminent  German  hymnol- 
ogist;  b.  at  Sorau,  Silesia,  Oct.  5,  1676;  d. 


Rid 


(  815  ) 


Rip 


at  Halle,  Oct.  5,  1711.  He  was  educated 
at  Halle,  where  he  was  appointed  by 
Francke  principal  of  the  academy  and, 
later,  physician  to  the  Halle  Orphan 
House.  He  wrote  thirty-three  hymns, 
several  of  which  have  been  translated. 
Among  them  are:  “  Jesus  my  King!  thy 
mild  and  kind  control;”  “  My  Soul  before 
thee  prostrate  lies;”  “  Thou  Lamb  of  God! 
thou  Prince  of  peace.”  Richter  was  a  Pie¬ 
tist  and  wrote  four  remarkable  treatises 
upon  the  physical  sufferings  of  Christ  dur¬ 
ing  his  crucifixion, contained  in  vol.  iii.of  his 
Opuscula  Aledica  (Leipzig,  17S0-81),  3  vols. 
See  Lange:  Commentary  on  Matthew,  p.  523. 

Ridgaway,  Henry  Bascom,  D.  D.  (Dick¬ 
inson  College,  Carlisle,  Penn.,  1869), 
Methodist;  b.  in  Talbot  County,  Maryland, 
Sept.  7,  1830;  was  graduated  at  Dickinson 
College,  Carlisle,  Penn.,  1849;  was  suc¬ 
cessively  pastor  in  Virginia,  Baltimore 
(Md.),  Portland  (Me.),  New  York  City, 
and  Cincinnati  (O.);  professor  of  historical 
theology  in  Garrett  Biblical  Institute, 
Evanston,  Ill.,  1882-84,  and  since  of  prac¬ 
tical  theology.  He  is  the  author  of:  The 
Life  of  Alfred  Cookman  (New  York,  1871); 
The  Lord s  Land:  A  Narrative  of  Travels 
in  Sinai  and  Palestine  (1873,  1874,  1876); 
The  IAfe  of  Bishop  Edward  S.  Janes  { 1882); 
Bishop  Beverly  Waugh  (1883);  Bishop  Mat¬ 
thew  Simpson  (1885). 

Ridley,  Nicholas,  one  of  the  most  noted 
leaders  of  the  Reformation  in  England;  b. 
at  Wilmanstock,  Northumberland,  early  in 
the  sixteenth  century;  d.  at  the  stake,  in 
Oxford,  Oct.  16,  1555.  He  was  graduated 
at  Cambridge  and  became  a  fellow  of  Pem¬ 
broke  College  in  1522.  Taking  orders  in 
1527,  he  then  studied  at  the  Sorbonne, 
Paris,  and  at  Louvain.  Returning  to  Cam¬ 
bridge  in  1529,  he  became  senior  proctor, 
and  gained  reputation  as  a  preacher.  In 
1540  he  was  appointed  king’s  chaplain  and 
master  of  Pembroke  Hall,  and  in  1541  preb¬ 
endary  of  Canterbury.  Acquitted  of  a 
charge  brought  against  him  by  Bishop 
Gardiner  of  preaching  against  the  Six  Ar¬ 
ticles,  he  became  successively  prebendary 
of  Westminster,  1545,  bishop  of  Roches¬ 
ter,  1547,  and  bishop  of  London,  1550. 
In  1545  he  had  publicly  renounced  the  doc¬ 
trine  of  transubstantiation  and  thrown  his 
influence  in  favor  of  the  Reformation. 
Committed  to  the  Tower,  July  26,  1553,  he 
was  removed  with  Latimer  to  the  jail  of 
Bocardo,  Oxford,  and  suffered  martyrdom 
Oct.  16,  1555.  He  wrote:  A  Treatise 

against  Image-  Worship;  Declaration  against 
Transubstantiation;  A  Piteous  Lamentation 
of  the  Miserable  Estate  of  the  Church  of  Eng¬ 
land,  etc. 


Righteousness  (Isa.  xi.  23)  “is  an  es¬ 
sential  attribute  of  the  divine  nature,  and 
as  it  is  frequently  used  is  nearly  allied  to, 
if  not  the  same  with,  justice,  holiness,  and 
faithfulness.  (Psa.  cxix.  142;  Isa.  xlvi. 
13;  li.  5,  6,  8;  lvi.  1.)  The  ‘righteousness 
which  is  of  faith’  (Rom.  x.  6),  is  the  right¬ 
eousness  which  is  obtained  by  the  grace  of 
God  through  faith  in  Jesus  Christ.  (Rom. 
iii.  21-26;  x.  4,  10;  2  Cor.  v.  21;  Gal.  ii. 
21.)  The  word  is  also  used  to  denote  the 
perfect  obedience  of  the  Son  of  God.  (Rom. 
v.  iS.)  ‘  Righteousness  ’  is  very  commonly 
used  for  uprightness  and  just  dealing  be¬ 
tween  man  and  man,  as  in  Isa.  xl.  17,  and 
for  holiness  of  life,  as  in  Dan.  iv.  27;  Rom. 
xvi.  17.” — Schaff:  Bible  Diet.  “Original 
righteousness  ”  was  a  term  used  by  the 
older  Protestant  theologians  to  designate 
the  condition  of  man  as  made  in  the  image 
of  God  previous  to  the  fall. 

Rim'mon  ( pomegranate ),  the  name  of  an 
Aramaic  divinity  worshiped  in  Damas¬ 
cus.  (2  Kings  v.  18.) 

Rings  were  used  as  ornaments  not  only 
on  the  fingers,  but  in  the  ears  and  nose  and 
about  the  wrists  and  ankles.  (Isa.  iii.  20, 
21;  Luke  xv.  22;  James  ii.  2.)  The  ring 
when  used  as  a  seal  was  an  emblem  of  au¬ 
thority,  and  the  giving  of  a  ring  the  im¬ 
parting  of  authority.  (Gen.  xli.  42;  Esth. 
iii.  10,  12;  Dan.  vi.  17.)  The  custom  of 
placing  a  ring  on  the  bride’s  hand  in  the 
marriage  service  is  very  ancient,  though 
by  the  early  Christians  it  appears  to  have 
been  employed  in  the  ceremony  of  espous¬ 
al,  and  not  at  the  marriage  itself. 

Ripon  Cathedral.  The  Venerable  Bede 
is  the  first  to  mention  a  church  at  Ripon, 
said  to  have  been  erected  by  St.  Wilfrid  in 
the  seventh  century;  but  archaeologists 
differ  in  opinion  as  to  whether  the  present 
structure  occupies  the  same  site,  or 
whether  St.  Wilfrid  built  a  second  church. 
It  was  originally  the  church  of  a  monas¬ 
tery  over  which  the  saint  presided,  and 
the  crypt,  known  as  “  St.  Wilfrid’s  Needle,” 
is  considered  without  doubt  to  belong  to  his 
foundation.  His  abbey  became  one  of  the 
three  great  churches  of  Yorkshire,  and 
the  immunity  of  sanctuary  and  the  right  of 
using  the  ordeal  were  among  the  privileges 
granted  to  it  by  Athelstan.  The  church 
was  rebuilt  by  Archbishop  Roger,  of  York 
(1154-81);  of  this  there  are  only  small  re¬ 
mains  in  the  choir  and  transepts,  but  they 
form  a  valuable  specimen  of  the  transition 
period.  Archbishop  Gray  (1215-65)  added 
two  western  towers  arid  rebuilt  the  fa$ade 
which  connects  them.  About  1280  the  east 
end  of  the  choir  gave  way  and  was  rebuilt. 


Rip 


( 816) 


Rip 


In  1319  the  Scots,  during  one  of  their  in¬ 
cursions,  set  fire  to  it;  and  a  century  later 
it  suffered  from  a  storm  which  shattered 
its  lantern  tower,  but  it  was  restored.  At 
the  close  of  the  sixteenth  century  the  min¬ 
ster  again  suffered  by  lightning.  In  1842 
it  was  declared  to  be  unsafe,  and  precau- 


endowment  of  the  see,  established  in  1836, 
is  ,£4,200  a  year. — Benham:  Diet,  of  Relig¬ 
ion. 

Rippon,  John,  D.  D.,  a  prominent  Bap- 
t;st  divine;  b.  at  Tiverton,  Devon,  April 
29,  1751.  For  sixty-three  years  he  was 


'  tie 


RIPON  CATHEDRAL. 


tions  were  taken  to  ward  off  the  danger; 
and  in  1861  it  was  put  into  the  hands  of 
Sir  Gilbert  Scott,  who  carried  out  a  com¬ 
plete  restoration  of  the  cathedral.  The 
cathedral  body  consists  of  a  dean,  two 
archdeacons,  four  canons,  three  minor  can¬ 
ons  and  eighteen  honorary  canons.  The 


pastor  ot  a  single  charge  in  London,  where 
he  d.,  Dec.  17,  1836.  He  edited  the  Baptist 
Annual  Register  (1 790-1 S02);  An  Arrange¬ 
ment  of  the  Rsalms,  Hymns ,  etc.,  of  Dr. 
Watts,  and  A  Selection  of  Hymns  (1787, 
10th  ed.,  enlarged,  1S00).  He  prepared 
many  of  the  hymns  in  this  selection,  but 


» 


Rit  (  817  )  Rob 


his  chief  work  was  in  bringing  to  light 
many  beautiful  lyrics  that  had  been  but  lit¬ 
tle  kn6wn. 

Ritter,  Karl,  b.  at  Quedlinburg,  Aug.  7, 
1779;  d.  in  Berlin,  Sept.  25,  1859.  As  pro¬ 
fessor  of  geography  from  1820,  in  the  Uni¬ 
versity  of  Berlin,  he  gave  a  great  impulse 
to  this  study.  Of  his  works  of  special  in¬ 
terest  to  Bible  students,  The  Comparative 
Geography  of  Palestine  and  the  Sinaitic 
Peninsula  was  translated  by  Gage  (Edin¬ 
burgh,  1866),  4  vols. 

Ritual  is  “  the  external  body  of  words 
and  action  by  which  worship  is  expressed, 
and  exhibited  before  God  and  man.” 

Rituale,  the  name  given  to  the  book  con¬ 
taining  the  liturgy  of  the  Roman  Church, 
mainly  used  by  the  priests.  It  was  drawn 
up  during  the  thirteenth  century. 

Ritualism.  Strictly  speaking,  a  ritualist 
is  one  who  studies  the  history  and  char¬ 
acter  of  the  ancient  rites  of  the  Church, 
like  Bingham,  the  author  of  the  Ecclesiasti¬ 
cal  Antiquities.  But  the  name  of  Ritualism 
is  now  given  to  the  practical  developments 
of  the  High-Church  views  promulgated  in 
the  Tracts  for  the  Times  (Tractarianism), 
and  in  other  writings  of  Pusey  and  Keble. 
Those  views  taught  that  the  sacraments 
were  actual  means  of  conveying  grace, 
that  Baptism  conveys  regeneration,  and 
that  in  the  Eucharist  Christ  is  verily  and 
indeed  present,  though  in  a  spiritual  man¬ 
ner.  The  use  of  a  new  ritual  in  the  Church 
of  England,  which  sprang  up  almost  sud¬ 
denly  about  the  year  1859,  was  the  as¬ 
sertion  of  these  views  by  visible  symbol¬ 
ism.  No  new  doctrine  was  advanced,  but 
the  doctrines  which  had  hitherto  been 
taught  to  the  ear  were  now  sought  to  be 
inculcated  through  the  eye. — Benham: 
Did.  of  Religion ,  s.  v.  The  practices  of 
the  Ritualists  aroused  a  sharp  conflict 
which  was  carried  into  Parliament  and  the 
courts  of  law,  and  the  contention  has  not 
yet  died  away. 

Robber  Council.  See  Ephesus. 

Robertson,  Frederick  William,  “an 
English  preacher,  was  the  son  of  a  Scotch 
gentleman,  Captain  Frederick  Robertson 
of  the  royal  artillery,  and  was  b.  in  Lon¬ 
don,  Feb.  3,  1816,  in  the  house  of  his  grand¬ 
father,  Colonel  Robertson.  At  the  age  of 
nine  he  was  sent  to  the  grammar-school  of 
Beverley,  in  Yorkshire,  where  he  remained 
for  a  few  years,  and  then  accompanied  his 
parents  to  the  Continent,  where  he  became 
a  proficient  in  French.  In  1832  he  entered 


the  Rector’s  Class  at  the  Edinburgh  Acad¬ 
emy.  Next  year  Robertson  proceeded  to 
the  Edinburgh  University,  and  while  there 
had  for  private  tutor  the  Rev.  Charles  Ter- 
rot,  subsequently  bishop  of  the  Scottish 
Episcopal  Church  in  the  same  city.  He 
was  originally  designed  for  the  bar,  but 
the  study  of  law  did  not  prove  interesting 
to  him,  and  he  would  gladly  have  become 
a  soldier,  for  he  always  felt  (as  he  after¬ 
ward  confessed)  ‘  an  unutterable  admiration 
of  heroic  daring;’  but  certain  difficulties 
intervened  in  the  way  of  obtaining  a  com¬ 
mission,  and  Robertson,  in  obedience  to 
the  wish  of  his  father,  entered  Brasenose 
College,  Oxford,  to  study  for  the  Church, 
in  1836.  His  life  had  all  along  been  marked 
by  its  singular  purity  and  depth  of  relig¬ 
ious  feeling;  hence  his  new  career  inspired 
him  with  no  regret,  but  rather  with  a  high 
resolve  to  be  worthy  of  his  calling.  His 
first  appointment  was  to  the  curacy  of  St. 
Maurice  and  St.  Mary  Calendar,  but  his 
health  broke  down  in  the  course  of  a  year, 
and  he  was  compelled  to  visit  the  Continent. 
On  his  return  to  England  he  was  for  a  time 
curate  to  the  incumbent  of  Christ  Church, 
Cheltenham,  whence,  in  the  beginning  of 
1847,  he  removed  to  St.  Ebbes,  Oxford, 
and  was  just  beginning  to  attract  the  notice 
of  the  undergraduates  at  Oxford  when  he 
was  offered  the  incumbency  of  Trinity 
Chapel,  Brighton.  His  ‘career’  in  Brigh¬ 
ton — though  it  is  perhaps  wrong  to  de¬ 
scribe  a  life  so  pure,  delicate,  unselfish, 
devoted  as  his,  by  a  term  expressive  of 
vulgar  ambition — was  brief  but  glorious. 
For  six  years  he  continued  to  preach  ser¬ 
mons,  the  like  of  which,  for  blending  of  deli¬ 
cacy  and  strength  of  thought,  poetic  beauty 
and  homely  lucidity  of  speech,  had  perhaps 
never  been  heard  before  in  England. 
Robertson  was,  unhappily  (for  his  comfort), 
not  very  ‘  orthodox;  ’  consequently  he  was 
long  misunderstood  and  vilified  by  the 
‘professedly  religious  portion  of  society;’ 
but  so  true,  so  beautiful  was  his  daily  life 
and  conversation,  that  he  almost  outlived 
those  pious  calumnies,  and  his  death  (from 
consumption,  Aug.  15,  1853)  threw  the 
whole  town  into  mourning.  His  sermons 
(of  which  four  series  have  been  published) 
have  attained  great  popularity,  and  a  very 
large  circulation.  The  first  series  was  pub¬ 
lished  in  i855  (nth  edition,  1863).  Robert¬ 
son’s  Expository  Lechires  on  St.  Paul s 
Epistle  to  the  Corinthians  appeared  in  1859. 
His  Lectures  and  Addresses  on  Literary  and 
Social  Topics  contain  passages  of  faultless 
beauty  and  refinement;  but  as  they  were 
delivered  to  mixed  audiences,  and  never  in¬ 
tended  for  publication,  they  do  not  perhaps 
exhibit  that  vigorous  intellectual  grasp  of 
a  subject,  or  that  strong  and  searching 


Rob 


(  818  ) 


Rob 


criticism  of  which  their  author  was  so  ca¬ 
pable.  A  good  biography,  with  letters,  was 
published  in  1865  by  the  Rev.  Stopford  A. 
Brooke  (5th  ed.,  i86S).M  —  Chambers: 

Cyclopaedia . 

Robinson,  Charles  Seymour,  D.  D. 
(Hamilton  College,  Clinton,  N.  Y.,  1866); 
LL.  D.  (Lafayette  College,  Easton,  Penn., 
18S5),  Presbyterian;  b.  at  Bennington,  Vt., 
March  31,  1829;  was  graduated  at  Williams 
College,  Williamstown,  Mass.,  1849;  stud¬ 
ied  at  Union  (New  York  City)  and  Prince¬ 
ton  (N.  J.)  Theological  Seminaries;  was 
pastor  in  Troy  and  Brooklyn,  N.  Y. ;  Paris, 
France;  and  from  1870  to  1888  of  Memorial 
Church,  New  York  City;  since  1889,  editor 
of  Every  Thursday.  He  has  published: 
Songs  of  the  Church  (New  York,  1862); 
Songs  for  the  Sanctuary  (1865);  Songs  for 
Christian  Worship  (1866);  Short  Studies  for 
Sunday  -  School  Teachers  (1868)  ;  Chapel 
Songs  \x'&~i'i)\  Psalms ,  Hymns ,  and  Spiritual 
Songs  (1874);  Christian  Work  (Sermons); 
Bethel  and  Penuel  (do. ,  both  1874);  Spirit¬ 
ual  Songs  (1878);  Spiritual  Songs  for  Social 
Worship  (1880);  Studies  in  the  New  Testa¬ 
ment  (1880);  Spiritual  Songs  for  Sunday- 
School  (1881);  Studies  of  Neglected  Texts 
(1883);  Laudes  Domini  (hymn-book,  1884); 
Simon  Peter:  Early  Life  and  Times  (1887); 
Sermons  in  Songs  (1888). 

Robinson,  Edward,  D.  D.,  LL.  D., 
biblical  scholar  and  explorer  of  the  Holy 
Land;  b.  at  Southington,  Conn.,  April  10, 
1794;  d.  at  New  York,  Jan.  27,  1863.  He 
first  studied  law;  then  in  1821  was  engaged 
in  literary  work  and  instruction  at  Andover 
Theological  Seminary.  In  1826  he  went  to 
Europe,  studied  at  Gottingen,  Berlin,  and 
Halle,  and  returned  in  1830  to  his  native 
country;  became  biblical  professor  at  An¬ 
dover,  and  published  several  works  eluci¬ 
dating  sacred  history  and  literature.  His 
Dictionary  of  the  Bible  and  Greek  and  Eng¬ 
lish  Lexicon  are  much  used  by  students. 
He  was  obliged  to  resign  his  professorship 
in  1833  on  account  of  ill-health,  after  which 
he  published  a  new  edition  of  Newcome’s 
Harmony  of  the  Gospels ,  and  in  1837  made  a 
voyage  to  the  Holy  Land,  for  the  purpose 
of  study  and  exploration,  returning  to  Ber¬ 
lin  in  1838.  He  spent  two  years  in  writing 
Biblical  Researches  hi  Palestine ,  Mount 
Sinai ,  and  Arabia  Petrcea,  which  appeared 
in  several  editions,  and  permanently  estab¬ 
lished  his  reputation  as  a  biblical  scholar. 
After  the  publication  of  this  work,  he  again 
took  up  his  professorship  at  Andover, 
which  he  held  till  his  death.  In  1851  he 
made  another  visit  to  Palestine,  and  again 
to  Europe  in  1862.  Besides  the  works 
above  mentioned,  Robinson  assisted  Pro¬ 


fessor  Stuart  in  editing  a  Hebrew  grammar, 
and  wrote  a  Physical  Geography  of  the  Holy 
Land. — Benham:  Diet,  of  Religion.  Dr. 
Robinson  was  “  the  most  distinguished 
biblical  theologian  whom  America  has  pro¬ 
duced — indeed,  one  of  the  most  distinguish¬ 
ed  of  the  century.” — Dr.  Schaff.  See  me¬ 
morial  addresses  in  Life ,  Writings ,  and 
Character  of  Edward  Robinson  (N.  Y.,  1863). 

Robinson,  John,  b.  1575;  d.  at  Leyden, 
1625;  the  minister  of  the  Independent 
Church  in  Holland  from  which  departed 
the  earliest  settlers  of  New  England.  He 
was  a  native  of  Lincolnshire,  and  educated 
at  Benet’s  (Corpus  Christi)  College,  Cam¬ 
bridge — a  college  then  much  inclined  to 
Puritanism.  He  gained  a  fellowship  after 
taking  his  degree,  and  was  ordained  to  a 
charge  in  the  diocese  of  Norwich;  but  his 
Puritan  convictions  deepening,  he  left  the 
Church  in  1604,  and  became  pastor  of  a 
small  Independent  congregation.  To  en¬ 
joy  the  religious  liberty  then  only  to  be 
found  in  the  Dutch  Republic,  these  endeav¬ 
ored  to  leave  England,  in  1607,  for  Holland, 
but  were  prevented  by  the  authorities. 
Another  attempt  in  1608  was,  however, 
successful,  and  they  reached  Amsterdam 
and  afterwards  Leyden.  How  a  little  band 
from  this  settlement  started,  in  1620,  for 
America,  is  told  in  the  article  upon  the 
Congregationalists,  Robinson  remaining 
behind  with  the  intention  of  following  with 
the  rest  when  the  way  should  be  cleared; 
but  this  intention  was  frustrated  by  his 
death  in  1625.  Robinson  was  a  man  of 
great  intelligence  and  candor,  and,  though 
a  strict  Puritan  and  thorough  Independ¬ 
ent,  was  liberal  and  tolerant,  and  on  va¬ 
rious  occasions  after  his  secession  com¬ 
municated  with  the  Episcopalians.  He 
published:  A  Defence  of  the  Brownists; 
Justification  of  the  Separation  from  the 
Church  of  England;  People's  Plea  for  the 
Exercise  of  Prophesying  (1618);  Essays,  Mor¬ 
al  and  Divine  (1618).  One  passage  ut¬ 
tered  by  John  Robinson  has  become  his¬ 
torical,  and  has  been  quoted  times  without 
number  by  men  of  widely  different  schools 
of  thought.  It  was  in  his  memorable  ad¬ 
dress  to  the  emigrants  at  the  close  of  their 
last  solemn  religious  service,  on  the  eve  of 
their  departure  for  the  New  World.  He 
said:  “  If  God  reveal  anything  to  you  by 
any  other  instrument  of  his,  be  as  ready  to 
receive  it  as  ever  you  were  to  receive  any 
truth  by  my  ministry;  for  I  am  verily  per¬ 
suaded — I  am  very  confident — that  the 
Lord  has  more  truth  yet  to  break  forth  out 
of  his  Holy  Word.  For  my  part  I  cannot 
sufficiently  bewail  the  condition  of  the  Re¬ 
formed  Churches,  who  are  come  to  a  pe¬ 
riod  in  religion,  and  will  go  at  present  no 


Rob 


(819) 


Rog 


further  than  the  instruments  of  their  ref¬ 
ormation.  The  Lutherans  cannot  be  drawn 
to  go  beyond  what  Luther  saw;  whatever 
part  of  his  will  our  good  God  has  revealed 
to  Calvin,  they  will  rather  die  than  em¬ 
brace  it.  And  the  Calvinists,  you  see, 
stick  fast  where  they  were  left  by  that 
great  man  of  God,  who  yet  saw  not  all 
things.” — Benham:  Diet,  of  Religion.  See 
Dexter:  The  Congregationalism  of  the  last 
Three  Hundred  Years  (New  York,  1880). 

Robinson,  Robert,  an  eminent  Baptist 
minister;  b.  at  Swaffham  in  Norfolk,  Jan. 
8,  1735;  d.  while  on  a  visit  to  Dr.  Priestley 
at  Birmingham,  June  8,  1790.  He  was  first 
connected  with  the  Calvinistic  Methodists, 
but  in  1759  united  with  the  Baptists,  and 
from  1761  was  pastor  of  a  church  in  Cam¬ 
bridge.  He  wrote  a  History  of  Baptism , 
published  after  his  death,  and  translated 
Saurin’s  Ser?nons.  He  wrote  the  well- 
knownhymns  “Come,  thou  Fount  ”  (1758), 
and  ‘  ‘  Mighty  God ,  while  angels  bless  thee  ” 
(1778). 

Robinson,  Stuart,  a  distinguished  Pres¬ 
byterian  minister;  b.  at  Strabane,  near 
Londonderry,  Ireland,  Nov.  26,  1816;  d.  at 
Louisville,  Ky.,  Oct.  5,  1881.  He  was 
graduated  at  Amherst  College  in  1836; 
studied  theology  at  Union  Theological 
Seminary,  Prince  Edward,  Va. ;  pastor  at 
Kanawha  Salines,  W.  Va. ,  1841-47;  at 
Frankfort,  Ky.,  1847-52;  Baltimore,  1852- 
56;  professor  in  the  theological  seminary 
at  Danville,  1856-58,  and  from  then  until 
his  death  pastor  of  the  Second  Presbyte¬ 
rian  Church  at  Louisville,  Ky.  He  was 
one  of  the  most  prominent  defenders  of  the 
cause  of  the  South  during  the  civil  war. 
Among  his  published  works  are:  The 
Church  of  God  an  Essential  Element  of  the 
Gospel  (Phila. ,  1858),  and  Discourses  of  Re¬ 
demption  (N.  Y. ,  1866). 

Roch,  St.,  b.  at  Montpellier,  in  1295;  d. 
there  in  1327.  During  the  progress  of  a 
plague  in  Northern  Italy,  he  visi.ted  the 
sick  from  place  to  place,  and  wrought 
wonderful  cures.  In  connection  with  this 
work  fabulous  tales  gathered  in  time 
about  his  name,  and  a  great  multitude  of 
churches,  hospitals,  etc.,  were  dedicated 
to  him. 

Rochester,  a  city  of  Kent,  Eng.,  twenty- 
eight  miles  southeast  of  London.  It  be¬ 
came  the  seat  of  a  bishopric  in  608.  The 
cathedral  was  founded  by  Gundulf,  1077, 
and  consecrated  1130.  It  is  principally 
Norman  and  Early  English  in  style.  The 
endowment  of  the  See  of  Rochester  amounts 
to  £3  ,000  a  year. 


Rodgers,  John,  Presbyterian;  b.  in  Bos¬ 
ton,  Aug.  5,  1727;  d.  in  New  York,  May  7, 
1811.  He  entered  the  ministry  in  1747, 
and  in  1749  was  settled  at  St.  George’s,  in 
Philadelphia.  In  1765  he  came  to  New 
York  City,  where  he  was  pastor  until  his 
death,  with  the  exception  of  the  period  of 
the  Revolutionary  War.  He  was  an  ear¬ 
nest  patriot,  and  was  frequently  consulted 
by  Washington.  See  his  Memoir ,  by  Sam¬ 
uel  Miller  (N.  Y. ,  1809). 

Rogation  Days  (from  Latin  rogare ,  to 
ask  or  beseech),  the  name  given  to  the 
three  days  which  precede  Ascension  Day, 
which  are  set  apart  in  the  Roman  and  An¬ 
glican  Churches  as  days  of  fasting  and 
supplication  for  God’s  special  blessing  on 
the  fruits  of  the  earth.  It  was  formerly 
the  custom  to  have  public  processions  on 
these  days,  at  which  litanies  were  sung. 

Rogation  Sunday,  the  fifth  Sunday  after 
Easter,  so  called  from  the  three  days  that 
follow. 

• 

Rogers,  Henry,  an  eminent  English  es¬ 
sayist;  b.  Oct.  18,  1806;  d.  at  Pennal 
Tower,  North  Wales,  Aug.  20,  1877.  Af¬ 
ter  preaching  for  some  time  as  an  Inde¬ 
pendent  minister,  he  became  professor  of 
philosophy  at  the  Independent  College  at 
Birmingham;  and  in  1858  principal  of 
Manchester  Independent  College.  He 
wrote  the  Eclipse  of  Faith ,  Lives  of  John 
Howe ,  Jonathan  Edwards ,  and  Thomas  Ful¬ 
ler,  and  The  Superhuman  Origin  of  the 
Bible  Inferred  from  Itself,  and  many  ar¬ 
ticles  and  essays.  He  was  strongly  Anti- 
Tractarian,  and  also  Anti-Rationalistic,  the 
Eclipse  of  Faith  showing  scant  courtesy  to 
any  of  the  Neologian  theories.  The  im¬ 
mediate  cause  of  its  being  written  was  the 
publication,  by  one  who  had  been  a  clergy¬ 
man,  of  a  skeptical  volume  called  the  Nem¬ 
esis  of  Faith. 

Rogers,  John,  a  Protestant  martyr,  was 
born  at  Birmingham  about  1500,  educated 
at  Cambridge  and  Oxford,  and  in  1535  be¬ 
came  pastor  at  Antwerp.  Here  he  became 
acquainted  with  Tyndale,  and  Coverdale, 
and  joined  the  Reformed  Church.  He  af¬ 
terward  issued  a  translation  of  the  Bible 
known  as  Matthew’s  Bible.  He  removed 
from  Antwerp  to  Wittenberg, where  he  re¬ 
mained  till  the  accession  of  Edward  VI., 
when  he  returned  to  England,  and  soon 
after  was  made  a  prebend  of  St.  Paul’s.  On 
the  accession  of  Queen  Mary  he  strongly 
denounced  Romanism,  on  which  he  was 
seized,  and,  having  suffered  some  months’ 
imprisonment,  was  burned  at  Smithfield, 
Feb.  4,  1555. 


% 


Rom 


(  820  ) 


Rom 


Romaine,  William,  an  eminent  English 
evangelical  divine;  b.  at  Hartlepool,  Dur¬ 
ham,  Sept.  25,  1714;  d.  in  London,  July 
26,  1795.  He  studied  at  Oxford,  and  was 
ordained  in  1736.  He  was  appointed  pro¬ 
fessor  of  astronomy  in  Gresham  College, 
and  became  a  very  popular  preacher,  and 
for  many  years  drew  crowded  congrega¬ 
tions  in  London.  He  was  an  earnest  advo¬ 
cate  of  evangelical  views,  and  wrote  three 
volumes  that  were  widely  read:  The  Life 
of  Faith  (1763);  The  Walk  of  Faith  (1771), 
and  The  Triumph  of  Faith  (1794).  They 
have  frequently  been  published  in  one  vol¬ 
ume.  See  his  Life ,  by  W.  B.  Cadogan, 
prefixed  to  an  edition  of  his  Works  in  8 
vols.  (London,  1796). 

Roman  Catholic  Church.  The  very  ex¬ 
tent  and  influence  of  this  vast  church,  and 
the  fact  that  it  is  the  historical  parent  of 
all  Western  communions — as  much  so  of 
those  who  most  dissent  from  it  as  of  the 
others — have  made  it  necessary  to  treat 
various  branches  of  the  subject  so  exten¬ 
sively  elsewhere,  under  various  headings, 
that  less  is  needed  in  this  place  than  has 
been  devoted  to  other  denominations  of  far 
less  importance.  The  foundation  of  this 
church  is  uncertain,  but  we  know  that 
when  St.  Paul  wrote  his  Epistle  to  the 
Romans  he  had  not  yet  visited  Rome, 
though  he  did  so  afterwards.  St.  Peter  is 
said  to  have  been  the  first  bishop,  and  tra¬ 
dition  says  that  he  was  martyred  there. 
The  mighty  importance  of  the  city  of 
Rome  naturally  gave  its  bishop  a  great 
position,  but  the  fact  that  it  became  for  a 
while  the  arbiter  and  ruler  of  all  Christen¬ 
dom  is  the  most  remarkable  fact  in  the 
history  of  Christianity.  The  causes  of  the 
great  silent  change  will  be  found  under  the 
heading  Papal  Power,  Growth  of,  and 
the  list  of  Bishops,  under  Popes,  and  the 
emancipation  of  a  large  part  of  Christen¬ 
dom  under  Reformation.  The  contro¬ 
versy  between  Rome  and  Protestantism 
involves  two  main  questions:  In  the  first 
place,  Protestants  deny  the  authority  of- 
the  pope  over  them  at  all;  and  secondly,  a 
large  portion  of  the  doctrine  of  the  Roman 
Church  is  rejected,  as  being  a  corruption  of 
Apostolic  Christianity.  The  Roman 
Church  recognizes  seven  sacraments,  viz., 
Baptism,  Confirmation,  the  Holy  Eucha¬ 
rist,  Penance,  Extreme  Unction,  Holy  Or¬ 
ders,  Matrimony.  One  of  the  chief  char¬ 
acteristics  of  this  religion  is  that  of 
invoking  help  of  the  Virgin  and  the  Saints. 
In  defence,  Roman  Catholics  say  that  they 
do  no  more  than  ask  the  prayers  of  those 
who,  from  their  perfected  state,  must  be 
more  worthy  to  offer  them  than  they;  but 
in  most  books  of  devotion  the  prayers  ad¬ 


dressed  to  the  Blessed  Virgin  and  the 
Saints  are  such  as  Protestants  consider  it 
sinful  to  offer  to  any  but  God.  The  public 
service  is  in  the  Latin  tongue,  which  has 
caused  their  opponents  to  say  that  they 
wish  to  keep  the  laity  in  the  dark  as  to 
what  they  are  doing.  With  regard  to  all 
matters  relating  to  faith,  Roman  Catholics 
draw  a  hard-and-fast  line  between  what  is 
of  doctrine  and  what  of  discipline.  Doc¬ 
trine  is  what  was  taught  by  Christ  and  his 
apostles;  discipline,  different  rules  laid 
down  by  the  various  councils  of  the  church, 
and  liable  to  change  at  any  time.  Since 
the  Vatican  Council  of  1870,  when  Pius  IX. 
put  forth  the  doctrine  of  the  infallibility  of 
the  pope,  the  utterances  of  the  pontiff  have 
been  taken  as  the  groundwork  of  the  faith 
and  practice  of  the  Church.  There  are  va¬ 
rious  religious  orders  both  for  men  and  worn- 
men,  who  all  are  obliged  to  take  the  three 
vows  of  poverty,  chastity,  and  obedience. 
Their  work  consistsin  superintending  char¬ 
itable  institutions,  such  as  asylums ,  orphan¬ 
ages,  and  hospitals,  and  some  of  the  orders 
have  large  schools  attached  to  them.  The 
number  of  Roman  Catholics  all  over  the 
world  is  about  220,000,000.  —  Benham  : 
Diet,  of  Religion.  The  growth  of  the  Ro¬ 
man  Church  in  the  United  States  in  recent 
years  has  been  rapid,  owing  to  emigration. 
They  claim  over  8,000,000  adherents  in  this 
country.  The  peculiar  doctrines,  practices, 
and  terms  of  the  Roman  Church  will  be 
found  under  their  proper  headings.  See 
Christianity;  Jesuits;  Immaculate  Con¬ 
ception;  Vatican  Council,  etc. 

Romans,  Epistle  to  the.  See  Paul. 

Rome,  “  the  capital  of  the  kingdom  of 
Italy,  on  the  river  Tiber,  about  fifteen  miles 
from  the  mouth  of  that  river.  It  is  celebrated 
alike  for  its  existing  buildings  and  for  the 
ruins  of  its  ancient  grandeur.  Among  the 
former  are  the  Cathedral  of  St.  Peter  (built 
in  the  sixteenth  and  seventeenth  centuries), 
perhaps  the  finest  ecclesiastical  structure 
in  the  world;  and  the  Palace  of  the  Vatican 
(completed  in  its  present  form  about  the 
beginning  of  the  fifteenth  century),  the 
residence  of  the  popes,  and  celebrated  for 
its  splendid  library,  and  for  its  magnificent 
collection  of  works  of  art.  St.  Peter's  and 
the  Vatican  are  on  the  right  bank  of  the 
Tiber,  and  the  principal  palace  occupied  by 
the  king  of  Italy  stands  on  the  left  bank. 
Among  the  remains  of  antiquity  may  be 
mentioned  the  Coliseum,  completed  A.  D. 
80,  and  which  was  capable  of  accommodat¬ 
ing  87,000  persons.  The  city  is  surround¬ 
ed  by  walls,  nearly  thirteen  miles  in  circuit. 
Of  the  district  on  the  left  bank  of  the  Tiber, 
however,  only  the  northwestern  portion  is 


(  821  ) 


PANORAMIC  VIEW  OF  ROME  FROM  THE  ROOF  OF  ST.  PETER’S. 


Roo 


(  822  ) 


Ros 


occupied  by  the  modern  city;  while  the 
portion  on  the  right  bank,  enclosing  a  much 
larger  area  than  was  embraced  by  the  cor¬ 
responding  portion  of  ancient  Rome,  was 
built  in  the  first  half  of  the  seventeenth 
century;  and  a  large  extent  of  ground  to 
the  south  and  east  of  the  city  is  occupied 
for  the  most  part  by  market-gardens  and 
vineyards.  The  most  closely  built  and 
busiest  part  of  the  city  occupies  the  site  of 
the  ancient  Campus  Martius;  the  hand¬ 
somer  and  more  fashionable  part  occupies 
the  slopes  of  the  Quirinal,  Viminal,  and 
Capitoline  hills.  Till  the  establishment  of 
the  Italian  kingdom,  Rome  was  the  capital 
of  the  States  of  the  Church;  and  it  was,  at  a 
much  earlier  period,  the  capital  of  the  Ro¬ 
man  Empire.  It  was  founded  by  Romulus 
about  753  b.  c.  At  first  only  a  small  castle 
on  the  summit  of  Mount  Palatinus,  it  had 
grown  by  the  time  of  Servius  Tullius,  the 
sixth  of  its  kings,  who  died  534  b.  c. ,  large 
enough  to  occupy  the  ‘  seven  hills  of  Rome  ’ 
(j Palatinus,  Capitolinus ,  Quirinalis ,  Ccelius , 
Aventinus,  Viminalis ,  Esquilinus ),  and 
was  hence  called  ‘  the  City  of  the  Seven 
Hills.’  In  the  time  of  the  Emperor  Augus¬ 
tus,  the  first  of  the  emperors,  who  died 
a.  u.  14,  the  population  of  the  city  is  esti¬ 
mated  to  have  been  at  least  1,300,000;  and 
in  the  time  of  the  Emperors  Vespasian  and 
Trajan  (a.  d.  70-117),  it  is  believed  to  have 
contained  nearly  2,000,000.  On  its  first 
foundation,  Rome  was  governed  by  kings 
( 753— 5 !0  B.  c.);  afterwards  as  a  republic 
by  consuls,  etc.  (510-31  b.  c.);  and  after¬ 
wards  by  emperors  (31  b.  c.-A.  d.  476).  In 
the  time  of  the  emperors  till  Diocletian, 
the  empire  embraced  nearly  the  whole  of 
the  then  known  world.  It  was  then  (a.  d. 
296)  divided  into  the  Western  and  Eastern 
Empires,  but  was  reunited  under  Constans 
in  340,  and  again  divided  by  Valentinian 
and  Valens  in  364.  The  final  division  was 
in  395.  The  Western  Empire  fell  in  476, 
but  the  Eastern  Empire  survived  till  the 
capture  of  Constantinople  by  the  Turks  in 
1453.  About  728  the  city  of  Rome  became 
independent  under  the  popes,  and  it  re¬ 
mained  (with  the  exception  of  vicissitudes) 
the  seat  of  the  papal  court  till  the  abolition 
of  the  temporal  power  of  the  popes  in  1870. 
Since  then,  Rome  has  been  the  capital  of 
the  kingdom  of  Italy,  only  the  Vatican  be¬ 
ing  under  the  sovereignty  of  the  pope. 
The  city  is  the  seat  of  a  university,  found¬ 
ed  in  1244.  Its  population  in  1881  was 
300,467.” — Cassell:  Cyclopcedia.  See  Vat¬ 
ican. 

Rood  is  the  Anglo  -  Saxon  word  for 
“  cross.”  It  was  commonly  applied  to  the 
cross  erected  in  mediaeval  times  at  the  en¬ 
trance  of  the  chancel. 


Rosary  (Lat.  rosarium ,  a  chaplet  of  roses), 
a  form  of  prayer  recited  on  beads  by  the 
Roman  Catholics.  The  practice  dates  as 
early  as  the  fifth  century. 

Roscellin,  or  Roscelin,  was  born  in  the 
diocese  of  Soissons  in  the  eleventh  century, 
and  educated  at  Rheims.  About  1089  he 
became  canon  of  Compiegne,  and  put  forth 
heretical  views  of  the  doctrine  of  the  Trin¬ 
ity — namely,  that  the  three  names  of  the 
Trinity  are  the  names  of  three  individual 
substances,  as  distinct  as  three  angels,  and 
that  the  unity  of  the  Trinity  is  a  mere  ver¬ 
bal  expression,  implying  a  unity  in  power, 
as  there  may  be  among  the  angels.  In 
1092  a  council  was  called  at  Soissons,  at 
which  Roscellin  was  condemned,  and  oblig¬ 
ed  to  recant.  He  fled  to  England,  where  he 
retracted  his  recantation,  and  wrote  against 
his  principal  antagonist,  Anselm  (who  had 
written  De  Fide  Trinitatis  against  him), 
accusing  him  of  holding  heretical  views  on 
the  Incarnation.  Anselm  had  lately  be¬ 
come  archbishop  of  Canterbury,  and  this 
caused  a  quarrel  between  him  and  the  king; 
but  they  were  reconciled,  and  Roscellin 
was  forced  to  return  to  France.  He  became 
canon  of  Tours,  and  shortly  after  began  a 
controversy  with  his  former  disciple,  Abe¬ 
lard.  The  latter  had,  in  his  early  years, 
been  a  strong  partisan  of  Roscellin,  but  his 
views  took  a  more  modified  form,  and 
greatly  resembled  Sabellianism.  Roscellin 
accused  him  also  of  other  heresies,  where¬ 
upon  Abelard  violently  attacked  his  former 
leader.  No  account  remains  of  Roscellin’s 
latter  years,  but  he  is  supposed  to  have 
died  about  1106. — Benham:  Diet,  of  Relig~ 
ion.  See  Nominalists. 

Rose,  The  Golden.  See  Golden  Rose. 

Rose,  Hugh  James,  considered  by  many 
the  founder  of  the  Tractarian  movement  in 
England ;  b.  at  Uckfield,i795 ;  d.  in  Florence, 
Italy,  Dec.  22,  1838.  He  was  graduated 
at  Trinity  College,  Cambridge;  vicar  of 
Horsham,  1822-30;  rector  of  Hadley,  Suf¬ 
folk,  1830,  and  principal  of  King’s  College, 
London,  1836.  He  was  a  learned  man,  and 
a  very  pronounced  High-Churchman. 

Rosicrucians,  a  society  formed  in  Ger¬ 
many  at  the  beginning  of  the  seventeenth 
century.  An  anonymous  pamphlet,  pub¬ 
lished  at  Cassel,  in  1614,  asserted  that  the 
founder,  Rosenkreutz,  had  lived  200  years 
before,  but  that,  according  to  the  rules 
drawn  up  at  the  foundation,  its  existence 
had,  up  to  that  time,  been  kept  a  profound 
secret.  The  pamphlet  declared  the  mem¬ 
bers  to  be  possessed  of  fabulous  scientific 
knowledge,  and  to  be  absolutely  exempt 


Rot 


(  823  ) 


Rou 


from  illness  or  suffering  of  any  sort. 
Another  derivation  of  their  name  is  from 
ros ,  “  dew,”  which  they  held  to  be  the  most 
powerful  dissolvent  of  gold;  and  crtix , 
“  cross,”  which  in  the  chemical  style  signi¬ 
fies  “  light,”  became  the  figure  of  the  cross, 
“  X,”  exhibiting  at  the  same  time  the  three 
letters  in  the  word  lux.  They  were  alche¬ 
mists,  who  sought  for  the  Philosopher’s 
Stone  by  the  intervention  of  dew  and  light. 
— Benham:  Diet,  of  Religion. 

Rothe  (rot),  Richard,  “  one  of  the  first 
speculative  divines  of  Germany,  was  b.  at 
Posen  in  1799,  and  became  successively 
member,  professor,  director,  and  ephorus 
of  the  Theological  Seminary  of  Wittenberg. 
In  1837  he  was  nominated  professor  of 
theology  at  the  University  of  Heidelberg, 
which  in  1849  he  exchanged  for  Posen.  In 
1854,  however,  he  removed  again  to  Heidel¬ 
berg.  Vigorous  grasp  and  independence  of 
thought  were  his  chief  characteristics,  but 
he  never  formed  a  school,  in  the  strict 
sense  of  the  term.  One  of  his  well-known 
works  is  the  System  of  Theological  Ethics, 
or  Moral  Theology — a  complete  system  of 
speculative  theology  or  theosophy.  This 
work  is  to  show  that  religious  truth  is  not 
a  series  of  disputable  propositions,  but  a 
divine  morality;  in  a  word,  to  translate  the 
scholastic  dialect  of  the  creeds  back  into 
the  living  language  of  the  Sermon  on  the 
Mount.  Another  remarkable  book  of  his 
is  the  Beginnings  of  the  Christian  Church, 
which,  by  the  peculiarity  of  ‘  stand-point’ 
assumed  by  the  author  regarding  Church 
and  State,  evoked  many  fierce  counter¬ 
treatises,  like  Baur’s  On  the  Origin  of  Epis¬ 
copacy.  Rothe  died  at  Heidelberg  in  1867. 
H  is  lectures  on  Dogmatik  were  published 
in  1870;  Sermons,  in  1872,  and  Quiet  Hours 
(Stille  Stunden)  the  same  year.” — Cham¬ 
bers:  Cyclopedia. 

Roumania.  The  Greek  Church  is  the 
State  Church  of  Roumania.  The  higher 
clergy  are  paid  by  the  State,  and  the  lower 
clergy  by  the  congregations,  or,  as  is  often 
the  case,  they  support  themselves  by  agri¬ 
culture.  Their  duties  are  not  onerous,  as 
they  only  have  to  read  the  formularies  and 
perform  the  church  ceremonies.  There  are 
a  few  evangelical  congregations  under  the 
protection  of  the  Prussian  State  Church. 
Of  the  population  of  Roumania,  4,598,219 
belong  to  the  Greek  Church,  115,420  to  the 
Roman  Catholics,  8,803  to  the  Armenian 
Church,  7,790  to  the  Evangelical  Church; 
there  are  also  401,051  Jews,  and  25,033 
Mohammedans. 

Roundheads,  a  name  given  to  the  Puri¬ 
tans  because  they  wore  their  hair  cut  very 


short,  while  the  Cavaliers  wore  theirs  in 
long  ringlets. 

Rousseau  ( roo-so '),  Jean  Jacques,  “b.  in 
Geneva,  June  28,  1712;  d.  at  Ermenonville, 
near  Chantilly,  July  2,  1778;  one  of  the 
prominent  French  socialist  writers  of  the 
eighteenth  century,  now  remembered 
chiefly  for  his  Confessions ,  which  were 
written  during  a  residence  in  England,  in 
1766,  and  an  essay  entitled  Du  Contrat  So¬ 
cial.  He  was  the  son  of  a  watchmaker  of 
Geneva,  and  till  the  age  of  fifteen  resided 
in  that  city,  where  he  was  apprenticed  first 
to  an  attorney,  and  afterwards  to  an  en¬ 
graver.  In  his  sixteenth  year  he  wandered 
into  Savoy,  a  fugitive  from  his  second  mas¬ 
ter;  and  there  found  a  protector  in  a  Madame 
de  Warens,  a  new  convert  to  the  Roman 
Catholic  Church,  through  whose  instru¬ 
mentality  he  also  became  a  convert  to  the 
same  faith.  He  resided  with  this  lady  for 
ten  years,  and,  after  various  wanderings, 
went  in  1745  to  Paris.  On  alighting  at  an 
inn  in  that  city,  he  fell  in  with  a  servant 
girl,  named  Therese  Levasseur,  and  with 
her  he  formed  a  connection  which  lasted  for 
the  rest  of  his  life.  In  1748  he  became  ac¬ 
quainted  with  Madame  D’Epinay,at  whose 
house  he  was  introduced  to  Diderot, 
D’Alembert,  and  Condillac, and  was  by  them 
engaged  to  write  musical  articles  for  the 
Encyclopddie.  In  1750  he  obtained  a  prize 
from  the  Academy  of  Dijon  for  an  essay 
in  answer  to  the  question  whether  the  re¬ 
establishment  of  the  arts  and  sciences  had 
contributed  to  purify  morals.  He  answered 
the  question  in  the  negative,  but  displayed 
so  much  ingenuity  and  eloquence  that  his 
essay  attracted  much  attention.  In  1756, 
at  the  invitation  of  Madame  D’Epinay,  he 
took  up  his  residence  at  her  country  house, 
called  the  Hermitage,  in  the  pretty  valley 
of  Montmorency,  near  Paris.  Here  he  be¬ 
gan  to  write  his  celebrated  novel,  Julia ; 
or,  the  New  Heloise,  which  he  finished  in 
1759.  This  was  followed  in  1762  by  Emile, 
a  moral  romance,  in  which  he  condemns 
every  other  mode  of  education  but  that  of 
following  nature,  and  avows  through  one 
of  the  characters  a  creed  which  amounts  to 
little  more  than  theism.  This  work  was 
anathematized  by  the  archbishop  of  Paris, 
and  was  ordered  to  be  burned  by  the  Par¬ 
liament  of  Paris,  which  proceeded  crimi¬ 
nally  against  the  author.  About  the  same 
time  it  was  burned  at  Geneva.  Rousseau 
now  fled  from  France,  but  returned  in 
1 765-66, when  he  accompanied  David  Hume 
to  England,  remaining  for  a  little  more 
than  a  year.  In  1769  he  married  Therese 
Levasseur,  by  whom  he  had  had  five  chil¬ 
dren.  In  1770  he  was  once  more  in  Paris, 
and  took  lodgings  in  the  Rue  Platriere, 


Rub 


(  824  ) 


Rus 


which  has  since  been  called  Rue  J.  J. 
Rousseau.  He  was  now  growing  old  and 
infirm,  and  was,  besides,  extremely  poor. 
He  died  at  a  cottage  offered  to  him  by  the 
Marquis  de  Garardin,at  Ermenonville,  and 
was  buried,  according  to  his  request,  on  an 
island  shaded  by  poplars  in  a  little  lake  in 
the  Park  of  Ermenonville,  where  a  plain 
marble  monument  was  raised  to  his  mem¬ 
ory.  His  Confessions  were  not  published 
till  after  his  death.  A  good  account  of  the 
life  and  works,  and  likewise  of  the  charac¬ 
ter,  of  Rousseau,  is  given  by  John  Morley 
in  Rousseau  (1878).” — Cassell:  Cyclopcedia. 

Rubrics  (from  the  Lat.  rubidns,  red),  a 
name  given  to  certain  directions  as  to  the 
mode  of  conducting  service,  the  use  of 
prayers  on  special  occasions,  etc.  The 
name  is  derived  from  the  fact  that  the  ru¬ 
brics  were  originally  written  in  red  ink. 

Rufinus,  Tyrannius  (Turranius,  Tora- 
nus),  b.  at  Aquileja.  He  early  entered  a 
monastery  in  his  native  city,  and  was  bap¬ 
tized  in  370  or  371.  The  following  year 
he  went  to  Egypt,  where  he  spent  six  years, 
and  visited  the  most  famous  hermits.  In 
378  or  379  he  built  a  cell  and  lived  a  hermit- 
life  on  the  Mount  of  Olives.  During  the 
Origenistic  controversy  he  was  opposed 
to  Jerome.  He  translated  many  of  Ori- 
gen’s  exegetical  works,  and  in  various  ways 
was  an  interpreter  of  Greek  theology. 

Rule  of  Faith.  See  Regula  Fidei. 

Rural  Deans,  ecclesiastical  officers  in  the 
Anglican  Church,  who  are  supposed  to 
superintend  the  clergy  within  their  district ; 
see  that  their  houses  and  churches  are 
kept  in  repair;  discuss  topics  of  interest 
with  them,  and  report  the  result  to  the 
bishop. 

Russian  Church,  The.  The  Russians 
claim  to  have  been  converted  to  Christian¬ 
ity  by  the  Apostle  Andrew,  but  it  has  been 
conclusively  proved  that  the  conversion 
did  not  take  place  till  the  ninth  century. 
The  State  Church  of  Russia  is  a  branch  of 
the  Greek  or  Eastern  Church.  In  the  year 
955  Olga,  widow  of  the  Grand  Prince  Igor, 
went  to  Constantinople  to  receive  baptism 
at  the  hands  of  the  patriarch.  She  sought 
to  convert  her  son  to  the  new  religion,  but 
without  success;  her  teaching,  however, 
bore  fruit  later  in  the  mind  of  her  grandson 
Vladimir.  Vladimir  died  in  1015,  and  his 
son,  Yaroslav,  caused  the  Scriptures  to  be 
translated  into  Slavonian,  founded  an  arch¬ 
bishopric  at  Kieff,  and  by  getting  Greek 
priests  to  settle  in  his  country  sought  to 
render  his  Church  independent  of  the  pa¬ 


triarch  of  Constantinople;  but  in  this  he 
did  not  succeed,  and  for  six  centuries  it  re¬ 
mained  attached  to  the  Greek  Church. 
After  the  seizure  of  Constantinople  by  the 
Turks  in  1453,  the  Russian  bishops  elected 
their  own  metropolitans  without  the  sanc¬ 
tion  of  Greek  patriarchs,  and  in  1551  a  syn¬ 
od  held  at  Moscow  framed  a  code  of  eccle¬ 
siastical  laws  for  the  government  of  the 
Church.  These  laws  were  called  Stoglav , 
or  a  hundred  chapters.  In  the  reign  of 
the  Czar  Theodore,  the  Greeks  consented 
to  the  consecration,  in  1588,  of  an  inde¬ 
pendent  patriarch  of  Moscow.  The  most 
important  of  these  patriarchs  was  Nikon 
(1652-57).  In  1642  a  catechism  was  com¬ 
posed  in  the  Russian  language  by  Peter 
Mogilas,  to  check  the  growing  tendency  of 
the  Russo-Greeks  to  conform  to  Rome, 
and  Nikon  did  much  to  correct  the  errors 
which  still  remained  in  the  Slavonic  ver¬ 
sion  of  the  Scriptures  and  in  the  service- 
books.  These  changes  in  the  liturgy 
caused  great  commotion  in  the  Church, 
and  in  1666  a  large  number  separated  them¬ 
selves  from  the  rest,  and  were  called  Ras- 
kolniks ,  from  raskol ,  “cleft,”  to  signify 
schism  or  dissent.  They,  however,  call 
themselves  Starovertzi ,  or  the  “  Old  Be¬ 
lievers.”  Peter  the  Great,  in  1700,  on  the 
death  of  the  tenth  patriarch,  Adrian,  or¬ 
dered  that  for  the  future  the  Russian 
Church  should  be  governed  by  a  synod 
consisting  of  a  certain  number  of  bishops, 
several  presbyters,  and  an  imperial  procu¬ 
rator.  Accordingly,  in  1723,  the  Most 
Holy  Synod  was  established  at  Moscow. 
It  has  now  been  removed  to  St.  Peters¬ 
burg.  It  is  usually  composed  of  two  met¬ 
ropolitans,  two  bishops,  the  chief  secular 
priest  of  the  imperial  staff,  and  the  follow¬ 
ing  lay  members:  the  procurator,  seven 
secretaries,  and  some  clerks.  It  decides 
on  all  matters  of  faith,  and  superintends 
the  administration  of  the  dioceses.  The 
law  of  the  land  with  regard  to  religion  is 
as  follows:  “  The  ruling  faith  in  the  Rus¬ 
sian  Empire  is  the  Christian  Orthodox 
Eastern  Catholic  declaration  of  belief.  Re¬ 
ligious  liberty  is  not  only  assured  to  Chris¬ 
tians  of  other  denominations,  but  also  to 
Jews,  Mohammedans,  and  pagans;  so  that 
all  people  living  in  Russia  may  worship 
God  according  to  the  laws  and  faith  of 
their  ancestors.”  In  some  respects  the 
Russian  creed  resembles  that  of  the  Latin, 
but  yet  it  differs  in  a  few  very  important 
particulars,  notably  that  of  the  doctrine  of 
the  Trinity.  The  Russians  deny  the  double 
Procession  of  the  Holy  Ghost.  (Filioque 
Controversy.)  The  worship  of  the  Vir¬ 
gin  is  not  so  common  as  in  Italy  or  Spain, 
but  the  invocation  of  the  saints  is  quite  as 
usual.  The  laity  communicate  in  both 


Rut 


(  825  ) 


Rye 


kinds  with  the  priests,  but  with  this  differ¬ 
ence,  that  while  he  partakes  of  each  sep¬ 
arately,  the  laity  receive  the  bread  soaked 
in  the  wine.  The  Russians  take  their  fun¬ 
damental  doctrines  from  the  Bible  and  the 
first  of  the  seven  General  Councils  of  the 
Church.  The  number  of  sacraments  rec¬ 
ognized  by  them  is  seven,  namely,  Bap¬ 
tism,  Chrism,  the  Eucharist,  Orders,  Con¬ 
fession,  Matrimony,  and  the  Unction  of  the 
Sick.  In  the  latter  there  is  again  a  differ¬ 
ence  from  the  Roman  Catholic  idea  of  the 
same  service.  In  the  former,  unction  is  ad¬ 
ministered  only  at  the  certain  approach  of 
death,  whereas  in  Russia  prayers  are  add¬ 
ed  for  the  recovery  of  the  patient.  There 
are  three  orders  of  clergy:  bishops,  priests, 
and  deacons,  but  numerous  subdivisions 
exist  in  each  order.  It  will  suffice  if  we 
mention  those  of  the  bishops,  which  are 
three  in  number:  First,  the  metropolitans, 
of  which  there  are  only  three  in  Russia; 
second,  the  archbishops;  third,  the  bish¬ 
ops.  The  lower  clergy  are  paid  by  the 
State,  and  although  their  incomes  are  for 
the  most  part  very  small,  they  manage,  by 
total  exemption  from  taxation,  to  live. 
They  are  forbidden  to  marry  after  their  or¬ 
dination,  but  there  is  no  law  against  their 
keeping  their  wives  if  they  should  have 
been  married  while  still  laymen.  The 
number  of  members  of  this  Church  is  said 
to  be  as  great  as  64,000,000,  of  which  15,- 
000,000  are  sectarian  dissenters.  The  rit¬ 
ual  of  the  service  is  elaborate  in  the  ex¬ 
treme;  a  description  of  a  festival  service 
has  been  published  in  Dr.  Pinkerton’s  ac¬ 
count  of  his  visit  to  Russia.  Great  super¬ 
stition  prevails,  especially  amongst  the 
lower  classes,  and  this  is  fostered  by  the 
priests.  Image-worship,  or,  to  speak  more 
correctly* picture-worship,  is  a  great  feat¬ 
ure  of  the  religion  of  the  people,  many 
thinking  it  utterly  impossible  to  say  a 
prayer  unless  they  have  a  picture  either  of 
the  Saviour  or  of  the  Virgin  before  them. 
— Benham:  Diet,  of  Religion.  See  Greek 
Church. 

Ruth,  Book  of,  “  one  of  the  Hagiog- 
rapha,  placed  in  the  authorized  version, 
as  in  the  LXX. ,  between  Judges  and  Sam¬ 
uel;  and  in  the  Jewish  canon  as  the  second 
of  the  five  Megilloth,  coming  after  the 
Song  of  Songs.  It  consists  of  four  chap¬ 
ters,  and  describes  how  Ruth,  the  Moabite 
widow  of  a  Hebrew,  Mahlon  by  name,  in 
the  time  of  the  Judges,  became — by  faith¬ 
ful,  loving  adherence  to  her  mother-in-law, 
Naomi,  for  whose  sake  she  had  left  her 
home  and  kindred — the  wife  of  Boaz,  and 
through  him  the  ancestress  of  David  him¬ 
self.  A  fragmentary  genealogy  of  David’s 
house — of  which  the  principal  links  only 


are  given — forms  the  conclusion  of  the 
book,  which  is  characterized  throughout 
by  the  most  naive  simplicity  and  minute 
truthfulness  of  detail.  If  there  be  a  ten¬ 
dency  in  the  book — which  is  doubtful — it 
would  naturally  be  to  show  how  utterly 
even  that  strictest  of  prejudices,  in  the 
mind  of  ancient  peoples,  especially  the 
Hebrews,  against  intermarriage  with  the 
‘stranger,’  is  vanquished  by  genuine  love 
and  piety;  nay,  that  the  heroine  of  the  tale, 
even  a  Moabite,  was  deemed  worthy,  for 
her  virtue,  to  become  the  foundress  of  the 
royal  house  of  Israel.  Considering  that 
the  book  of  Kings  contains  no  details  about 
David’s  genealogy,  this  book,  apart  from 
its  indescribable  natural  charm,  becomes  a 
most  useful  historical  record,  and  further 
supplies  many  items  on  the  forms  and  do¬ 
mestic  customs  of  a  time  about  which  we 
have  such  very  scant  information  else¬ 
where. 

“  The  time  of  the  events  related  mounts 
back  to  about  a  century  before  David,  yet 
both  the  contents  and  tendency  of  the  book 
show  clearly  enough  that  it  was  hardly 
written  before  the  last  years  of  David’s 
reign,  if  it  was  at  all  written  in  his  life¬ 
time.  For  a  change  had  already  taken 
place  in  the  interval  in  the  manners  and 
customs  of  the  people  (cf.  the  ‘  in  former 
time,’  iv.  7),  and  the  genealogy  carried 
down  to  David  shows  the  theocratic  signif¬ 
icance  he  had  acquired  by  the  time  it  was 
written.  ” — Chambers :  Cycloptzdia. 

Rutherfurd,  Samuel,  a  Scotch  divine  and 
Covenanter;  b.  about  1600  at  Nisbet;  d. 
at  St.  Andrew’s,  March  20,  1661;  was 
graduated  at  the  University  of  Edinburgh 
in  1621;  was  minister  at  Anworth  in  1627, 
but  was  deprived  of  his  living  in  1636  for 
nonconformity,  and  a  work  in  defence  of 
the  doctrines  of  Presbyterianism  as  against 
the  Arminians.  He  was  made  professor 
at  St.  Andrew’s  in  1639;  commissioner  to 
the  Westminster  Assembly,  1643-47,  and 
principal  of  New  College  in  1649.  In  1660 
he  was  deprived  of  his  offices,  and  cited  to 
appear  before  the  next  Parliament  to  an¬ 
swer  to  the  charge  of  high  treason,  but 
death  prevented  him  from  going.  He 
wrote  many  works  in  defence  of  his  views. 
His  letters  are  very  interesting,  and  were 
published,  with  a  sketch  of  his  life,  by 
Rev.  A.  A.  Bonar  (new  edition,  London, 
1881).  S ee  Manna  Crumbs  .  .  .  being  Ex¬ 
cerpts  from  the  Letters  of  Sa?nuel  Ruther¬ 
furd ,  gathered  by  Rev.  W.  P.  Breed  (Phil., 
1865). 

Ryerson,  Adolphus  Egerton,  D.  D., 
LL.  D.,  Methodist;  b.  in  Charlotteville, 
Canada,  March  24,  1803;  d.  at  Toronto, 


Ryl 


(  826  ) 


Sab 


Feb.  19,  1882.  He  became  a  preacher  in 
connection  with  the  Canada  Methodist 
Conference  in  1826,  and  soon  became  dis¬ 
tinguished  as  an  able  and  effective  writer 
and  speaker.  He  was  chosen  editor  of 
the  Christian  Guardian  in  1829.  In  1833 
he  was  sent  by  the  Conference  as  delegate 
to  the  Wesleyan  body  in  England,  and  in 
1841  was  elected  the  first  president  of  Vic¬ 
toria  University.  He  was  appointed  chief 
superintendent  of  education  for  Upper 
Canada  in  1844,  and  in  this  important  of¬ 
fice  accomplished  a  work  of  great  benefit 
to  the  community.  He  wrote  many  pam¬ 
phlets  and  reports,  and  among  his  works 
are  Epochs  of  Canadian  Methodism  (1882) 
and  The  History  of  the  United  Empire  Loyal¬ 
ists,  2  vols.  (1880). 

Ryland,  John,  D.  D.,  a  distinguished 
Baptist  minister  and  hymn-writer;  b.  at 
Warwick,  Jan.  29,  1753;  d.  at  Bristol,  May 
25,  1825.  He  was  pastor  of  the  Baptist 
Church  at  Northampton  (1781),  and  after¬ 
ward  at  Bristol,  where  he  held  the  office  of 
president  of  the  college  there,  from  1794 
to  his  death.  His  Hymns  and  Verses  were 
collected  by  D.  Sedgwick  in  1862  in  a 
volume  that  contains  a  Memoir  by  Dr. 
Hoby. 

Ryle,  John  Charles,  D.  D.,  lord  bishop 
of  Liverpool,  Church  of  England;  b.  at 
Macclesfield,  May  10,  1816.  He  was  grad¬ 
uated  at  Christ  Church,  Oxford,  1837;  be¬ 
came  curate  of  Exbury  Hants,  1841;  rector 
of  St.  Thomas’s,  Winchester,  1843;  of  Hel- 
mingham,  Suffolk,  1844;  vicar  of  Strad- 
broke*,  Suffolk,  1861;  honorary  canon  of 
Norwich  Cathedral,  1872;  select  preacher 
at  Cambridge,  1873-74;  bishop  of  Liver¬ 
pool,  1880.  He  has  written  upwards  of 
one  hundred  tracts  on  doctrinal  and  prac¬ 
tical  subjects,  which  have  had  a  large  cir¬ 
culation:  Coming  Events  and  Present  Duties 
(1867);  Bisao-frs  and  Clergy  of  Other  Days 
(1868);  The  Christian  Leaders  of  the  Last 
Century  (in  England)  (1869)  ;  Expository 
Thoughts  on  the  Gospels  (1856—69),  7  vols. 

s. 

Sab'aoth  (hosts).  The  phrase  “  Lord  of 
Sabaoth  ”  is  used  twice  in  the  New  Testa¬ 
ment — Rom.  ix.  29;  Jas.  v.  4.  It  is  the 
Greek  translation  of  the  Hebrew  Tsebaoth , 
“hosts”  or  “armies,”  so  often  found  in 
the  Old  Testament,  and  translated  “  Lord  of 
hosts,”  “Lord  God  of  hosts ” — i.  e.,  the 
heavenly  bodies,  the  angels,  or  the  people 
of  God. 

Sabas,  St.,  b.  at  Mutalasca,  or  Mutala, 
a  village  in  Cappadocia,  439;  d.  near  Jeru¬ 


salem  about  531.  In  extreme  youth  he 
gave  up  an  inheritance  of  wealth,  and  be¬ 
came  a  hermit  in  Palestine,  where  he  was 
joined  by  others,  and  in  484  he  was  made 
abbot  of  an  order  of  monks,  called  after  him 
Sabaites.  The  discipline  was  very  severe. 
He  founded  the  convent  of  Mar  Saba.  See 
Kidron. 

Sabbatarians.  See  Seventh-Day  Bap¬ 
tists. 

Sabbath,  The,  “as  a  day  of  rest  and 
special  sanctity  among  the  days  of  the  week, 
appears  to  have  been  of  early  institution, 
but  it  is  first  mentioned  as  a  day  ‘  holy  to 
the  Lord  ’  in  connection  with  the  gathering 
of  the  manna  in  the  wilderness  (Exod. 
xvi.  23);  and  the  publication  of  the  com¬ 
mand  requiring  its  observance  goes  no  fur¬ 
ther  back  than  the  delivery  of  the  Law 
from  Mount  Sinai.  (Exod.  xx.  10.)  Orig¬ 
inally  observed  in  recognition  of  God’s 
‘  rest  ’  from  his  work  as  Creator,  it  was 
now  enjoined  as  commemorative  of  the 
‘  rest  ’  which  he  had  given  his  people  from 
the  bondage  of  Egypt,  and  its  observance 
was  required  as  an  acknowledgment  of  the 
covenant  that  was  thereupon  established 
between  God  and  the  people  to  all  gener¬ 
ations.  The  entire  day  was  to  be  given  up 
in  consecration  to  the  Lord  alone,  not  only 
as  the  Creator  of  the  heavens  and  the 
earth,  but  as  the  Redeemer  of  Israel;  and 
the  observance  of  it  was  one  of  the  dis¬ 
tinctive  badges  of  membership  in  the  Jew¬ 
ish  community.  No  law  was  held  by  the 
strict  Jews  to  be  more  religiously  binding, 
or  was  eventually  so  scrupulously  hedged 
round  with  guards  against  every  seeming 
violation.” — Bagster:  Bible  Helps.  “  The 
choice  of  the  first  day  by  the  Christian 
Church  is  due  to  Christ’s  appearing  on  that 
day,  and  to  apostolical  usage.  Rev.  i.  10 
first  mentions  ‘  the  Lord’s  Day.’  The  early 
Church  met  to  break  bread  on  the  first  day 
(Acts  xx.  7);  it  was  the  day  for  laying-by 
of  alms  for  the  poor.  (1  Cor.  xvi.  2.)  No 
formal  decree  changed  the  Sabbath  from 
the  seventh  to  the  first  day;  this  would 
only  have  offended  the  Jews  and  weak 
Christians.  At  first  both  days  were  kept. 
But  when  Judaizing  Christians  wished  to 
bring  Christians  under  the  bondage  of  the 
law,  and  the  Jews  became  open  antagonists 
of  the  Church,  the  observance  of  the  Jew¬ 
ish  Sabbath  was  tacitly  laid  aside,  and  the 
Lord’s  Day  alone  was  kept  (see  Col.  d.  16). 
Moses,  the  law’s  representative,  could  not 
lead  Israel  into  Canaan.  The  law  leads  to 
Christ,  there  its  office  ceases;  it  is  Jesus, 
the  Antitype  of  Joshua,  who  leads  us  into 
the  heavenly  rest.  (Heb.  iv.  8,  9.)  So  le¬ 
gal  sacrifices  continued  till  the  antitypical 


Sab 


(  827  ) 


Sac 


sacrifice  superseded  it.  As  the  antitypical 
sabbath  rest  will  not  be  till  Christ  comes 
to  usher  us  into  it,  the  typical  earthly  Sab¬ 
bath  must  continue  till  then.” — Fausset: 
Bible  Cyclopedia. 

Sabbath-Day’s  Journey  (Acts  i.  12)  was 
about  seven-eighths  of  a  mile,  and  was  the 
distance  which  might  be  traveled  without 
violating  the  law.  (Ex.  xvi.  29.) 

Sabbatical  Year  (Exod.  xxxiii.  10,  11), 
“  part  of  the  same  general  law  as  the  Sab¬ 
bath  day.  The  land  must  rest  fallow  each 
seventh  year.  In  Lev.  xxv.  2-7  and  Deut. 
xv.  God  ordains  also  the  release  of  debtors 
every  seventh  year.  The  parts  of  the  har¬ 
vest  crop,  ungathered  and  ungleaned,  in 
some  degree  sowed  themselves  for  a  spon¬ 
taneous  growth  in  the  idle  seventh  year. 
(Lev.  xix.  6;  xxiii.  22.)  The  owners  laid 
up  corn  in  the  previous  years  for  it.  (Lev. 
xxv.  20-22.)  As  the  Sabbath  is  God’s  as¬ 
sertion  of  his  claim  on  time,  so  the  sabat- 
ical  year  on  the  land.  The  sabbatical  year 
began  in  the  seventh  month,  and  the  whole 
law  was  then  read  during  the  feast  of  tab¬ 
ernacles;  so  that  holy  occupation,  not  apa¬ 
thetic  rest,  characterized  it,  as  in  the  case 
of  the  Sabbath  day.  At  the  completion  of 
the  week  of  sabbatical  years  (fifty)  the  ju¬ 
bilee  year  crowned  the  whole.  Canaan’s 
conquest  took  seven  years,  the  allotment 
of  land  seven  more;  then  began  the  law  of 
the  sabbatical  year.  These  ‘  years  ’  were 
observed  under  the  N.  T. ;  and  Judaizers 
even  sought  to  force  their  observance  on 
Gentile  Christians.  (Gal.  iv.  10.)  In  the 
jubilee  year  alienated  lands  returned  to 
their  original  owners,  and  Hebrew  bond- 
servants  were  freed.  (Lev.  xxv.  8-16,  23- 
55;  xvii.  16-25;  Num.  xxxvi.  4.)  The  ju¬ 
bilee  is  the  crowning  of  the  sabbatical  sys¬ 
tem.  The  weekly  and  the  monthly  sab¬ 
baths  secured  rest  for  each  spiritually;  the 
sabbatical  year  secured  rest  for  the  land. 
The  jubilee  secured  rest  and  restoration 
for  the  body  politic,  to  recover  that  general 
equality  which  Joshua’s  original  settle¬ 
ment  contemplated;  hence  no  religious  ob¬ 
servances  were  prescribed,  simply  the 
trumpets  sounded  the  glad  note  of  restora¬ 
tion.  The  leisure  of  the  jubilee  year  was, 
perhaps,  devoted  to  school  and  instruction 
of  the  people,  the  reading  of  the  law  and 
such  services  (Ewald).” — Fausset:  Bible 
Cyclopcedia. 

Sabeans.  See  Mend/EANs. 

Sabel'lius  was  the  author  of  the  Sabellian 
heresy.  Very  little  is  known  of  his  history. 
He  was  born  at  Ptolemais,  in  Libya,  early 
in  the  third  century,  and  afterward  be¬ 


came,  perhaps,  the  bishop  of  that  city. 
He  owed  some  of  his  heretical  views  to  Noe- 
tus  of  Smyrna,  whose  disciple  he  was,  and 
began  to  publish  his  errors  about  A.  d.  260. 
They  did  not  die  out  till  the  fifth  century. 

Sabellius  denied  the  doctrine  of  the  Trin¬ 
ity,  maintaining  that  God  is  unipersonal, 
and  that  the  names  Father,  Son  and  Holy 
Ghost  merely  designate  the  same  person 
in  different  capacities.  As  the  Father, 
God  created  the  world;  as  the  Son,  he  re¬ 
deemed  it;  as  the  Holy  Ghost,  he  sancti¬ 
fies  the  elect.  These  three,  he  said,  are 
no  more  different  persons  than  the  body, 
soul,  and  spirit  of  man  are  three  persons. 
A  deduction  from  this  view  is  that  the 
Father  suffered  on  the  Cross,  hence  the 
Sabellians  are  often  included  among  the 
Patripassians  (</.  v.).  Later  on  the  Sabel¬ 
lians  became  divided,  and  one  section — the 
Low  Sabellians — held  that  Jesus  Christ  was 
not  divine,  but  that  an  “  energy  ”  or  ema¬ 
nation  from  God  dwelt  in  him.  They  all 
accepted  the  Scriptures,  but  acknowledged 
also  some  apocryphal  books,  the  chief  of 
which  was  The  Gospel  to  the  Egyptians. 

Sabellianism  was  the  cause  of  the  intro¬ 
duction  of  the  word  person  in  describing 
the  orthodox  doctrine  of  the  Trinity.  The 
word  had  not  been  used  before  in  that  con¬ 
nection. — Benham:  Did.  of  Religion. 

Sacerdotalism  is  that  view  of  the  priest¬ 
hood  which,  considering  the  Lord’s  Supper 
a  sacrifice,  regards  the  priest  as  the  minis¬ 
ter  of  that  sacrifice.  See  Priest;  Ritual¬ 
ism. 

Sachs,  Hans,  a  Nuremberg  shoemaker, 
who  has  been  called  “  the  prince  and  patri¬ 
arch  of  the  master-singers;”  b.  at  Nurem¬ 
berg,  Nov.  5,  1494;  d.  there,  Jan.  20,  1576. 
In  1511,  in  connection  with  work  at  his 
trade,  he  visited  the  principal  cities  of  Ger¬ 
many,  and  among  the  master-singers  cul¬ 
tivated  the  art  of  poetry.  These  master- 
singers  were  mechanics,  and  me  ton  holidays 
and  Sunday  afternoons  in  the  church  or 
in  the  guildhall  to  sing  the  poems  they  had 
composed.  Sachs  soon  gained  a  great  rep¬ 
utation,  and  after  settling  in  Nuremberg, 
while  supporting  a  large  family  by  his 
trade,  found  time  to  compose  poems — the 
number  of  which  has  been  put  as  high  as 
six  thousand.  Some  of  his  productions 
exerted  a  marked  influence  in  the  history 
of  the  German  Reformation.  Some  of  his 
most  celebrated  poems  are  transcriptions 
of  Luther’s  translation  of  the  Psalms.  In 
1874  a  bronze  statue  of  the  poet-shoemaker 
was  erected  in  the  Spitalplatz  at  Nurem¬ 
berg. 

Sack,  Brethren  of  the,  a  division  of 


Sac 


(  828  ) 


Sai 


the  Bonihomines,  or  Perfecti  (q.  v.),  found¬ 
ed  in  France  about  1200,  and  confirmed  by 
the  pope  in  1219.  They  received  their 
name  from  the  sack  which  they  used  as  a 
garment.  For  a  time  they  spread  rapidly, 
but  probably  on  account  of  heretical  views 
they  were  dissolved  in  1275.  An  order  of 
nuns  bearing  the  same  name  was  founded 
by  Louis  IX.  in  1261,  but  it  was  short¬ 
lived.  As  late  as  1357  the  inmates  of  a 
nunnery  in  London  wore  sacks  of  hemp. 

Sacrament.  This  word  signified,  in  clas¬ 
sical  Latin,  the  oath  which  a  soldier  took  to 
be  faithful  to  his  commander;  and  its  eccle¬ 
siastical  use  appears  to  be  due  to  Pliny, 
who,  in  his  celebrated  letter  to  Trajan,  a.  d. 
112,  says  that  he  found  that  the  Christians 
bound  themselves  with  an  oath  ( sacramento ) 
to  be  faithful  to  Christ,  and  to  abstain  from 
crimes.  Evidently  this  refers  to  the  bap¬ 
tismal  covenant.  Tertullian  uses  the  word 
regularly  in  its  present  sense.  Protestants 
confine  the  number  of  sacraments  to  two, 
viz.,  baptism  and  the  Lord’s  Supper,  since 
these  were  alone  instituted  by  Christ  and 
commanded  to  be  observed.  The  Roman 
Catholic  and  Greek  Churches  add  to  these 
sacraments  five  others,  viz.,  confirmation, 
penance,  extreme  unction,  ordination,  and 
matrimony. 

As  to  the  efficacy  and  nature  of  the  sacra¬ 
ments  Protestants  consider  them  as  signs 
and  seals  of  a  living  faith,  while  the  Roman 
Church  regards  them  as  the  absolutely  nec¬ 
essary  channels  of  all  divine  grace.  See 
Smith  and  Cheetham:  Did.  of  Chris.  An¬ 
tiquities ;  Baptism;  Lord’s  Supper. 

Sacred  Heart,  Society  of  the.  See 
Jesus,  Society  of  the  Sacred  Heart  of. 

Sacrifice.  See  Offering. 

Sacrilege  is  the  desecration  or  profana¬ 
tion  of  objects  consecrated  to  God.  In  the 
ancient  Church  special  decrees  were  pro¬ 
nounced  against  those  who  in  any  way 
profaned  the  Eucharist,  or  misappropriated 
sacred  property.  Those  who  committed 
sacrilege  were  often  put  to  death,  and  those 
who  stole  church  property,  if  they  did  not 
make  restitution,  were  excommunicated, 
and  anathematized. 

Sacristan,  in  the  early  Church,  was  the 
name  of  the  minister  who  had  charge  of 
the  sacred  vessels,  vestments  and  ftyni- 
ture.  The  office  is  still  retained  in  many 
foreign  cathedrals. 

Sacristy  formerly  was  a  separate  build¬ 
ing  belonging  to  the  Church,  or  an  apart¬ 
ment  in  it,  where  the  sacred  vessels  were 


kept,  and  the  priests  put  their  vestments 
on  and  off.  It  answered  to  the  modern 
vestry. 

Sacy,  Louis  Isaac  Lemaistre  de,  spirit¬ 
ual  director  of  the  recluses  of  Port  Royal; 
b.  in  Paris,  March  29,  1613;  d.  Jan.  4,  1684. 
Educated  at  Beauvais,  in  1650,  two  years 
after  his  ordination  he  became  confessor  at 
Port  Royal.  During  the  persecution  of 
the  Jansenists  he  sought  safety  in  the 
suburb  of  St.  Antoine,  but  was  discovered 
and  imprisoned  in  the  Bastille  (1666). 
After  his  release  he  returned  to  Port  Royal 
(1668),  but  in  1679  he  was  again  compelled 
to  leave  the  monastery,  and  spend  the  rest 
of  his  life  in  the  house  of  his  cousin,  the 
Marquis  of  Pomponne.  His  principal 
works  are  translations  of  the  Bible.  His 
translation  of  the  New  Testament  was  at¬ 
tacked  by  several  bishops,  and  condemned 
by  Pope  Clement  IX.,  but  found  defenders 
in  Arnauld  and  Nicole.  La  Sainte  Bible , 
containing  the  Vulgata ,  is  still  widely  used 
in  France. 

Sadducees,  “a  party  supposed  to  be 
named  either  from  ‘  Tsedek,’  righteousness , 
or  from  Zadok,  disciple  of  Antigonus  So- 
chaeus,  a  president  of  the  Sanhedrim  (b.  c. 
200-170).  They  were  the  very  opposite  of 
the  Pharisees,  denying  the  authority  of  all 
revelation  and  tradition  subsequent  to 
Moses;  skeptical  with  regard  to  the  mirac¬ 
ulous  and  supernatural,  they  denied  the 
existence  of  spiritual  beings,  the  immortal¬ 
ity  of  the  soul,  and  the  resurrection  of  the 
body.  Hence  they  were  deists,  and  view¬ 
ed  the  Supreme  Being  as  a  quiescent  Prov¬ 
idence,  calmly  surveying  from  above  the 
regular  working  of  natural  laws,  and  the 
creatures  which  spontaneously  reproduced 
themselves  from  the  original  germs.  They 
gave  themselves  up  to  ease,  luxury,  and 
self-indulgence ;  accepted  Greek  culture  and 
intercourse;  mingled  with  foreigners,  and 
were  not  indisposed  to  view  with  indiffer¬ 
ent  liberality  the  laxity  of  heathen  morals 
and  the  profanity  of  idol-worship.  They 
divided  the  hierarchy  with  the  Pharisees, 
and  the  Chief  Council  seems  to  have  been 
equally  balanced  between  the  two  (Acts 
xxiii.  6);  the  family  of  Annas  belonging  to 
the  Sadducean  faction  in  our  Lord’s  time. 
(Acts  v.  17.)” — “  Oxford”  Bible  Helps. 

Saint  John,  Knights  of.  See  Military 
Religious  Orders. 

Saint-Simon  de  Rouvroy, Comte  Claude 
Henri  de,  a  French  social  philosopher;  b. 
in  Paris,  Oct.  17,  1760;  d.  there,  May  19, 
1S25.  He  came  to  this  country  in  1777 
and  fought  bravely  in  the  War  of  the  Rev- 


Sai 


(  829  ) 


Sal 


olution.  He  visited  Mexico  and  proposed 
to  cut  a  canal  through  the  Isthmus,  and  in 
Spain  formed  a  project  to  connect  Madrid 
with  the  sea.  During  the  Revolution  in 
France  he  bought  up  many  confiscated  es¬ 
tates,  and  purposed  to  found  a  scientific 
and  industrial  school.  He  became  finan¬ 
cially  involved,  and  found  himself  penni¬ 
less  just  at  the  time  when  he  had  formed  a 
great  plan  for  the  reorganization  of  society. 
H  is  best-known  books  are:  Catechisme  Poli¬ 
tique  (1823)  and  Nouveau  Christianisme 
(1825). 

Saints,  Day  of  All.  See  All-Saints’- 
Day. 

Saints,  Worship  of  the.  See  Invoca¬ 
tion  of  Saints. 

Sakya  Muni.  See  Buddhism. 

Sal'amis,  the  most  important  and  largest 
city  on  the  Island  of  Cyprus.  Paul  and 
Barnabas,  when  they  visited  the  island, 
preached  in  the  synagogue.  (Acts  xiii.  5.) 

Salem  Witchcraft.  See  Witchcraft. 

Sales,  Francis  de.  See  Francis  of 
Sales. 

Salisbury,  the  county-town  of  Wiltshire, 
Eng.,  is  celebrated  for  its  cathedral,  which 
was  built  early  in  the  thirteenth  century. 
It  has  recently  been  restored.  Salisbury 
(formerly  called  New  Sarurn)  has  been  the 
seat  of  a  bishopric  since  1217,  in  which  it 
was  removed  from  Old  Sarum ,  a  town  no 
longer  in  existence,  about  two  miles  to  the 
north  of  the  present  city.  The  income  of 
the  «ee  is  ,£5,000. 

Salisbury,  John  of.  See  John  of  Salis¬ 
bury. 

Salmeron,  Alphonso,  one  of  the  found¬ 
ers,  with  Ignatius  Loyola,  of  the  Society  of 
Jesus;  b.  at  Toledo,  Oct.  8,  1515;  d.  at 
Naples,  Feb.  13,  1585.  He  was  a  bitter 
opponent  of  the  Reformation,  and  active  as 
a  papal  theologian  in  the  Council  of  Trent. 
He  wrote  commentaries  on  most  of  the 
books  of  the  Bible. 

Salt.  “  Indispensable  as  salt  is  to  our¬ 
selves,  it  was  even  more  so  to  the  Hebrews, 
being  to  them  not  only  an  appetizing  con¬ 
diment  in  the  food  both  of  man  (Job.  vi.  6) 
and  beast  (Isa.  xxx.  24,  see  margin),  and  a 
most  valuable  antidote  to  the  effects  of  the 
heat  of  the  climate  on  animal  food,  but  also 
entering  largely  into  their  religious  ser¬ 
vices  as  an  accompaniment  to  the  various 


offerings  presented  on  the  altar.  (Lev.  ii. 
13.)  They  possessed  an  inexhaustible  and 
ready  supply  of  it  on  the  southern  shores 
of  the  Dead  Sea.  Salt  might  also  be  pro¬ 
cured  from  the  Mediterranean  Sea,  and 
from  this  source  the  Phoenicians  would 
naturally  obtain  the  supply  necessary  for 
salting  fish  (Neh.  xiii.  16)  and  for  other 
purposes.  The  associations  connected  with 
salt  in  Eastern  countries  are  important. 
As  one  of  the  most  essential  articles  of 
diet,  it  symbolized  hospitality;  as  an  anti¬ 
septic —  durability,  fidelity,  and  purity. 
Hence,  the  expression,  *  covenant  of  salt  ’ 
(Lev.  ii.  13;  Num.  xviii.  19;  2  Chron.  xiii. 
5),  as  betokening  an  indissoluble  alliance 
between  friends;  and  again  the  expression, 
‘  salted  with  the  salt  of  the  palace  ’  (Ezra 
iv.  14),  not  necessarily  meaning  that  they 
had  ‘  maintenance  from  the  palace,’  as  the 
A.  V.  has  it,  but  that  they  were  bound  by 
sacred  obligations  of  fidelity  to  the  king. 
So,  in  the  present  day,  ‘  to  eat  bread  and 
salt  together  ’  is  an  expression  for  a  league 
of  mutual  amity.  It  was  probably  with  a 
view  to  keep  this  idea  prominently  before 
the  minds  of  the  Jews  that  the  use  of  salt 
was  enjoined  on  the  Israelites  in  their 
offerings  to  God.” — Smith:  Diet .  of  the 
Bible. 

Salvation.  See  Redemption. 

Salvation  Army,  The,  is  a  religious  or¬ 
ganization  which  was  originated  in  the 
East  of  London  in  1865,  by  Mr.  William 
Booth,  the  leader  and  general.  He  was 
born  at  Nottingham  in  1829,  and  in  1843 
became  a  minister  of  the  Methodist  New 
Connection.  He  was,  in  1844,  set  apart  as 
an  evangelist,  and  when,  in  1856,  he  re¬ 
turned  to  the  regular  pastorate  he  felt 
himself  out  of  his  sphere,  and  in  1861  re¬ 
quested  to  be  allowed  to  again  become  an 
evangelist.  The  request  was  refused,  so 
he  left  the  Society  and  began  an  independ¬ 
ent  career.  He  worked  in  Cornwall, 
Newcastle,  and  other  places,  and  .in  1865 
hired  a  theatre  in  Whitechapel.  The  so¬ 
ciety  was  developed  into  its  present  form 
and  received  its  name  in  1876.  With  the 
name  army  came  military  phraseology. 
Prayer  was  termed  knee-drill ,  the  leader,  a 
general;  evangelists,  officers ;  and  candi¬ 
dates,  cadets.  A  semi-military  attire  was 
assumed,  barracks  were  built  instead  of 
separate  residences,  and  when  the  army 
went  out  to  take  a  place  by  storm,  it  was 
with  banners  displayed  and  bands  of  music. 
The  noisiest  music  (drums,  brass,  etc.)  is 
also  employed  in  the  meetings,  and  other 
proceedings  of  a  very  sensational  character. 
The  object  is  to  attract  people  who  would 
not  enter  church  or  chapel,  and  for  this 


Sal 


(  830  ) 


Sam 


cause  the  officers,  male  and  female,  visit 
public-houses,  prisons,  etc.,  and  open-air 
meetings  are  held.  This  organization  has 
had  a  remarkable  growth,  and  is  doing  its 
peculiar  work  in  every  part  of  the  British 
Empire,  and  is  found  in  France,  Sweden, 
Africa  and  other  countries.  It  has  had  a 
corps  of  officers  and  members  in  this  coun¬ 
try  for  several  years,  with  headquarters 
in  New  York  City,  and  in  1890  reported 
360  halls,  1,024  officers  and  8,771  soldiers 
in  the  United  States. 

Salvation  of  Infants.  See  Infant  Sal¬ 
vation. 

Salve  {Hail)  is  the  opening  word  in 
many  famous  Latin  hymns.  Salve  regina 
is  the  name  of  an  antiphon  sung  in  the  Ro¬ 
man  Catholic  Church  from  Trinity  to  Ad¬ 
vent,  after  Lauds  and  Compline.  It  is  said 
to  have  been  composed  by  Contractus,  a 
Benedictine  monk  of  the  eleventh  century, 
with  the  exception  of  the  last  clause,  0 
clemens,  0  pia,  0  dnlcis  Virgo  Maria ,  which 
was  added  by  St.  Bernard. 

Samaritans,  The,  “were  a  mixed  people, 
derived  from  the  colonists  whom  the  king 
of  Assyria  sent  to  inhabit  the  land  of  Sa¬ 
maria  after  he  had  carried  the  Israelites 
captive.  (2  Kings  xvii.)  These  colonists 
had  been  drawn  from  various  Eastern  na¬ 
tions;  and  they  brought  with  them  their 
various  forms  of  national  idolatry,  until 
the  plagues  sent  among  them  by  God  led 
them  to  petition  for  a  priest  of  the  God  of 
the  country  to  teach  them  the  old  form  of 
worship.  He  was  stationed  at  Beth-el,  and 
they  endeavored  to  combine  a  formal  rev¬ 
erence  of  God  with  the  practice  of  their 
own  heathen  rites;  but  after  the  captivity 
of  Judah  they  sought  an  alliance  with  the 
returned  Jews,  with  whom  they  intermar¬ 
ried.  When  the  Mosaic  law  as  to  mixed 
marriages  was  enforced,  Manasses,  a  Jew¬ 
ish  priest,  who  had  married  the  daughter 
of  Sanfcallat,  chief  of  the  Samaritans, 
headed  a  secession  to  Shechem,  taught  the 
people  the  Mosaic  ritual,  and  erected  a  rival 
temple  on  Mount  Gerizim;  and  this  mixed 
community  began  to  claim  descent  from 
the  patriarchs,  and  a  share  in  the  promises, 
adopting  the  Pentateuch  and  Books  of 
Joshua  and  Judges  as  their  sacred  books. 
Having  the  advantage  of  occupying  a  place 
of  peculiar  sanctity  (Shechem),  surround¬ 
ed  by  the  tombs  and  memorials  of  the 
patriarchs,  and  dividing  the  two  portions 
of  the  Israelite  people  (Galilaeans  and  Jews), 
they  held  a  very  strong  vantage-ground, 
which  they  used  to  annoy  their  neighbors. 
They  erected  false  beacons  to  render  nuga¬ 
tory  the  announcements  of  the  great  fes¬ 


tivals;  refused  a  passage  through  their 
territory  to  pilgrims  going  up  to  the  feasts; 
defiled  the  temple  by  scattering  dead  men’s 
bones  upon  its  altar;  and  finally  welcomed 
the  invasion  of  Alexander  the  Great,  and 
offered  him  their  temple  for  a  heathen  fane 
— a  proceeding  which  resulted  in  its  final 
destruction  by  the  Jews  under  John  Hyr- 
canus  (b.  c.  130). 

“  The  old  feud  between  the  ten  tribes 
and  the  house  of  David  was  renewed  with 
double  hostility  by  the  Samaritans,  She¬ 
chem  and  Jerusalem  being  the  centres  of 
animosity,  each  possessing  rival  claims  to 
sanctity.  Hence  the  point  of  the  Samar¬ 
itan  woman’s  questions  to  our  Lord  (John 
iv.),  and  the  readiness  with  which  her  fel¬ 
low-citizens  accepted  the  overture  of  one 
‘  being  a  Jew  ’  to  receive  them  into  full  re¬ 
ligious  communion.  The  Samaritans  now 
number  scarcely  100  persons,  living  at 
Nablous  (Shechem),  preserving  an  ancient 
copy  of  the  Pentateuch,  keeping  up  an  an¬ 
nual  sacrifice  of  the  Passover  on  Mount 
Gerizim,  living  peaceful  and  moral  lives, 
and  observing,  with  some  peculiar  varia¬ 
tions,  the  Mosaic  law.” — “  Oxford  ”  Bible 
Helps. 

Samaritan  Pentateuch.  See  Samaritans. 

Samosta,  Paul  of.  See  Paul  of  Samo- 
sata. 

Sam'son  ( sunlike ),  “  the  son  of  Manoah, 
of  the  tribe  of  Dan,  a  deliverer  and  judge 
of  the  southwestern  tribes  of  the  Hebrews 
for  twenty  years,  during  the  latter  part  of 
‘  the  forty  years’  period,  and  partly  con¬ 
temporary  with  Eli  and  Samuel.  (Judg. 
xiii. -xvi.)  His  birth  was  miraculously 
foretold;  he  was  a  Nazarite  from  infancy, 
and  the  strongest  of  men,  and  was  equally 
celebrated  for  his  moral  infirmities  and  for 
his  tragical  end.  He  was  not  a  giant  in 
size,  though  of  such  undaunted  courage, 
and  his  expoits  were  wrought  by  special 
divine  aid;  *  the  Spirit  of  God  came 
mightily  upon  him.’  (Judg.  xiii.  25;  xiv. 
6;  xv.  14;  xvi.  20,  28.)  The  prov¬ 
idence  of  God  was  signally  displayed  in 
overruling  for  good  the  hasty  passions 
of  Samson,  the  cowardice  of  his  friends, 
and  the  malice  of  his  enemies.  The  sins 
of  Samson  brought  him  into  great  disgrace 
and  misery;  but  grace  and  faith  triumphed 
in  the  end.  (Heb.  xi.  32.)  His  story  forci¬ 
bly  illustrates  how  treacherous  and  merci¬ 
less  are  sin  and  sinners,  and  the  watchful 
care  of  Christ  over  his  people  in  every  age. 
Compare  Judg.  xiii.  22  and  Matt,  xxiii. 
37.” — Rand:  Bible  Did. 

Samuel  {heard  of  God),  “  the  son  of  Elka- 


Sam 


(831  ) 


San 


nah  and  Hannah,  was  a  celebrated  Hebrew 
prophet,  and  the  last  of  their  judges.  He 
is  one  of  the  purest  and  noblest  characters 
in  the  Old  Testament  history.  While  he 
was  a  child  he  officiated  in  some  form  in 
the  temple,  and  was  favored  with  revela¬ 
tions  of  the  divine  will  respecting  the 
family  of  Eli,  the  high-priest,  under  whose 
care  and  training  his  mother  had  placed 
him.  (1  Sam.  iii.  4-14.)  (See  Eli.)  After 
the  death  of  Eli,  Samuel  was  acknowledged 
as  a  prophet,  and  soon  commenced  a  work 
of  reformation.  Idolatry  was  banished,  the 
worship  of  the  true  God  was  restored,  and 
Samuel  was  publicly  recognized  as  a  judge 
in  Israel.  Residing  on  his  patrimonial  es¬ 
tate  in  Ramah,  he  made  annual  circuits 
through  the  country  to  administer  justice, 
until  his  infirmities  forbade  it,  and  then  he 
deputed  his  sons  to  execute  this  duty.  They 
proved  unworthy  of  the  trust,  and  so  gen¬ 
eral  was  the  dissatisfaction  of  the  people 
that  they  determined  on  a  change  of 
government.  To  this  end  they  applied  to 
Samuel,  who,  under  the  divine  direction, 
anointed  Saul  to  be  their  king,  and  Samuel 
resigned  his  authority  to  him.  (1  Sam. 
xii.)  After  Saul  was  rejected  for  his  dis¬ 
obedience  in  the  matter  of  Agag,  Samuel 
was  instructed  to  anoint  David  as  king, 
after  which  he  returned  to  Ramah,  where 
he  died.  (1  Sam.  xxv.  1.)” — Schaff:  Bible 
Diet.  See  Saul. 

Samuel,  The  First  and  Second  Books 
of.  “  The  two  were,  by  the  ancient  Jews 
conjoined,  so  as  to  make  one  book,  and  in 
that  form  could  be  called  the  Book  of  Sam¬ 
uel  with  more  propriety  than  now,  the  sec¬ 
ond  being  wholly  occupied  with  the  rela¬ 
tion  of  transactions  that  did  not  take  place 
till  after  the  death  of  that  eminent  judge. 
Accordingly,  in  the  Septuagint  and  the  Vul¬ 
gate,  it  is  called  the  First  and  Second  Books 
of  Kings.  The  early  portion  of  the  First 
Book,  down  to  the  end  of  the  twenty-fourth 
chapter,  was  probably  written  by  Samuel; 
while  the  rest  of  it,  and  the  whole  of  the 
Second,  are  commonly  ascribed  to  Nathan 
and  Gad,  founding  the  opinion  on  1  Chron. 
xxix.  29.  Commentators,  however,  are  di¬ 
vided  about  this,  some  supposing  that  the 
statements  in  ch.  ii.  26;  iii.  i  indicate  the 
hand  of  the  judge  himself,  or  a  contem¬ 
porary;  while  some  think,  from  ch.  vi.  18; 
xii.  5;  xxvii.  6,  that  its  composition  must 
be  referred  to  a  later  age.  It  is  prob¬ 
able,  however,  that  these  supposed 
marks  of  an  after -period  were  interpo¬ 
lations  of  Ezra.  This  uncertainty,  how¬ 
ever,  as  to  the  authorship  does  not  af¬ 
fect  the  inspired  authority  of  the  book, 
which  is  indisputable,  being  quoted  in 
the  New  Testament  (Acts  xiii.  22;  He¬ 


brews  i.  5),  as  well  as  many  of  the 
Psalms.  ” — Jamieson. 

Sanbal'lat.  His  name  indicates  that  he 
was  of  Assyro-Babylonian  origin.  He  was 
the  leader  of  the  opposition  which  Nehe- 
miah  encountered  in  his  efforts  to  rebuild 
Jerusalem.  (Neh.  iv.  2.)  During  the  ab¬ 
sence  of  Nehemiah  he  married  his  daugh¬ 
ter  to  the  grandson  of  the  high-priest,  an 
alliance  from  which  he  probably  hoped  to 
gain  political  influence,  but  when  Nehe¬ 
miah  returned  he  promptly  deposed  this 
son  of  Joiada.  (Neh.  xiii.  28.) 

San  Benito,  the  garments  worn  by  the 
victims  of  the  Inquisition  at  the  Auto  da 
Fe'.  They  had  devils  and  flames  painted 
on  them.  If  the  victim  was  to  be  burnt 
alive,  the  flames  pointed  upward;  if  not, 
downward. 

Sancroft  {sang' kr oft),  William,  archbish¬ 
op  of  Canterbury  and  the  most  distin¬ 
guished  of  the  nonjurors;  b.  at  Freshing- 
field,  Suffolk,  Jan.  13,  1616;  d.  there,  Nov. 
24,  1693.  Educated  at  Oxford,  he  was 
made  fellow  of  his  college  (Emmanuel)  in 
1649,  but  was  ejected  in  1689  for  refusing 
to  sign  the  Solemn  League  and  Covenant. 
He  spent  some  years  in  France  and  Italy, 
returning  to  England  after  the  Restoration, 
and  became  successively  University  preach¬ 
er,  1660;  Master  of  his  college,  1662; 
dean  of  York,  1663;  dean  of  St.  Paul’s, 
1664;  archdeacon  of  Canterbury,  1668, 
add  archbishop  of  Canterbury,  1677. 
With  six  other  bishops  he  was  confined  in 
the  Tower,  in  1687,  for  refusing  to  read 
the  Declaration  of  Indulgence,  but  they 
were  all  acquitted.  At  the  accession  of 
William  and  Mary  he  refused  to  take  the 
oath  of  allegiance  (1688),  and  was  deprived 
of  his  archbishopric.  He  then  retired  to 
his  native  place.  Among  his  published 
works  are:  Ser?nons,  Familiar  Letters ,  and 
Predestinated  Thief. 

Sanctification,  the  work  of  the  Holy 
Spirit,  whereby  man  is  renewed  in  the 
image  of  God,  and  enabled  to  die  to  sin. 
It  is  based  upon  the  holiness  of  God,  who 
is  not  only  absolutely  pure  in  himself,  but 
communicates  his  purity  to  his  people 
through  the  Spirit.  Sanctification  is  not 
to  be  confounded  with  Justification,  which 
is  forgiveness  of  sin,  whereby  man  stands 
before  God  pure  in  his  eyes  through  an 
act  of  God’s  mercy.  Sanctification  is  a 
gradual  progress  towards  holiness,  follow¬ 
ing  Justification,  and  changing  the  heart 
and  life  through  the  power  of  the  Holy 
Ghost.  Justification  removes  the  guilt, 
and  Sanctification  the  power,  of  sin;  Justi- 


San 


(  832  ) 


San 


fication  delivers  us  from  the  avenging 
wrath  of  God,  and  Sanctification  conforms 
us  to  his  image.  Nevertheless,  the  two 
are  inseparably  connected  in  the  promises 
of  God,  and  in  the  doctrines  and  promises 
of  the  Gospel. — Benham:  Did.  of  Religion. 

Sanction,  Pragmatic.  See  Pragmatic 
Sanction. 

Sanctuary,  a  term  used  in  church  archi¬ 
tecture  to  designate  the  eastern  part  of  the 
choir  of  a  church,  enclosed  by  a  railing,  in 
which  the  altar  is  placed. 

Sanctuary,  Right  of,  meant  the  privilege 
of  security  from  arrest  and  punishment 
that  was  at  one  time  granted  to  criminals, 
so  long  as  they  remained  in  certain  sacred 
places  to  which  they  had  fled.  The  custom 
was  greatly  abused  during  the  Middle 
Ages.  It  was  restricted,  but  not  entirely 
abolished,  by  the  Reformation.  Sanctua¬ 
ries  were  done  away  in  England  in  1697. 

Sandals  are  still  much  worn  in  the  East. 
The  common  sandal  is  made  from  the  hide 
of  the  camel’s  neck,  sometimes  of  several 
thicknesses.  It  is  fastened  by  two  straps, 
one  of  which  passes  between  the  great  and 
second  toes,  and  the  other  around  the  heel 
and  over  the  instep.  Sandals  form  part  of 
the  bishop’s  vestments  in  the  Roman 
Church. 

Sandemanians  (originally  called  Glass- 
ites ,  by  which  name  they  are  still  known  In 
Scotland),  a  sect  founded  about  1728  by 
John  Glass,  a  Scotchman,  and  originally  a 
minister  of  the  Presbyterian  Church.  He 
was  suspended  by  the  Synod  of  Angus  and 
Mearns  for  holding  heretical  opinions, 
which  he  published  in  a  book  called  The 
Testimony  of  the  King  of  Martyrs.  Among 
other  views,  he  held  that  national  estab¬ 
lishments  of  religion  are  inconsistent  with 
the  teaching  of  the  New  Testament,  and  that 
there  ought  to  be  no  connection  between 
Church  and  State.  His  doctrines  were 
further  developed  by  his  son-in-law,  Rob¬ 
ert  Sandeman  (b.  at  Perth,  1718;  d.  at 
Danbury,  Conn.,  1771),  who  maintained 
the  necessity  of  justification  by  faith,  but 
at  the  same  time  defined  faith  as  a  simple 
belief  in  the  divine  testimony,  differing  in 
no  way  from  belief  in  any  ordinary  human 
testimony.  Sandeman  established  the  sect 
in  London  and  America,  and  it  exists  to  the 
present  day;  it  never  numbered  many  fol¬ 
lowers,  and  now  they  are  probably  under 
two  thousand.  The  Sandemanians  have 
revived  several  customs  of  the  primitive 
Church,  such  as  abstinence  from  blood  and 
from  things  strangled,  the  holding  of  love- 


feasts,  the  kiss  of  charity,  washing  of  each 
other’s  feet,  community  of  goods,  the  use 
of  the  lot,  and  the  celebration  of  the  Eu¬ 
charist  weekly.  They  practice  mutual  ex¬ 
hortation,  and  believe  in  a  plurality  of 
elders  or  pastors,  who  are  set  apart  from 
amongst  themselves,  engagement  in  trade 
being  no  obstacle.  The  late  celebrated 
Prof.  Michael  Faraday  was  a  Sandemanian. 
— Benham :  Did.  of  Religion.  Robert  Sande¬ 
man,  who  came  to  this  country  in  1764, 
founded  a  church  at  Danbury,  Conn. 
Other  congregations  were  formed,  but  all 
except  this  one  have  died  out,  and  this,  in 
1890,  numbered  but  four  members,  and  the 
property  is  to  be  sold,  and  the  church 
formally  dissolved. 

Sandwich,  or  Hawaiian  Islands.  The 
first  missionaries  to  these  islands  were 
Hiram  Bingham  and  Asa  Thurston,  both 
graduates  of  Andover  Seminary,  who  were 
ordained  at  Goshen,  Conn.,  Sept.  29,  1819, 
and  sent  under  the  auspices  of  the  Amer¬ 
ican  Board.  It  was  known  that  the  religion 
of  the  Hawaiians  permitted  human  sacrifi¬ 
ces,  and  the  worship  of  idols,  etc.  To  the 
great  surprise  of  the  young  missionaries, 
when  they  arrived  at  Honolulu  they  found 
that  the.  people  had  recently  destroyed 
their  idols,  abolished  their  priests  and  dis¬ 
continued  human  sacrifices.  They  found 
an  “  open  door,”  and  by  1822  they  had  re¬ 
duced  the  language  to  writing,  and  a  print¬ 
ing-press  was  set  up.  In  1823  other  mis¬ 
sionaries  came  from  the  United  States,  and 
the  same  year  the  queen-dowager,  Kapio- 
lani,  was  baptized.  The  Roman  Catholic 
missionaries  who  came  in  1829  were  ban¬ 
ished,  but  reinstated  under  the  protection 
of  the  French  in  1839.  1°  1834  there  were 

50,000  scholars  in  the  schools,  and  the 
translation  of  the  Bible  was  completed  in 
1839.  In  j863  the  Hawaiian  Evangelical 
Association  was  formed,  and  the  churches 
became  self-sustaining,  and  at  the  present 
time  the  entire  population  is  Christian. 
The  Roman  Catholics  and  the  Church  of 
England  have  some  adherents,  but  most  of 
the  people  are  Congregationalists.  The 
island  of  Molokai  has  been  set  apart  for 
those  who  suffer  from  leprosy.  It  has  a 
population  of  about  800.  See  Anderson: 
History  of  the  Sandwich- Islands  Mission 
("1872);  Coan:  Life  in  Hawaii  (1882). 

Sanhedrin,  the  supreme  council  of  the 
Jewish  nation.  According  to  the  Talmud 
it  was  instituted  by  Moses.  (Num.  xi.  16.) 
After  the  Babylonian  captivity  it  was  re¬ 
organized  by  Ezra.  It  consisted  of  seven¬ 
ty-one  members,  and  had  jurisdiction  over 
all  matters  pertaining  to  religion;  decided 
whether  war  should  be  waged;  and  inflicted 


Sar 


(  833  ) 


Sat 


not  only  bodily  punishments  (Acts  v.  40), 
but  capital  punishment.  Under  the  Roman 
rule  the  power  of  inflicting  capital  punish¬ 
ment  could  not  be  exercised  by  the  San¬ 
hedrin  without  the  sanction  of  the  Roman 
procurator.  The  Small  Sanhedrin  was  a 
provincial  court,  which  passed  judgment 
on  capital  offences  which  did  not  come 
under  the  jurisdiction  of  the  Great  San¬ 
hedrin. 

Sardis,  the  capital  of  Lydia  in  Asia  Minor, 
renowned  as  the  residence *  of  Croesus, 
whose  name  is  the  synonym  for  wealth. 
Cyrus  is  said  to  have  taken  from  him,  b.  C. 
548,  treasure  of  the  value  of  $600,000,000. 
The  city  was  situated  in  a  rich  and  fertile 
plain  watered  by  the  Pactolos.  It  had  wide 
commercial  and  industrial  connections. 
After  its  conquest  by  Alexander  the  Great, 
it  was  less  prominent,  and  under  the  Ro¬ 
mans  fell  into  decay.  The  ruins  of  Sardis 
are  now  called  Sert-Kalessi.  Sardis  was 
the  seat  of  one  of  the  seven  churches  of 
Asia.  (Rev.  iii.  1-5.) 

Sar'gon,  ( established  is  the  king )  a  power¬ 
ful  Assyrian  king,  successor  of  Shalmane¬ 
ser  and  father  of  Sennacherib,  who  reigned 
b.  c.  722-705.  He  is  mentioned  but  once 
in  the  Bible  (Isa.  xx.  1),  but  the  investiga¬ 
tions  of  Assyriologists  have  brought  to 
light  inscriptions  and  ruins  that  fill  out  and 
corroborate  the  narrative  of  Isaiah.  The 
inscriptions  show  that  Judah  was  a  vassal 
of  Sargon  at  the  time  of  the  siege  of  Ash- 
dod.  The  year  after  its  capture,  Sargon 
marched  against  Merodach-baladan,  king  of 
Babylon,  and  reduced  him  to  vassalage. 
He  completed  the  magnificent  palace  of 
Khorsabad,  near  Nineveh,  in  b.  c.  707,  and 
here,  two  years  later,  he  was  murdered. 

Sarpi,  Paolo,  generally  called  Fra  Paolo; 
b.  at  Venice,  Aug.  14,  1552;  d.  there,  Jan. 
15,  1623.  He  united  with  the  Order  of  the 
Servites  in  1566,  and  at  the  age  of  twenty- 
seven  was  made  Provincial.  In  the  con¬ 
troversy  between  Venice  and  Pope  Paul 
V.  he  .took  an  active  part.  He  denied  the 
right  of  the  pope  to  interfere  in  secular 
matters,  and  asserted  that  the  validity  of 
papal  excommunication  depended  upon  its 
justice.  He  was  summoned  before  the  In¬ 
quisition,  but  refused  to  come,  and  was  ex¬ 
communicated.  Freed  from  the  ban  by  the 
peace  between  the  popes  and  the  Common¬ 
wealth  in  1607,  he  was  still  persecuted,  and 
attempts  were  made  to  assassinate  him. 
His  most  celebrated  work  is  a  History  of 
the  Council  of  Trent  (1619) ;  trans.  into  Eng¬ 
lish  (1676).  He  urged  the  reformation  of 
the  Roman  Church,  and  corresponded  with 
leaders  of  the  Reformation. 


Sarum  Use.  See  Uses. 

Satan  is  a  Hebrew  word  signifying 
“  hater”  or  “  accuser,”  and  the  name  is 
found  in  Job.  i.  and  ii. ;  Zech.  iii. ;  Psa.  cix. 
The  doctrine  of  his  personality  seems  un¬ 
doubtedly  more  clearly  taught  in  the  later 
than  in  the  earlier  books  of  the  Bible,  and 
the  gloss  which  is  put  upon  the  New  Tes¬ 
tament  teaching,  implying  that  his  person¬ 
ality  is  merely  a  Hebrew  form  of  express¬ 
ing  an  “  impersonation,”  is  one  which  cer¬ 
tainly  does  considerable  violence  to  the 
letter  of  Scripture.  The  history  of  the  or¬ 
igin  of  evil  and  of  the  fall  of  Satan  from 
heaven  is  but  dimly  revealed  to  us.  More 
of  our  popular  theology  than  we  are  com¬ 
monly  aware  of  is  derived  from  Milton’s 
magnificent  poem.  But  though  we  are  left 
greatly  in  the  dark  as  to  the  fall  of  the 
devil,  we  are  in  none  as  to  his  works. 
Let  it  be  granted,  in  the  words  of  Arch¬ 
bishop  Trench,  that  “he  is  only  known  to 
us  through  his  temptations,  through  the 
evil  suggestions  which  he  causes  to  rise  up 
out  of  the  deep  of  our  hearts,  through  the 
fiery  darts  with  which  he  seeks  to  set  on 
fire  in  us  the  whole  course  of  nature  .... 
so  that  for  all  practical  purposes  the  words 
of  St.  James,  ‘  Resist  the  devil  and  he  will 
flee  from  you,’  might  be  translated  into 
such  language  as  this:  Strive  manfully 
against  temptations,  and  you  have  God’s 
promise  and  pledge  that  these,  instead  of 
overcoming  you,  shall  be  overcome  by 
you.”  But  the  temptations  are  real  and 
certain  enough.  The  doctrine  of  the  per¬ 
sonality  of  the  Tempter  is  nowhere  assert¬ 
ed  in  the  Church  creeds,  and  some  English 
divines  have  declined  to  affirm  it  dogmat¬ 
ically.  But  the  language  of  Scripture  and 
of  Christ  throws  a  very  serious  responsi¬ 
bility  upon  those  who  deny  it.  Kingsley, 
in  one  of  his  vigorous  sentences,  roundly 
declares  that  the  denial  is  one  of  the  most 
dangerous  of  modern  heresies,  and  that  the 
devil’s  latest  device  is  “  shamming  dead.” 

Other  names  for  Satan  are  Devil  (Gr. 
diabolus,  slanderer  or  accuser);  Beelzebub 
(master  of  the  house),  a  heathen  deity 
who  was  thus  made  a  synonym  for  the 
prince  of  evil,  a  later  form  of  Baal-ze-bul 
(lord  of  flies,  probably  in  allusion  to  the 
fact  that  he  was  regarded  as  the  sun-god); 
Apollyon  and  Abaddon,  two  names  mean¬ 
ing,  in  Greek  and  Hebrew  respectively, 
“  destroyer.” 

The  two  great  poetic  creations  by  Milton 
and  Goethe  of  Satan  and  Mephistopheles 
have  had  a  great  effect  upon  religious 
thought,  yet  hardly  more  so  than  the 
horned  and  cloven-hoofed  figure  of  popular 
notion.  This  latter  figure  was  the  pre¬ 
scriptive  mode  of  representing  the  devil  in 


Sat 


(  834  ) 


Sav 


the  mediaeval  miracle-plays,  and  in  conse¬ 
quence  has  come  to  be  a  part  of  the  vulgar 
notion  and  language.  “  To  detect  the  clo¬ 
ven  foot  ”  is  a  phrase  which  is  so  common 
as  almost  to  lead  the  unthinking  to  con¬ 
clude  that  there  must  be  Scriptural  author¬ 
ity  for  the  idea  that  the  devil  is  so  marked. 

Meanwhile  it  should  be  seriously  con¬ 
sidered  by  those  who  reject  the  doctrine  of 
the  personality  of  Satan,  that  such  rejec¬ 
tion  may  be  but  a  step  to  the  denial  of  a 
great  deal  more.  The  New  Testament  is, 
from  beginning  to  end,  an  earnest  testi¬ 
mony  of  a  real  battle  between  the  king¬ 
doms  of  light  and  darkness;  and  to  cast 
doubt  on  the  reality  of  that  fight  is  to  par¬ 
alyze  effort,  to  put  off  the  armor  of  God, 
and  to  set  aside  watchfulness  and  orayer. 
— Benham:  Diet .  of  Religion. 

Satisfaction.  See  Atonement. 

Saturninus,  a  celebrated  missionary  and 
martyr  of  the  third  century.  He  was  a 
native  of  Italy,  and  was  sent  as  a  mission¬ 
ary  into  Gaul  by  Pope  Fabian,  in  245.  He 
was  killed  by  a  mob  at  Toulouse,  between 
250  and  260.  His  day  is  Nov.  29. 

Saturninus  the  Gnostic.  See  Gnos¬ 
ticism. 

Saul,  “the  first  king  of  Israel,  was  the 
son  of  Kish,  a  wealthy  chief  of  the  tribe  of 
Benjamin.  The  circumstances  that  mark¬ 
ed  his  election  to  the  royal  dignity  are 
familiar  to  all  the  readers  of  Scripture,  and 
need  not  be  repeated  here.  (See  Samuel.) 
Gigantic  in  stature,  noble  in  mien,  and  im¬ 
perious  in  character,  he  appeared  admi¬ 
rably  fitted  to  accomplish  the  task  of  con¬ 
solidating  the  dislocated  tribes  of  Israel. 
His  earlier  achievements  augmented  hope¬ 
fully  for  his  future.  The  deliverance  of 
the  men  of  Jabesh-gilead ;  above  all,  his 
victories  over  the  Philistines,  the  Moabites, 
Ammonites,  Edomites,  and  Amalekites, 
were  unmistakable  proofs  of  his  vigorous 
military  capacity,  but  gradually  there 
showed  itself  in  the  nature  of  the  man  a 
wild  perversity — ‘  an  evil  spirit  of  God,’  as 
it  is  called — culminating  in  paroxysms  of 
insane  rage,  which  led  him  to  commit  such 
frightful  deeds  as  the  massacre  of  the 
priests  of  Nob.  Samuel,  who  had  retired 
from  the  4  court  ’  of  Saul,  and  had  secretly 
anointed  David  as  king,  did  not  cease  to 
‘  mourn  ’  for  the  wayward  monarch;  but 
nothing  availed  to  stay  his  downward  ca¬ 
reer,  not  even  the  noble  virtues  of  his  son 
Jonathan ;  and  at  last  he  fell  in  a  disastrous 
and  bloody  battle  with  the  Philistines,  on 
Mount  Gilboa.  (1  Sam.  xxxi.  4.)” — Cham¬ 
bers:  Cyclopaedia, 


Saurin,  Jacques,  a  great  pulpit  orator  of 
the  French  Reformed  Church;  b.  at  Nimes, 
Jan.  6,  1677;  d.  at  the  Hague,  Dec.  30, 
1730.  While  a  youth  he  left  school,  and 
for  four  years  served  in  a  regiment  of 
volunteers,  fighting  against  Louis  XIV. 
He  then  studied  theology  at  Geneva,  and 
became  pastor  to  the  French  Reformed 
Congregation  in  London  (1790)  and  at  the 
Hague  (1705).  His  eloquence  attracted 
large  congregations.  He  was  accused  of 
heresy  by  some  of  his  brethren  on  account 
of  views  which  he  expressed  “  on  false¬ 
hoods  that  are  expedient  ”  in  his  Disserta¬ 
tion  sur  le  Mensonge  Oficieux.  This  charge, 
and  the  trial  before  the  Synod  of  Hague,  are 
said  to  have  shortened  his  days.  His  Ser¬ 
mons,  in  the  English  translation,  have  had  a 
wide  circulation  in  this  country. 

Savonarola  (sa-vo-nd-ro' lei),  Girolamo, 
was  b.  at  Ferrara  on  Sept.  21,  1452.  He 
seems  to  have  been  a  quiet,  reserved  child, 
but  at  the  same  time  to  have  shown  signs 
at  an  early  age  of  great  intellectual  powers. 
His  grandfather  had  been  a  celebrated 
physician,  and  it  was  decided  that  Girolamo 
should  follow  the  same  profession.  But  a 
distaste  for  this,  combined  with  a  disap¬ 
pointment  in  love,  determined  him  to  de¬ 
vote  himself  to  the  retired  life  of  a  monas¬ 
tery.  He  left  home  secretly  in  April, 
1475,  and  took  monastic  vows  at  the  con¬ 
vent  of  St.  Domenico  at  Bologna.  He 
went  to  Ferrara  in  1485,  and  preached  there 
several  times,  but  created  no  stir.  He 
asked  at  first  to  be  allowed  to  undertake 
merely  the  most  humble  offices  in  the 
monastery,  but  the  superiors  very  soon 
recognized  his  intellectual  powers,  and 
employed  him  to  instruct  the  novices. 
Suddenly  at  Bologna  he  burst  out,  entranc¬ 
ing  all  hearts  and  filling  the  church  with 
excited  crowds,  who  were  spellbound  under 
his  magnificent  oratory.-  Thence  he  was 
sent  to  Florence,  and  it  was  in  this  city 
that  he  made  his  name  famous  in  history. 
Lorenzo  de’  Medici  was  then  at  the  height 
of  his  power  and  magnificence,  and  under 
his  influence  the  whole  town  was  given  up 
to  worldly  and  sensual  pleasures.  Savo¬ 
narola  set  about  awakening  the  citizens  to 
a  sense  of  their  danger.  He  preached  his 
first  sermon  in  Florence  in  1483;  but,  ac¬ 
customed  to  the  learned,  subtle  discourses 
of  the  Schoolmen,  the  people  at  first  treat¬ 
ed  with  contempt  one  who  in  simple,  un¬ 
polished  words  urged  them  to  repent  of 
their  sins.  Savonarola  was  not  discouraged 
by  this  failure.  He  preached  for  a  year 
or  two  in  small  towns  outside  the  walls  of 
Florence.  In  1490  he  returned,  and  in  a 
very  few  weeks  had  taken  the  whole  city 
by  storm.  He  became  so  powerful,  and 


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was  supported  by  so  many  influential  citi¬ 
zens  that  Lorenzo  became  uneasy,  and  Sa¬ 
vonarola  was  privately  urged  to  be  a  little 
less  bitter  against  those  in  authority;  but 
he  refused  to  listen.  In  1491  he  was  made 
prior  of  the  Convent  of  St.  Mark’s,  but 
utterly  refused  to  conform  to  the  usage  of 
paying  homage  to  Lorenzo  for  it.  In  1492 
the  duke  was  on  his  death-bed,  and  al¬ 
though  he  had  been  granted  absolution  by 
one  of  the  attendant  priests,  his  mind  was 
not  at  rest.  Suddenly  he  thought  of  Savo¬ 
narola,  who  had  never  been  afraid  to  speak 
the  truth  to  him,  and  caused  him  to  be 
sent  for.  Writers  differ  as  to  the  result 
of  this  interview — Politian,  a  courtier,  as¬ 
serting  that  Savonarola  granted  absolution; 
Burlamacchi,  a  friend  of  Savonarola,  as¬ 
serting  equally  decidedly  that  it  was  de¬ 
nied.  As  the  latter  account  was  written 
at  a  time  when  Savonarola  was  in  very  bad 
favor,  and  there  were  plenty  of  people  who 
would  have  been  only  too  glad  to  deny  it 
had  it  been  false,  it  appears  the  more  prob¬ 
able.  During  the  rule  of  Lorenzo’s  suc¬ 
cessor,  Pietro,  Florence  lost  some  of  its 
prestige;  but  it  still  had  great  power,  and 
Savonarola  was,  without  question,  the  most 
influential  man  in  the  city.  The  moral 
improvement  which  he  effected  in  Florence 
was  most  remarkable;  the  whole  aspect  of 
the  city  changed  for  the  better;  but  his 
work  now  began  to  cause  uneasiness  at 
Rome.  It  is  said  that  Pope  Alexander  VI. 
offered  him  a  cardinal’s  hat,  hoping  there¬ 
by  to  silence  him.  Savonarola  declined 
the  offer.  The  pope  then  ordered  him  to 
appear  in  Rome;  but  he  refused  to  obey. 
In  1497  he  was  excommunicated.  A 
powerful  hostile  party  was  formed  against 
him  in  Florence,  which  at  the  beginning  of 
1498  handed  him  over  to  the  Inquisition, 
and  on  May  23  of  the  same  year  he  was 
publicly  burned.  As  an  author  his  fame 
rests  on  his  Treatise  on  the  51st  Psalm, 
his  Compendium.  Revelationum ,  and  his 
Trionfo  della  Croce. — Benham:  Diet,  of 
Religion.  See  his  Life ,  written  by  P.  Vil- 
lari (Florence,  1859-61 ;  English  translation, 
W.  R.  Clark,  London,  1878). 

Savoy  Conference,  the  name  given  to  a 
Conference  held  in  1661,  between  twelve 
bishops  of  the  Church  and  the  same  num¬ 
ber  of  Puritan  clergymen,  for  the  purpose 
of  settling  differences,  and  arranging  the 
Prayer-  Book  so  that  it  would  be  acceptable 
to  both  parties.  The  Conference  was  held 
in  the  Savoy  Palace,  and,  opening  on  April 
13,  lasted  for  four  months.  Neither  party 
would  yield, and  nothing  was  accomplished. 
The  failure  was  followed  in  1662  by  the 
passing  of  the  Act  of  Uniformity  ( q .  v.), 
which  led  to  the  secession  from  the  Church 


of  England  of  more  than  two  thousand 
Puritan  ministers. 

Saybrook  Platform.  A  synod  convened 
in  1708 at  Saybrook,  Conn.,  by  order  of  the 
General  Assembly  (Legislature)  of  Con¬ 
necticut,  adopted  what  is  known  as  The  Say¬ 
brook  Platform,  viz.,  The  Savoy  Confession 
of  Faith ,  The  Heads  of  Agreement  (under 
which  Presbyterians  and  Congregational- 
ists  had  been  united  in  England),  and  Arti¬ 
cles  for  the  Administration  of  CJiurch  Disci¬ 
pline.  The  purpose  was  to  affiliate  the 
churches  with  their  pastors  in  consociations 
that  would  form  standing  councils. 

Scapegoat.  See  Goat. 

Scapulary  (Lat.  scapula,  the  shoulder- 
blade),  a  narrow  band  of  various  colors, 
and  adorned  with  a  picture  of  the  Virgin  or 
the  cross,  worn  over  the  shoulder  by  the 
members  of  several  monastic  orders  and 
fraternities  of  the  Roman  Church.  It  is 
popularly  believed  to  be  a  preventive 
against  death  by  water  or  fire.  According 
to  the  bull  Sabbatina,  the  Virgin  promised 
Pope  John  XXL  that  any  one  wearing  a 
scapulary  with  her  image  should  be  deliv¬ 
ered  from  purgatory  on  the  first  Saturday 
after  death. 

SchafT,  Philip,  D.  D.  ( hon .  Berlin,  1854), 
LL.  D.  (Amherst  College,  Mass.,  1874), 
Presbyterian  ;  b.  at  Coire,  Switzerland, 
Jan.  1,  1819.  He  studied  in  the  univer¬ 
sities  of  Tubingen,  Halle,  and  Berlin.  In 
1842-44  he  lectured  at  the  University  of 
Berlin  as  privat-docent ,  on  exegesis  and 
church  history;  and  in  1843  accepted  a 
professorship  in  the  theological  seminary 
of  the  German  Reformed  Church  of  the 
United  States,  then  locatedat  Mercersburg, 
Penn.,  where  he  remained  until  1863.  Dur¬ 
ing  the  Civil  War  when  the  seminary  build¬ 
ings  at  Mercersburg  were  turned  into  a 
military  hospital,  he  removed  to  New 
York  City,  and  became  secretary  of  the 
New  York  Sabbath  Committee  (1864-69), 
and  delivered  courses  of  lectures  on  church 
history  in  the  theological  seminaries  at 
Andover,  Hartford,  and  the  Union  Theo¬ 
logical  Seminary,  New  York  City,  where 
he  became  professor  of  theological  ency¬ 
clopaedia  and  Christian  symbolics,  1870-72; 
of  Hebrew,  1872-74;  and  since  1875,  of 
sacred  literature.  Dr.  Schaff  was  one  of 
the  founders  of  the  American  branch  of  the 
Evangelical  Alliance  and  has  done  much  to 
advance  its  interests.  He  was  president 
of  the  American  Bible-revision  Committee. 
Dr.  Schaff  has  been  a  prolific  writer.  His 
principal  works  are:  History  of  the  Apostolic 
Church  (1851)  ;  History  of  the  Christian 


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Church  (1858,  sqq. ,  3  vols. ;  rewritten  and 
published  in  1882-84,  4  vols.)  ;  Creeds  of 
Christendom,  with  a  History  and  Critical 
Notes  (1877,  3  vols.,  4th  ed.,  1884);  A  Com¬ 
panion  to  the  Greek  Testament  and  the  Eng¬ 
lish  Version  (1883)  ;  The  Oldest  Church 
Manual ,  called  the  Teaching  of  the  Twelve 
Apostles  (1885);  The  Person  of  Christ  (1865, 
12th.  ed.,  1882)  ;  Through  Bible  Lands  : 
iVotes  of  Travel  in  Egypt,  the  Desert,  and 
Palestine  (1878)  ;  Bible  Dictionary  (1880, 
rev.  ed.,  1885);  Commentaries  on  Matthew 
and  on  Galatians',  Christ  and  Christianity 
(1885)  ;  St.  Augustin,  Melanchthon,  and 
Neander  (1886).  He  edited  the  American 
edition  of  Lange’s  Commentary ,  and  with 
Samuel  M.  Jackson  and  Rev.  D.  S.  Schaff, 
The  Religious  Encyclopedia,  based  on  Her¬ 
zog’s  great  work  (1884,  3  vols.,  rev.  ed., 
1887).  These  volumes  represent  only  a 
part  of  the  work  accomplished  by  his  inde¬ 
fatigable  labors. 

Schelling  {shelling),  Friedrich  Wil¬ 
helm  Joseph  von,  an  eminent  German  phi¬ 
losopher;  b.  at  Leonberg,  near  Stuttgart, 
where  his  father  was  pastor,  Jan.  27,  1775; 
d.  at  Ragatz,  Switzerland,  Aug.  20,  1854. 
He  studied  theology  at  Tubingen  where  he 
came  under  the  influence  of  Lessing,  Her¬ 
der  and  Kant.  He  went  to  Leipzig  in  1796 
to  study  natural  science  and  mathematics, 
and  in  1798  began  to  lecture  at  Jena  as  a 
colleague  of  Fichte,  whose  doctrines  had  a 
great  influence  in  the  early  development  of 
his  own  views  on  philosophy.  From  1801 
to  1806  he  was  professor  of  philosophy  at 
Wurzburg;  lectured  at  Erlangen,  1820-26; 
in  Munich,  1827;  and  became  lecturer  on 
mythology  and  revelationat  Berlin  in  1841. 

“  While  Schelling  stands,  on  one  side,  in 
the  most  intimate  connection  with  the 
great  poetic  and  philosophic  movements  of 
the  last  century;  while  especially  his  ear¬ 
lier  philosophy  is  but  a  philosophic  expres¬ 
sion  of  that  yearning  to  comprehend  the 
absolute  as  it  appears  above  all  in  Goethe’s 
Faust,  and  while  his  system  is  the  highest 
glorification  of  genius  as  celebrated  by  the 
romantic  school — we  have,  on  the  other 
side,  in  Schelling’s  later  philosophy,  the 
greatest  endeavor  of  modern  philosophy  to 
construct  the  system  of  Christian  doctrine. 
His  thoughts  have  had  great  influence  upon 
modern  German  theology,  especially  his 
idea  of  the  three  ages  of  church  history. 
His  philosophy  is  an  illustration  of  his  own 
saying:  *  The  German  nation  strives  with 
her  whole  nature  after  religion,  but,  ac¬ 
cording  to  her  peculiarity,  after  a  religion 
which  is  connected  with  knowledge,  and 
based  upon  science.’” — Schaff-Herzog: 
Ency.,  s.  v.  Schelling’s  Coynplete  Works 
were  published  at  Stuttgart  and  Augsburg 


(1856—61),  14  vols.  His  principal  writings 
are:  Idea  of  a  Philosophy  of  Nature  (1797); 
Of  the  World-Soul,  etc.  (1798);  System  of 
Transcendental  Idealism  (1800);  Lectures  on 
the  Method  of  Academical  Study  (1803);  Phil¬ 
osophical  Biquiries  concerning  the  Nature  of 
Human  Freedo??i  ( 1 809) ;  Lectures  on  Mythol¬ 
ogy  and  Revelation. 

Schlatter,  Michael,  founder  of  the  syn¬ 
od  of  the  German  Reformed  Church  in  the 
United  States;  b.  in  St.  Gall,  Switzerland, 
July  14,  1716;  d.  near  Philadelphia,  Oct., 
1790.  He  was  ordained  to  the  ministry  in 
Holland,  and  preached  fora  time  in  his  na¬ 
tive  country.  In  1746  he  was  sent  as  a 
missionary  to  the  destitute  German  church¬ 
es  in  Pennsylvania.  He  prosecuted  his 
work  with  great  zeal,  and  in  1747  the  scat¬ 
tered  churches  organized  the  German  Re¬ 
formed  synod.  Returning  to  Europe  to 
solicit  aid,  he  made  so  strong  a  plea  for  the 
work  that  a  large  amount  was  subscribed 
to  institute  “charity  schools.”  This  fund 
proved  the  source  of  much  feeling  and  op¬ 
position,  as  it  was  used  in  a  way  to  sub¬ 
serve  political  ends.  After  the  failure  of 
this  school  movement  Schlatter,  in  1757, 
was  appointed  chaplain  of  the  Royal  Amer¬ 
ican  Regiment  in  the  expedition  against  the 
French,  and  was  present  at  the  taking  of 
Louisburg.  See  The  Life  of  Rev.  Michael 
Schlatter,  by  Rev.  H.  Harbaugh,  D.  D. 
(Phila. ,  1857). 

Schleiermacher,  Friedrich  Ernst  Dan¬ 
iel,  a  great  German  theologian;  b.  at  Bres¬ 
lau,  Nov.  21,  1768;  d.  in  Berlin,  Feb.  12, 
1834.  He  was  the  son  of  a  Lutheran  min¬ 
ister  at  Breslau,  and  was  educated  first  by 
his  father,  then  in  a  Moravian  school.  Un¬ 
der  the  influence  of  the  elementary  teach¬ 
ing  he  received  he  was  a  pious  child  and 
deeply  reverential  in  spirit;  but,  neverthe¬ 
less,  skepticism  took  such  possession  of 
him  that  he  declares  that  he  doubted  the 
historical  truth  of  any  of  the  ancient  Script¬ 
ures.  But  he  had  no  desire  to  doubt,  and  he 
eagerly  read  the  philosophical  writings  of 
his  countrymen,  especially  Kant  and  Spi¬ 
noza,  in  the  hope  of  having  his  doubts  re¬ 
moved,  and  in  his  twenty-sixth  year  was 
ordained  to  the  ministry.  In  1799  he  pub¬ 
lished  his  Discourses  on  Religion — a  deeply 
earnest  work  intended  to  conciliate  unbe¬ 
lievers,  and  to  convince  them  that  faith  in 
an  unseen  world  was  compatible  not  only 
with  reason  but  with  the  deepest  human 
instincts.  Neander  declared  that  to  this 
work  he  owed  his  spiritual  life.  Meanwhile, 
Schleiermacher  threw  himself  heartily 
into  politics  and  social  questions,  urging 
Germany,  e.  g. ,  to  resist  the  insolence  of 
Napoleon.  He  was  appointed  court  preach- 


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er  in  1802,  and  professor  of  theology  at  the 
University  of  Halle  in  1804.  In  1810  the 
University  of  Berlin  was  founded.  Schlei- 
ermacher  was  one  of  its  active  promoters, 
and  was  the  first  to  occupy  the  theological 
chair.  His  translation  of  Plato  (1804-10) 
placed  him  among  the  most  famous  Greek 
scholars  of  his  time,  and  though  English 
scholars  regard  its  criticisms  as  too  subjec¬ 
tive,  the  book  holds  a  very  high  position. 
Meanwhile  he  was  indefatigable  as  a  preach¬ 
er,  and  his  sermons,  published  in  seven 
volumes,  are  masterpieces  of  earnest  and 
penetrating  power.  He  was  certainly  not 
what  his  countrymen  would  regard  as  an 
orthodox  divine,  for  he  had  declared  dog¬ 
ma  to  be  an  incrustation  on  the  essential 
divinity  of  Christianity;  but  he  was  ear¬ 
nest,  devout,  reverent,  of  massive  under¬ 
standing  and  surpassing  eloquence.  Being 
seized  with  a  fatal  illness  he  called  his 
friends  and  disciples  together,  and  solemn¬ 
ly  professed  his  faith  in  Christ  as  the  Sav¬ 
iour  and  in  the  propitiation  made  by  his 
death.  He  then  himself  celebrated  and 
distributed  the  Holy  Communion.  His 
works  are  many  and  voluminous;  the  most 
important  is  his  Christian  Dogmatics ,  a 
masterpiece  of  theology.  He  regarded 
Christ  as  not  only  perfect  and  sinless,  but 
as  having  the  fullness  of  divinity  dwelling 
within  him,  and  as  dwelling  in  succession 
in  the  hearts  of  the  faithful.  His  Essay 
on  St.  Luke' s  Gospel,  a  characteristic  speci¬ 
men  of  his  free  historical  criticism,  was 
translated  and  published  by  the  late  Bishop 
Thirlwall,  who  pronounced  it  a  “  specimen 
of  exegetical  criticism  which  has  seldom 
been  equalled,  and  which  cannot  fail  to  ex¬ 
cite  the  admiration  even  of  those  who  do  not 
admit  all  its  conclusions.”  His  conception 
of  divinity  was  pantheistic,  but  his  heart 
went  deeper  than  his  intellectual  concep¬ 
tions.  He  was  a  man  of  prayer,  and  a  be¬ 
liever,  even  where  he  found  the  historical 
evidence  unsatisfying.  His  speculations 
are  mostly  left  behind  in  the  progress  of 
thought,  but  his  earnest  piety  and  the 
real  soundness  of  his  inner  theology  and  his 
personal  faith  in  God  and  in  Christ,  have 
endeared  him  to  the  hearts  of  his  country¬ 
men.  They  read  his  sermons,  and  love 
them,  and  reverence  his  memory.  Among 
his  disciples  are  the  great  names  of  Nean- 
der,  Ullmann,  Olshausen,  Liickeand  Bleek. 
— Benham:  Diet,  of  Religion.  Schleier- 
macher’s  complete  Works  were  published 
at  Berlin  (1835-64),  in  three  divisions:  (1) 
Theology,  11  vols.  (2)  Sermons,  10  vols. 
(3)  Philosophy  and  Miscellaneous  Writings, 
9  vols. 

Schmalkald,  League  and  Articles  of. 
Under  the  leadership  of  the  elector  of 


Saxony  and  the  landgrave  of  Hesse,  this 
League  was  formed,  Feb.  27,  1531.  It  com¬ 
prised  fourteen  German  princes  and  twen¬ 
ty-one  imperial  cities,  representing  the 
whole  of  Northern  Germany  and  a  con¬ 
siderable  portion  of  Central  and  Southern 
Germany.  This  league  brought  about  the 
religious  peace  of  Nuremberg  (y.  v. )  in 
1532.  The  league  made  preparations  to 
raise  a  large  standing  army,  and  at  a  meet¬ 
ing  held  on  Feb.  16,  1537,  the  so-called 
Articles  of  Schmalkald  were  signed  by  all 
the  members.  This  confession  protested 
earnestly  against  the  primacy  of  the  pope. 
It  was  written  by  Luther,  and  was  after¬ 
ward  given  a  place  as  one  of  the  symbolical 
books  of  the  Lutheran  Church.  The  league 
was  weakened  by  internal  dissensions,  and 
its  army  was  defeated  at  Muhlberg,  April 
24.  1547- 

Schmucker,  Samuel  Simon,  D.  D.,  an 
eminent  American  Lutheran  divine;  b.  at 
Hagerstown,  Md.,  Feb.  2S,  1799;  d.  at 
Gettysburg,  Penn.,  July  26,  1873.  After 
graduating  from  the  University  0/  Penn¬ 
sylvania  in  1817,  and  from  the  Princeton 
Theological  Seminary,  he  emered  the 
Lutheran  ministry,  and  was  pastor  at  New 
Market,  Va. ,  1820-26.  He  took  a  promi¬ 
nent  part  in  the  organization  of  the  General 
Synod  and  the  founding  of  the  theological 
seminary  at  Gettysburg  (1826).  He  was 
elected  the  first  professor  of  the  seminary 
and  was  connected  with  it  until  his  retire* 
ment  from  active  duties  in  1864.  For  many 
years  he  was  the  leader  of  the  Low-Church 
American  Lutherans.  Deeply  interested 
in  the  cause  of  Christian  unity,  he  did  all 
in  his  power  to  advance  the  interests  of  the 
Evangelical  Alliance,  and  to  secure  recog¬ 
nition  and  cooperation  among  the  different 
denominations.  Among  his  numerous  pub¬ 
lications  are:  Elei?ients  of  Popular  Theology 
(1834,  9th  ed. ,  i860);  The  Lutheran  Symbols ; 
or,  Vindication  of  American  Lutheranism 
(1856)  ;  True  Unity  of  Christ's  Church 
(1870). 

Scholastic  Theology.  See  Schoolmen. 

Schoolmen.  The  famous  teachers  so 
called  were  the  revivers,  in  the  Western 
Church,  of  theology  as  a  science.  In  the 
Greek  Church  it  had  become  a  tradition, 
but  in  the  West  the  Schoolmen  set  them¬ 
selves  the  task  of  reducing  the  traditional 
dogmas  of  the  Church  to  a  complete  sys¬ 
tem.  This  principle,  to  use  the  words  of 
Hallam,  was  “an  alliance  between  faith 
and  reason,  an  endeavor  to  arrange  the  or¬ 
thodox  system  of  the  Church,  such  as  au¬ 
thority  had  made  it  [all  through  the  exis¬ 
tence  of  this  movement  we  find  them 


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turning  to  the  laws  of  government,  etc., 
laid  down  by  the  various  Church  Councils, 
and  not  to  the  Bible],  according  to  the 
rules  of  the  Aristotelian  dialectics.”  The 
natural  result  of  the  constant  study  of  the 
works  of  Aristotle  was  the  foundation  of  a 
new  school  of  philosophy,  and  we  find  the 
logical  system  of  the  famous  Greek  philos¬ 
opher  and  theology  treated  side  by  side  in 
the  works  of  the  Schoolmen.  At  first  they 
contented  themselves  with  long  arguments 
on  natural  and  revealed  religion,  removing 
by  clever  reasoning  all  that  they  consider¬ 
ed  liable  to  objection,  treating  the  whole 
thing  from  a  purely  metaphysical  point  of 
view.  They  were,  at  the  same  time,  won¬ 
derfully  united  in  thought  and  mode  of 
philosophizing;  but  before  very  long  dif¬ 
ferent  parties  were  formed.  Each  lead¬ 
ing  man  had  his  own  followers,  who  sup¬ 
ported  him  and  his  theories,  and  refused 
to  see  reason  in  the  argument  of  any 
rival.  These  at  last  settled  down  into 
two  chief  sects,  the  Realists  and  the 
Nominalists. 

The  first  period  of  the  scholastic  philos¬ 
ophy  reaches  from  Anselm  to  Alexander 
Hales  (1073-1200).  The  principal  figures 
in  this  period  are  Abelard  (Rationalistic); 
Anselm  and  Peter  the  Lombard  (Realistic); 
St.  Bernard  and  Walter  of  St.  Victor 
(Mystical;  “  res  divinas  non  disputatio  com- 
petendil ,  sed  sanctitas  ”).  Each  great  theo¬ 
logian  dogmatized  from  his  own  standpoint 
on  the  doctrines  of  the  Trinity,  on  sin,  the 
work  of  Christ,  on  the  priesthood  and  the 
sacraments.  'Jims,  while  Anselm  in  his 
Cur  deus  Homo?  made  the  first  scientific  at¬ 
tempt  to  construct  the  doctrine  of  Redemp¬ 
tion  on  the  basis  of  law,  holding  that  by 
sin  the  honor  due  to  God  is  withheld  and 
punishment  is  deserved,  and  that  this  pun¬ 
ishment  can  only  be  remitted  by  satisfac¬ 
tion ,  Abelard  denied  any  necessary  connec¬ 
tion  between  the  death  of  Christ  and 
forgiveness. 

Scholasticism  was  at  its  best,  and  exer¬ 
cised  the  most  influence  during  the  thir¬ 
teenth  century,  which  may  be  called  the 
second  stage  of  its  existence.  The  cause 
may,  to  a  great  extent,  be  traced  to  the 
establishment  of  the  Mendicant  Friars.  A 
great  many  men  joined  this  order,  and  the 
result  was  an  increased  number  of  students 
of  theological  philosophy.  The  two  most 
famous  of  all  the  Schoolmen  lived  at  this 
time,  Thomas  Aquinas  {q.  v. ),  a  Dominican, 
Duns  Scotus  ( q.v .),  a  Franciscan,  each  the 
founder  of  a  rival  sect,  named  respectively 
Thomists  and  Scotists.  These  and  the  Nom¬ 
inalists — the  sect  started  by  Roscelin  (q.  v.) 
in  the  twelfth,  and  revived  by  William  of 
Ockham  in  the  thirteenth — were  fierce  and 
bitter  rivals  for  nearly  two  hundred  years, 


and  the  books  written  on  all  sides  advocat¬ 
ing  their  views  are  innumerable.  The 
leading  idea  still  in  their  teaching  was  that 
of  theology  treated  as  a  science  pure  and 
simple.  The  decline  of  this  theology  be¬ 
gan  in  the  fourteenth  century,  soon  after 
the  appearance  of  Wycliffe  with  his  new 
doctrines.  He  and  his  followers  tried  to 
teach  a  more  spiritual  Christianity,  and 
put  the  main  facts  of  religion  before  the 
people  in  a  more  mystical  as  opposed  to 
the  argumentative  way.  From  this  time 
the  Schoolmen  steadily  declined,  but  for 
different  reasons  their  decline  was  very 
slow.  It  might  be  thought  that  the  new 
and  enlightened  ideas  started  by  the  re¬ 
vival  of  learning  would  have  exploded  the 
long  and  laborious  theories  of  the  old 
Schoolmen  in  a  very  short  space  of  time; 
but  habit,  and  the  tenacity  with  which  *Ee 
chief  universities  at  first  adhered  to  the  old 
lines  of  thought,  made  their  defeat  and  ex¬ 
tinction  very  slow.  The  task  of  stating 
fairly  the  good  or  bad  influence  exercised 
by  the  Schoolmen  is  a  difficult  one.  On 
the  one  hand,  a  clear,  subtle  style  of  argu¬ 
ment  was  studied  and  brought  to  a  fair 
state  of  perfection;  but,  on  the  other  hand, 
the  minute  attention  to  the  smallest  detail, 
the  raising  of  objections  for  the  sake  of 
answering  (as  it  almost  appears),  make 
their  books  frivolous  and  tedious.  Another 
influence  they  had,  which  produced  far 
worse  consequences,  was  that  of  discourag¬ 
ing  by  their  methods  the  expansion  of  the 
mind.  They  were  content  to  argue  and 
discuss  the  rules  of  philosophy  laid  down 
by  Aristotle  or  the  old  Christian  Fathers, 
but  the  study  of  the  Scriptures  was  neg¬ 
lected,  and  they  looked  with  horror  on  any 
one  making  experiments,  or  seeking  after 
fresh  sources  of  truth.  It  was  the  revival 
of  learning  in  the  fifteenth  century  which 
showed  to  the  Church  and  the  world  “  a 
more  excellent  way.” — Benham:  Did.  of 
Religion. 

Schwartz,  Christian  Friedrich,  a  cele¬ 
brated  German  missionary:  b.  at  Sonnen- 
burg,  Prussia,  Oct.  26,  1726;  d.  at  Tanjore, 
India,  Feb.  13,  1798.  He  studied  theology 
at  Halle,  and  in  1750  was  sent  as  a  mission¬ 
ary  to  Tranquebar  by  the  Danish  Mission¬ 
ary  Society.  In  1767  he  became  connected 
with  the  Society  for  Promoting  Christian 
Knowledge,  of  London.  For  nearly  fifty 
years  he  prosecuted  his  missionary  labors 
in  India  with  great  success.  He  founded 
many  churches,  gathered  several  thousand 
converts,  and  exerted  a  great  influence 
among  the  native  princes.  The  Raja  of 
Tanjore  erected  a  monument  to  his  memory 
in  one  of  the  churches  of  that  city.  See 
Pearson:  Memoirs  of  C.  F.  Schwartz. 


Sch 


(  839  ) 


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Schwegler,  Albert,  next  to  Baur  the 
most  eminent  representative  of  the  Tubing¬ 
en  School;  b.  at  Michelbach,  Wiirtemberg, 
Feb.  10,  1819;  d.  at  Tubingen,  Jan.  5,  1857. 
He  became  teacher  in  philosophy  at  Tubing¬ 
en,  1843;  professor  of  Roman  literature 
and  antiquities,  1848;  professor  of  ancient 
history  shortly  before  his  death.  He  pub¬ 
lished  in  1846  his  Post- Apostolic  Age,  in 
which  he  took  the  ground  that  early  Chris¬ 
tianity  was  simple  Ebionism.  In  1847  he 
edited  The  Clementine  Hotnilies ,  and  in  1852, 
Eusebius.  He  is  best  known  in  this  coun¬ 
try  by  his  History  of  Philosophy  (1848,  Eng. 
trans.  by  J.  H.  Seelye),  and  a  History  of 
Ro?ne,  3  vols.  (1853-58). 

Schwenkfelders,  the  followers  of  Kaspar 
Schwenkfeld  von  Ossig,  a  nobleman  of 
Silesia,  who  died  in  1 562.  He  was  a  learned 
and  pious  man,  but  separated  from  the 
Lutherans  and  adopted  doctrines  of  his  own 
regarding  the  efficacy  of  the  Divine  Word 
and  the  nature  of  the  Eucharist.  He  main¬ 
tained  that  the  sacraments  were  merely 
signs,  and  not  a  means  of  grace.  At  his 
death  it  was  found  that  many  sympathized 
with  his  views,  and  in  spite  of  persecution 
their  numbers  increased.  In  1725  the  main 
body  removed  from  Silesia  to  Saxony,  and 
eight  years  later  came  to  this  country  and 
settled  in  Montgomery  and  other  counties 
in  Pennsylvania.  For  more  than  one  hun¬ 
dred  and  fifty  years  they  have  held  each 
year  a  festival  in  memory  of  their  coming 
to  America.  They  have  but  five  or  six 
churches  and  number  about  two  hundred 
femilies.  They  do  not  observe  the  sacra¬ 
ments  according  to  ordinary  usage.  In 
doctrine,  government,  and  discipline  they 
resemble  in  many  respects  the  Friends. 

Scotch  Confession  of  Faith.  See  Scot¬ 
land,  Church  of. 

Scotists.  See  Duns  Scotus. 

Scotland,  Church  of.  (i)  The  Celtic 
Church. — Christianity  is  supposed  to  have 
made  its  way  into  Scotland  during  the  Ro¬ 
man  occupation  of  Britain,  but  nothing 
certain  is  known  of  its  history.  The  first 
Christian  teacher  whose  name  has  been 
preserved  is  St.  Ninian,  and  of  him  little 
is  known  but  that  he  laid  the  foundation  of 
a  church  at  Whithern  (known  as  Candida 
Casa,  the  White  House),  on  the  north 
coast  of  Solway  Firth,  about  A.  d.  397. 
He  settled  there  with  the  intention  of  con¬ 
verting  the  Piets  of  Galloway,  and  won 
over  most  of  the  inhabitants  of  southern 
Scotland  to  Christianity.  A  bishop,  Pal- 
ladius,  was  sent  to  Scotland  by  Pope  Celes- 
tine  about  420,  by  which  time  St.  Ninian 


was  gone.  In  563  St.  Columba  (y.  v.) 
landed  in  Iona  from  Ireland,  and  set  him¬ 
self  to  Christianize  from  that  point  the 
whole  of  Scotland.  He  died  in  597,  but 
his  work  was  well  carried  on  by  many  of 
his  disciples,  one  of  whom,  St.  Aidan 
(y.  v.)  founded  the  bishopric  of  Lindisfarne. 
About  the  time  of  St.  Columba’s  death 
another  church  was  founded  at  Glasgow, 
on  the  site  of  one  which  St.  Ninian  had 
built,  by  St.  Kentigern,  more  commonly 
known  among  the  Scottish  people  as  St. 
Mungo.  St.  Kentigern  died  in  612,  and 
the  next  great  name  in  the  history  of  the 
Scottish  Church  is  that  of  St.  Cuthbert 
(y.  v. ),  who  was  born  about  the  same  time, 
and  who  became  bishop  of  Lindisfarne, 
where  he  died  in  687. 

A  few  years  later  a  new  class  of  devo¬ 
tees  arose  in  the  Church,  who  were  called 
Culdees  (y.  v.).  They  were  first  trained 
in  the  monasteries,  and  then  went  forth  to 
end  their  life  in  some  cave  or  desolate  cell, 
some  at  Culross  or  Lochleven,  some  in  and 
about  St.  Andrew’s.  The  cathedral  of  this 
city  was  founded  by  St.  Regulus  (369), 
and  dedicated  to  the  first-named  apostle, 
who  has  been  from  that  time  the  patron 
saint  of  Scotland.  St.  Regulus  is  supposed 
by  some  to  have  been  bishop  of  Patras, 
where  legend  says  St.  Andrew  suffered 
martyrdom;  he  was  entrusted  with  the 
charge  of  finding  a  grave  for  the  bones  of 
the  saint,  and,  being  wrecked  on  the  coast 
of  Scotland,  he  gained  from  King  Angus  a 
grant  of  land  on  which  to  erect  his  church. 
A  community  sprang  up,  consisting  of  St. 
Regulus  as  head,  his  priests  and  deacons, 
some  hermits,  and  the  Culdees  who  had 
already  inhabited  the  district. 

(2)  The  Roman  Catholic  Church. — The 
Church  of  St.  Columba  began  to  decline 
about  the  eleventh  century;  its  property 
was  lost  by  degrees,  and  abuses  grew  up 
in  the  customs  and  services  of  the  Church 
itself.  The  reform  which  was  needed  was 
brought  about  mainly  through  the  instru¬ 
mentality  of  St.  Margaret,  wife  of  King 
Malcolm  Canmore.  With  all  the  wonder¬ 
ful  tact  and  energy  which  she  possessed, 
she  threw  herself  into  the  task,  assembling 
councils,  and  at  one  time  engaging  in  theo¬ 
logical  discussions  with  the  clergy,  in 
which  she  proved  her  arguments.  She 
endeavored  to  bring  about  conformity  with 
the  Roman  standard.  The  chief  points  in 
which  she  effected  a  change  were,  the  time 
of  keeping  Lent,  the  observance  of  Sunday, 
and  the  manner  of  receiving  the  Commun¬ 
ion.  She  died  in  1093,  and  for  a  few  years 
there  was  a  reaction  against  the  changes 
she  had  made.  Her  three  sons  reigned  in 
succession,  Edgar,  Alexander  I.,  and 
David.  During  the  reign  of  Malcolm  Can- 


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(  840  ) 


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more  and  his  successors,  a  circumstance 
took  place  which  greatly  changed  the  as¬ 
pect  of  the  Scottish  Church — namely,  the 
immigration  into  the  south  and  east  of 
Scotland  of  settlers  whom  the  oppression 
of  William  the  Conqueror  had  driven  out 
of  England.  These  settlers  received  grants 
of  land,  intermarried  with  the  Scottish 
nobility,  and  introduced  English  customs. 
Parishes  were  formed,  two  new  dioceses 
were  created  by  Alexander  I.,  and,  as  in 
England,  the  Church  became  more  papal. 
David,  who  reigned  from  1124  to  1153,  did 
much  for  the  Church  of  Rome  in  Scotland. 
In  his  time  the  Augustinian  and  Cistercian 
orders  were  introduced,  and  fifteen  relig¬ 
ious  houses  were  founded,  among  them, 
Melrose,  Holyrood,  and  Dryburgh.  He 
created  bishoprics  at  Glasgow,  Brechin, 
Dunkeld,  Dumblane,  Ross,  Caithness,  and 
Aberdeen.  Lismore  or  Argyll,  created  in 
1222,  was  the  only  one  formed  after  his 
death.  From  1153  to  the  beginning  of  the 
fifteenth  century  the  Church  of  Rome  re¬ 
mained  in  possession  of  Scotland.  The 
Scottish  Church  differed  from  the  English 
in  having  no  archbishop,  though  the  kings 
of  Scotland  had  from  time  to  time  pressed 
the  pope  to  make  St.  Andrew’s  an  arch¬ 
bishopric.  The  latter  preferred  to  keep 
the  superintendence  of  the  Church  in  his 
own  hands,  and  sent  a  papal  legate  as  his 
representative  to  attend  the  diocesan  coun¬ 
cils,  much  to  the  dislike  of  the  Scottish 
bishops.  In  1225  Pope  Honorius  III.  au¬ 
thorized  the  holding  of  these  councils  with¬ 
out  the  legate,  and  in  1472  St.  Andrew’s 
(held  at  that  time  by  Bishop  Patrick  Gra¬ 
ham)  was  at  length  erected  into  an  arch¬ 
bishopric;  but  this  having  been  done  with¬ 
out  the  knowledge  of  the  king  or  the 
other  bishops,  the  new  archbishop  passed 
the  rest  of  his  life  as  a  prisoner  in  Loch- 
leven.  His  successor,  Schevez,  was  made 
primate  in  1487,  and  in  1492  the  bishop  of 
Glasgow  was  also  promoted  to  be  an  arch¬ 
bishop,  whereupon  a  strife  began  between 
the  two  dignitaries,  and  never  ceased  till 
the  Reformation.  In  course  of  time  most 
of  the  wealth  of  Scotland  came  into  the 
possession  of  the  Church,  and  for  this  rea¬ 
son  the  monasteries  relaxed  in  discipline 
and  lost  the  esteem  of  the  people.  The 
mendicant  orders  were  instituted  to  remedy 
this  evil,  and  soon  became  popular;  but 
their  popularity  only  tended  in  time  to 
produce  the  same  effect  as  with  the  monas¬ 
teries,  for  they  became  proud  and  over¬ 
bearing  towards  the  other  clergy,  disunited 
and  quarrelsome  among  themselves,  and 
finally  objects  of  scorn  and  ridicule  on  ac¬ 
count  of  the  immorality  of  their  lives. 
The  spark  of  religion  which  the  rise  of  the 
Mendicants  had  kindled,  declined  with 


them,  and  from  that  time  the  Church  of 
Scotland  sank  lower  than  ever.  Bishops 
and  clergy  were  appointed,  not  on  account 
of  their  piety  or  learning,  but  to  gain  some 
private  ends  of  the  sovereign — in  many 
cases  for  the  sake  of  the  wealth  which  rich 
clergy  brought  to  the  crown  in  exchange. 
The  state  of  the  Church  grew  worse  as 
time  went  on;  preaching  was  almost  en¬ 
tirely  discontinued  except  by  the  friars; 
and  the  only  bright  spots  in  this  dark  pe¬ 
riod  were  the  lives  of  a  few  good  men  who, 
from  time  to  time,  did  their  utmost  to  stir 
up  the  minds  of  the  people  to  a  sense  of 
their  danger.  No  permanent  effect  was 
felt  till  the  beginning  of  the  fifteenth  cen¬ 
tury,  when  some  of  Wycliffe’s  disciples 
made  their  way  across  the  border,  and  be¬ 
gan  preaching  in  the  south  of  Scotland, 
some  of  them  travelling  as  far  north  as 
Perth.  They  denounced  boldly  the  cor¬ 
rupt  customs  which  prevailed  in  the  Scot¬ 
tish  Church — the  Roman  errors  which  had 
crept  in  at  the  same  time  that  all  the  life  of 
religion  seemed  to  have  died  out.  They 
aimed  at  reforming  the  lives  and  conduct 
of  the  clergy;  and  in  spite  of  the  hatred 
which  was  everywhere  felt  toward  them, 
they  succeeded  in  at  least  preparing  the 
minds  of  the  people  for  the  Reformation 
which  was  to  follow. 

(3)  The  Reformation. — It  is  not  certain 
whether  Patrick  Hamilton  ( q .  v. ),  who 
came  to  Scotland  in  1523  from  Paris,  was 
the  first  to  preach  the  doctrines  of  the  Re¬ 
formers  in  Scotland.  He  was  certainly  one 
to  whom  Scotland  owes  much  for  his  cour¬ 
age  in  preaching  the  Reformed  religion. 
After  the  death  of  Archbishop  Beaton, 
who  had  condemned  Hamilton,  the  perse¬ 
cution  of  the  Reformers  was  entrusted  to 
his  nephew,  David  Beaton,  abbot  of  Ar¬ 
broath,  who  had  been  educated  in  France, 
and  was  a  staunch  Roman  Catholic.  He 
extended  his  imitation  of  French  customs 
even  to  the  manner  of  dealing  with  here¬ 
tics,  and  induced  the  king  to  take  part  with 
him  in  stamping  out  the  Reformed  religion. 
For  some  years  a  continual  inquisition 
went  on;  numbers  were  tortured  and  put 
to  death,  and  many  more  were  imprisoned, 
or  forfeited  their  possessions. 

The  name  of  George  Wishart  (q.  v.) 
stands  out,  in  the  early  part  of  the  six¬ 
teenth  century,  as  one  of  the  most  learned 
Reformers  that  Scotland  had  yet  seen;  he 
was  seized  and  burnt  to  death  in  1545. 
His  place  was  filled  immediately  by  one 
who  had  hitherto  been  simply  one  of  his 
disciples,  but  who  was  destined  to  become 
far  more  famous  than  his  master — John 
Knox  (q.  v.).  During  the  regency  of  Mary 
of  Guise  for  her  daughter,  a  constant  strug¬ 
gle  was  going  on  between  the  two  r»lig- 


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(  841  ) 


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ions,  and  led  eventually  to  a  civil  war, 
which  ended  in  a  victory  for  the  Protes¬ 
tants  in  1560,  just  after  the  regent’s  death. 
The  result  was  that  the  Confession  of 
Faith  was  established  by  the  Scottish  Par¬ 
liament.  This  confession  was  the  recog¬ 
nized  standard  of  the  Church  of  Scotland 
from  1560  to  1647,  when  it  was  superseded 
by  the  Westminster  Confession.  After 
the  accession  of  Mary  Queen  of  Scots,  it 
seemed  as  though  the  tide  were  to  turn  in 
favor  of  the  old  religion;  but  the  queen’s 
influence  was  not  sufficiently  great  to  effect 
this,  and  after  her  defeats  and  humiliations 
there  was  no  more  hope  from  that  quarter. 

Amid  all  the  turmoil,  John  Knox  was 
the  man  among  all  others  who  had  most 
influence  with  his  countrymen,  and  took 
the  best  advantage  of  it  by  impressing  his 
doctrines  on  all  sides.  It  was  he  who  pre¬ 
vailed  with  the  Parliament  to  accept  the 
Confession  of  Faith,  and  he  introduced  the 
Genevan  Prayer-Book  into  Scotland.  He 
drew  up  the  First  Book  of  Discipline, 
which  treats  mainly  of  the  organization  of 
the  Church,  and  of  the  disposal  of  Church 
revenues.  Knox  cleared  the  way  for  the 
introduction  of  Protestantism,  but  as  yet 
this  was  only  the  beginning  of  the  struggle, 
which  lasted  throughout  the  sixteenth  and 
seventeenth  centuries.  After  Knox’s  death 
its  character  was  altered,  and,  instead  of 
being  a  contest  between  Romanism  and 
Protestantism,  it  gradually  became  one  be¬ 
tween  Prelacy  and  Presbyterianism.  To 
all  appearance  papacy  had  died  out,  but  no 
doubt  many  still  clung  to  it  secretly,  and 
would  have  been  glad  of  any  opportunity 
to  have  the  old  forms  and  ceremonies  re¬ 
stored.  A  great  difficulty  stood  in  the  way, 
also,  with  regard  to  the  disposal  of  church 
revenues,  and  in  order  to  remove  this  the 
Concordat  of  Leith  was  drawn  up  in  1572, 
by  which  it  was  ordained  that  all  bishops, 
abbots,  and  priors  were  to  continue  to  be 
parts  of  the  spiritual  estate,  but  their  pow¬ 
er  was  to  be  limited,  and  they  were  to  be 
under  the  control  of  the  General  Assem¬ 
bly. 

(4)  Presbyterianism  Established. — The  new 
attack  against  Episcopacy  began  with  An¬ 
drew  Melville  (q.  v. ),  who  returned  from 
Geneva  in  1575,  and  who  used  his  learning 
and  power  of  rhetoric  to  such  purpose  that, 
in  1580,  the  Assembly  passed  a  decision 
that  Episcopacy  was  “  unlawful,  and  with¬ 
out  warrant  in  the  Word  of  God.”  With 
the  view  of  supplanting  Episcopacy  by 
Presbyterianism,  Melville  and  his  party 
compiled  a  second  Book  of  Discipline, 
which  received  the  sanction  of  the  Church. 
It  seemed  at  first  that  their  efforts  were  to 
be  unsuccessful,  through  the  conduct  of 
the  young  king,  who  insisted  on  having 


some  of  the  bishops  maintained  in  their 
dioceses,  and  chose  for  his  companions 
young  Roman  Catholic  noblemen.  A  panic 
was  raised,  which  was  only  half  allayed  by 
the  recantation  of  D’Aubigny,  Duke  of  Len¬ 
nox;  and  so  great  was  the  alarm  that 
the  king  was  seized  and  imprisoned  at 
Huntingtower,  near  Perth,  where  he  was 
kept  for  a  year.  He  eventually  made  his 
escape,  and  his  captors  were  declared  guilty 
of  high  treason.  Melville  barely  succeeded 
in  making  his  escape  to  Berwick,  and  the 
rest  of  the  ministers  only  remained  in  peril 
of  their  lives.  The  result  of  the  king’s 
imprisonment  was  the  passing  of  the 
“  Black  Acts  ”  in  1584,  by  which  the  sov¬ 
ereign  was  declared  to  be  supreme  in  all 
matters,  and  ecclesiastical  authority  was 
placed  in  the  hands  of  the  bishops.  But 
this  violence  raised  such  an  outcry  that 
three  years  later  another  act  was  passed, 
which  put  an  end  to  the  Scottish  Episco¬ 
pate;  all  Church  revenues  became  the 
property  of  the  Crown,  and  were  soon 
squandered  by  the  king  and  his  associates. 
From  this  time  till  1592,  when  the  Presby¬ 
terian  Constitution  (commonly  called  the 
Magna  Charta  of  the  Church  of  Scotland) 
was  established  by  law,  he  put  no  further 
obstacles  in  the  way  of  Presbytery. 

(5)  Reintroduciion  of  Episcopacy — Lauds 
Liturgy — ATational  Covenant. — The  king’s 
feelings  altered  when  he  found  that  the 
ministers  would  allow  him  no  freedom  in 
dealing  with  some  nobles  in  the  north,  who 
were  still  inclined  to  Romanism,  and  for 
whom  the  Presbyterians  had  no  mercy. 
He  sought  his  revenge  by  an  attempt  in 
1596  to  reintroduce  Episcopacy,  under  the 
very  plausible  pretext  of  admitting  some 
of  the  wisest  ministers  into  Parliament. 
Probably  he  would  not  have  been  able  to 
carry  out  his  design  as  he  wished,  if  it  had 
not  been  for  his  succession  to  the  English 
throne  in  1603,  when,  finding  himself  sup¬ 
ported  by  English  bishops,  he  hoped  to 
bring  about  a  uniformity  of  religion,  and 
set  himself  to  do  so  by  dissolving  assem¬ 
blies,  imprisoning  ministers,  and  otherwise 
exercising  arbitrary  power,  hoping  to  pre¬ 
vail  on  the  people  before  long  to  accept  the 
bishops  whom  he  should  appoint.  He  en¬ 
deavored  to  bribe  Melville  with  the  offer 
of  a  bishopric,  but,  finding  him  still  obdu¬ 
rate,  the  king  sent  him  to  the  Tower  for 
three  years,  and  finally  banished  him  to 
France.  Some  bishops  were  consecrated 
in  England,  and  the  Episcopal  Church 
seemed  again  to  be  established  in  Scotland, 
though  the  absence  of  ritual  was  very  no¬ 
ticeable  beside  that  of  the  English  Church. 
The  change  was  hardly  felt  among  the 
people  ;  but  a  deep  feeling  was  excited 
among  them  in  1618  by  the  Five  Articles 


Sco 


(  842  ) 


Sco 


of  Perth,  which  were  submitted  to  the  As¬ 
sembly  for  its  sanction,  and  which  enjoined 
kneeling  at  Communion  and  the  observ¬ 
ance  of  Christmas,  Good  Friday,  Easter, 
Ascension  and  Whitsunday,  allowed  con¬ 
firmation  of  children  of  eight  years  old, 
and  permitted  communion  of  the  sick  in 
private  houses.  The  people  were  stagger¬ 
ed  at  the  idea  of  such  a  departure  from 
ancient  customs,  and  in  most  churches 
refused  to  comply.  Nothing  of  great 
importance  took  place  till  the  year  1633, 
when  Charles  I.  came  to  Scotland  to  be 
crowned,  and  took  the  opportunity  of  plan¬ 
ning  some  reforms  in  Church  matters.  He 
made  some  changes  in  the  revenues;  form¬ 
ed  Edinburgh  into  a  bishopric,  with  the 
Collegiate  Church  of  St.  Giles  as  its  ca¬ 
thedral;  and — a  far  more  important  mat¬ 
ter — he  ordered  the  introduction  of  a  lit¬ 
urgy,  to  be  modeled  on  that  of  the  English 
Church.  This  Service-book  was  the  work 
of  Archbishop  Laud;  it  was  completed  in 
1637,  and  on  July  23  was  to  be  used  for  the 
first  time  at  St.  Giles’s;  but  the  dean  was 
not  allowed  to  proceed  beyond  the  first 
few  words  before  an  uproar  was  raised, 
which  obliged  him  and  the  bishop  of  Edin¬ 
burgh,  who  was  present,  with  the  arch¬ 
bishop  of  St.  Andrew’s,  to  escape  for  their 
lives.  The  innovation  resulted  in  the 
formation  of  a  National  Covenant,  signed 
in  the  Greyfriars  Churchyard,  Edinburgh, 
Feb.,  1638,  the  members  of  which  bound 
themselves  to  defend  their  Church  from 
the  encroachments  of  popery.  In  Novem¬ 
ber  the  National  Assembly  met;  the  Five 
Articles,  the  Book  of  Canons,  and  the  new 
Prayer-Book  were  condemned,  the  bishops 
were  tried  and  deposed  from  their  bish¬ 
oprics,  and  Presbyterianism  was  once  more 
restored  in  its  original  form.  This  pro¬ 
ceeding  on  the  part  of  the  Assembly  could 
not  but  have  serious  consequences;  a  pe¬ 
tition  was  presented  to  the  king,  but  he 
refused  to  take  any  notice  of  it,  and  the 
Scotch  army  was  speedily  prepared  for 
war.  Peace  was  made  before  actual  hos¬ 
tilities  had  begun,  for  the  king  began  to 
realize  how  much  in  earnest  his  opponents 
were.  He  undertook  to  call  a  General 
Assembly  to  settle  the  disturbances,  and  it 
met  the  following  year;  its  work  consisted 
in  doing  again  what  had  been  done  by  its 
predecessor,  and  the  Assemblies  which  had 
established  Episcopacy  were  declared  to 
have  been  illegal. 

It  was  soon  known  that  Charles  was 
again  making  his  army  ready  for  an  inva¬ 
sion,  and  the  Scotch  resolved  to  be  before¬ 
hand  with  him.  In  August,  1640,  an  army, 
headed  by  the  Marquis  of  Montrose, 
marched  southward  and  took  possession  of 
Newcastle.  Frightened  by  this  decisive 


measure,  the  king  hastened  to  make  con¬ 
cessions,  and  gave  up  all  the  points  on 
which  he  had  before  insisted  most  strongly. 

(6)  Soletnn  League  and  Covenant. — With 
the  English  rebellion  came  new  hopes  to 
the  Presbyterians,  who  trusted  that  Pres¬ 
bytery  would  now  extend  over  the  whole 
kingdom,  and  in  anticipation  of  such  an 
event  they  decided  to  bind  themselves, 
with  their  English  brethren,  by  a  religious 
covenant,  to  protect  the  rights  of  their 
Church.  The  Solemn  League  and  Cov¬ 
enant  was  drawn  up  toward  the  close  of 
1643,  and  sanctioned  by  the  Estates,  and 
the  oaths  were  taken  by  the  English  Par¬ 
liament.  The  Scotch  army  immediately 
marched  again  into  England  to  unite  their 
forces  to  those  of  the  English  Parliament. 

In  1645  the  Directory  for  the  Public  Wor¬ 
ship  of  God  was  accepted  by  the  Assembly, 
and  in  1647  they  also  accepted  the  West- 
?ninster  Confession  of  Faith,  taking  exception 
only  to  one  or  two  points.  On  the  execu¬ 
tion  of  Charles  I.,  the  Scots  proclaimed 
Charles  II.  king,  and  induced  him  to  sign 
the  Covenant,  for  they  were  resolute  in 
refusing  to  acknowledge  Oliver  Cromwell. 
On  the  Restoration,  King  Charles,  who 
hated  the  Covenant,  dismissed  the  Assem¬ 
bly,  and  took  the  government  of  the  Church 
under  his  own  control.  He  again  intro¬ 
duced  Episcopacy,  and  now  began  a  ter¬ 
rible  time  of  persecution  to  the  Covenant¬ 
ers.  The  leader  in  this  raid  against 
Presbyterianism  was  Archbishop  Sharp. 
(Sharp,  James.)  In  1670  was  passed  the 
Conventicle  Act,  forbidding  the  meetings 
of  the  Covenanters  and  enforcing  compul¬ 
sory  attendance  at  church;  and  the  next 
few  years  exhibit  fierce  persecution,  and  a 
constant  struggle  between  the  two  parties. 

(7)  Presbyterian  Church  Established  by  Act 
of  Parliament. — The  fall  of  James  II.  in 
1688  brought  down  the  Episcopal  Church 
also.  Scotland  had  for  many  years  been 
becoming  more  Puritanical  in  its  tenden¬ 
cies,  and  was  now  most  rigorous  in  the 
stress  laid  upon  the  duties  of  prayer  and 
fasting,  and  the  sins  of  frivolity  and  dis¬ 
sipation.  Episcopacy  was  at  an  end  in 
many  parts  of  the  country,  though  it  was 
not  definitely  abolished  till  1689,  when  the 
Convention  of  the  Estates  met  and  de¬ 
nounced  it,  and  in  1690  an  Act  of  the  Par¬ 
liament  of  William  and  Mary  confirmed  the 
Presbyterian  Confessio?i  of  Faith ,  and  or¬ 
dered  the  use  of  the  Catechism  and  Direc¬ 
tory  for  Public  Worship.  The  patronage 
of  the  Church  was  conferred  on  the  Elders 
and  Town  Councils  in  the  boroughs,  and 
on  the  landowners  in  the  country. 

The  General  Assembly,  which  met  in 
1690,  appointed  two  commissions  to  visit 
the  clergy  in  different  parts  of  the  country 


Sco 


(  843  ) 


Sco 


to  enforce  discipline.  In  the  north  the 
arrangement  was  a  failure;  for  the  commis¬ 
sioners  were  incapable  of  acting  with  the 
moderation  which  the  Assembly  wished, 
and  numbers  of  the  clergy  were  turned  out 
of  their  livings,  while  the  people  refused 
to  allow  the  Presbytery  to  appoint  succes¬ 
sors.  In  many  places  Episcopalians  were 
put  in  the  vacant  livings  by  the  parish¬ 
ioners,  and  in  these  parishes  the  Pres¬ 
byteries  lost  all  control,  if,  indeed,  they 
were  not  left  destitute  of  members.  King- 
William  became  dissatisfied  as  the  con¬ 
fusion  increased,  delayed  the  meeting  of 
the  Assembly,  and  finally  refused  to  admit 
any  member  who  would  not  take  the  “  Oath 
of  Assurance  ”  that  he  was  king  de  facto 
and  de  jure.  Lord  Carstares,  the  king’s 
confidential  adviser,  prevailed  upon  him  to 
countermand  the  order,  and  his  consent 
restored  in  a  great  measure  the  confidence 
of  the  Scottish  clergy,  who  had  begun  to 
regard  him  with  distrust.  Liberty  was 
granted  to  the  Episcopalians  to  remain  in 
possession  of  their  benefices,  though  they 
were  not  allowed  to  become  members  of 
assemblies,  synods,  and  presbyteries;  and 
the  consequence  was  that  they  gradually 
diminished  in  number,  though  they  con¬ 
sider  themselves  to  be  the  old  Church  of 
Scotland.  From  the  time  that  King  Will¬ 
iam  released  the  Assembly  from  the  Oath 
of  Assurance  in  1694,  it  has  continued  to 
meet  year  by  year,  and  the  Established 
Church  has  been  Presbyterian. 

Although  the  Scottish  people  had  no 
wish  for  the  union  of  the  English  Church 
with  their  own,  they  were  generally  anxious 
for  the  union  of  the  Parliaments,  which 
took  place  in  1 707.  The  General  Assembly 
lost  most  of  its  power  by  the  Act  of  Union, 
but  men  realized  that  it  was  for  the  Church’s 
good  that  the  interests  of  the  two  countries 
should  be  united.  Lord  Carstares  was 
elected  president  of  the  Assembly  which 
met  after  the  act  was  passed,  and  an  at¬ 
tempt  was  made  to  enforce  uniformity,  but 
with  so  little  success  that  the  Tory  Par¬ 
liament  of  Queen  Anne  passed  an  Act  of 
Toleration,  giving  freedom  to  the  Episco¬ 
palians  to  continue  their  own  form  of 
worship.  In  the  same  year  they  revived 
the  old  system  of  patronage,  which  had 
been  in  abeyance  for  more  than  sixty  years, 
and  to  that  breach  of  the  Treaty  of  Union 
are  to  be  directly  ascribed  all  the  schisms 
that  have  since  rent  the  Church  of  Scot¬ 
land. 

(8'  Moderatis7ti. — From  this  time  till  1720 
much  work  was  done  in  setting  up  the 
churches  which  had  long  been  vacant,  and 
settling  the  borders  of  the  Church;  but  in 
that  year  a  new  feeling  began  to  show 
itself,  which  developed  later  into  the  so- 


called  Moderatism.  It  was  at  this  time  also 
that  the  “  Marrow  movement  ”  began, 
which  took  its  name  from  a  book  by  Ed¬ 
ward  Fisher,  entitled  the  Marrow  of  Mod¬ 
ern  Divinity,  in  which  certain  doctrines 
relative  to  justification  by  faith  were  put 
.  forward.  The  book  was  condemned  in 
1720  by  the  General  Assembly,  whereupon 
the  “  Marrow  men  ”  raised  a  protestation, 
and  petitioned  against  the  decision  of  the 
Assembly,  and  a  contest  began  which 
lasted  for  many  years,  and  was  aggravated 
in  1732  by  an  act  which  was  then  passed 
concerning  the  right  of  patronage.  Many 
causes  combined  to  increase  the  discontent 
among  the  clergy,  and  they  were  beginning 
now  to  wish  to  shake  themselves  free  from 
the  old  groove,  and  to  escape  from  the 
strictness  of  discipline  which  had  been  im¬ 
posed  upon  them.  To  this  movement  was 
owing  the  first  secession  which  took  place 
in  1733,  and  of  which  Ebenezer  Erskine 
(q.  v.)  was  the  leading  spirit.  It  was  the 
beginning  of  party  spirit  in  the  Church, 
and  from  this  time  the  two  parties  of 
“popular”  and  “moderate”  Presbyte¬ 
rians  continued  to  develop.  Many  of  the 
followers  of  Moderatism  laid  themselves 
open  to  a  charge  of  heresy,  but  the  per¬ 
secutions  which  they  suffered  were  the 
means  of  promoting  their  cause,  which 
grew  and  flourished  throughout  the  eight¬ 
eenth  century.  With  the  development  in 
theological  ideas  there  was  development 
in  other  directions,  and  in  the  latter  half  of 
the  eighteenth  century  the  literature  of 
Scotland,  principally  of  its  clergy,  was  the 
richest  of  the  age.  The  first  secession  was 
healed  to  a  great  extent  by  the  policy  of 
William  Robertson  who,  by  his  influence 
on  the  General  Assembly,  succeeded  in 
reducing  the  Church  to  order  and  restoring 
unity  to  the  Presbyteries,  though  his  policy 
had  the  effect  of  driving  many  from  the 
Established  Church.  A  second  secession 
took  place  in  1752,  and  its  consequences 
were  more  lasting  than  those  of  the  first, 
numbers  of  people  leaving  the  Church  and 
forming  a  large  dissenting  body.  In  those 
who  still  remained  faithful  to  the  old  con¬ 
nection,  Evangelicalism,  no  doubt,  was 
strengthened  by  the  schism,  but  the  depart¬ 
ure  of  such  numbers  from  the  Church 
awakened  a  feeling  of  alarm  in  all  its  mem¬ 
bers.  No  events  worthy  of  notice  hap¬ 
pened  during  the  closing  years  of  the 
eighteenth  century,  but  the  beginning  of 
the  nineteenth  saw  many  very  important 
changes,  not  so  much  in  the  doctrines  of 
the  Church,  as  in  the  manner  in  which  she 
carried  on  her  work.  Hitherto  the  schools 
had  been  utterly  inefficient  for  the  number 
and  requirements  of  the  population,  but  by 
new  rules  made  at  this  period,  they  were 


Sco 


(  s44  ) 


Sco 


subjected  to  the  supervision  of  the  Pres¬ 
byteries,  and  better  homes  and  salaries 
were  provided  for  the  teachers.  Sunday- 
schools  were  established,  and  livings  were 
better  endowed.  At  the  same  time  the 
Church  began  to  take  part  in  the  work  of 
foreign  missions,  which  had  hitherto  been 
left  in  the  hands  of  men  not  connected  with 
any  religious  body  in  particular.  But  the 
most  important  change  effected  at  this  time 
was  that  of  Church  extension,  the  idea  of 
which  originated  with  Dr.  Chalmers  ( q .  v.), 
of  the  Tron  Church,  Glasgow,  who  was 
much  distressed  at  the  want  of  accommoda¬ 
tion  for  the  people  in  his  own  church,  and 
set  to  work  to  influence  the  Scottish  peo¬ 
ple  to  help  him  in  his  scheme  of  subdivid¬ 
ing  parishes,  so  as  to  bring  them  more 
directly  under  the  minister’s  control,  and 
of  connecting  poor  and  rich  through  the 
Church’s  influence. 

(9)  The  Great  Disruption. — The  good 
which  resulted  from  this  movement  was 
accompanied  by  one  evil  to  the  Church,  for 
the  Dissenters  thought  it  was  a  blow  aimed 
at  them,  and  the  “  Voluntary  Controversy  ” 
was  raised  as  to  the  advisability  of  dises¬ 
tablishing  the  Church.  Seceders  and  Dis¬ 
senters  united  in  an  attack  upon  the  Estab¬ 
lished  Church,  and  the  struggle  became 
more  political  than  religious,  for  the 
Church  claimed  that  her  new  chapels 
should  be  endowed  by  the  State,  and  the 
Dissenters  contested  and  eventually  over¬ 
ruled  that  claim.  Another  controversy  was 
raised  after  the  passing  of  the  Reform  Bill 
in  1832,  concerning  the  right  of  the  people 
to  a  share  in  Church  government,  and  the 
Veto  Act  was  passed  in  1834,  to  enable  the 
laity  to  reject  the  nomination  of  any  min¬ 
ister  appointed  by  the  patron,  provided  that 
the  veto  was  agreed  to  by  the  majority  of 
the  congregation.  The  ministers  were 
forced  into  accepting  the  decree  against 
their  will,  and  later  many  of  them  had  to 
give  way  to  another  change — namely,  the 
admission  of  the  ministers  of  unendowed 
chapels  into  the  General  Assembly.  An 
opening  once  made,  fresh  innovations  fol¬ 
lowed,  and  in  1839  members  of  the  Asso¬ 
ciate  Synod  of  Seceders  were  admitted. 
Many  ministers  appealed  against  vetoes 
brought  against  them,  and  trials  to  decide 
on  the  judgment  of  the  Presbyteries  were 
brought  before  the  Assembly.  The  Court 
of  Session  hastened  to  attempt  to  repair  the 
evils  by  impolitic  measures,  till  the  confu¬ 
sion  reached  its  height,  and  the  Non-Intru¬ 
sion  party  called  loudly  for  separation  from 
the  Scottish  Church.  The  separation  came 
in  1843,  ^nd  caused  much  surprise  to  many 
who  did  not  understand  the  spirit  of  the 
Scottish  people,  and  believed  that  only  a 
few  of  the  most  violent  Non-Intrusionists 


would  go  so  far  as  to  cut  themselves  off 
from  communion  with  the  Church.  In  the 
midst  of  the  general  confusion  which  pre¬ 
vailed  about  1842,  the  Moderates  were  un¬ 
fortunate  in  having  no  one  capable  of  taking 
the  lead,  or  deciding  on  what  course  it 
would  be  well  to  adopt,  while  on  the  other 
side  were  Chalmers  and  Dr.  Candlish,  who 
was  in  reality  the  leader  of  the  party.  In 
November,  1842,  the  General  Assembly 
met,  and  after  ten  days’  discussion  they 
bound  themselves  to  stand  by  one  another, 
and  to  unite  themselves  into  a  separate 
body.  The  Free  Church  was  formed  on 
May  18,  1843,  when,  of  the  1,200  ministers 
who  had  hitherto  belonged  to  the  Estab¬ 
lished  Church,  451  seceded.  After  the  first 
shock  which  the  parent  Church  felt  from 
the  Secession,  its  work  went  on  with  no  less 
earnestness  and  success  than  before;  and 
it  proceeded  to  redress  one  by  one  the 
grievances  which  had  been  the  cause  of  its 
troubles.  The  work  of  the  Maintainers 
was  hard,  for  the  Seceders  put  in  their  way 
all  the  difficulties  they  could  devise,  and 
public  feeling  was  all  against  them.  But 
the  Church  overcame  the  opposition,  and 
the  work  of  Church  extension  prospered, 
mainly  under  the  guidance  of  Professor 
James  Robertson,  who  set  on  foot  the  en¬ 
dowment  scheme,  for  the  carrying  on  of  the 
Church’s  work  in  the  chapels  already  built. 
Mission  work  also  made  great  advances  in 
the  years  which  followed  the  Secession, 
and  in  this  also  Dr.  Robertson  and  Dr. 
Norman  Macleod  were  the  moving  spirits. 
The  grievance  of  patronage  was  again  con¬ 
sidered,  and  the  Scotch  Benefices  Act  was 
brought  in;  but,  though  hailed  with  de¬ 
light  by  the  people,  it  was  rejected  by  the 
Parliament,  as  giving  too  much  power  to 
the  Church.  Many  efforts  were  made  to 
bring  the  question  fairly  before  the  Assem¬ 
bly,  and  finally  in  1868  a  Committee  of  In¬ 
quiry  was  instituted,  whose  report  to  the 
Assembly  resulted  in  a  victory  to  the  sup¬ 
porters  of  anti-patronage.  The  Establish¬ 
ed  Church  of  Scotland  has  1,283  parishes, 
and  1,479  ministers. — Benham  :  Diet,  of 
Religion. 

Scotland,  Episcopal  Church  of.  As 
our  previous  article  will  have  partly  shown, 
the  National  Church  of  Scotland  had  been 
made,  at  least  nominally,  Episcopalian 
upon  the  accession  of  James  I.  to  the 
throne  of  England ,  Presbyterianism  regain¬ 
ing  the  ascendancy  on  the  accession  of 
Charles  I. ,  and  Episcopacy  being  once  more 
restored  at  the  Restoration  of  Charles  II. 
Thus  it  remained  until  the  accession  of 
William  III.  in  1688.  Presbyterianism  was 
then  finally  established,  not  so  much  as  the 
Church  of  the  majority,  as  because  the 


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(  845  ) 


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Episcopal  bishops  refused  to  take  the  oath 
— were,  in  other  words,  Nonjurors.  No 
doubt  the  same  course  would  have  been 
taken  in  England  if  the  Church  had  not 
yielded  to  circumstances  and  taken  the 
oath  of  allegiance.  The  Rebellion  of  1745 
was  disastrous  to  the  Episcopal  Church  in 
Scotland.  The  bishops  were,  almost  with¬ 
out  exception,  Jacobites,  and  the  govern¬ 
ment  treated  them  most  rigorously  as  polit¬ 
ical  offenders  and  rebels.  In  1746  an  act 
was  passed  forbidding  the  Episcopalian 
form  of  worship,  except  in  the  presence  of 
the  clergyman’s  family,  and  that  only  twice 
a  year.  The  punishment  for  the  first  of¬ 
fence  was  imprisonment  for  six  months;  for 
the  second,  transportation  for  life.  The 
grandfather  of  the  late  bishop  of  Aberdeen, 
the  author  of  “  Tullochgorum,”  which 
Burns  pronounced  the  noblest  of  all  Scotch 
songs,  was  imprisoned  for  six  months  in 
1753,  for  the  crime  of  reading  the  Liturgy 
to  more  than  four  persons  beyond  his  own 
family.  Many  a  clergyman  did  duty  no  less 
than  sixteen  times  on  a  Sunday  in  order  to 
keep  within  the  law.  The  Episcopal 
Church  was  reduced  to  the  last  extremity, 
but  a  few  faithful  men  were  left,  who  work¬ 
ed  hard  to  prevent  her  entire  extinction. 
It  was  not  until  1792  that  these  penal  laws 
were  rescinded.  Meanwhile  a  serious  dif¬ 
ficulty  had  been  created  among  the  Episco¬ 
palians,  which  even  yet  has  hardly  died 
out.  There  were  some  who  preferred  the 
Liturgy  to  the  Presbyterian  services,  but 
had  no  taste  for  civil  disabilities,  and  these 
professed  Episcopalian  views,  but  without 
placing  themselves  under  the  Scottish  bish¬ 
ops.  These  places  of  worship  were  desig¬ 
nated  “  qualified  chapels.”  Hence  there 
was  introduced  a  cause  of  variance  at  once. 
After  the  penal  laws  were  abolished  it  was 
hoped  that  reunion  between  these  might 
have  been  effected,  and  in  1804  a  convoca¬ 
tion  of  the  Scotch  Episcopal  clergy  met  at 
Laurencekirk,  and  subscribed  to  the  Eng¬ 
lish  Articles  and  Liturgy  as  a  basis.  But 
a  cause  of  difference  remained.  The  Scot¬ 
tish  Episcopal  Church  had  adopted,  with 
the  English  Nonjurors,  a  Liturgy  resem¬ 
bling  the  First  Prayer-Book  of  Edward  VI. , 
and  retained  the  mixed  chalice  in  the  Eu¬ 
charist,  and  some  other  matters  to  which 
the  “  English  Episcopalians  ”  were  oppos¬ 
ed.  It  was  agreed  to  leave  to  these  the 
free  use  of  the  English  Liturgy,  whilst  the 
Communion  between  them  should  not  be 
interrupted  thereby.  But  many  of  them 
were  not  contented  with  this.  They  called 
on  the  bishops  to  abandon  the  Scotch  Lit¬ 
urgy  and  adopt  the  English,  and  on  their 
refusal  the  reunion  was  rejected.  There 
are  still  a  few,  and  only  a  very  few,  of  these 
congregations  in  Scotland;  nearly  all  of 


them  have  conformed  to  the  Episcopal 
Church,  in  consequence  of  that  Church 
having  left  the  choice  of  liturgies  to  the 
congregations,  and  in  the  majority  of  the 
churches  the  English  Office  is  in  use.  A 
memorable  chapter  in  the  history  of  this 
Church  is  that  of  the  consecration  of  Bish¬ 
op  Seabury  ( q .  z\),  the  first  American 
bishop,  in  1784. 

The  leading  gentry  and  nobility  of  Scot¬ 
land  for  the  most  part  belong  to  the  Epis¬ 
copal  Church,  but  nevertheless  the  Church 
is  a  very  poor  one.  The  income  of  a 
clergyman  is  seldom  more  than  ^"ioo  a  year, 
though  this  is  the  minimum.  It  is  derived 
mostly  from  pew  rents,  and,  in  conse¬ 
quence,  the  amount  depends  largely  on  the 
popularity  of  the  clergyman.  The  new  life 
shown  in  the  Church  of  England  during  the 
last  fifty  years  has  influenced  Scotland,  as 
is  shown  by  the  increasing  number  of  ser¬ 
vices,  and  the  building  of  various  theolog¬ 
ical  colleges.  Of  these  the  principal  are: 
Trinity  College,  founded  in  1841,  to  which 
are  attached  a  few  scholarships;  St.  Ninian 
Cathedral  and  College,  Perth,  the  first 
cathedral  established  in  Scotland  since  the 
Reformation,  consecrated  in  1851;  Church 
and  College  of  the  Holy  Spirit,  Isle  of 
Cumbrae,  founded  in  1849.  At  present 
there  are  seven  Episcopal  sees,  viz:  Aber¬ 
deen,  regarded  as  the  chief;  St.  Andrews; 
Ross  and  Moray  ;  Edinburgh  ;  Brechin; 
Argyll  and  the  Isles;  Glasgow  and  Gallo¬ 
way.  Patronage  is  chiefly  in  the  hands  of 
the  congregation,  who  have  the  right  of 
nominating  their  own  pastor  after  they 
have  heard  him  preach  a  sermon.  The 
Episcopal  Church  has  seven  dioceses  and 
238  churches  or  stations. — Benham:  Diet, 
of  Religion. 

Scott,  Thomas,  a  popular  biblical  com¬ 
mentator;  b.  at  Braytoft,  Lincolnshire,  Feb. 
16,  1747;  d.  at  Aston  Sandford,  Bucking¬ 
hamshire,  April  16,  1821.  He  gained  his 
education  in  the  face  of  the  most  adverse 
conditions,  and  was  ordained  in  1773,  and 
in  1781  succeeded  John  Newton  as  curate  of 
Olney.  In  1785  he  became  chaplain  of  the 
Lock  Hospital,  London,  and  vicar  of  Aston 
Sandford  in  1801.  Through  the  influence 
of  Newton  he  adopted  strong  Calvinistic 
views,  and  in  1779  he  published  a  small 
volume  called  The  Force  of  Truth ,  in  which 
he  stated  his  opinions.  His  celebrated 
Family  Bible  with  Notes ,  which  has  passed 
through  several  American  editions,  was 
published  in  1788-92.  His  Works ,  edited 
by  his  son,  appeared  in  1823,  10  vols. 
See  his  Life  (N.  Y.,  1856). 

Scott,  Thomas,  an  English  dissenting 
minister  in  Suffolk,  Ipswich  (1737-74),  and 


Sco 


(  846  ) 


Scu 


Hopton  in  Norfolk,  where  he  d.,  1775.  He 
published  several  poetical  works,  and 
among  his  hymns  are  a  few  still  well 
known.  Among  them  are  “Hasten,  sinner, 
to  be  wise,”  and  “  Angels,  roll  the  rock 
away.” 

Scotus  Erigena,  John,  b.  in  Ireland, 
probably  between  800  and  815.  Educat¬ 
ed  in  a  cloistral  school,  he  became  influen¬ 
tial  in  the  court  of  Charles  the  Bald. 
While  at  the  French  court  he  gained  a 
great  name  for  learning,  and  wrote  most 
of  his  works.  He  took  part  in  the  contro¬ 
versy  concerning  the  Lord’s  Supper,  which 
was  carried  on  between  Paschasius  Rad- 
bertus,  Rabanus  Maurus,  and  others.  He 
considered  the  bread  and  wine  used  in  the 
Supper  as  mere  symbols  of  the  presence 
of  Christ  in  the  sacrament.  In  the  contro¬ 
versy  regarding  predestination  led  by 
Gottschalk,  he  wrote  a  book,  De  Prcedesti- 
natione ,  in  which  he  teaches  that  the  only 
predestination  is  that  to  eternal  bliss. 
Evil,  he  contended,  had  no  real  existence, 
but  was  simply  a  lack  or  fault  in  the  reali¬ 
zation  of  good.  His  principal  work  is  De 
Divisione  Natura,  which  develops  a  sys¬ 
tem  of  idealistic  pantheism.  Soon  after 
the  death  of  Charles  the  Bald,  Scotus  was 
invited  to  England  by  Alfred  the  Great. 
Here  he  became  a  teacher  at  Oxford,  and 
afterward  abbot  of  Malmesbury.  He  is 
said  to  have  been  killed  in  this  church  by 
his  own  pupils,  about  891. 

Scribes  ( writers )  “  were  a  learned  pro¬ 
fession,  neither  a  party  nor  a  sect.  They 
devoted  themselves  to  the  study  of  the 
Law,  of  which  they  were  the  expositors 
and  transcribers.  They  were  the  lawyers 
and  public  notaries  of  the  community. 
(Matt.  xxii.  35;  Mark  vii.  2;  Luke  v.  17, 
21.)  Such  were  Gamaliel  and  Saul.  In 
doctrine  and  practice  they  favored  the  Phar¬ 
isees,  with  whom  they  are  often  classed. 
(Matt,  xxiii.  2.)  From  being  transcribers 
and  expounders  of  the  Law,  they  supplied, 
after  the  Captivity,  the  place  of  the  proph¬ 
ets  and  the  inspired  oracles,  which  had 
ceased;  and  from  them  arose  those  glosses 
and  interpretations  which  our  Lord  rebukes 
under  the  term  ‘  traditions.’*  These  became 
so  numerous  that  they  were  collected  by 
the  Rabbi  Judah  (a.  d.  200)  into  six  books, 
called  the  Mishnah  ( repetition  of  the  oral 
law),  to  which  was  subsequently  added  a 
book  of  comments  ( Gemara ),  which  com¬ 
pleted  the  whole  traditionary  doctrine  of 
the  Jewish  Church.  The  Mishnah  and 
the  Gemara  together  constitute  the  Tal¬ 
mud,  of  which  there  are  two,  one  by  the 
Jews  in  Judaea  (called  the  Jerusalem  Tal¬ 
mud),  the  other  by  those  in  Babylon  (call¬ 


ed  the  Babylonian).”  —  “Oxford”  Bible 
Helps. 

Scrivener,  Frederick  Henry  Ambrose, 
LL.  D.  (St.  Andrew’s,  1872),  D.  C.  L.  (Ox¬ 
ford,  1876),  Church  of  England;  b.  at  Ber¬ 
mondsey  ,  Surrey ,  Sept.  29,1813;  educated  at 
Trinity  College,  Cambridge;  was  graduated 
B.  A.  (third  in  second-class  classical  tripos), 
1835,  M.  A.,  1838;  became  assistant  master 
of  King’s  School,  Sherborne,  1835;  curate 
of  Sandford  Orcas,  Somerset,  1838;  per¬ 
petual  curate  of  Penwerris,  Cornwall,  1846; 
rector  of  St.  Gerrans,  Cornwall,  1861; 
vicar  of  Hendon,  Middlesex,  1876.  He 
was  a  member  of  the  New  Testament  Re¬ 
vision  Company,  and  is  the  author  of:  Notes 
on  the  Atithorized  Version  of  the  New  Testa¬ 
ment  (London,  1845);  Collation  of  Twenty 
Greek  RIanuscripts  of  the  Holy  Gospel  (1853); 
Codex  Augiensis,  and  Fifty  other  Manu¬ 
scripts  (1859);  Novu?n  Testamentum  Textus 
Stephanici  (i860);  Plain  Introduction  to  the 
Criticism  of  the  New  Testafnent  (1861); 
Collation  of  the  Codex  Sinaiticus  (1863); 
Be  zee  Codex  Cantabrigiensis  (1864);  Six 
Popular  Lectures  on  the  Text  of  the  New 
Testament  (1875);  edited  1'he  Cambridge 
Paragraph  Bible  (1873);  (Introduction,  re¬ 
vised  separate  edition,  1884);  Greek  Testa¬ 
ment  with  Changes  of  New  Testa7jient  Re¬ 
visers  (1881). 

Scudder,  John,  b.  at  Freehold,  N.  J., 
Sept.  13,  1793;  d.  at  Wynberg,  South 
Africa,  Jan.  13,  1855.  He  gave  up  his 
practice  as  a  physician  in  1819,  and  became 
a  devoted  missionary  in  India.  He  was 
the  founder  of  the  Arcot  mission,  where  he 
spent  most  of  his  life.  “  Dr.  Scudder  is 
one  of  the  heroes  of  foreign  missions. 
Convinced  that  he  was  doing  good  he  cared 
nothing  for  the  opposition  of  men.  He 
endured  hardness,  and  even  severe  pain, 
without  complaint.  The  Bible  constituted 
well-nigh  his  sole  reading.  He  went  about 
doing  good  to  body  and  soul,  like  his  Mas¬ 
ter.  He  preached  in  almost  every  large 
town  in  Southeastern  Hindostan.  It  was 
his  ambition  ‘  to  be  one  of  the  inner  circle 
around  Jesus  in  heaven.’”  See  his  Mem¬ 
oir,  by  J.  B.  Waterbury  (N.  Y. ,  1870). 

Sculpture,  Christian.  Many  causes  com¬ 
bined  during  the  early  centuries  of  the 
Christian  Era  to  mark  this  time  as  deficient 
in  Christian  works  of  art  of  any  descrip¬ 
tion.  For  two  centuries  before  the  birth 
of  Christ  art  had  been  in  a  state  of  decline, 
and  when  Greece,  the  mistress  of  art,  came 
under  the  Roman  yoke,  there  seemed  little 
prospect  of  a  genuine  revival.  But  sculp¬ 
ture  had  another  disadvantage,  namely, 
the  association  of  images  in  the  mind  of 


Sea 


(  847  ) 


Sea 


the  Jews  with  the  idolatry  forbidden  by  the 
Mosaic  Law;  and  the  early  Christians  re¬ 
garded  images  with  scarcely  less  abhor¬ 
rence.  Roman  art  had  degenerated  into 
the  representation  of  the  lowest  passions 
of  human  nature,  and  the  Christian  avoid¬ 
ed  it  for  this  reason,  Tertullian  going  so 
far  as  to  say  that  art  is  the  invention  of 
the  devil.  The  earliest  deviations  from 
this  strict  avoidance  of  image-worship  are 
the  monumental  representations  in  sculp¬ 
ture  of  biblical  history;  and  these  are  of 
the  crudest  and  most  elementary  descrip¬ 
tion.  Statues  representing  objects  of  wor¬ 
ship  were  very  rare  until  about  the  tenth 
century,  though  it  seems  that  some  Chris¬ 
tians  were  found  who  defended  them,  and 
even  protested  against  the  destruction  of 
beautiful  Pagan  images.  Sepulchral  re¬ 
liefs  gradually  found  their  way  more  and 
more  into  use  to  adorn  monuments,  shrines, 
Church  furniture,  etc. ,  and  crucifixes  be¬ 
gan  to  be  used,  not  as  objects  of  worship, 
but  simply  as  beautiful  works  of  art.  In 
the  West,  sculpture  formed  a  part  of  ar¬ 
chitecture,  and  instead  of  setting  up  soli¬ 
tary  statues  inside  churches,  it  became  cus¬ 
tomary  to  adorn  the  west  fronts  of  the 
larger  churches  with  images  of  Christ  and 
the  Virgin,  angels,  saints,  and  martyrs, 
and  with  representations  of  scenes  from 
the  life  of  Christ.  All  these  figures,  with¬ 
out  exception,  were  required  to  be  clothed 
in  long  draperies,  and  this  necessarily 
hampered  the  artists,  who  had  none  of 
them  as  yet  attained  to  the  highest  skill, 
while  it  sometimes  destroyed  the  distinct¬ 
ness  of  a  scene  in  which  many  figures  were 
grouped  together.  The  first  Christian 
sculptor  who  can  be  named  as  having 
reached  any  great  degree  of  excellence  was 
Nicolo  Pisano,  an  Italian  of  the  thirteenth 
century,  who  executed  a  series  of  bas-re¬ 
liefs  at  Pisa  and  Siena,  representing  events 
in  the  life  of  Christ  and  the  last  Judgment. 
His  pupils  carried  on  the  work,  and  the 
west  front  of  the  cathedral  of  Orvieto,  the 
door  of  its  baptistery  and  other  works, 
show  traces  of  his  influence.  In  the  fif¬ 
teenth  century  sculpture  progressed  under 
Donatello,  Brunelleschi,  and  especially 
Ghiberti;  and  these  prepared  the  way  for  the 
greatest  of  all  Christian  sculptors,  Michael 
Angelo  Buonarotti  (1475-1564).  His  chef 
d  oeuvre  was  the  figure  of  Moses,  in  the 
Church  of  San  Pietro  in  Vincolo,at  Rome, 
and  his  works  enrich  most  of  the  principal 
buildings  at  Rome  and  Florence. — Benham: 
Did.  of  Religion. 

Seabury,  Samuel,  b.  in  Groton,  Conn., 
Nov.  30,  1729;  d.  at  New  London,  Feb.  25, 
1796.  He  was  graduated  at  Yale  College 
in  1748,  and  studied  medicine  and  theology 


in  Scotland.  Ordained  to  the  priesthood 
in  1753  by  the  bishop  of  Carlisle,  he  re¬ 
turned  to  this  country  under  appointment 
as  missionary  at  New  Brunswick,  N.  J.  In 
1757  he  removed  to  Jamaica,  L.  I.,  and  not 
long  after  to  Westchester,  N.  Y.  When  the 
conflict  of  opinion  arose  regarding  the  re¬ 
lations  of  the  mother-country  to  the  colo¬ 
nies,  he  took  the  side  of  the  loyalists,  and 
expressed  his  views  with  a  vigor  that  led 
to  his  arrest  and  imprisonment  at  New 
Haven.  After  his  release  he  returned  to 
Long  Island.  In  1783  he  was  elected 
bishop  of  Connecticut,  and  sailed  for  Eng¬ 
land  to  be  ordained.  The  fact  that  it  was 
necessary  that  a  candidate  for  Episcopal 
ordination  should  take  the  oath  of  alle¬ 
giance  to  the  king,  and  of  obedience  to  the 
archbishop  of  Canterbury,  interposed  se¬ 
rious  difficulties.  Recourse  was  had  to  the 
bishops  of  Scotland,  and  he  was  ordained 
at  Aberdeen,  Nov.,  1784.  Dr.  Seabury  was 
a  man  of  strong  and  earnest  character,  and 
his  name  holds  an  honored  place  in  the 
history  of  the  Protestant  Episcopal  Church. 
See  his  Life ,  by  Dr.  Beardsley  (1881); 
Episcopal  Church,  The  American. 

Seals.  See  Rings. 

Seamen,  Missions  to.  An  association, 
called  at  first  The  Bible  Society ,  was  organ¬ 
ized  in  London  in  1780  to  supply  English 
soldiers  and  sailors  in  the  navy  with  Bibles. 
The  name  of  the  society  was  soon  changed 
to  that  of  The  Naval  and  Military  Bible  So¬ 
ciety,  and  has  continued  its  work  until  the 
present  time.  The  Port  of  London  Society 
was  formed  in  1818  to  provide  for  the 
preaching  of  the  Gospel  to  sailors  in  Lon¬ 
don.  A  floating  chapel  was  opened,  and 
local  societies  were  instituted  in  various 
parts  of  the  kingdom.  From  this  ivork 
sprang  what  is  now  known  as  The  British 
and  Foreign  Sailors'  Society.  Other  socie¬ 
ties  have  been  organized  under  the  care  of 
the  Scandinavian  Lutherans  on  the  Conti¬ 
nent.  They  occupy  thirty-three  stations, 
scattered  all  over  the  world. 

The  Society  for  Promoting  the  Gospel 
among  Seamen  in  the  Port  of  New  York  was 
formed  June  5,  1818.  This  society  now 
sustains  a  church  at  Madison  and  Catharine 
Streets  in  New  York,  and  employs  several 
missionaries.  The  American  Seamen's 
Friend  Society  was  organized  in  1828.  This 
has  been  the  most  efficient  missionary  so¬ 
ciety  among  seamen  that  has  thus  far  pros¬ 
ecuted  this  important  work.  It  has  over 
forty  missionaries  in  its  employ,  and 
through  its  system  of  sustaining  religious 
services,  furnishing  libraries  for  use  on 
shipboard,  opening  sailors’  boarding¬ 
houses,  and  establishing  savings-banks,  it 


Sea 


(848) 


Sei 


has  done  a  work  the  fruits  of  which  have 
been  seen  in  the  thousands  of  sailors  con¬ 
verted  to  a  life  of  sobriety  and  Christian 
faith.  The  Church  Missionary  Society  for 
Seamen  in  the  City  of  New  York  (Protestant 
Episcopal),  sustains  two  chapels,  three 
mission-houses,  with  reading  and  lecture 
rooms. 

Sears,  Barnas,  LL.  D.,  a  distinguished 
educator;  b.  at  Sandisfield,  Mass.,  Nov.  19, 
1802;  d.  at  Saratoga  Springs,  N.  Y. ,  July 
6,  18S0.  After  graduating  from  Brown 
University  in  1825,  and  Newton  Theolog¬ 
ical  Seminary  in  1828,  he  was  pastor  for  a 
short  time  of  the  First  Baptist  Church  of 
Hartford,  Conn.  In  1829  he  became  pro¬ 
fessor  of  ancient  languages  at  Hamilton, 
N.  Y.,  in  what  is  now  Madison  University. 
In  1833  he  visited  Europe,  and  spent  two 
years  in  study.  While  there  he  baptized 
the  Rev.  J.  G.  Oucken  and  six  others, 
forming  the  first  German  Baptist  Church 
in  communion  with  the  Baptists  of  England 
and  America.  Through  much  persecution 
these  churches  have  increased  until  they 
now  have  a  membership  of  some  twenty- 
five  thousand.  In  1836  Dr.  Sears  became 
professor  of  theology  in  Newton  Theolog¬ 
ical  Seminary,  where  he  remained  twelve 
years.  In  1848  he  accepted  the  position  of 
Secretary  of  the  Massachusetts  Board  of 
Education.  In  1855  he  succeeded  Dr. 
Way  land  in  the  presidency  of  Brown  Uni¬ 
versity.  In  1867  he  was  made  General 
Agent  of  the  Peabody  Educational  Fund, 
and  continued  to  discharge  the  duties  of 
this  office  up  to  the  time  of  his  death.  His 
life  was  eminently  useful  in  all  the  promi¬ 
nent  places  he  was  called  to  fill. 

Sears,  Edmund  Hamilton,  D.  D.,  b.  at 
Sandisfield,  Mass.,  1810;  d.  at  Weston, 
Mass.,  Jan.  14,1876;  was  graduated  at  Union 
College,  1S34,  and  at  Harvard  Divinity 
School,  1837;  pastor  at  Wayland,  Mass., 
183S-40;  at  Lancaster,  1840-47;  again  at 
Wayland,  1847-65;  and  at  Weston,  1865-76. 
He  is  most  widely  known  by  his  two  beau¬ 
tiful  Christmas  hymns,  “  Calm  on  the 
listening  ear  of  night,”  and  “  It  came  upon 
the  midnight  clear.”  He  was  the  author 
of:  Regeneration  ( 1854);  -Pictures  of  the  Olden 
Time  { 1857);  Athanasia ;  or  y  Foregleams  of 
Immortality  (1858);  The  Fourth  Gospel  the 
Heart  of  Christ  ( I S  72) ;  Sermons  and  Songs  of 
the  Christian  Life  (1875).  While  connected 
with  the  Unitarian  body  Dr.  Sears  held 
Swedenborgian  views. 

Se-Baptist.  See  Smyth,  John. 

Sebastian,  an  early  Christian  martyr;  b. 
at  Narbonne,  in  Gaul,  255;  d.  in  Rome,  28S. 


In  order  that  he  might  render  more  efficient 
service  to  the  Christians  he  concealed  his 
faith  when  entering  the  ranks  of  the  army 
of  Diocletian.  He  rose  to  high  rank,  and 
when  he  avowed  himself  a  Christian  the  em¬ 
peror  did  all  in  his  power  to  induce  him  to 
recant.  When  he  refused  to  do  so  he  was 
put  to  death,  as  was  supposed,  by  a  troop 
of  archers;  but  a  Christian  lady,  Irene, 
took  the  body  to  her  house,  and  he  recov¬ 
ered.  On  again  avowing  his  faith  he  was 
flogged  to  death  in  the  amphitheatre.  His 
body  was  cast  into  the  city  sewer,  but 
according  to  tradition  was  recovered  and 
buried  in  the  catacomb  at  Rome,  which  still 
bears  the  name  of  St.  Sebastian.  His  day 
in  the  Roman  calendar  is  Jan.  20;  in  the 
Greek,  Dec.  18. 

Secession  Church.  See  Presbyterian 
Church  (United  Presbyterian). 

Second  Adventists.  See  Adventists. 

Second  Coming  of  Christ.  See  Mille- 

narianism. 

Secret  Discipline.  See  Arcani  Disci- 

PLINA. 

Secundians,  a  Gnostic  sect  of  the  second 
century.  Their  founder,  Secundus,  was  a 
pupil  of  Valentinus.  He  maintained  that 
everything  was  attributable  to  one  of  two 
main  causes — Light  and  Darkness,  or  to  a 
Prince  of  good  or  evil. 

Sedes  Vacans,  a  term  used  in  canon  law 
to  denote  the  vacancy  in  the  office  of  any 
high  dignitary  in  the  Roman  Church. 
During  the  interval  it  was  formerly  the 
custom  to  provide  a  substitute  called  the 
interventor ,  or  to  entrust  the  duties  of  the 
office  to  the  cathedral  chapter.  This  is 
still  done  in  the  case  of  a  sedes  itnpedita , 
where  the  vacancy  is  caused  by  unavoid¬ 
able  absence,  or  the  illness  of  the  occu¬ 
pant. 

See  (Lat.  sedes ,  seat,  throne),  a  word  des¬ 
ignating  the  throne  of  a  bishop  in  his  cathe¬ 
dral.  It  is  thus  distinguished  from  his 
diocese ,  which  means  the  area  over  which  he 
exercises  spiritual  power. 

Seekers,  a  small  Puritan  sect  which  arose 
in  1645.  They  professed  to  be  seeking  a 
true  church,  ministry  and  sacraments,  and 
according  to  Baxter  were  a  heterogeneous 
company  comprised  of  Roman  Catholics 
and  infidels,  as  well  as  Puritans. 

Seir,  Mount,  is  the  name  of  the  moun¬ 
tain  ridge  extending  along  the  west  side  of 


Sel 


(  849  ) 


Sel 


the  valley  of  the  Arabah,  from  the  Dead 
Sea  to  the  Elanitic  Gulf.  One  of  the  high¬ 
est  points  of  the  eastern  range  is  Hor,  with 
Aaron’s  tomb.  (Num.  xxxiii.  38.)  Mount 
Seir  was  originally  inhabited  by  the  Hor- 
ites,  who  were  dispossessed  by  the  descend¬ 
ants  of  Esau,  “  who  dwelt  in  their  stead.” 
(Deut.  ii.  12.)  The  country  was  after¬ 
ward  called  Edom,  but  the  ancient  name 
survived.  In  the  post-exile  period  the 
country  was  taken  by  the  Nabathaeans,  who 
again  were  subdued  by  the  Mohammedans 
in  the  year  629  A.  D.  The  country  is  now 
inhabited  by  the  Bedouins.  In  the  fertile 
valleys  peasants.  Fellahin ,  cultivate  the 
land,  and  sell  their  produce  to  the  pilgrims. 
The  pilgrimage  route  from  Damascus  to 
Mecca  runs  on  the  eastern  border  of  the 
country. 

Se'la,  or  Se'lah  (rock)?  is  only  twice 
directly  mentioned  in  the 
Bible  (2  Kings  xiv.  7;  Isa. 
xvi.  1);  but  there  are  oth¬ 
er  passages  in  which  it  is 
probably  referred  to.  It 
was  a  city  of  Edom,  liter¬ 
ally  hewn  out  of  the  rock. 

The  Nabathaeans,  in  the 
fourth  century,  B.  c. ,  made 
it  their  stronghold.  Pom- 
pey  captured  the  entire 
region  known  as  Arabia 
Petraea.  In  the  early 
Christian  centuries  it  was 
the  capital  of  a  Roman 
province,  and  became  the 
seat  of  an  Episcopal  see. 

It  appears  to  have  been 
destroyed  by  some  desert 
horde  about  the  middle  of 
the  sixth  century. 

“  It  lay  in  a  hollow  enclosed  amidst  cliffs, 
and  accessible  only  by  a  ravine  through 
which  the  river  winds  across  its  site.  A 
tomb  with  three  rows  of  columns,  a  tri¬ 
umphal  arch,  and  ruined  bridges,  are 
among  the  remains.  Laborde  and  Linant 
traced  a  theatre  for  sea  fights  which  could 
be  flooded  from  cisterns.  This  proves  the 
abundance  of  the  water  supply,  if  husband¬ 
ed,  and  agrees  with  the  accounts  of  the 
former  fertility  of  the  district,  in  contrast 
to  the  barren  Arabah  on  the  west.  Selah 
means  a  cliff  ox  peak,  contrasted  with  eben, 
a  detached  stone  ox  boulder.  The  khazneh, 
‘  treasury,’  in  situation,  coloring,  and  sin¬ 
gular  construction  is  unique.  The  fa£ade 
of  the  temple  consisted  of  six  columns,  of 
which  one  is  broken.  The  pediment  has  a 
lyre  on  its  apex.  In  the  nine  faces  of  rock 
are  sculptured  female  figures  with  flowing- 
drapery.  Palmer  supposes  them  to  be  the 
nine  muses,  with  Apollo’s  lyre  above.” — 


Fausset  :  Bible  Cyclopedia.  See  Palmer: 
Desert  of  the  Exodus,  pp.  366  sqq. 

Se'lah.  This  word,  which  is  only  found 
in  the  poetical  books  of  the  Old  Testament, 
occurs  seventy-one  times  in  the  Psalms, 
and  three  times  in  Habakkuk.  Beyond 
the  fact  that  Selah  is  a  musical  term,  we 
know  absolutely  nothing  about  it,  and  are 
entirely  in  the  dark  as  to  its  meaning. 

Selden,  John,  lawyer  and  antiquarian;  b. 
at  Salvington,  Sussex,  1584;  d.  at  White- 
friars,  1654.  He  studied  at  Chichester,  was 
graduated  at  Oxford,  and  entered  Clifford’s 
Inn,  and  afterwards  the  Inner  Temple,  for 
the  study  of  law.  In  the  early  years  of 
his  career  he  published  England j  Epinomis, 
Jani  Anglorum  Facies  Altera,  the  Analecton 
Anglo-Britannicon ,  and  De  Diis  Syris,  an 
important  work,  which  was  published  in 


SELA — General  View  of  the  Ruins. 


1617,  and  established  his  fame  on  the  conti¬ 
nent  as  well  as  in  England.  The  History 
of  Tithes  (1618)  so  roused  the  anger  of  the 
king  that  Selden  was  obliged  to  rewrite  it, 
and  to  acknowledge  his  errors  before  the 
Court  of  High  Commission.  Selden  sel¬ 
dom  appeared  at  the  Bar,  but  was  looked 
up  to  as*  an  authority  on  political  matters, 
and  was  imprisoned  in  1621  for  advising 
the  Commons  to  hold  their  ground  against 
the  encroachments  of  the  king.  He  rep¬ 
resented  Lancaster  in  several  Parliaments, 
and  was  zealous  in  the  popular  cause.  He 
supported  the  Petition  of  Right,  but  ap¬ 
peased  the  king’s  anger  by  the  Mare  Clau¬ 
sum,  published  in  1636.  In  1643  he  sat  in 
the  Westminster  Assembly  of  Divines,  and 
was  made  Keeper  of  the  Tower  Records. 
He  was  very  intimate  with  Ben  Jonson. 
Selden  was  a  man  of  great  learning  in  legal 
matters,  and  during  his  imprisonment  he 
wrote  his  chief  works:  De  Successione  in 


Sel 


(  850  ) 


Sem 


Tontificatum  Hebrceorum  and  De  Jure  Na- 
turali  et  Gentium  juxta  Disciplinam  Hebrce¬ 
orum.  Probably  his  most  popular  work  is 
Table-Talk ,  published  about  1690. — Ben- 
ham:  Diet,  of  Religion. 

Seleu'cia,  a  city  of  Syria  on  the  Mediter¬ 
ranean  shore,  built  by  Seleucus  Nicator, 
300  b.  c.  It  was  celebrated  for  its  excel¬ 
lent  harbor,  from  which  Paul  sailed  for 
Cyprus  on  his  first  missionary  tour.  (Acts 
xiii.  4.) 

Seleucidian  Era.  See  Era. 

Selwyn,  George  Augustus,  D.  D.,  mis¬ 
sionary  and  bishop  of  the  Church  of  Eng¬ 
land;  b.  at  Richmond  in  1809;  d.  at  Lich¬ 
field,  April  11,  1878.  He  was  appointed 
bishop  of  New  Zealand  in  1841.  His  zeal 
and  labors  were  abundant  and  fruitful.  He 
visited  England  in  1854,  and  enlisted  men 
like  Mackenzie  and  Patteson  to  enter  the 
missionary  field.  He  returned  to  New 
Zealand  in  1855,  where  he  remained  until 
186S,  when,  much  against  his  will,  he  was 
prevailed  upon  to  return  and  take  the 
bishopric  of  Lichfield. 

Semi-Arians,  those  who,  whilst  categor¬ 
ically  denying  the  Arian  doctrines,  held 
them  secretly  in  a  somewhat  modified  form. 
They  refused  to  accept  the  word  “con- 
substantial,”  but  said  that  the  Son  was  of 
like  substance  with  the  Father,  thereby  in 
reality  denying  the  divinity  of  Christ,  for 
there  can  be  but  one  God.  The  Councils 
of  Rimini  and  Seleucia  were  composed  for 
the  most  part  of  Semi-Arians.  In  modern 
times  the  term  is  used  to  denote  those  who 
believe  that  the  Son  was  not  from  the  be¬ 
ginning,  but  was  begotten  by  the  will  of 
the  Father.  Such  doctrines  were  held  by 
some  of  the  Rationalist  divines  of  the  last 
century,  such  as  Drs.  S.  Clarke  and  Hoad- 
ley. 

Semi-Pela'gianism,  “a  modification,  as 
the  name  implies,  of  the  doctrine  of  the 
Pelagians  as  to  the  powers  of  the  human 
will,  and  as  to  the  effects  to  be  attributed 
to  the  action  of  the  supernatural  grace  of 
God,  and  of  the  divine  decree  for  the  pre¬ 
destination  of  the  elect.  The  Pelagians 
(y.  v. ),  discarding  altogether  the  doctrine 
of  the  fall  of  Adam,  and  the  idea  that  the 
powers  of  the  human  will  had  been  weak¬ 
ened  through  original  sin,  taught  that  man, 
without  any  supernatural  gift  from  God,  is 
able,  by  his  own  natural  powers,  to  fulfill 
the  entire  law,  and  to  do  every  act  which 
is  necessary  for  the  attainment  of  eternal 
life.  The  condemnation  of  this  doctrine 
by  the  several  councils  held  in  the  early 


part  of  the  fifth  century  is  capable  of 
various  constructions,  and  has  been  urged 
by  some  to  the  extreme  of  denying  alto¬ 
gether  the  liberty  of  man,  and  converting 
the  human  will  into  a  merely  passive  in¬ 
strument,  whether  of  divine  grace  upon 
the  one  hand,  or  of  sinful  concupiscence 
upon  the  other.  The  writings  of  St.  Au¬ 
gustine  on  this  controversy  have  been  dif¬ 
ferently  construed  by  the  Christian  com¬ 
munions  (see  Pelagians);  and  the  same 
diversity  of  opinion  existed  in  his  own 
day.  Among  those  who,  dissenting  from 
the  extreme  view  of  Pelagius,  at  the  same 
time  did  not  go  to  the  full  length  of  the  Au- 
gustinian  writings  in  opposition  to  Pela¬ 
gius,  were  some  monks  of  the  southern  prov¬ 
inces  of  Gaul,  and  especially  of  Marseilles, 
whence  their  school  was  called  Massilian, 
from  the  Latin  name  ( Massilia )  of  that  city. 
Of  these  leaders,  the  chief  was  a  priest 
named  Cassian,  who  had  been  a  deacon  at 
Constantinople.  Of  the  system  which  he 
propounded,  without  going  into  the  details, 
although  many  of  them  are  exceedingly 
curious  and  interesting,  it  will  be  enough 
to  say  that  it  upheld  the  sufficiency  of 
man’s  natural  powers  only  so  far  as  regards 
the  first  act  of  conversion  to  God  and  the 
initial  act  of  man’s  repentance  for  sin. 
Every  man  naturally  possesses  the  capabili¬ 
ty  of  beginning  the  work  of  self-conversion; 
but  for  all  ulterior  acts,  as  well  as  for  the 
completion  of  justification,  the  assistance 
of  God’s  grace  is  indispensable.  The 
Semi- Pelagian  doctrine  is  often  confound¬ 
ed  with  that  of  the  Molinistic  (see  Molinos) 
school  of  Roman  Catholic  theology;  but 
there  is  one  essential  difference,  viz.,  that 
the  latter  persistently  maintain  the  neces¬ 
sity  of  grace  for  all  supernatural  acts, 
even  for  the  beginning  of  conversion,  al¬ 
though  they  are  generally  represented  as 
agreeing  with  the  Semi-Pelagians  as  to  the 
mode  of  explaining  the  freedom  of  the 
human  will  acting  under  the  influence  of 
divine  grace.  The  chief  writers  in  the 
controversy  were  Prosper,  Hilary,  and 
Fulgentius;  and  the  question  was  referred 
to  Celestine,  bishop  of  Rome  in  431. 
It  continued,  however,  to  be  agitated  in 
the  West  for  a  considerable  time.  Faustus, 
bishop  of  Riez,  toward  the  end  of  the 
fifth  century  revived  the  error,  and  it 
was  condemned  in  a  council  held  at  Arles 
in  475,  and  still  later  in  a  synod  (the  sec¬ 
ond)  held  at  Orange  (Arausio)  in  525,  and 
again  in  the  third  council  of  Valence  in 
530.” — Chambers:  Cyclopcedia. 

Semit'ic,  “  a  name  derived  from  Shem , 
the  son  of  Noah,  and  applied  to  an  exten¬ 
sive  family  of  languages,  and  also  to  the 
people  who  speak  those  languages.  The 


Sem 


(  85i  ) 


Sen 


Semitic  languages  may  be  divided  into 
three  branches  :  the  Arabic ,  to  which  the 
Ethiopic  is  closely  allied;  the  Aramcean, 
consisting  of  two  dialects,  viz.,  the  Baby¬ 
lonian,  or  Chaldee,  and  the  Syriac;  and 
the  Hebrew ,  to  which  the  Phoenician  and 
the  Punic  are  closely  related.  Of  these 
languages  the  Arabic  is  the  most  copious, 
and  the  Aramaean  the  poorest  and  least 
developed;  the  Hebrew  holds  an  interme¬ 
diate  rank  between  these,  being  more  per¬ 
fect  than  the  Aramaean,  and  inferior  to  the 
Arabic.  The  term  Se?nitic  is  employed  in 
distinction  from  Japhetic,  more  usually 
called  Aryan  or  Indo-European,  another 
great  family  of  languages.  Professor  Max 
Muller  says:  ‘  It  is  impossible  to  mistake 
a  Semitic  language;  and  it  is  impossible  to 
imagine  an  Aryan  language  derived  from 
a  Semitic,  or  vice  versa ;  every  root  in 
these  languages  must  consist  of  three 
consonants,  and  numerous  words  are  de¬ 
rived  from  these  roots  by  a  simple  change 
of  vowels,  leaving  the  consonantal  skeleton 
as  much  as  possible  intact.’  The  original 
Semitic  alphabet  contained  only  seventeen 
letters  ;  the  names  of  the  letters  of  our 
alphabet  are  mostly  derived  from  it,  but 
not  their  forms,  nor  the  words  of  our  lan¬ 
guage,  which  is  an  Aryan  tongue.  All  the 
Semitic  languages  are  written  from  right 
to  left.” — Cassell:  Cyclopcedia . 

Semler,  Johann  Salomo,  one  of  the 
most  influential  German  theologians  of  the 
eighteenth  century,  was  b.  Dec.  18,  1725, 
at  Saalfeld;  and  d.  at  Halle,  March  4,  1791. 
He  was  educated  at  Halle,  and  in  1749 
went  to  Coburg  as  professor  in  the  gym¬ 
nasium.  In  1751  he  was  appointed  a  pro¬ 
fessor  of  theology  at  Halle,  where  he 
taught  with  great  success;  and  six  years 
later  became  director  of  the  theological 
seminary  there.  Semler  was,  in  the  early 
part  of  his  student  career,  somewhat  of  a 
Pietist,  but  he  was  much  influenced  by  the 
lectures  of  Baumgarten,  and  swung  round 
to  rationalism,  of  which  he  was  the  first 
systematic  exponent.  Semler’s  rational¬ 
ism,  however,  was  always  moderate  in 
degree,  though  definite  enough  in  kind.  As 
a  thinker,  he  was  deficient  in  philosophical 
consistency  and  breadth  of  view;  and  as  a 
writer  he  possessed  no  literary  skill  nor 
grace;  but  his  works  are  valuable  for  the 
spirit  of  historical  criticism  by  which  they 
are  pervaded.  See  his  Autobiography 
(1781). 

Seneca,  Lucius  Ann^us,  a  celebrated 
Roman  philosopher;  b.  in  Corduba,  Spain, 
about  8  b.  c. ;  d.  by  suicide,  65  a.  d.  He 
received  early  advantages  in  training  and 
travel,  and  gained  forensic  success  as  an 


orator  at  Rome.  On  a  charge  of  an  illicit 
connection  with  Julia,  daughter  of  Ger- 
manicus,  he  was  banished  to  Corsica. 
During  his  residence  here  of  eight  years 
he  wrote  his  De  Consolatione  ad  Helviam 
Liber  and  De  Consolatione  ad  Polybiurn  Liber. 
Recalled  to  Rome  on  the  marriage  of 
Agrippina  to  Claudius,  he  was  appointed 
tutor  of  the  future  emperor,  Nero.  He 
amassed  large  wealth,  and  came  under  the 
suspicion  of  Nero.  Accused  of  participat¬ 
ing  in  the  conspiracy  of  Piso,  the  emperor 
ordered  him  to  commit  suicide.  This  he 
did  by  opening  his  veins  and  bleeding  to 
death  in  a  hot  bath.  The  relation  of  the 
philosophy  of  Seneca  to  Christianity  has 
aroused  much  attention.  “  Seneca,”  says 
Dr.  Reuss,  “  knows  nothing  either  of  the 
Judaistic  type  of  Christianity,  or  of  Christ 
as  its  Alpha  and  Omega.  Without  speak¬ 
ing  of  the  specific  Christian  conceptions  of 
revelation,  sin  and  law,  Seneca  stands  on 
other  than  Christian  ground.  The  stoic  is 
himself  the  source  of  truth  and  his  own 
duty.  There  is,  however,  a  Christian 
glimmer,  the  moonlight  of  Christianity 
diffused  over  his  philosophy.  But  he  is 
not  the  dim  reflection  of  a  new  light  which 
he  has  appropriated,  but  the  faint  dawn  on 
the  obscure  horizon  of  the  pre-Christian 
world,  announcing  the  sun,  which  has  al¬ 
ready  begun  to  scatter  his  light  across  val¬ 
ley  and  on  mountain.  The  fine  ideas  of 
Roman  stoicism  were  the  buds  which  only 
the  sun  of  the  gospel  could  develop  into 
beauty  and  perfection  ;  but  which,  left 
alone,  would  never  have  produced  rich 
fruits.”  See  Farrar:  Seekers  After  God ; 
Lightfoot:  Essay  on  Paul  and  Seneca ,  in 
Commentary  on  Philippians. 

Sennach'erib,  king  of  Assyria  when 
Hezekiah  reigned  over  Judah,  and  the  son 
and  successor  of  Sargon.  Under  Hezekiah 
Judah  refused  to  pay  tribute  to  Assyria, 
and,  in  consequence,  the  country  was  in¬ 
vaded  twice  by  Sennacherib.  The  first 
time  the  tribute  was  given,  and  the  Assyr¬ 
ian  army  returned  home.  (2  Kings  xviii. 
14.)  The  second  time  that  Judah  revolted 
Sennacherib  sent  an  embassy  demanding 
submission,  and  forwarded  an  insulting 
letter  to  Hezekiah,  who  went  up  to  the 
temple,  and  prayed  for  deliverance.  His 
prayer  was  answered  in  a  plague,  which 
smote  the  Assyrian  army  that  was  besieg¬ 
ing  Libnah.  The  siege  was  raised,  and 
Sennacherib  returned  to  Nineveh.  (2  Kings 
xix.  35.)  His  reign  lasted  twenty-two 
years,  b.  c.  705-682,  and  he  was  succeeded 
by  Esar-haddon.  An  imperious  ruler,  he 
gained  many  brilliant  victories,  and  en¬ 
larged  the  resources  of  his  kingdom.  He 
adorned  his  capital,  Nineveh,  with  many 


Sep 


(  852  ) 


Ser 


splendid  buildings.  His  name  is  found 
upon  widely  scattered  monuments. 

Separates,  a  name  given  about  the  year 
1740  to  those  followers,  in  this  country,  of 
George  Whitefield  and  other  evangelists, 
who  held  that  believers  are  guided  by  the 
immediate  inspiration  of  the  Holy  Spirit. 
They  were  first  known  as  “  New  Lights,” 
but  after  they  began  to  organize  into  sep¬ 
arate  societies  under  the  lead  of  Rev.  Shu- 
bal  Stearne,  they  took  the  name  “  Sep¬ 
arates.”  Stearne  became  a  Baptist  in  1751, 
and  many  of  the  Separates  followed  him. 
The  sect  early  died  out. 

Separatists  is  the  name  given  to  those 
who  separate  from  the  State  Church,  and 
worship  in  accord  with  the  views  which 
seem  to  them  correct. 

Sepharva'im,  a  city  of  Northern  Babylo¬ 
nia.  (2  Kings  xvii.  24,  31;  xviii.  34;  xix.  13; 
Isa.  xxxvi.  19;  xxxvii.  13.)  Rawlinson  and 
others  identify  it  with  Sippara,  a  town  on 
the  Euphrates  between  Hit  and  Babylon. 
The  site  of  the  city  was  discovered  in  1881, 
by  Hormuzd  Rassam,  who  unearthed  the 
ruins  of  its  famous  sun-temple. 

Sep'tuagint,  the  Greek  version  of  the  Old 
Testament,  used  by  the  Hellenist  Jews  and 
by  the  early  Christians.  The  story  of  the 
Septuagint,  as  given  by  Aristeas,  is  as  fol¬ 
lows:  Ptolemy  Philadelphus,  the  son  of 
Lagus,  king  of  Egypt,  wished  to  add  a  copy 
of  the  books  of  the  Jewish  Law  to  his  li¬ 
brary  at  Alexandria,  and  sent  to  the  high- 
priest,  Eleazar,  to  ask  for  a  copy,  and  for 
competent  persons  to  translate  it  into 
Greek.  Seventy-two  men,  six  from  each 
tribe,  were  sent  to  Egypt,  and  after  seventy- 
two  days  spent  in  translation,  the  five  books 
of  the  Pentateuch  were  completed,  the 
translators  having  assisted  each  other.  See 
Bible. 

Septuages'ima  ( seventieth )  is  the  third 
Sunday  before  Lent. 

Sepulchre,  Holy.  See  Jerusalem. 

Ser'aphim  (princes),  beings  mentioned  by 
Isaiah,  who  appear  to  be  the  most  exalted 
of  the  heavenly  host.  (Isa.  vi.  2-6.) 

Sergius  Paulus.  See  Paul. 

Sergius,  the  name  of  four  popes:  I. 
(687-701);  II.  (844-847);  III.  (904-911); 
IV.  (1009-12).  See  Popes. 

Serpent,  Brazen,  Num.  xxi.  9.  The 
history  of  the  brazen  serpent  is  alluded  to 


by  our  Saviour  as  an  illustration  of  his 
work  of  atonement.  (John  iii.  14,  15.) 

Serve'tus,  Michael,  “  or,  in  his  native 
Spanish,  Miguel  Servede,  a  notable  and 
unfortunate  speculator  in  theology,  was  b. 
at  Villanueva,  in  Aragon,  in  1509.  At  the 
age  of  nineteen  he  quitted  Spain,  and  com¬ 
menced  the  study  of  law  at  Toulouse,  which 
he  soon  abandoned  to  devote  himself  with 
ardor  to  the  knotty  points  of  the  Reforma¬ 
tion  doctrines.  In  1530  he  went  to  Basel 
to  hear  CEcolampadius,  and  thence  to  Stras- 
burg,  where  Bucer  and  Capito  taught. 
His  daring  denial  of  the  doctrine  of  the 
Trinity  frightened  or  angered  these  divines 
to  such  a  degree  that  they  denounced  him 
as  ‘  a  wicked  and  cursed  Spaniard.’  Ser- 
vetus  appealed  from  their  judgment  to  that 
of  the  public  in  his  De  Trinitatis  Errori- 
bus  Lib.  VII.  (Haguenau,  1531;  modern 
edition,  Nuremberg,  1791),  and  his  Dia¬ 
logues  (Haguenau,  1532);  but  the  public 
thought  as  little  of  his  teaching  as  the  theo¬ 
logians;  and  to  avoid  the  odium  which  it 
had  occasioned,  he  changed  his  name  to 
Michael  de  Villeneuve,  and  fled  to  Paris; 
where  he  studied  medicine  under  Sylvius 
and  Fernel,  and  took  his  degree  as  a  phy¬ 
sician  with  honors.  Servetus  seems  to 
have  possessed  a  kind  of  penetrating,  if 
also  rash  and  restless,  intellect,  which 
enabled  him  to  hit  truth  occasionally  in  his 
flighty  researches,  or,  at  least,  to  make 
happy  guesses  in  the  right  direction.  Thus, 
for  example,  he  had  an  idea  (see  M.  Flou- 
rens  in  the  Journal des  Savans,  April,  1854) 
of  the  doctrine  of  the  circulation  of  the 
blood.  He  attacked  Galen  and  the  faculty 
with  his  customary  violence  in  a  treatise 
on  syrups  (Syruporu??i  Universa  Katie, 
Paris,  1537;  Lyons,  1546).  About  this 
time  he  made  the  acquaintance  of  Calvin, 
with  whom  he  had  several  conferences  or 
private  disputations,  the  result  of  which 
was  a  public  challenge;  but  Servetus,  after 
assenting  to  the  arrangements,  decamped, 
afraid  probably,  and  not  without  reason, 
that  his  precipitate, imperious  way  of  think¬ 
ing  did  not  fit  him  for  discussing  with  so 
cool,  wary,  and  merciless  a  logician  as  the 
Genevese  reformer;  afraid,  too,  perhaps, 
of  being  unceremoniously  handed  over  to 
the  authorities  for  heresy!  After  living 
successively  for  some  time  at  Lyons, 
Charlieu,  and  Avignon,  and  supporting 
himself  by  writing  for  the  booksellers,  he 
found  an  asylum  in  the  palace  of  Pierre 
Paulmier,  archbishop  of  Vienne,  in  1541, 
where  he  remained  for  some  years,  and 
wrote  his  famous  Christianismi  Restitutio, 
first  published  in  1553.  The  work  has 
been  twice  reprinted,  first  by  Dr.  Meade, 
of  London  (incomplete),  and  again  by  Murr, 


Ser 


(  853  ) 


Sev 


at  Nuremberg,  in  1790.  Its  celebrity  is 
due  more  to  the  fact  that  it  sealed  the  fate 
of  its  author  than  to  its  intrinsic  merits, 
the  ideas  being  obscure,  and  the  style  in¬ 
correct.  After  its  publication,  Servetus 
wished  to  go  to  Italy  by  way  of  Switzer¬ 
land,  but  in  passing  through  Geneva  was 
arrested  and  imprisoned  at  the  instigation 
of  Calvin  {q.  v.).  After  a  long  and  compli¬ 
cated  judicial  procedure,  Servetus  was  con¬ 
demned  to  be  burned,  and  the  sentence 
was  carried  into  execution,  Oct.  27,  1553 — 
the  hapless  heretic  expiring  in  agonies. 
The  fate  of  Servetus,  after  all  the  pallia¬ 
tions  that  can  be  offered  are  weighed,  re¬ 
mains  a  dark  stain  on  the  memory  of  Cal¬ 
vin.  See  Willis’s  Servetus  and  Calvin 
(1877).” — Chambers:  Cyclopcedia. 

Servia.  Modern  Servia,  which  regained 
her  position  as  a  kingdom  in  1882,  has  an 
area  of  20,850  square  miles  and  a  popula¬ 
tion  of  about  two  millions.  “  The  inhab¬ 
itants  nearly  all  belong  to  the  Greek  Church, 
but  are  independent  of  the  patriarch  of 
Constantinople.  Ecclesiastical  affairs  are 
managed  by  a  metropolitan,  whose  seat  is 
at  Belgrade,  and  by  the  three  bishops  of 
Uzitza,  Shabatz,  and  Timok.  For  the  few 
who  acknowledge  the  authority  of  the  pope 
and  the  Latin  church,  there  is  a  bishop  in 
part,  infid.,  but  who  resides  at  Diacobar  in 
Austrian  Slavonia.  Servia,  according  to 
recent  estimates,  had  298  churches,  651 
parishes,  and  652  priests,  besides  38  clois¬ 
ters.  It  also  possessed  upward  of  300 
educational  institutions,  including  several 
gymnasia,  a  lyceum  for  philosophical  and 
juristic  studies,  a  theological  college,  an 
artillery  school,  a  school  of  agriculture, 
and  300  elementary  schools  for  boys,  and 
13  for  girls.  These  schools  are  not  under 
the  control  of  the  clergy,  and  education  is 
consequently  making  rapid  progress.”  The 
entire  Protestant,  Roman  Catholic,  and 
Jewish  populations  together  numbered  in 
1874  less  than  seven  thousand.  The  dis¬ 
tricts  annexed  in  1878  contained  a  Moham¬ 
medan  population  of  seventy-five  thou¬ 
sand.” — R.  W.  Hall ,  Schaff- Herzog:  Ency. 

Servites,  or  Servants  of  the  Virgin 
Mary,  an  order  founded  at  Florence  in 
1223  by  seven  wealthy  merchants.  They 
retired  to  a  secluded  spot  (Villa  Camartia) 
and  devoted  themselves  entirely  to  the 
worship  of  the  Virgin.  The  order  was 
confirmed  by  Gregory  IX.  and  spread 
rapidly.  Paolo  Sarpi  belonged  to  this 
order.  There  are  also  Servite  nuns. 

Servus  Servorum  Dei  {servant  of  the 
servants  of  God),  an  official  formula  used 
by  the  pope  when  signing  his  name.  It  is 


said  to  have  been  adopted  by  Gregory  the 
Great  as  a  rebuke  to  John,  patriarch  of 
Constantinople,  who  signed  himself  “GEcu- 
menical  Patriarch.” 

Session,  the  lowest  court  in  the  Presby¬ 
terian  Church.  It  is  composed  of  the 
pastor  and  elders,  and  examines  candidates 
for  membership  in  the  church  and  transacts 
its  routine  business. 

Sethians,  an  Egyptian  Gnostic  sect  of  the 
second  century.  They  considered  Seth, 
Noah’s  son,  as  the  most  holy  man  of  the 
Old  Testament,  and  believed  that  the  Mes¬ 
siah  would  descend  from  him.  They 
affirmed  that  the  world  was  created  by  the 
angels  and  not  by  God. 

Seton  (Mother),  Elizabeth  Ann  {nee 
Bayley),  foundress  of  the  Sisters  of  Char¬ 
ity  in  the  United  States;  b.  in  New  York 
City,  Aug.  28,  1774;  d.  at  Emmittsburg, 
Md.,  Jan.  4,  1821.  After  the  death  of  her 
husband  (1803)  she  became  a  member  of 
the  Roman  Catholic  Church  (1805).  She 
taught  school  for  a  time  in  Baltimore,  but 
with  her  sisters-in-law,  Harriet  and  Cecilia 
Seton,  having  received  a  legacy  of  eight 
thousand  dollars,  she  founded  an  establish¬ 
ment  of  the  Sisters  of  Charity  at  Emmitts¬ 
burg,  July  30,  1809.  She  became  superior- 
general  of  the  order  in  this  country,  and  at 
her  death  it  numbered  fifty  members.  See 
her  Life,  by  Robert  Seton  (N.  Y.,  1869),  2 
vols.  See  Charity,  Sisters  of. 

Seventh-Day  Baptists.  Origin.  —  The 
Seventh-Day  Baptists  assumed  their  pres¬ 
ent  denominational  form  as  “  Sabbatarian 
Baptists,”  in  England,  during  the  English 
Reformation.  Their  distinctive  doctrines 
were  first  preached  by  John  the  Baptist. 
Christ,  not  “  as  a  Jew,”  but  as  Christ,  set 
the  example  for  all  his  followers.  Sabbath¬ 
keeping,  as  obedience  to  God’s  law,  and 
baptism  as  the  symbol  of  a  new  life,  after 
repentance,  are  fundamental  facts  in  the 
history  of  New  Testament  Christianity. 
In  these  facts  the  Seventh-Day  Baptists 
find  the  warrant  for  their  denominational 
existence.  On  these  points  they  claim  to 
be  identical  with  the  New  Testament 
Church. 

History. — There  has  been  no  period  since 
the  time  of  Christ  when  there  were  not 
Sabbath-keeping  Christians  in  the  Church. 
There  is  no  evidence  of  any  form  of  ob¬ 
servance  of  Sunday  by  Christians  previous 
to  the  middle  of  the  second  century.  Sab¬ 
bath-keeping  continued,  even  in  the  West¬ 
ern  Church,  as  late  as  the  fifth  century, 
and  in  the  Eastern  until  the  fifteenth,  or 
later.  Since  Sabbath-keepers  denied  the 


Sev 


(  854  ) 


Sev 


authority  of  the  Paganized  Church  they 
were  persecuted  as  heretics  by  the  papal 
power.  Their  earlier  history,  coming 
through  the  hands  of  their  enemies,  has 
been  wholly  destroyed,  or  much  distorted. 
As  the  Western  Church  drifted  into  papacy 
these  dissenters  were  known  as  Nazarenes, 
Cerinthians,  and  Hypsistarii;  and  they 
were  stigmatized  as  “  Judaizers.”  Later, 
they  were  known  as  Vaudois,  Cathari, 
Toulousians,  Petrobrussians,  Passagians, 
and  Waldenses.  These  were  not  wholly  uni¬ 
form  in  doctrine  and  practice,  but  among 
them  were  many  Sabbath-keeping  Baptists, 
who  accepted  the  Bible  alone  as  authority. 
They  form  the  irregular,  but  never  wholly 
broken,  chain  between  the  New  Testament 
and  the  modern  Seventh-Day  Baptists. 

Sabbath-keepers  in  the  Eastern  Church 
were  not  disturbed  by  the  papal  power, 
and  were  far  more  numerous  than  in  the 
West.  When  the  Romish  Church  attempt¬ 
ed  to  proselyte  the  Abyssinians,  in  the 
seventeenth  century,  they  found  them  ob¬ 
serving  the  Sabbath,  and  ready  to  take  up 
arms  in  its  defense.  They  “  had  hallowed 
it  from  time  immemorial.”  The  Armenian 
Church  was  founded  as  early  as  302  A.  D. ; 
from  that  time  until  English  missionaries 
entered  Armenia,  early  in  the  present  cen¬ 
tury,  Sabbath-keeping  continued  without 
interruption.  The  Nestorian  or  Chaldean 
Christians  have  also  continued  their  orig¬ 
inal  practice  of  Sabbath-keeping  to  the 
present  century;  and  there  is  every  reason 
for  believing  that  the  Sabbath  is  still  kept 
in  these  three  branches  of  the  Church,  ex¬ 
cept  where  modern  missionary  influence  has 
modified,  or  set  it  aside.  These  facts  are 
of  great  importance,  as  showing  what  the 
earliest  practice  was,  and  what  it  has  con¬ 
tinued  to  be,  where  the  papal  Church  has 
not  had  power  to  repress  it. 

When  the  darkness  of  the  Middle  Ages 
began  to  recede  before  the  light  of  the  Ref¬ 
ormation,  scattered  Sabbath-keepers  ap¬ 
peared  at  different  points.  Their  history, 
linked  with  those  who  had  died  for  their 
faith  and  fealty  to  the  law  of  God  during 
the  Dark  Ages,  makes  the  chain  complete. 
Sabbath-keepers  increased  as  the  spirit  of 
reform  spread  among  the  people.  At  first 
they  were  more  prominent  in  Bohemia, 
Transylvania,  and  Holland.  Doctor  Hes- 
sey  calls  the  Bohemian  Sabbath-keepers 
the  denominational  ancestors  of  the  pres¬ 
ent  Seventh-Day  Baptists.  During  the 
Reformation  in  England,  Sabbath-keepers 
were  among  the  representative  men  of  the 
times.  Their  writings  and  sufferings  form 
an  important  factor  in  the  history  of  those 
years.  John  Trask,  William  Hillyard, 
Christopher  Sands,  Rev.  Mr.  Wright,  and 
one  Hebden  were  among  those  who  were 


prominent  between  1600  and  1630  A.  D. 
Trask  was  pilloried,  whipped,  and  impris¬ 
oned  under  sentence  by  the  infamous 
“  Star  Chamber.”  His  wife  was  condemn¬ 
ed  because  she  refused  to  teach  school  on 
the  Sabbath.  “  She  lay  in  prison  fifteen 
or  sixteen  years  for  her  opinions  about  the 
Saturday  Sabbath.”  She  was  a  great  suf¬ 
ferer,  dying  at  last  in  prison,  and  was 
buried  in  the  open  fields.  About  1630, 
Theophilus  Brahourne  wrote  several  books 
in  favor  of  the  Sabbath,  and  with  such  ef¬ 
fect  that  the  king  ordered  Bishop  Francis 
White  to  answer  him;  the  answer  was  pub¬ 
lished  in  1635.  Among  the  writers  who 
succeeded  Brabourne  were  James  Ockford, 
Edward  Fisher,  Edward  Stennett,  Francis 
Bampfield,  Thomas  Bampfield,  Joseph 
Stennett,  and  Samuel  Stennett,  D.  D.,  the 
latter  a  writer  of  hymns  which  are  yet  fa¬ 
miliar. 

The  influence  of  the  Seventh-Day  Bap¬ 
tists  was  a  prominent  factor  in  forcing  the 
Puritans  to  adopt  the  change  of  day  theory, 
which  gave  birth  to  the  “Puritan  Sabbath.” 
Afraid  to  remain  upon  the  no-Sabbath  plat¬ 
form  of  the  Church  party  and  of  the  Con¬ 
tinental  Reformers,  and  not  radical  enough 
to  accept  the  Sabbath  with  the  Seventh- 
Day  Baptists,  the  Puritans  sought  this 
middle  ground  of  compromise.  This 
“  change  of  day  ”  theory  was  first  publish¬ 
ed  by  Nicholas  Bownde,  of  Norfolk,  Eng., 
i595-i6o6  a.  d.  A  number  of  Seventh- 
Day  Baptist  churches  were  organized  in 
England  between  1600  and  1700  a.  D. 
Three  of  these  were  in  the  city  of  London. 
The  Mill-Yard  Church  still  holds  regular 
Sabbath  services.  This  congregation  was 
first  gathered  by  Rev.  John  James  (date 
unknown  from  loss  of  records).  On  Oct. 
19,  1661,  Mr.  James  was  arrested  in  his 
pulpit,  tried,  and  condemned  on  the  false 
charge  of  treason — a  proceeding  not  un¬ 
common  in  those  days,  in  order  to  get  rid 
of  men  whose  religious  and  reformatory 
views  could  not  be  answered  otherwise. 
He  was  “  hung,  drawn  and  quartered.” 
After  he  was  dead  his  heart  was  taken  out 
and  burned,  his  quarters  were  affixed  to  the 
gates  of  the  city,  and  his  head  was  set  up 
in  Whitechapel,  on  a  pole,  opposite  the  al¬ 
ley  in  which  his  meeting-house  stood. 

Churches  in  America. — These  were  the 
result  of  emigration  from  England.  Ste¬ 
phen  Mumford  of  London  came  to  New¬ 
port,  R.  I.,  in  1664.  He  united  with  the 
Baptist  Church,  though  a  Sabbath-keeper. 
Others  embraced  the  Sabbath,  and  the  first 
Seventh-Day  Baptist  Church  in  America 
was  organized  at  Newport,  in  1671.  A 
second  branch  was  founded  by  Rev.  Abel 
Noble,  near  Philadelphia,  about  1700.  A 
third  was  founded  in  Northern  New  Jersey, 


Sev 


(  855  ) 


Sev 


by  converts  from  the  Piscataway  Baptist 
Church,  in  1705.  From  these  three  points 
the  denomination  has  spread  slowly 
through  the  United  States.  In  1818  the 
General  Conference  adopted  “  Seventh- 
Day  Baptist,”  instead  of  Sabbatarian,  as 
the  denominational  title. 

Church  Polity. — This  is  a  pure  Congrega¬ 
tionalism.  Each  Church  is  an  independent 
democracy.  Associations  and  General 
Conference  have  only  “  advisory  powers.” 
Ordained  officers  are  Pastors,  Deacons,  and 
Evangelists. 

Doctrines. — The  Seventh-Day  Baptists 
are  strictly  evangelical,  in  the  best  sense  of 
that  term.  They  are  necessarily  radical  re¬ 
formers  ;  earnest  advocates  of  freedom, 
equality,  temperance,  purity,  universal 
education,  Bible  schools,  etc.  They  en¬ 
gaged  in  home  missions  at  an  early  day, 
and  established  foreign  missions  about 
1850.  They  commenced  publishing  in  1819. 
The  work  of  missions  and  publishing  is  be¬ 
ing  constantly  enlarged.  Most  of  their 
publications  have  been  in  the  interest  of 
Sabbath  Reform. 

Reasons  for  Observing  the  Sabbath. — These 
they  hold  to  be  as  follows:  (a)  The  ten 
commandments  enunciate  eternal  and  uni¬ 
versal  truths.  They  spring  from  man’s  re¬ 
lation  to  God  and  to  his  fellows.  They 
must  continue  while  these  relations  con¬ 
tinue.  The  Sabbath  and  the  Sabbath  Law 
are  inseparable,  since  no  day  but  the  Sev¬ 
enth  can  represent  God,  the  Creator,  his 
example,  and  consequent  commandment. 
The  Bible  gives  no  warrant  for  saying  that 
the  law  means  any  “seventh  part”  of 
time. 

(b)  Christ  came  not  to  destroy  the  law, 
but  to  fulfill  it  by  complete  obedience.  He 
and  his  disciples  kept  the  Sabbath,  purged 
from  Judaistic  falsities.  The  New  Testa¬ 
ment  Church  did  the  same.  Thus  purified 
it  is  the  true  Christian  Sabbath.  They  re¬ 
ject  no-Sabbathism  for  the  above  reasons, 
and  also  because  the  few  passages  from  the 
Epistles  which  are  adduced  to  prove  the 
abrogation  of  the  Sabbath  cannot  include 
the  weekly  Sabbath,  which  existed  before 
Judaism, and  was  nota“  shadow  of  Christ.” 

( c )  They  reject  Sunday  because  the  New 
Testament  never  alludes  to  “  a  change  of 
the  Sabbath.”  It  never  speaks  of  Sunday 
as  a  sacred  day,  or  as  commemorative  of 
any  event,  or  as  connected  in  any  way  with 
the  Sabbath  question.  It  does  state  that 
“  Christ  rose  late  in  the  Sabbath,”  i.  e.,  be¬ 
fore  sunset  (Matt,  xxxviii.  1),  and  not  on 
the  first  day  of  the  week,  according  to  tra¬ 
dition.  The  phrase  ‘  ‘  first  day  of  the  week  ” 
occurs  in  the  Bible  but  eight  times;  six  of 
these  refer  to  the  same  day,  the  one  on 
which  the  resurrection  was  announced  to 


the  disciples.  There  is  but  one  reference 
to  it  in  the  book  of  Acts,  and  one  in  all  the 
Epistles;  so  that  there  are  but  three  dis¬ 
tinct  references  to  the  first  day  of  the  week 
in  the  New  Testament.  On  the  other  hand, 
the  Sabbath,  in  its  appropriate  character,  is 
mentioned  fifty  times,  at  least,  in  the  New 
Testament  alone.  They  also  reject  the 
Sunday  because  it  came  into  the  Church  as 
a  semi-pagan  holiday,  and  the  temporary 
sacredness  which  it  attained  during  the 
Puritan  Reformation  has  been  necessarily 
lost,  and  it  is  rapidly  returning  to  its  native 
holiday  character,  even  in  the  United 
States.  Seventh-Day  Baptists  believe  that 
the  Church  will  be  forced  to  choose,  soon, 
between  a  return  to  the  Bible  Sabbath,  and 
being  overwhelmed  by  no-Sabbathism. 

Not  Legalists. — To  avoid  misapprehen¬ 
sion  it  ought  to  be  stated  that  the  Seventh- 
Day  Baptists  are  in  no  sense  legalists,  or 
Judaizers.  They  simply  accept  the  Sab¬ 
bath  “  as  made  for  man;”  as  antedating 
Judaism  and  the  formulating  of  the  law  at 
Sinai;  as  covering  all  dispensations  and 
continuing  through  all  time.  They  deem 
it  no  more  Jewish  than  the  law  against 
murder  or  profanity.  They  are  not  illib¬ 
eral  toward  others.  They  claim  and  grant 
the  right  of  private  judgment,  and  foster 
free  discussions,  holding  that  each  man  is 
judged  according  to  the  light  he  has.  They 
proclaim  the  Sabbath  as  an  essential  part 
of  a  complete  gospel,  and  the  only  remedy 
for  the  flood  of  no-Sabbathism,  under  which 
Sunday  is  being  buried.  They  look  for 
marked  changes  in  the  Church  through  the 
agitating  influences  now  at  work.  Their 
Sabbath  Reform  work,  through  publica¬ 
tions,  has  been  greatly  enlarged  within  ten 
years,  especially  through  the  Outlook ,  a 
Sabbath  Quarterly. 

For  literature  touching  the  points  men¬ 
tioned  above,  consult:  Robert  Cox:  Sab¬ 
bath  Literature;  Augustus  Hessey:  Sunday 
Bampton  Lectures  (i860);  Ross:  A  View  of 
All  Religions;  Paggitt:  Heresiography;  Ful¬ 
ler:  Church  History;  Heylyn:  History  of 
the  Sabbath;  Calamy:  Non-Conformists'  Me¬ 
morial;  Gobat  :  Journal  of  Three  Years' 
Residence  in  Abyssinia;  Geddes:  History  of 
Ethiopia;  Yeates:  East  India  Church  His¬ 
tory;  Mossie:  Continental  India;  Buchan- 
nan:  Christian  Researches  in  Asia  (earlier 
editions);  Coleman  :  Ancient  Christianity 
Exemplified;  Aliix:  History  of  Ancient  Pied- 
mont  Church;  Benedict:  History  of  Baptists; 
Blair:  History  of  Waldenses;  Utter:  Sev¬ 
enth-Day  Baptist  Manual;  Bailey:  History 
of  Seventh- Day  Baptist  General  Conference  ; 
Andrews:  History  of  the  Sabbath;  Lewis: 
Seventh- Day  Baptist  Hand-Book;  Biblical 
Teachings  Concerning  the  Sabbath  arid  The 
Sunday;  Critical  History  of  the  Sabbath  and 


I 


JSha  (  856  )  Sha 


the  Sunday;  Critical  History  of  Sunday  Leg¬ 
islation ,  and  bound  volumes  of  the  Outlook , 
a  Sabbath  Quarterly.  A.  H.  Lewis. 

Shaftesbury,  Anthony  Cooper,  3D  Earl 
of  (b.  1671;  d.  1713),  a  deist.  He  says  of 
himself  that  John  Locke  had  the  entire 
direction  of  his  education.  He  was  sent  to 
Winchester;  in  1693  he  began  his  Par¬ 
liamentary  career,  in  which  he  had  some 
success;  but  after  Anne’s  accession,  he  de¬ 
voted  himself  to  literary  pursuits.  In  1708 
he  published  his  Letter  on  Enthusiasm  ;  in 
1709  Moralists:  A  Philosophical  Rhapsody , 
and  Sensus  Co?nmunis;  or ,  Essays  on  Wit  and 
Humor;  in  1710  Soliloquy;  or.  Advice  to  an 
Author.  His  writings,  in  spite  of  their 
skeptical  tendency,  were  admired,  and  he 
still  has  a  great  name  in  the  history  of 
English  philosophy  and  literature.  In  1711 
appeared  Characteristics  of  Men,  Manners , 
Opinions,  and  Times;  in  this  work  he  cov¬ 
ertly  attacks  Christianity,  saying  that  its 
only  purpose  was  to  advance  morality. — 
Benham:  Diet,  of  Religion. 

Shaftesbury,  Anthony  Ashley  Cooper, 
7TH  Earl  of,  the  descendant  of  a  long  line 
of  famous  men,  was  born  in  Dorsetshire 
in  1801;  died,  1885.  He  was  educated 
at  Harrow,  and  at  Christ  Church,  Oxford, 
where  he  gained  a  first-class  in  the  classical 
schools, and  was  graduated  in  1822.  In  1826 
he  was  elected  member  for  Woodstock, 
and  in  Parliament  specially  devoted  him¬ 
self  to  the  question  of  Indian  administra¬ 
tion.  But  soon  the  state  of  the  lower 
classes  at  home  came  under  his  notice,  and 
he  began  that  work  to  which  he  afterward 
devoted  his  life,  and  which  has  made  his 
name  so  universally  famous — that  of  im¬ 
proving  the  condition  of  the  poor.  His 
first  effort  in  this  direction  was  the  passing 
of  the  Factory  Act,  which  he  effected  after 
much  trouble  and  opposition  on  the  part  of 
the  Commons.  But  the  chief  of  all  his 
good  works,  and  the  one  with  which  his 
name  was  most  nearly  associated,  was  the 
institution  of  the  Ragged  Schools.  He  was 
led  to  this  work  by  discovering  the  state  of 
utter  ignorance  which  existed  amongst  the 
lower  classes.  He  was  untiring  in  his 
efforts,  and  brought  several  measures  be¬ 
fore  the  Lower  House;  but  in  1852,  on  the 
death  of  his  father,  he  succeeded  to  the 
peerage,  and  was  able  to  draw  the  attention 
of  the  House  of  Lords  to  some  of  his 
schemes.  He  went  on  working  to  the  end 
of  his  life,  and  saw  many  of  his  plans  ap¬ 
proach  conclusion  some  time  before  his 
death,  and  so  was  able  to  spend  the  last 
years  of  his  life  in  comparative  retirement. 
H  is  sympathies  were  entirely  with  the 
“  Evangelical  party  ”  in  the  Church,  and 


he  was  president  of  the  Protestant  Alliance, 
the  Bible  Society,  the  Pastoral  Aid  So¬ 
ciety,  and  the  Society  for  the  Conversion 
of  the  Jews.  He  took  a  warm  interest  in 
the  employment  of  youths  as  shoeblacks. 
In  1884  he  was  presented  with  the  freedom 
of  the  City  of  London,  and  in  May  of  the 
following  year  received  an  address  from 
the  members  of  the  Ragged  Schools  as  a 
token  of  their  gratitude.  It  was  proposed 
that  he  should  be  interred  in  Westminster 
Abbey,  but  he  had  expressed  the  wish  be¬ 
fore  he  died  to  be  buried  near  his  wife  at 
his  native  home  in  Dorsetshire. — Benham: 
Diet,  of  Religion. 

Shakers,  the  name  commonly  given  to  a 
small  religious  sect  existing  in  the  United 
States.  The  proper  or  official  description 
of  this  sect  is  the  United  Society  of  Believ¬ 
ers  in  Christ’s  Second  Appearing;  but  its 
members  seem  to  have  accepted  the  desig¬ 
nation  of  Shakers,  though  it  was  originally 
applied  to  them  in  ridicule,  on  account  of 
certain  rhythmical  movements  of  the  hands 
and  arms  which  form  part  of  the  ceremo¬ 
nial  of  their  worship.  Though  the  Shaker 
societies  are  found  only  in  the  United 
States,  their  creed  had  an  English  origin. 
The  founder  of  the  sect,  in  whose  person 
they  believe  that  Christ  has  appeared  a 
second  time,  was  an  Englishwoman,  named 
Ann  Lee,  a  native  of  Manchester,  who 
emigrated  to  New  York  with  a  small  band 
of  disciples,  shortly  before  the  outbreak  of 
the  Revolutionary  War.  One  of  her  com¬ 
pany,  John  Hocknell,  purchased  land  seven 
miles  northwest  of  Albany,  and  erected 
rude  structures  for  the  use  of  the  commu¬ 
nity.  The  little  church  was  first  gathered 
in  1776,  and  three  years  after,  in  connection 
with  a  religious  revival,  at  New  Lebanon, 
N.Y. ,  several  persons  accepted  the  faith  of 
Ann  Lee.  The  Shakers’  first  house  of  wor¬ 
ship  was  built  at  New  Lebanon  in  1785,  the 
year  after  the  death  of  Ann  Lee.  There 
are  now  seventeen  societies  in  the  United 
States  (none  elsewhere).  These  societies 
are  organized  into  families  of  both  sexes 
and  all  ages,  and  varying  in  numbers  from 
a  few  to  a  hundred  and  more.  They  meet 
at  a  common  table,  kneeling  in  prayer 
before  each  meal,  and  giving  thanks  in  the 
same  way  at  its  close.  They  hold  meet¬ 
ings  for  worship  two  or  three  times  during 
the  week.  “  Worship  consists  in  singing,  in 
solo  and  harmony,  hymns,  anthems,  and  im¬ 
provised  songs,  called  ‘gift  songs,’  quick 
and  slow  marches,  two  abreast,  some¬ 
times  timing  with  the  hands  to  the  meas¬ 
ure,  sometimes  in  solemn  dances,  in 
ranks  or  circles,  and  occasionally  inter¬ 
changeably,  but  always  each  sex  grouped 
by  itself;  also  prayers,  exhortations,  and 


Sha 


(  857  ) 


She 


sermons  by  both  sexes.  Meetings  are  held 
for  mental  discipline,  as  reading  and  speak¬ 
ing;  others,  for  learning  new  songs,  and 
training  in  singing;  also  for  social  con¬ 
verse,  called  ‘  Union  Meetings.’  ”  The 
Shakers  are  loyal  citizens,  but  refuse  to  do 
any  military  duty  unless  by  compulsion. 
They  take  no  part  in  politics,  and  will  hold 
no  government  office  but  that  of  postmas¬ 
ter,  road-commissioner,  and  school  officers. 
The  leading  authority  of  the  church  is 
vested  in  two  members  of  each  sex,  who 
nominate  elders  who  guide  the  fami¬ 
lies  in  spiritual  and  social  matters,  and 
deacons  who  have  in  charge  temporal  af¬ 
fairs.  These  appointments,  representing 
both  sexes,  are  confirmed  by  the  general 
community  of  the  covenant  members.  The 
commingling  of  the  sexes  is  permitted  only 
in  needful  employment,  social  converse 
and  worship.  No  two  individuals  of  op¬ 
posite  sex  are  allowed  to  work,  walk  or 
talk  together  further  than  is  necessary. 
The  greatest  care  is  taken  that  nothing  be 
said  or  done  that  is  not  known  to  the  elders. 
The  best  literature  on  religious,  scientific, 
and  general  subjects  is  to  be  found  in  the 
libraries  of  the  communities.  There  are 
seventeen  societies,  all  within  the  bounds 
of  the  United  States,  and  they  own  about 
forty-five  thousand  acres  of  land.  See 
Sketches  of  Shakers  and  Shakerism ,  by 
Giles  B.  Avery  (Albany,  1883). 

Shalmane'ser  “was  the  Assyrian  king 
whoreigned  immediately  before  Sargon,and 
probably  immediately  after  Tiglath-pileser. 
He  can  scarcely  have  ascended  the  throne 
earlier  than  b.  C.  730,  and  may  possibly  not 
have  done  so  till  a  few  years  later.  It 
must  have  been  soon  after  his  accession 
that  he  led  the  forces  of  Assyria  into  Pal¬ 
estine,  where  Hoshea,  the  last  king  of 
Israel,  had  revolted  against  his  authority. 
(2  Kings  xvii.  3.)  No  sooner  was  he  come 
than  Hoshea  submitted,  acknowledged 
himself  a  4  servant  ’  of  the  Great  King, 
and  consented  to  pay  him  a  fixed  tribute 
annually.  He  soon  after  concluded  an  al¬ 
liance  with  the  king  of  Egypt,  and  with¬ 
held  his  tribute  in  consequence.  In  B.  c. 
723  Shalmaneser  invaded  Palestine  for 
the  second  time,  and,  as  Hoshea  refused 
to  submit,  laid  siege  to  Samaria.  The 
siege  lasted  to  the  third  year  (b.  c.  721), 
when  the  Assyrian  arms  prevailed.  (2 
Kings  xvii.  4-6;  xviii.  9-11.)  It  is  uncer¬ 
tain  whether  Shalmaneser  conducted  the 
siege  to  its  end,  or  whether  he  did  not 
lose  his  crown  to  Sargon  before  the  city 
was  taken.” — Smith:  Diet,  of  the  Bible. 

Shammai,  a  Jewish  rabbi  who  flourished 
in  the  century  before  Christ.  He  founded 


a  school  directly  opposed  to  that  of  Hil- 
lel,  so  that  it  became  a  proverb,  “  Hillel 
looses  what  Shammai  binds.”  Of  his  per¬ 
sonal  life  nothing  is  known. 

Shar'on  ( the  plain),  the  name  of  the  level 
tract  of  country  extending  along  the  Med¬ 
iterranean  between  Caesarea  and  Joppa. 
(Acts  ix.  35.)  It  is  twenty-five  or  thirty 
miles  in  length,  and  from  eight  to  fifteen 
in  breadth.  It  is  also  called  Saron,  and  is 
noted  tc  this  day  for  its  beauty  and  fertil¬ 
ity.  (1  Chron.  xxvii.  29;  Isa.  xxxv.  2;  Sol¬ 
omon’s  Song  ii.  1.) 

Sharp,  James,  archbishop  of  St.  An¬ 
drews;  b.  in  the  castle  of  Banff,  May,  1618; 
assassinated  on  Magus  Muir,  near  St.  An¬ 
drews,  May  3,  1679.  He  was  educated  at 
the  University  of  Aberdeen,  and  after  act¬ 
ing  for  a  short  time  (1640)  as  professor  of 
philosophy  in  St.  Leonard’s  College,  St. 
Andrews,  he  became  minister  of  Crail.  He 
was  sent  to  London  in  1656  to  plead  the 
cause  of  the  Presbyterians  before  the  Pro¬ 
tector.  While  on  friendly  terms  with 
Cromwell,  he  appears  to  have  correspond¬ 
ed  with  Charles  II.,  and  was  chosen  to 
visit  him  at  Breda  in  May,  1660,  to  look 
after  the  interests  of  the  Scotch  Church. 
He  was  made  the  bearer  of  a  letter  in 
which  the  king  declared  his  purpose  44  to 
protect  and  preserve  the  government  of 
the  Church  of  Scotland,  as  it  is  settled  by 
law,  without  violation.”  In  1661,  however, 
the  Scottish  Parliament  passed  an  act  an¬ 
nulling  all  acts  passed  since  1633,  and  thus 
abolished  Presbyterianism  and  restored  the 
Episcopal  Church.  In  December  of  that 
year  Sharp  was  consecrated  at  London  as 
archbishop  of  St.  Andrews.  Unjust  and 
tyrannical  in  his  action,  he  was  exceedingly 
unpopular.  He  met  his  death  at  last  by 
the  hands  of  assassins  who  were  watching 
for  Carmichael,  one  of  his  under-officers, 
and  did  not  purpose  to  injure  him. 

Shastra,  or  Shastras,  a  name  applied 
to  the  sacred  books  of  the  Hindus.  They 
contain  their  law,  both  civil  and  religious, 
and  are  said  to  have  been  collected  by 
Manu,  the  son  of  Brahma. 

She'chem  ( shoulder ),  a  town  thirty-four 
miles  north  from  Jerusalem,  and  nearly  two 
thousand  feet  above  the  sea-level.  It  lies 
in  the  narrow  valley  between  Mounts  Ebal 
and  Gerizim,  and  was  known  as  Sichem 
(Gen.  xii.  6);  Sychem  (Acts  vii.  16);  and 
Sychar  (John  iv.  5).  After  being  destroyed 
in  the  Jewish  war  it  was  rebuilt,  and  called, 
in  honor  of  the  Emperor  Vespasian,  Flavia 
Neapolis  ( new  city).  From  this  name  comes 
its  present  one,  Nablus  or  Nabulus.  The 


She 


(858) 


She 


place  is  mentioned  forty-eight  times  in  the 
Bible.  Here  Abraham  halted  (Gen.  xi.  6), 
and  here  the  Israelites  dedicated  them¬ 
selves  to  God,  and  Joseph  was  buried. 
(Josh,  xxiv.)  Abimelech  attempted  to  set 
up  an  independent  kingdom  at  Shechem, 
but  after  three  years  he  was  expelled  and 
the  city  destroyed  and  sown  with  salt. 
(Judg.  ix.)  Jeroboam  rebuilt  the  city,  and 
made  it  the  capital  of  the  northern  king¬ 
dom  (1  Kings  xii.  I-19,  25),  and  it  became 
the  centre  of  the  Samaritan  worship.  It 
was  in  his  conversation  with  the  woman  at 
Jacob’s  well,  near  the  city,  that  Jesus  first 
definitely  announced  himself  the  Messiah. 


The  Jews  say  this  “glory”  was  wanting 
in  the  second  temple. 

Shedd,  William  Greenougii  Thayer, 
D.  D.  (University  of  Vermont,  Burlington, 
1857),  LL.  D.  (University  of  the  City  of 
New  York,  1876),  Presbyterian;  b.  at  Ac¬ 
ton,  Mass.,  June  21,  1820;  was  graduated 
at  the  University  of  Vermont,  Burlington, 
1839,  and  at  Andover  Theological  Semi¬ 
nary,  1843;  became  Congregational  pastor 
at  Brandon,  Vt. ,  1844;  professor  of  Eng¬ 
lish  literature,  University  of  Vermont, 
1845;  of  sacred  rhetoric  in  Auburn  Pres¬ 
byterian  Theological  Seminary,  1852;  of 


The  Valley  and  Town  of  Nabulus,  the  ancient  Shechem,  from  the  southwestern  flank  of  Mount  Ebal,  looking  west¬ 
ward.  The  mountain  on  the  left  is  Gerizim.  The  Mediterranean  is  seen  in  the  distance. 


(John  iv.  5,  26.)  In  later  years  the  place 
became  the  seat  of  a  bishopric,  and  here 
Justin  Martyr  was  born.  The  present  pop¬ 
ulation  is  made  up  of  Samaritans,  Greek 
Christians,  Jews,  Latins  and  Protestants. 
Nearly  one-half  of  the  thirteen  hundred 
inhabitants  are  Greek  Christians.  Some 
eighty  springs  in  the  immediate  neighbor¬ 
hood  give  an  abundant  supply  of  water. 

Shechi'nah,  ( resting-place ),  a  word  found 
in  the  Targums,  and  from  them  adopted 
into  Christian  writings.  It  is  not  found  in 
the  Bible,  but  the  idea  for  which  it  stands 
is  found  in  the  expression  “  the  glory  of 
the  Lord.”  (Luke  ii.  9;  Rom.  ix.  4,  etc.) 


ecclesiastical  history  in  Andover  Congre¬ 
gational  Theological  Seminary,  1853;  c°- 
pastor  of  the  Brick  (Presbyterian)  Church, 
New  York  City,  1862;  but  since  1863  has 
been  professor  in  Union  Theological  Sem¬ 
inary,  New  York  City,  of  biblical  literature 
until  1874,  and  since  of  systematic  theology. 
He  is  the  author  of:  A  History  of  Christian 
Doctrine  (New  York  and  Edinburgh,  1865, 
2  vols.,  8th  ed.,  1884);  Homiletics  and  Pas¬ 
toral  Theology  (1867,  8th  ed.,  1884);  Ser¬ 
mons  to  the  Natural  Man  (1871,  3d  ed., 
1884);  Theological  Essays  (1877);  Literary 
Essays  (1878)  ;  Commentary  on  Romans 
(1879);  Sermons  to  the  Spiritual  Rian  (1884); 
The  Dodrme  of  Endless  Punishment  (1SS6). 


She 


(  859  ) 


Sho 


Shekel.  See  Money. 

Shemitic  Languages.  See  Semitic. 

She'ol  (Heb.  equivalent  for  the  Greek 
Hades),  a  word  denoting  the  under-world, 
the  place  of  shades.  It  is  derived  from  a 
word  meaning  “  to  penetrate,”  “  to  go  down 
deep;”  hence  sheol  is  literally  that  which 
is  sunk  deep.  See  Hades. 

Shepard,  Thomas,  a  noted  Puritan,  b.  at 
Towcester,  near  Northampton,  Eng.,  Nov. 
5,  1605;  d.  at  Cambridge,  Mass.,  Aug.  25, 
1649.  A  graduate  of  Oxford,  he  entered 
the  ministry,  but  was  silenced  for  noncon¬ 
formity  by  Laud  in  1630.  He  was  chaplain 
to  Sir  Richard  Darly  for  a  year,  and  pastor 
at  Heddon,  Northumberland,  for  a  short 
time.  Coming  to  New  England  in  1635, 
he  became  minister  of  the  church  at  Cam¬ 
bridge  the  following  year.  He  was  prom¬ 
inent  in  the  Cambridge  synod,  and  was  a 
prolific  writer.  His  treatise,  The  Parable 
of  the  Ten  Virgins  Opened  and  Applied 
(1659),  has  often  been  reprinted.  A  col¬ 
lective  edition  of  his  works,  with  memoir, 
was  published,  Boston,  1853,  3  vols.  See 
Dexter:  Congregationalisni,  Appendix. 

Shi'nar,  the  name  of  a  country  or  district 
referred  to  in  Gen.  x.  10;  xi.  2;  xiv.  1;  Isa. 
xi.  11 ;  Dan.  i.  2;  Zech.  v.  11.  In  Gen.  x.  10 
it  appears  to  be  a  general  name  for  Baby¬ 
lonia.  Among  its  cities  were  Babel  (Baby¬ 
lon),  Erech  or  Orech  (Orchoi),  Calneh  or 
Calno  (probably  Niffer),  and  Accad. 

Shin-Shiu,  or  Reformed  Buddhism, 
literally  the  “  True  Sect,”  is  said  by  its 
followers  to  have  been  established  in  China, 
A.  D.  381,  by  Hwui-yuen,  who  introduced 
the  worship  of  the  fourth  of  the  five  Bud¬ 
dhas.  This  religion  was  founded  on  a  San¬ 
scrit  writing  brought  to  China  from  India 
in  the  second  century,  which  has  lately 
been  found  in  Japan.  The  members  of  the 
sect  believe  in  salvation  by  faith  in  Buddha, 
and  in  ultimate  bliss  in  the  Paradise  of  the 
West.  The  Jodo-shinshiu,  or  “  True  Sect 
of  the  Pure  Land,”  derived  from  the  above, 
was  not  established  till  1173,  by  a  priest 
named  Honen;  it  was  afterward  developed 
by  his  pupil.  The  sect  is  a  curious  mixt¬ 
ure  of  doctrines,  partly  resembling  Prot¬ 
estantism  and  partly  Romanism;  its  chief 
temple  and  archbishop  are  at  Kioto,  and 
it  numbers  about  ten  million  followers  in 
Japan  alone.  Other  Buddhists  do  not  ac¬ 
knowledge  Shin-Shiu,  and  in  many  Bud¬ 
dhist  countries  it  is  unknown.  See  Bud¬ 
dhism. 

Shinto,  or  Sintooism,  the  most  ancient 


form  of  religion  held  by  the  Japanese, 
which  chiefly  consisted  in  the  worship  of 
the  Kamis  or  honored  dead.  From  these, 
after  many  evolutions,  sprang  Izanagi  and 
Izanami,  two  of  their  chief  gods,  who 
created  the  earth.  Another  important  ob¬ 
ject  of  their  worship  is  the  goddess  Ten- 
sio-Dai-Dsin,  from  whom  were  descended 
the  Dairi,  the  spiritual  head  of  the  Shin- 
toists,  and  also  their  temporal  head  until 
the  middle  of  the  twelfth  century.  This 
dignitary  was  supposed  to  be  invested 
with  almost  superhuman  attributes,  and  to 
be  visited  by  the  gods  once  in  every  year. 
The  temples  were  called  Mias,  and  were 
perfectly  plain,  with  neither  images  nor 
pictures.  Their  worship  consisted  of 
prayers  and  prostrations.  They  had  fre¬ 
quent  lustrations,  and  twice  a  year  a  gen¬ 
eral  purification  took  place.  In  the  ninth 
century  a  priest,  Kukai,  showed  that  Shin¬ 
toism  was  very  similar  to  Buddhism, 
which  caused  several  divisions,  as  “  Rio- 
bu,”  a  mixture  of  Shinto  and  Buddhism; 
Yuiitsu,  Buddhism  with  a  Shinto  basis; 
Deguchi,  Shinto  explained  by  the  Chinese 
Book  of  Changes;  and  Suiga,  a  mixture  of 
Deguchi  and  the  tenets  of  Chiu-hi.  Divid¬ 
ed  into  these  different  religions,  Shinto 
gradually  disappeared.  In  the  eighteenth 
century,  a  school  of  writers  deciphered 
and  edited  the  Shinto  scriptures,  which 
caused  the  revival  of  Shintoism  for  a  short 
time;  but  after  the  restoration  of  the  mon¬ 
archy  in  Tokio  it  was  abolished.  It  is 
still,  however,  a  living  power  among  mill¬ 
ions  of  the  Japanese. — Benham:  Diet .  of 
Religion. 

\ 

Shi'shak,  king  of  Egypt,  and  the  first 
Pharaoh  of  the  twenty-second  dynasty. 
He  invaded  Judah  and  spoiled  the  temple 
and  palace.  (1  Kings  xv.  25  sqq. )  An  ac¬ 
count  of  his  victory  is  written  upon  the 
walls  of  a  temple  on  the  south  of  the  great 
temple  at  Karnac.  From  this  account  it 
appears  that  he  invaded  the  northern  as 
well  as  the  southern  kingdom. 

Showbread  “  is  the  rendering  of  the 
Hebrew  lechejn  hap-panim  (lit.  bread  of  the 
face,  because  placed  before  the  face  of 
Jehovah);  it  is  also  called  ‘  bread  of  the 
ordering’  (1  Chron.  ix.  32;  xxiii.  29;  2 
Chron.  xiii.  11;  Neh.  x.  33);  once  it  was 
called  the  ‘  continual  bread  ’  (Num.  iv.  7), 
and  ‘  holy  bread  ’  (1  Sam.  xxi.  5).  Accord¬ 
ing  to  the  number  of  the  twelve  tribes  of 
Israel,  twelve  loaves  were  placed  on  the 
table  which  stood  within  the  holy  place, 
near  the  curtain  of  the  Holy  of  Holies. 
The  loaves,  which,  according  to  Jewish 
tradition,  were  unleavened,  were  placed  in 
two  rows,  of  six  loaves  each.  An  addition 


Shr 


(  860  ) 


Sil 


to  the  showbread  was  the  frankincense. 
(Lev.  xxiv.  7.)  It  was  to  be  ‘  on  the  bread 
for  a  memorial,  an  offering,  made  by  fire 
unto  the  Lord;  ’  the  two  golden  pots  con¬ 
taining  it  being  (according  to  Josephus: 
Ant.  iii.  10,  7)  taken  out  along  with  the 
bread,  and  the  frankincense  burned  on  the 
altar  of  burnt-offering  before  the  bread  was 
given  to  the  priests  to  be  eaten.  On  each 
Sabbath  this  took  place;  twelve  new  loaves, 
which  had  been  prepared  the  evening  be¬ 
fore  by  a  portion  of  the  Levites  (1  Chron. 
ix.  32),  being  made  every  returning  Sab¬ 
bath  to  replace  the  old,  and  fresh  frankin¬ 
cense  put  in .  the  golden  vessels  in  the 
room  of  that  which  had  been  burned.” — 
Leyrer,  Schaff- Herzog:  Ency.,  s.  v.,  vol. 
iii.,  p.  2177. 

Shrine,  a  repository  for  relics,  either 
movable  or  in  a  tomb.  It  was  customary 
for  pilgrims  to  come  long  distances  to 
visit  the  shrines  of  eminent  saints,  and 
make  valuable  offerings.  Movable  shrines 
were  carried  in  processions  around  which 
lamps  were  kept  burning. 

Shrive.  See  Shrove  Tuesday. 

Shrove  Tuesday  (Shrive),  the  day  be¬ 
fore  Ash  Wednesday,  so  called  from  the 
Anglo-Saxon  shrive  or  shrove.  This  word, 
Anglo-Saxon  in  form  ( scrifan ),  is  really  a 
Latin  word  Anglicized,  scrifere,  “  to  write,” 
“to  draw  up  a  law,”  and  hence  “to  im¬ 
pose  a  penance.”  It  was  in  ancient  times 
the  custom  to  confess  on  the  day  before 
Lent,  so  as  to  qualify  to  begin  the  Fast  by 
receiving  the  Communion.  * 

Shu'shan,  known  to  the  Greeks  as 
“  Susa,”  the  capital  of  Elam,  or  Susiana, 
mentioned  as  follows  in  the  Bible:  Neh.  i. 
1;  Esth.  i.  2,  5;  ii.  3,  5,  8;  iii.  15;  iv.  16; 
viii.  14,  15;  ix.  6,  11-15,  18;  Dan.  viii.  2. 
The  site  of  Shushan  is  identified  with  the 
modern  Sus  or  Shush.  The  first  distinct 
reference  to  Susa  is  found  in  the  inscrip¬ 
tions  of  Asur-bani-pal,  from  which  we  learn 
that  he  captured  the  place  about  b.  c.  655. 
The  Achaemeniden  kings  made  it  a  capital 
city  and  their  winter  and  spring  residence. 
It  was  a  very  wealthy  city  when  plundered 
by  Alexander  after  the  battle  of  Arbela. 
His  preference  for  Babylon  caused  Susa  to 
decline,  but  it  did  not  fall  into  decay  until 
captured  by  the  Mohammedans,  A.  D.  640. 
The  ruins  of  this  ancient  city  cover  an 
area  of  some  three  miles  in  circumference. 
Remains  have  been  found  of  the  palace 
built  by  Darius,  the  father  of  Xerxes,  in 
which  the  principal  incidents  recorded  in 
the  book  of  Esther  took  place.  Of  four 
spacious  artificial  platforms  or  mounds,  the 


western  and  highest  is  supposed  to  have 
been  the  site  of  the  citadel  of  Susa. 

Sibylline  Books.  The  name  “  Sibyl  ” 
was  given  in  classical  history  to  certain 
prophetesses  who  professed  to  declare  the 
decisions  of  the  gods  in  reference  to  the 
fate  of  cities  and  countries.  The  early 
Christians  sought  to  propagate  their  views 
among  the  Greeks  by  those  who  prophesied 
after  the  manner  of  the  ancient  sibyls. 
These  sibylline  oracles  enjoyed  a  high 
authority  in  the  Church  and  were  often 
quoted  by  Athenagoras,  Clemens  Alexan- 
drinus,  Lactantius,  and  others.  Originat¬ 
ing  at  different  times  and  places,  they  are 
now  united  in  twelve  books  with  some 
fragments  written  in  Homeric  hexameters 
and  language.  These  prophecies  are  a 
mixture  of  Jewish,  pagan  and  Christian 
ingredients.  They  are  without  historical 
value,  but  instructive  in  the  light  they 
throw  upon  the  thought  and  spirit  of  the 
times  in  which  they  were  uttered.  The 
most  important  investigations  of  the  Sibyl¬ 
line  Books  are  given  by  Bleek  in  his  articles 
in  Schleiermacher’s  Theol.  Zeitschrift 
(1819),  vol.  i.,  pp.  120-346,  vol.  ii.,  pp. 
172-239. 

Sigourney,  Lydia  Howard  Huntley,  b. 
at  Norwich,  Conn.,  Sept.  1,  1791;  d.  at 
Hartford,  June  10,  1865.  She  was  a  teacher 
in  Hartford  and  Norwich  before  her  mar¬ 
riage.  She  began  to  write  verses  at  seven, 
and  her  first  book,  Moral  Pieces  in  Prose 
and  Verse ,  was  published  in  1815.  She 
was  a  voluminous  writer,  and  many  of  her 
hymns  may  be  found  in  various  collections. 
Her  autobiography  was  published  under 
the  title,  Letters  of  Life,  in  1866. 

Sihor  {the  dark),  a  name  given  to  three 
rivers:  (1)  The  Nile  (Isa.  xxiii.  3;  Jer.  ii. 
18).  (2)  The  river  of  Egypt  (Num.  xxxiv., 
etc.);  Gesenius  thinks  this  also  refers  to 
the  Nile.  (3)  The  Shihor-libnath,  i.  e., 
“  block  of  whiteness,”  mentioned  only  in 
Josh.  xix.  26.  Some  think  that  it  is  the 
modern  Nahr  Naman  (the  ancient  Belus), 
which  drains  a  part  of  the  plain  of  Akka. 

Silo'am,  The  pool  of,  is  identified  with 
a  pool  about  450  yards  south  of  the  Haram 
wall,  and  60  yards  west  of  the  southern 
point  of  Ophel  at  Jerusalem.  It  is  52  feet 
long,  18  feet  wide,  and  19  feet  deep,  and  is 
reached  by  a  flight  of  steps.  It  is  partly 
hewn  out  of  the  rock  and  partly  built  of 
masonry.  The  water  comes  from  the 
Fountain  of  the  Virgin,  with  which  the  pool 
is  connected  by  a  zigzag  tunnel  cut  in  the 
solid  rock.  A  remarkable  inscription  was 
found  in  this  tunnel  in  1880  which  narrates 


Sim 


(  86 1  ) 


Sim 


its  completion,  and  is  thought  to  belong  to 
the  age  of  Hezekiah,  or,  possibly,  Solomon. 
The  waters  of  the  pool  still  irrigate  the 
fruitful  gardens  below. 

Sim  eon.  See  Tribes. 

Simeon  Stylites  (from  stylos ,  a  pillar), 
the  originator  of  the  custom  of  doing  pen- 


then  lived  as  a  hermit  in  a  little  house 
under  the  peak  of  the  mountain  Telanas- 
sus.  Here  he  used  to  fast  forty  days  at  a 
time,  in  imitation  of  Moses  and  Elias. 
After  three  years  he  took  possession  of  the 
peak,  had  a  wall  built  round  him,  and  fast¬ 
ened  one  end  of  a  chain  twenty  cubits  long 
to  a  great  stone,  and  the  other  to  his  right 
foot,  so  that  he  could  not,  if  he  wished, 


THE  POOL  OF  SILOAM. 


ance  by  living  on  a  pillar,  was  born  prob¬ 
ably  about  390  at  Sisan,  between  Antioch 
and  Cilicia.  He  was  brought  up  by  Chris¬ 
tian  parents,  and  when  fifteen  years  old 
was  induced  to  enter  a  monastery  near  his 
home,  where  he  stayed  two  years,  and  then 
went  to  one  at  the  foot  of  Mount  Coryphus, 
where  he  spent  ten  years.  But  the  austeri¬ 
ties  were  not  great  enough  for  him,  and  he 


leave  his  bounds.  His  fame  spread  over 
all  the  country,  and  the  sick  and  palsied 
came  from  far  and  wide — even,  it  is  said — 
from  Spain,  Britain,  and  Gaul,  to  be  healed. 
At  last,  wishing  to  escape  from  them,  he 
ordered  a  pillar  six  cubits  high  to  be  built, 
which  was  afterward  increased  to  twelve, 
twenty-two,  and  thirty-six.  Here  he  lived 
for  forty  or  fifty  years,  spending  his  time, 


Sim 


(  862  ) 


Sin 


as  is  related  by  his  disciple  Anthony,  in 
working  miracles,  teaching  the  people, 
meditating,  and  praying.  He  died  in  460. 
He  was  buried  with  great  pomp  at  Antioch. 

There  were  two  other  pillar  saints  of  the 
name  of  Simeon,  one  being  called  Fulmi- 
natus  from  having  been  killed  by  lightning; 
he  lived  in  the  twelfth  century,  and  seems 
to  have  been  one  of  the  last  to  adopt  the 
practice. — Benham:  Diet,  of  Religion. 

Simeon,  Charles,  Church  of  England; 
b.  at  Reading,  Sept.  24,  1759;  d.  there, 
Nov.  13,  1836.  A  graduate  of  Cambridge 
University,  he  was  from  1783  incumbent 
of  Trinity  Church  in  that  city.  He  has 
been  called  the  founder  of  the  Low-Church 
party.  His  views  met  with  great  opposi¬ 
tion,  but  in  time  gained  a  large  following. 
He  published  a  translation  of  Claude’s  Es¬ 
say  on  the  Composition  of  a  Sermon ,  and 
added  notes  and  ahundred  sermon  outlines. 
Subsequently  he  published  a  series  of  out¬ 
line  sketches  covering  the  entire  Bible 
{Horce  Homileticce ,  1819-28),  17  vols.  See 
his  Life ,  by  W.  Carus  (1847). 

Simon  ( a  hearing ),  contracted  from 
Sim'eon.  (i)  A  famous  sorcerer,  who  pro¬ 
fessed  to  be  a  convert  to  the  Christian 
faith.  (Acts  viii.  9.) 

(2)  Simon  Peter.  (Matt,  iv.'  18.)  See 
Peter. 

(3)  Simon  the  Canaanite  (Matt.  x.  4),  or 
Simon  Zelotes,  one  of  the  twelve  apostles. 
He  was  a  member  of  the  party  called 
Zealots ,  hence  his  name. 

(4)  The  brother  of  our  Lord.  (Matt.  xiii. 
55;  Mark  vi.  3.) 

(5)  A  Pharisee.  (Luke  vii.  36.) 

(6)  A  leper.  (Matt.  xxvi.  6.) 

(7)  The  father  of  Judas  Iscariot.  (John 
vi.  71.) 

(8)  The  Cyrenian  who  was  compelled  to 
bear  our  Saviour’s  cross,  when  the  latter 
could  no  longer  carry  it.  (Matt,  xxvii.  32, 
etc.) 

(9)  The  tanner  with  whom  Peter  lodged 
at  Joppa.  (Acts  ix.  43.) 

Simon  Maccabseus.  See  Maccabees. 

Simon  Magus.  In  the  second  century 
the  Christian  Church  was  assailed  by  what 
proved  a  long  and  lasting  trouble,  viz.,  the 
appearance  of  heresy  respecting  the  per¬ 
son  and  nature  of  Christ.  That  it  had  be¬ 
gun  when  St.  John  wrote  may  be  seen  by 
his  denunciations  of  those  who  dispute  the 
doctrine  of  Christ.  (2  John  10.)  Simon 
Magus  has  been  by  some  declared  to  be  the 
first  of  the  Gnostics,  and  to  have  asserted 
that  he  was  an  ZEon,  or  emanation  from 
God.  He  was  by  birth  a  Samaritan,  and 


tradition  identifies  him  with  the  man  men¬ 
tioned  in  Acts  viii.  9.  If  we  may  trust  the 
somewhat  uncertain  traditions  of  him,  he 
went  to  Egypt  and  there  learned  all  sorts 
of  heathen  philosophy  and  magic.  On  his 
return  he  practised  his  acquired  arts,  an¬ 
nouncing  that  they  were  the  sure  signs  of 
his  divine  authority.  He  seems  to  have 
had  many  followers,  among  whom  may  be 
mentioned  Menander  and  Dositheus,  and  a 
small  sect  declared  themselves  his  follow¬ 
ers  for  some  years.  Tradition  says  that  he 
attempted  to  fly  from  tLue  top  of  the  Cap¬ 
itol,  intending  to  represent  the  return  of 
our  Lord  in  glory,  and  died  from  the  effect 
of  the  fall. — Benham:  Did.  of  Religion. 

Simony  originally  referred  to  the  sin  of 
buying  ^nd  selling  spiritual  gifts,  and  is 
derived  from  Simon  Magus.  (Acts  viii. 
18.)  In  the  early  Church  the  purchase  of 
ordination  was  severely  punished  as  a 
crime  against  the  Holy  Spirit.  Later  on  it 
became  simony  to  buy  or  sell  any  ecclesi¬ 
astical  office  or  patronage,  or  to  obtain  ad¬ 
mission  to  any  monastic  order  by  purchase. 

Simpson,  Matthew,  D.  D.,  LL.  D., 
bishop  of  the  Methodist  Episcopal  Church; 
b.  at  Cadiz,  O.,  June  21,  1811;  d.  in  Phila¬ 
delphia,  Penn.,  June  17,  1884.  He  was 
graduated  at  Madison  College  (afterward 
merged  into  Alleghany  College,  Meadville, 
Pa.),  and  practiced  medicine  from  1833  to 
1835,  when  he  entered  the  ministry  of  the 
Methodist  Episcopal  Church.  He  was 
vice-president  and  professor  of  natural 
science  in  Alleghany  College,  1837-39; 
president  of  Indiana  Asbury  University, 
Greencastle,  Ind.,  1839-48;  editor  of  The 
Western  Christian  Advocate ,  Cincinnati,  O., 
1848-52;  bishop  from  1852  till  his  death. 
Bishop  Simpson  was  an  acknowledged 
prince  among  pulpit  orators.  He  was  the 
author  of:  A  Hundred  Years  of  Methodism 
(18  70) ;  Cyclopcedia  of  Methodism  (1878);  Lec¬ 
tures  on  Preaching  (1879);  Sertnons  (post¬ 
humous  ed.  1885).  See  his  Life ,  by  Rev. 
Dr.  G.  R.  Crooks  (N.  Y. ,  1890). 

Sin.  The  commonest  word  for  sin  in  the 
Greek  Testament  is  hamartia ,  and  it  has 
the  same  meaning  as  the  commonest  word 
in  the  Old  Testament.  (See  Gesenius’s 
Heb.  Lex.,  s.  v.  chat  a . )  That  meaning  is, 
strictly,  “  a  missing  of  the  mark,”  and  so 
“a  failure,”  “a  sin.”  The  other  New 
Testament  word,  paraptotna ,  “  transgres¬ 
sion,”  is  derived  from  a  word  signifying 
“  to  fall  down  beside.”  Scripture  gives  no 
definition  of  sin,  but  the  whole  tenor  of  it 
indicates  that  this  consists  in  failure  to  re¬ 
gard  and  do  the  will  of  God.  It  is  selfish¬ 
ness  which  is  the  setting  up  of  the  indi- 


Sin 


(863) 


Six 


vidual  will  against  that  of  the  Divine 
Creator  and  King.  That  heavenly  will  is 
righteous  dealing,  and  love,  and  forbear¬ 
ance,  and  hope.  “  This  is  the  will  of  God, 
even  your  sanctification,”  writes  the  in¬ 
spired  apostle.  (1  Thess.  iv.  3.)  Every 
act  of  self-sacrifice  and  kindliness,  being  in 
unison  with  that  will,  is  blessed;  it  is  part 
of  a  higher  life,  of  a  more  perfect  exist¬ 
ence;  it  is  a  striving  after  the  true  aim  of 
life,  after  the  ideal  of  perfect  existence — 
after  God.  And  it  follows  that  the  con¬ 
trary  to  this,  that  which  thwarts  the  will 
of  God,  is  evil,  and  accursed.  For  it  is  not 
only  harmful  in  itself,  but  it  is  sinful, 
guilty,  because  it  bears  moral  responsibil¬ 
ity.  Man,  we  are  told,  was  made  in  the 
image  of  God.  He  is  not  senseless  and 
stupid.  He  is  conscious  of  a  free  will; 
knowing  good  and  evil,  he  has  the  choice 
between  them.  Herein  he  is  distinguished 
from  the  brutes,  that  he  is  not  limited  in 
existence  by  a  monotonous  law,  like  the 
growth  of  a  plant;  he  can  choose  for  him¬ 
self.  And  sin  is  the  rebellious  choice,  the 
choice  of  that  which  the  Creator  forbids, 
the  choice  of  an  atmosphere  tainted  and 
impure,  when  the  free  air  of  heaven  is  of¬ 
fered;  the  choice  of  sloth  and  impotence 
in  place  of  life  and  strength  and  energy. 
The  origin  of  sin  is  confessedly  a  mystery, 
but  so  is  the  origin  of  everything  which 
exists.  “  There  is  nothing,”  writes  Cole¬ 
ridge,  “  of  which  the  ultimate  good  is  not 
mystery.”  Mystery  as  it  is,  it  is  no  less 
confessedly  a  fact.  That  all  opposition  to 
God’s  will  is  evil  must  be  clear  at  once, 
but  the  heinousness  of  the  guilt  will  vary 
according  to  circumstances.  The  conscience 
of  mankind  and  the  voice  of  Scripture  both 
bear  witness  to  this.  Thus  man  is,  accord¬ 
ing  to  Scripture,  infected  with  original  sin. 
The  Scripture  also  declares  that  all  men 
commit  actual  sin,  and  the  conscience  bears 
witness  to  the  fact.  —  Benham:  Did.  of  Re¬ 
ligion.  For  a  full  treatment  of  this  sub¬ 
ject  see  The  Christian  Doctrine  of  Sin, 
by  Julius  Muller  (Eng.  translation,  Edin¬ 
burgh),  and  standard  works  on  systematic 
theology. 

Sin  Against  the  Holy  Spirit,  The  (Matt, 
xii.  31,  32),  “must  be  carefully  distin¬ 
guished  from  blasphemy  against  the  Holy 
Spirit.  The  latter  is  unforgivable  ;  the 
former  is  not.  As  Matthew  Henry  well 
says:  4  It  is  not  all  speaking  against  the 
person  or  essence  of  the  Holy  Spirit,  or 
some  of  his  more  private  operations,  or 
merely  the  resisting  of  his  internal  working 
in  the  sinner  himself  that  is  here  meant; 
for  who,  then,  should  be  saved  ?’  But 
blasphemy  against  the  Holy  Spirit  implies 
complete  deadness  to  spiritual  things  :  so 


that  holiness  is  hateful  and  hated.  Wher¬ 
ever  there  is  apprehension  felt  that  the 
‘  unpardonable  sin  '  has  been  committed, 
there  has  been  no  commission  of  it;  for  he 
who  really  sins^  in  this  way  feels  no  con¬ 
trition.  And  the  latter  fact  is  the  reason 
why  it  is  never  forgiven.  The  sinner  con¬ 
tinues  obstinate  and  malignant  till  his 
death.  It  is,  therefore,  equivalent  to  final 
impenitence.” — Schaff-Herzog:  Ency. ,  vol. 
iii. ,  p.  2188. 

Sin-Offerings.  See  Sacrifice. 

Si'nai,  the  name  of  the  mountain  on 
which  God  revealed  the  law  to  Moses,  and 
also  of  the  mountain  range  in  the  penin¬ 
sula  formed  by  the  Gulfs  of  Suez  and  Aka- 
bah.  As  to  the  exact  locality  of  the  moun¬ 
tain-peak  from  which  the  law  was  given, 
there  has  been  much  discussion.  Jebel 
Musa ,  the  southern  peak  of  a  mountain- 
mass,  two  miles  long  and  one  mile  broad, 
which  bears  the  same  name  is  the  tradi¬ 
tionary  site,  and  is  favored  by  Krafft, 
Strauss,  Graul,  Ritter,  and  to  some  extent 
by  Tischendorf.  But  the  majority  of  mod¬ 
ern  scholars  and  explorers  find  the  condi¬ 
tions  of  the  Bible  narrative  met  in  the 
northern  peak,  Ras  Sufsafeh.  At  its  base 
is  a  plain  that  would  give  ample  room  to 
the  great  multitude  of  the  Israelites  to 
listen  to  the  reading  of  the  Law.  On  the 
eastern  declivity  of  this  mountain  range  is 
the  convent  of  St.  Catharine,  erected  in  the 
sixth  century  by  the  Emperor  Justinian,  in 
the  library  of  which  Tischendorf,  in  1859, 
discovered  the  famous  Codex  Sinaiticus. 

Sirach.  See  Apocrypha. 

Sisters  of  Charity.  See  Charity,  Sis¬ 
ters  of. 

Sisters  of  Mercy.  See  Mercy,  Sisters  of. 

Sisterhoods.  See  Deaconesses. 

Siva.  See  Brahmanism. 

Six-Principle  Baptists,  named  from  their 
six  doctrines  as  found  in  Heb.  iv.  1,  2; 
viz.:  (1)  repentance  from  dead  works,  (2) 
faith  toward  God,  (3)  the  doctrine  of  bap¬ 
tism,  (4)  the  laying  on  of  hands,  (5)  the 
resurrection  of  the  dead,  and  (6)  eternal 
judgment.  They  place  special  stress  upon 
“  laying  on  of  hands  ”  as  an  act  of  confir¬ 
mation,  and  will  not  fellowship  with  those 
who  do  not  practice  it.  In  theology  they 
hold  Arminian  views.  They  date  their 
organization  as  early  as  1639.  All  but  two 
of  the  dozen  weak  churches  of  this  faith 
are  in  Rhode  Island. 


Six 


(  864  ) 


Smi 


Sixtus,  the  name  of  five  popes.  See 
Popes. 

Skinner,  Thomas  Harvey,  D.  D. ,  LL.  D. , 
an  eminent  Presbyterian  minister;  b.  near 
Harvey’s  Neck.  N.  C.,  March  7,  1791;  d. 
at  New  York,  Feb.  1,  1871.  He  was  pas¬ 
tor  in  Philadelphia;  professor  of  sacred 
rhetoric  at  Andover;  pastor  of  the  Mercer 
Street  Presbyterian  Church,  New  York, 
and  from  1848  professor  of  sacred  rhetoric 
and  pastoral  theology  in  the  Union  Theo¬ 
logical  Seminary,  New  York.  He  was  a 
leader  in  the  Presbyterian  Church,  and  an 
able  preacher  and  theologian.  He  publish¬ 
ed:  Aids  to' Preaching  and  Hearing  (1839); 
Hints  to  Christians  (1841);  Life  of  Francis 
Mar  hoc,  and  Discussions  in  Theology  (1868). 

Slater  Fund  for  the  Education  of  Freed- 
men.  This  fund  of  one  million  dollars  was 
the  gift  of  John  F.  Slater,  of  Norwich, Conn. , 
a  descendant  of  William  Slater,  who  was 
one  of  the  first  to  establish  cotton  manu¬ 
factures  in  this  country. 

Smalcald  Articles  and  League.  See 

SCHMALKALD,  LEAGUE  AND  ARTICLES  OF. 

Smalley,  John,  D.  D.,  b.  in  Columbia, 
Conn.,  June  4,  1734;  d.  in  New  Britain, 
Conn.,  June  1,  1820.  After  graduating 
from  Yale  College  he  studied  theology 
with  Dr.  Bellamy,  and  was  ordained  pas¬ 
tor  in  1758  of  the  Congregational  Church 
in  New  Britain,  Conn.  He  held  this  posi¬ 
tion  more  than  fifty-five  years — more  than 
fifty-one  years  without  a  colleague.  After 
a  custom  of  the  times  he  trained  many 
young  ministers  for  the  ministry.  Among 
his  pupils  were  Nathaniel  Emmons  of 
Franklin,  Mass.,  and  Ebenezer  Porter, 
afterward  professor  at  Andover.  He  held 
strong  Calvinistic  views,  and  was  a  leader 
in  defence  of  the  New  England  theology. 
Some  of  Dr.  Smalley’s  sermons  exerted  a 
great  influence.  He  published  a  volume 
of  Discourses  in  1803,  and  a  second  volume 
in  1814. 

Smith,  Eli,  American  missionary  and 
translator  of  the  Bible  into  Arabic;  b.  at 
Northford,  Conn.,  Sept.  15,  1801;  d.  at 
Beyrout,  Syria,  Jan.  11,  1857.  Educated 
at  Yale  College,  1821,  and  at  Andover 
Seminary,  1826,  he  went  as  a  missionary 
of  the  American  Board  to  Beyrout  in  1827, 
and  with  Mr.  Dwight  made  a  journey  of 
exploration  among  the  Nestorian  Chris¬ 
tians  in  Persia.  The  result  of  this  tour  is 
given  in  his  Afissionary  Researches  in  Ar¬ 
menia  (1833).  He  traveled  with  Dr. 
Robinson  and  aided  him  in  gathering  ma¬ 
terial  for  his  Biblical  Researches.  Dr. 


Smith  began  his  translation  of  the  Bible 
into  Arabic  in  1846. 

Smith,  George,  b.  in  England  about 
1825;  d.  at  Aleppo,  Aug.  19,  1876.  While 
working  at  his  trade  as  an  engraver  he 
taught  himself  the  Oriental  languages,  and 
in  intervals  of  leisure  made  a  study  of  the 
Ninevite  sculptures  in  the  British  Museum. 
His  investigations  attracted  attention,  and 
he  received  an  appointment  as  an  assistant 
in  the  Museum,  and  was  soon  recognized 
as  a  leading  Assyrian  scholar.  He  made 
three  expeditions  to  Nineveh  (1873-75), 
and  secured  a  great  treasure  of  inscriptions, 
etc.  He  wrote:  Assyrian  Discoveries  (1875); 
History  of  Assyria  from  the  Alonujnents 
(1875);  The  Assyrian  Eponym  Canon  ( 1875); 
Chaldean  Account  of  Genesis ;  History  of 
Se7inacherib. 

Smith,  Henry  Boynton,  D.  D.,  LL.  D., 
one  of  the  most  eminent  American  scholars 
and  theologians  of  recent  times;  b.  in  Port¬ 
land,  Me.,  Nov.  21,  1815;  d.  in  New  York, 
Feb.  7,  1877.  He  was  graduated  at  Bow- 
doin  College  in  1834,  and  studied  theology 
at  Andover.  In  1837  he  went  abroad,  and 
until  1840  enjoyed  exceptional  advantages 
as  a  student  at  Halle  and  Berlin.  He  was 
ordained  as  pastor  of  the  Congregational 
Church  at  West  Amesbury,  Mass.,  in  1842, 
where  he  remained  until  called  to  the  pro¬ 
fessorship  of  mental  and  moral  philosophy 
in  Amherst  College,  in  1847.  In  1850  he 
was  called  to  the  chair  of  church  history  in 
the  Union  Theological  Seminary,  New 
York  City,  and  three  years  after  was  trans¬ 
ferred  to  the  chair  of  systematic  theology. 
Here  he  accomplished  his  noble  life-work. 
Beloved  by  his  pupils,  over  whom  he  had 
great  influence,  he  became  a  recognized 
leader  in  the  New  School  Presbyterian 
Church,  and  did  a  grand  service  in  bring¬ 
ing  about  the  reunion  in  1867.  He  wrote 
much  in  The  New  York  Evangelist  and  Re¬ 
views  of  his  church.  He  published:  His¬ 
tory  of  the  Church  of  Christ  in  Chro7iological 
Tables.  See  He7iry  Boymto7i  S?/iith:  His 
Life  a7id  Work ,  edited  by  his  wife  (New 
York,  1881).  His  lectures  on  Syste7natic 
Theology  were  edited  by  Dr.  Karr  (18S4). 

Smith,  John  Cotton,  D.  D.,  a  prom¬ 
inent  American  Episcopal  minister;  b.  at 
Andover,  Mass.,  Aug.  4,  1826;  d.  in  New 
York  City,  Jan.  9,  1882.  He  was  graduat¬ 
ed  at  Bowdoin  College  in  1847;  rector  at 
Bangor,  Me.,  1850-52;  assistant  minister 
at  Trinity  Church,  Boston,  1853-59,  and 
from  i860  until  his  death  rector  of  the 
Church  of  the  Ascension,  New  York  City. 
He  was  an  able  scholar  and  eloquent 
preacher.  He  published:  Aliscellanies ,  Ola 


Smi 


(  865  ) 


Smy 


and  New  (1876),  and  Brier  Hill  Lectures  on 
Present  Aspects  of  the  Church  (1881). 

Smith,  John  Pye,  D.  D. ,  LL.  D. ,  an  Eng¬ 
lish  Congregational  divine;  b.  at  Sheffield, 
May  25,  1774;  d.  at  Guildford,  Surrey  (Lon¬ 
don),  Feb.  5,  1851.  He  studied  theology  at 
Rotherham  College,  and  was  professor  of 
theology  at  Homerton  College  from  1805 
to  1850.  He  published:  Scripture  Testi¬ 
mony  to  the  Messiah  (1818-21,  2  vols.,  6th 
ed.,  1868);  Four  Discourses  071  the  Sacrifice 
and  Priesthood  of  Christ  (1828,  5th  cd., 
1868);  Scripture  and  Geology  (1839,  5th  ed., 
1854).  His  First  Lines  of  Christian  Theol¬ 
ogy  was  published  after  his  death  (1854,  2d 
ed.,  i860).  See  his  Memoirs ,  by  J.  Med¬ 
way  (London,  1853). 

Smith,  Joseph.  See  Mormons. 

Smith,  Sydney,  Church  of  England;  b.  at 
Woodford,  Essex,  June  3,  1771;  d.  in  Lon¬ 
don,  Feb.  22,  1845.  A  graduate  of  Oxford 
(1792),  he  was  ordained  in  1794  and  became 
minister  of  Charlotte  Episcopal  Chapel, 
Edinburgh,  1797-1802;  canon  of  Bristol, 
1828,  and  resident  canon  of  St.  Paul,  1831. 
He  was  famous  as  a  wit  and  writer.  As  a 
preacher  he  was  earnest  and  forcible.  He 
published  numerous  Sermons  and  Letters  o?i 
the  Subject  of  the  Catholics  by  Peter  Plymley 
(1808),  favoring  Catholic  emancipation,  and 
Elementary  Sketches  of  Moral  Philosophy. 
See  his  Memoir ,  by  his  daughter  (1855). 

Smith,  William  Andrew,  D.  D. ,  a  prom¬ 
inent  minister  of  the  Methodist  Episcopal 
Church,  South;  b.  at  Fredericksburg,  Va. , 
Nov.  29,  1802;  d.  at  Richmond,  Va. ,  March 
1,  1870.  He  was  admitted  to  the  Virginia 
Conference  in  1825,  and  soon  rose  to  emi¬ 
nence.  In  1846  he  became  president  of  Ran¬ 
dolph  Macon  College  where  he  remained 
until  1866.  From  1868  until  his  death,  he 
was  president  of  Central  College,  Fayette, 
Mo.  He  was  a  member  of  every  general 
conference  from  1832.  He  was  an  able  and 
eloquent  preacher,  and  his  labors  were  fol¬ 
lowed  by  great  revivals.  He  published 
Philosophy  and  Practice  of  Slavery  (1857). 

Smith,  William  Robertson,  LL.  D. 
(Aberdeen,  1882),  Free  Church  of  Scotland; 
b.  at  Keig,  Aberdeenshire,  Nov.  8,  1846; 
educated  at  Aberdeen  University  (M.  A., 
1865),  New  College,  Edinburgh,  and  at 
Bonn  and  Gottingen;  was  assistant  to  the 
chair  of  physics  at  Edinburgh,  1868-70; 
professor  of  Hebrew  in  the  Free  Church 
College,  Aberdeen,  1870-81,  when  he  was 
removed  by  the  General  Assembly  on  ac¬ 
count  of  his  alleged  heretical  teaching;  and 
has  been  since  associate  editor  of  the  ninth 


edition  of  the  Encyclopcedia  Britannica ,  and 
was  (1883-86)  Lord  Almoner’s  professor 
of  Arabic  at  Cambridge;  since  1886,  libra¬ 
rian  to  the  university.  He  is  the  author 
of:  The  Old  Testament  hi  the  Jewish  Church 
(London,  1881);  The  Prophets  of  Israel,  a7id 
their  Place  hi  History  to  the  Close  of  the 
Eighth  Century ,  B.  C.  (1882,  both  reprinted 
N.  Y.);  Kinship  and  Marriage  in  Early 
Arabia  (1885);  The  Religion  of  the  Semites 
(1890). 

Smyr'na,  a  city  of  Asia  Minor,  situated 
on  the  Hermaean  Gulf.  The  church  here 
was  one  of  the  seven  addressed  by  our 
Lord  (Rev.  ii.  8-ri),  and  Polycarp  (mar¬ 
tyred  in  A.  d.  168,  eighty-six  years  after 
his  conversion)  was  its  bishop.  After  the 
time  of  Alexander  the  Great,  the  city  be¬ 
came  one  of  the  principal  commercial  cen¬ 
tres  of  the  world.  It  was  almost  destroyed 
by  an  earthquake  in  178.  The  modern 
city,  situated  two  and  a  half  miles  from  the 
ancient  site,  has  a  population  of  about  190,- 
000,  of  which  not  a  fourth  are  Turks. 
Several  Greek,  Roman-Catholic,  and  Prot¬ 
estant  churches  are  sustained,  as  there  is  a 
considerable  European  population. 

Smyth,  John,  founder  of  the  General 
Baptists;  date  of  birth  unknown;  d.  in 
Holland  in  1612.  He  was  a  graduate  of 
Christ’s  College,  Cambridge  (1575-76),  and 
became  vicar  of  Gainsborough,  Lincoln¬ 
shire,  Eng.  While  here,  in  seeking  to  de¬ 
fend  the  English  Church  against  the  Sepa¬ 
ratists,  he  was  finally  led  to  accept  their 
views,  and  became  pastor  of  an  independ¬ 
ent  church  in  1602.  With  his  little  flock 
he  emigrated  to  Amsterdam  and  formed 
the  Second  English  Church.  While  here 
he  accepted  Arminian  and  Baptist  views, 
and,  in  connection  with  Thomas  Helwys, 
published  a  “Confession  of  Faith”  in 
twenty-six  articles.  After  the  death  of 
Smyth,  Helwys  and  some  of  his  company 
returned  to  London  and  founded  the  Gen¬ 
eral-Baptist  Church  of  England.  Smyth 
wrote:  Principles  and  Inferences  concerning 
the  Visible  Church  (1607);  Parallel's,  Cen¬ 
sures,  Obsei'vations  (1609);  Character  of  the 
Beast  (1609);  Differences  of  the  Churches  of 
the  Separation.  See  H.  M.  Dexter:  The 
True  Story  of  John  Smyth,  the  Se-Baptist 
(1881). 

Smyth  (Samuel  Phillips),  Newman, 
D.  D.  (University  of  the  City  of  New  York, 
1881),  Congregationalist;  b.  at  Brunswick, 
Me.,  June  25,  1843;  was  graduated  at  Bow- 
doin  College,  Brunswick,  Me.,  1863,  and  at 
Andover  Theological  Seminary,  Mass., 
1867;  was  acting  pastor  of  Harrison  Street 
Chapel  (now  Pilgrim  Church),  Providence, 


Soc 


(  866  ) 


Soc 


R.  I.,  1868;  pastor  of  the  First  Church, 
Bangor,  Me.,  1870-75;  of  the  First  Pres¬ 
byterian  Church,  Quincy,  Ill.,  1876-82; 
since  of  the  First  Congregational  Church, 
New  Haven,  Conn.  He  is  the  author  of: 
The  Religious  Feeling:  A  Study  for  Faith 
(New  York,  1877);  Old  Faiths  in  New 
Light  (1879);  The  Orthodox  Theology  of  To¬ 
day  (1881);  The  Reality  of  Faith  (sermons, 
1884);  Personal  Creeds  (sermons,  1890). 

Socialism.  English  socialism  is  defined 
by  its  founder,  Robert  Owen  (1771-1858), 
as  the  Science  of  Happiness.  Its  object  is 
to  promote  the  well-being  of  man  in  society 
first  of  all,  his  well-being  as  an  individual 
necessarily  following.  Socialism  is  unde¬ 
veloped  positivism  or  Comtism  (Positiv¬ 
ism),  and  in  this  it  is  now  for  the  most 
part  merged. 

On  its  religious  side,  socialism  is  a  form 
of  pantheism,  and  God  or  Nature  is  re¬ 
solved  into  a  “  mysterious  power  which 
permeates  every  particle  of  the  elements 
which  compose  the  universe,  and  these  el¬ 
ements  possess  qualities  which  are  un¬ 
changeable,  and  operate  according  to  fixed 
laws,  which  are  called  the  laws  of  Nature.” 

By  this  power  man  has  been  made  what 
he  is,  and  he  must  be,  in  the  future,  what 
that  power  shall  make  him  to  become. 
Man  is,  therefore,  entirely  dependent  on 
this  power  for  all  his  faculties,  and  all  that 
he  possesses.  Man  is  thus  non-respon- 
sible,  except  in  so  far  as  he  is  necessarily 
amenable  to  the  natural  consequences  of 
his  actions.  To  reward  and  punish  him  by 
artificial  means  is  irrational.  Such  being 
man,  to  ensure  the  happiness  of  the  human 
race  permanently,  all  that  is  required  is 
that  society  shall  create  new  conditions  for 
the  purpose  of  forming  from  birth  a  good, 
useful,  and  superior  character  for  all,  ac¬ 
cording  to  their  natural  qualities  or  organ¬ 
izations.  To  bring  about  these  desirable 
ends,  it  is  necessary  first  of  all  to  abandon 
the  irrational  conditions  of  society,  “  all 
past  religious  governments,  man-made 
laws,  artificial  marriages,  modes- of  pro¬ 
ducing  and  distributing  wealth,  of  buying 
cheap  and  selling  dear,  and  all  other  past 
and  existing  institutions,”  and  to  enter 
upon  a  new  life,  surrounded  by  new  condi¬ 
tions,  in  which  the  spirit  of  universal  char¬ 
ity  and  love  will  govern  the  population  of 
the  earth,  as  one  enlightened  and  affection¬ 
ate  family,  upon  a  system  of  perfect  equal¬ 
ity,  according  to  age,  of  education  and 
condition.  (Condensed  from  “  Socialism,” 
by  Robert  Owen,  in  Religions  of  the  World.) 
Distinctions  of  rank  and  possession  of 
wealth  by  an  individual  would  thus  come 
to  an  end  in  the  socialist  system.  Owen 
tried  to  propagate  socialism,  or,  as  he 


called  it,  “  The  Rational  System  of  Soci¬ 
ety,”  by  establishing  cooperative  work¬ 
shops  for  the  various  industries  in  Great 
Britain  and  in  America,  labor  being  re¬ 
garded  as  a  high  duty  for  all.  His  follow¬ 
ers  were,  as  we  have  seen,  practically 
atheists,  and  they  permitted  as  much  free¬ 
dom  in  the  relations  of  the  sexes  as  the 
laws  of  the  country  would  not  actually  pun¬ 
ish. 

Communism  is  socialism  put  into  prac¬ 
tice  on  its  political  side.  The  necessity 
for  some  strong,  central  despotic  power, 
capable  of  keeping  order,  is  recognized, 
primogeniture  is  necessarily  abolished ,  and 
all  property  and  the  earnings  of  industry 
are  thrown  into  a  common  fund,  from 
which  distribution  is  made  to  each  person 
according  to  merit.  We  have  an  example 
of  socialism  carried  on  into  communism 
in  the  Commune  of  Paris  after  the  Franco- 
German  War  in  1871.  French  socialism 
or  communism  was  founded  by  Count  St. 
Simon  (1760-1825),  a  contemporary  of  Rob¬ 
ert  Owen,  from  whom  the  latter  probably 
borrowed  his  ideas  to  a  large  extent.  St. 
Simon  regarded  labor  as  the  one  sacred 
duty  of  life,  the  best  laborer  as  the  most 
religious  man  and  the  highest  in  rank  in 
the  social  scale.  He  also  devised  a  system 
of  worship,  if  so  it  can  be  called,  in  which 
social  happiness  and  joy  were  to  be  put  be¬ 
fore  the  mind  by  means  of  poetry,  music, 
painting,  etc.  Like  Owen,  he  resolved  God 
into  Nature,  and  defined  him  as  “all  that 
is.” 

Putting  its  practical  atheism  aside,  there 
is  a  vein  of  truth  in  socialism.  It  is  the 
clear  duty  of  those  who  have  the  power,  to 
promote  in  every  possible  manner  the  wel¬ 
fare  of  the  vast  numbers  of  their  fellow- 
men  whose  lot  is  daily  labor.  Property 
not  only  confers  rights  upon  those  who 
possess  it,  but  it  also  implies  duties  to  be 
fulfilled  by  them.  Each  man,  rich  or  poor, 
is,  whether  he  likes  it  or  not,  in  some  way 
his  brother’s  keeper.  But  these  truths  are, 
after  all,  but  the  constant  teaching  of 
Christianity.  Christianity  is  the  most  per¬ 
fect  form  of  socialism;  the  latter  says  that 
“  if  man  is  ever  to  be  made  rational  and 
happy,  he  must  enter  upon  a  new  life,  in 
which  the  spirit  of  universal  charity  and 
love  will  govern,”  while  the  former  teach¬ 
es  that  “  love  is  the  fulfilling  of  the  law,” 
and  what  is  more,  gives  men  the  power  to 
practice  it. — Benham:  Did.  of  Religion. 
See  Owen,  Robert;  Positivism. 

Socinians.  See  Socinus. 

Socinus,  Faustus,  the  founder  of  the 
Socinians,  was  born  of  one  of  the  most 
noble  families  of  Siena  in  1539.  He  re- 


Soc 


( 867) 


Soc 


ceived  very  little  education,  but  followed 
the  profession  of  his  family,  who  were  law¬ 
yers.  In  1559  he  went  to  Lyons,  where  he 
remained  till  the  death  of  his  uncle,  Laelius 
Socinus,  in  1562.  Laelius  Socinus  (b.  1525) 
had  left  Italy  on  the  breaking  up,  in  1546,  of 
a  club  which  had  met  at  Vincenza  to  discuss 
the  doctrine  of  the  Holy  Trinity.  He  had 
formed  a  sect  at  Cracow,  and  finally  settled 
at  Zurich,  where  he  died.  He  left  many 
manuscripts  containing  an  account  of  his 
views,  which  his  nephew  studied  for  three 
years.  He  returned  to  Italy  in  1562,  and 
lived  in  the  court  of  the  Duke  of  Florence 
till  1574,  when  he  went  to  Basel.  Mean¬ 
while  the  Anti-Trinitarians  at  Cracow  had 
greatly  increased  in  numbers,  but  in  1565 
a  division  took  place,  some  (the  Farnovians) 
becoming  almost  Arians,  others  (the  Bud- 
neians)  holding  the  opinion  that  Christ  was 
merely  a  man,  whence  they  belonged  to 
the  Psilanthropists  (Gr.  psilos ,  merely,  and 
anlhropos,  a  man),  while  others  kept  a  me¬ 
dium  course.  In  1579  Socinus  was  called 
upon  to  reconcile  the  parties,  which  at  last 
with  some  difficulty  he  managed  to  do; 
they  became  one  community,  and  received 
the  name  of  Socinians.  Socinus  wished  to 
be  admitted  into  the  Unitarian  Society  at 
Cracow,  but  was  refused,  his  views  not 
being  quite  identical  with  theirs.  His  opin¬ 
ion  was  accepted  at  the  Synod  of  Racow  in 
1603,  and  he  immediately  began  to  draw  up 
a  confession  of  faith,  called  the  Racovian 
Confession,  from  his  uncle’s  papers,  but 
died  in  1604,  before  it  was  completed.  The 
confession  was  published  in  1605  in  Polish, 
in  German  in  1608,  and  in  Latin  in  1609. 
The  sect  continued  to  flourish  under  Ja¬ 
cobus  Sienno,  the  founder  of  the  Racow 
Academy,  Schmalz,  Volkel,  Ostrodt,  Mos- 
corovius,  and  others,  till  1638,  when  some 
of  the  Racovian  students  broke  a  cross  on 
the  highway,  and,  in  consequence,  a  decree 
was  made  at  Warsaw  ordering  the  church 
and  college  to  be  closed,  the  press  to  be 
stopped,  and  the  professors  exiled.  This 
decree  was  followed  by  several  others,  till 
in  1658  they  were  forbidden,  under  pain  of 
death,  publicly  to  solemnize  their  worship 
or  profess  their  sentiments.  If  they  had 
not  joined  the  Catholic,  Lutheran,  or  Cal- 
vinistic  communion  within  two  years  they 
were  to  be  exiled.  The  day  fixed  for  their 
departure  was  August  10,  1660,  when  the 
law  was  carried  out  with  the  utmost  sever¬ 
ity,  and  the  Socinians  disappeared  from  Po¬ 
land.  Socinian  views  were  taught  in  Ger¬ 
many  by  Ernst  Soner  (d.  1612),  and  some 
of  the  Polish  exiles  came  and  settled  here, 
but  the  heresy  soon  died  out.  It  took  a 
firm  hold  in  Transylvania,  through  Blan- 
drata,  one  of  the  chief  advocates  of  the 
Anti-Trinitarian  doctrines.  It  did  not  pros¬ 


per  in  England,  the  only  purely  Socinian 
congregation  being  formed  by  John  Biddle 
in  Gloucester  during  the  Commonwealth. 
He  died  in  prison  for  heresy  in  1662,  and 
was  succeeded  by  Thomas  Firmin,  but  the 
congregation  soon  disappeared. 

The  doctrines  of  the  Socinians  are  to  be 
found  in  the  Racovian  Catechism,  and  in 
the  writings  of  Socinus  and  other  great 
leaders  of  the  society.  The  chief  are:  that 
Christ  did  not  exist  before  his  birth;  that 
he  and  the  Holy  Ghost  are  not  God;  that 
Christ’s  death  was  for  himself,  not  for  his 
sins  but  for  the  mortality  and  infirmities 
of  our  nature  which  he  had  assumed;  that 
God  could  justly  pardon  our  sins  without 
satisfaction;  that  Christ  did  not  become 
our  High-Priest,  nor  immortal  till  he  had 
ascended;  that  the  soul  of  man  becomes 
insensible  at  death,  and  will  be  raised  again 
with  the  body  at  the  general  resurrection; 
and  that  the  good  will  be  established  in 
eternal  felicity,  while  the  wicked  will  be 
consigned  only  to  a  limited  punishment. — 
Benhanr  Diet,  of  Religion.  See  Unitarian- 

ISM. 

Socrates  was  born  at  Athens  in  469  b.  c. 
He  was  the  son  of  a  sculptor,  and  followed 
the  profession  of  his  father  till  he  was 
nearly  forty  years  old,  when  he  gave  it  up 
for  that  of  a  philosopher.  He  came  to 
Athens  about  the  time  of  the  commence¬ 
ment  of  the  Peloponnesian  war.  His 
career  differed  considerably  from  that  of 
his  contemporaries,  inasmuch  as  he  in¬ 
stituted  no  school,  resented  the  title  of 
teacher,  and  therefore  had  no  followers 
in  the  accepted  sense  of  the  word.  His 
plan  of  work  was  to  walk  about  the  streets 
of  Athens,  talking  with  his  fellow-citizens 
on  all  sorts  of  subjects,  leading  them  to 
express  their  views,  and  then  proceeding 
to  show  them  where  their  argument  was 
faulty;  for  he  believed  firmly  that  he  was 
designed  by  the  gods  to  fulfil  a  religious 
mission,  and  that  a  divine  teacher,  a  dce?no7i 
(divinity)  was  with  him  at  all  times,  and 
was  his  teacher.  Such  was  his  conviction. 
But  the  same  conviction  led  him  to  believe 
that  his  fellows  all  had  their  inward  teach¬ 
ers,  and  therefore  he  questioned  his  com¬ 
panions  in  order  to  be  instructed.  Accord¬ 
ingly,  he  was  no  solitary  thinker,  but  loved 
to  draw  a  circle  around  him.  And  the 
young  men  of  Athens  loved  to  be  drawn; 
for  he  was  a  humorist;  he  was  genial, 
brave,  patriotic.  One  young  man  there 
was  whom  Socrates  regarded  with  intense 
affection — Alcibiades.  He  was  skillful, 
handsome,  fascinating  in  manner — all  the 
qualities  of  the  brilliant  Greek  were  ex¬ 
hibited  in  him  in  their  perfection.  Had 
he  also  but  learned  that  there  is  a  right 


Soc 


(  868  ) 


Sol 


and  a  wrong,  the  whole  history  of  Athens 
might  have  been  different.  Socrates  would 
fain  have  taught  him.  But  whilst  he  joy¬ 
ously  listened  to  the  bright  teaching  of  the 
philosopher,  he  did  not  train  himself  to 
walk  in  the  light  which  he  found;  he  be¬ 
came  selfish  and  wilful,  and  turned  his 
best  gifts  into  means  of  mischief. 

The  Socratic  dialogue  consisted  of  clev¬ 
erly  contrived  questions  of  the  philosopher, 
intended  to  draw  out  his  companion,  to 
lead  him  to  think  and  reconsider  his  subject, 
and  view  it  on  all  sides.  His  aim  was  to 
draw  out  the  faculties;  not  to  make  them 
the  supreme  arbiter,  but  to  bow  them  be¬ 
fore  a  divine  power.  It  was  the  very  object 
of  his  life  to  do  this,  and  it  cost  him  his  life. 
For  he  made  virtue  the  foundation  of  all 
teaching,  and  the  aim  of  all  intellectual  ex¬ 
ercise,  and  virtue  was  the  pursuit  of  good, 
and  the  rejection  of  evil.  The  Athenians 
would  have  cared  nothing  for  his  word- 
splittings;  they  were  the  most  tolerant 
people  in  the  world  of  abstract  opinions. 
But  he  declared  that  he  was  not  apromulg- 
er  of  opinions;  that  they  were  bound  to 
know  and  to  distinguish  truth,  that  it  was  no 
matter  of  indifference.  He  was,  upon  this, 
accused  of  not  worshiping  the  gods  which 
the  city  worshiped,  and  of  introducing 
divinities  of  his  own.  Alcibiades,  too, 
who  had  proved  a  traitor  to  the  State,  was 
known  to  have  been  a  learner  from  Socra¬ 
tes,  and  upon  this  fact  was  founded  the 
charge  that  he  was  a  corrupter  of  the 
youth  of  the  State.  He  was  brought  be¬ 
fore  the  judges  of  Athens,  and  his  trial  was 
the  most  momentous  which,  up  to  that  time, 
the  world  had  ever  seen.  By  a  majority  of 
six,  282  against  276,  he  was  pronounced 
guilty.  There  was  a  chance  of  escape  for 
him.  The  penalty  was  death,  but  the 
smallness  of  the  majority  would  probably 
have  induced  the  judges  to  inflict  some 
lighter  punishment.  He  was  asked  to 
speak  for  himself,  and  he  boldly  answered 
as  follows:  “  And  what  shall  I  propose  on 
my  part,  O  men  of  Athens?  Clearly  that 
which  is  my  due.  And  what  is  that  which 
I  ought  to  pay  or  to  receive?  What  shall  be 
done  to  the  man  who  has  never  had  the  wit 
to  be  idle  during  his  whole  life;  but  has 
been  careless  of  what  the  many  care  about 
— wealth,  and  family  interests,  and  military 
offices,  and  speaking  in  the  assembly,  and 
magistracies,  and  plots,  and  parties?  Re¬ 
flecting  that  I  was  really  too  honest  a  man 
to  follow  in  this  way  and  live,  I  did  not 
go  where  I  could  do  no  good  to  you  or  to 
myself;  but  where  I  could  do  the  greatest 
good,  privately,  to  every  one  of  you. 
Thither  I  went,  and  sought  to  persuade 
every  man  among  you  that  he  must  look 
to  himself,  and  seek  virtue  and  wisdom  be¬ 


fore  he  looks  to  his  private  interests,  and 
not  think  of  the  triumph  of  Athens  before 
he  thinks  of  Athens  herself;  and  that  this 
should  be  the  order  which  he  observes  in 
all  his  actions.  What  shall  be  done  to  such 
a  one?  Doubtless  some  good  thing,  O 
men  of  Athens,  if  he  has  his  reward;  and 
the  good  should  be  of  a  kind  suitable  to 
him.  What  would  be  a  reward  suitable  to 
a  poor  man  who  is  your  benefactor,  who 
desires  leisure  that  he  may  instruct  you? 
There  can  be  no  more  fitting  reward  than 
maintenance  at  the  expense  of  the  State  in 
the  Prytaneum.” 

This  bold  answer  was  received  by  the 
judges  as  a  direct  insult,  a  fresh  proof  of 
audacity,  and  they  condemned  him.  Plato 
has  told  the  story  of  his  death  with  im¬ 
mortal  power.  Thirty  days  ensued  before 
execution.  Then  the  solemn  evening  came. 
The  fatal  draught  of  poison  was  brought, 
and  amid  the  frantic  lamentations  of  his 
friends  and  disciples  he  drained  it  to  the 
dregs  with  his  habitual  ease  and  cheerful¬ 
ness.  He  spoke  to  the  last  of  his  opinions 
of  immortality,  and  of  what  he  hoped  to  do 
in  the  world  to  come.  Thus  died  the 
greatest  of  heathen  philosophers,  the  great¬ 
est  of  heathen  martyrs. — Benham:  Diet .  of 
Religion. 

Sod'om,  the  most  important  of  the  four 
cities  (Gomorrah,  Admah,  Zeboiim,  and 
Sodom)  that  were  destroyed  on  account  of 
the  great  wickedness  of  their  inhabitants. 
(Gen.  xiii.  12;  xix.  2.)  Lot  chose  Sodom, 
with  the  fertile  country  about  it,  as  his 
home.  It  was  plundered  by  Chedorlaomer 
and  his  allies,  but  Abraham  recovered  the 
captives  and  spoils.  (Gen.  xiv.)  The  fate 
of  Sodom  as  a  warning  is  often  referred  to 
in  the  Bible.  (Deut.  xxix.  23;  Isa.  i.  9, 
10;  Amos  iv.  11 ;  Matt.  x.  15;  2  Pet.  ii.  6- 
8;  Rev.  xi.  8.)  The  question  whether 
these  cities  of  the  plain  were  upon  the 
southern  or  northern  end  of  the  Dead  Sea 
is  one  of  the  most  vexed  in  biblical  geog¬ 
raphy.  Able  scholars  advocate  each  of 
these  locations. 

Solifidians  (from  Latin  solus ,  alone,  and 
fides ,  faith),  a  name  frequently  given  to 
those  who  first  adopted  the  doctrine  of  jus¬ 
tification  by  faith  alone,  and  not  by  works. 

Sol'omon  {peaceful),  son  and  successor 
of  David  on  the  throne  of  Israel  (b.  c. 
1021-981).  Near  the  close  of  David’s  life 
a  conspiracy  was  discovered  to  place  Ado- 
nijah  on  the  throne,  and  in  order  to  settle 
the  government  David  resigned  to  Solomon 
his  sceptre.  The  early  part  of  his  reign 
was  marked  by  great  prosperity  and  wis¬ 
dom.  (1  Kings  ii.  19,  27,  31;  iii.  1,  9,  16- 


Son 


(  869  ) 


Sot 


28.)  The  great  work  of  his  reign  was  the 
erection  of  the  temple.  (1  Kings  vi. ;  vii. ; 
viii.)  In  the  latter  part  of  his  reign  he 
was  seduced  by  his  foreign  wives  and 
concubines  into  the  practice  of  idolatry 
and  other  sins,  and  divine  judgments  fell 
heavily  upon  him  and  the  country.  (1  Kings 
xi.)  Many  have  thought  that  Ecclesiastes 
is  an  expression  of  his  final  repentance. 
We  are  informed  (1  Kings  iv.  32)  that  he 
“spake  three  thousand  proverbs,  and  his 
songs  were  a  thousand  and  five.” 

“  The  life  of  Solomon  is  very  simply 
and  truthfully  told  in  the  Bible.  No  ex¬ 
cuse  is  made  for  him,  no  sin  is  glossed 
over.  This  is  in  itself  a  strong  proof  of 
the  genuineness  of  the  record,  and  a  great 
contrast  to  the  legends,  in  which  he  is  a 
hero  of  unparalleled  splendor,  to  whom  all 
power  upon  earth  is  committed.  His  life,  so 
brilliant  in  its  promise,  so  prosperous  in 
its  course,  so  disastrous  in  its  close,  albeit 
his  sins  were  forgiven,  is  not  alone  in  his¬ 
tory.  Two  characters  are  recalled — Seneca, 
the  tutor  of  Nero,  who  combined  great 
wisdom  and  low  avarice,  and  Lord  Bacon, 
*  the  wisest,  brightest,  meanest,  of  man¬ 
kind.’  These  instances  show  us  that  there 
may  well  be  great  elevation  of  sentiment 
with  great  laxity  of  life;  that  the  pearls  of 
wisdom  can  be  cast  before  the  swine  of  self¬ 
ishness  and  folly.  There  is,  however,  this 
difference  —  that  Solomon  was  endowed 
with  divine  wisdom,  and  that  his  folly  be¬ 
longs  to  the  later  period  of  his  life,  and 
cannot  impair  the  authority  of  the  inspired 
writings  of  his  youth  and  manhood.” — 
Schaff:  Bible  Dictionary. 

Song  of  Solomon,  The,  or  The  Book  of 
Canticles.  “  This  book  is  called  in  He¬ 
brew  the  Song  of  Songs,  a  title  which  is 
translated  in  the  Vulgate  into  Canticum 
Canticorum.  It  has,  till  of  late,  been  gen¬ 
erally  regarded  as  the  work  of  Solomon, 
and  the  composition  itself  viewed  as  an 
allegory  in  which  the  bridegroom  repre¬ 
sents  Christ,  and  the  bride  his  Church,  ora 
member  thereof.  Of  late  both  the  Solo¬ 
monic  authorship  and  the  allegorical  intent 
have  been  called  in  question,  and  by  many 
altogether  denied,  as  entirely  gratuitous 
assumptions,  the  latter  being  in  violation 
of  the  natural  sense,  as  well  as  never  once 
hinted  at  in  the  Song  itself.  It  is  admitted, 
indeed,  that  the  composition  refers  to  the 
time  of  Solomon,  and  that  Solomon  himself 
figures  in  the  narrative,  but  from  the  rdle 
assigned  him,  and  the  implied  censure  of 
his  court,  it  is  concluded  that  the  piece 
must  have  been  written  after  his  decease, 
and  probably  in  the  time  of  Jeroboam.  The 
author  is  familiar  with  the  scenery  of  the 
north,  was  probably  a  member  of  the  north¬ 


ern  kingdom  of  Israel,  and  his  aim  appears 
to  have  been  to  present  a  contrast  be¬ 
tween  the  morals  of  the  south  and  those  of 
the  north,  in  justification,  possibly,  of  the 
separation. 

“  When  the  book  is  analyzed,  which  it 
has  been  only  since  the  allegorical  view  was 
given  up,  it  appears  that  there  are  two 
lovers  in  the  case — a  false  one,  represented 
by  Solomon,  and  a  true,  to  whom  the  virgin 
gives  all  her  affection,  represented  by  an 
unsophisticated  shepherd  away  on  the  hills 
of  Galilee;  and  this  discovery  has  supplied 
what  has  since  been  regarded  by  many  as 
the  clue  to  its  proper  interpretation.  Fol¬ 
lowing  this  clue,  the  latest  criticism  re¬ 
gards  it  as  a  sort  of  drama,  in  which  the 
several  interlocutors  express  themselves 
in  lyric  fashion,  and  in  which  the  opening 
scene  is  laid  in  the  court  of  the  king,  and 
the  final  presents  a  vision  of  the  maiden 
coming  forth  out  of  the  wilderness  ‘  leaning 
upon  her  beloved,’  for  whom  she  expresses 
an  undying  affection.  There  are  three  in¬ 
terlocutors  introduced  into  the  drama 
proper:  the  Shulamite,  the  king,  and  the 
daughters  of  Jerusalem,  she  as  the  expo¬ 
nent  of  a  true  affection,  and  they  with  every 
allurement,  powerless  to  corrupt  the  sim¬ 
plicity  of  her  heart.  But  the  story  involved 
is  more  than  a  tale  of  true  affection;  it 
would,  as  hinted,  appear  to  be  the  expres¬ 
sion  of  a  historical  fact,  the  superiority, 
viz.,  of  the  morals  of  the  provinces  over 
those  of  the  capital;  and  in  both  regards  it 
is  entitled  to  rank  among  the  sacred  books, 
while  the  strength  of  the  passion  expressed 
is  such  as  to  account  for  the  view  of  the 
allegorists  who  could  find  no  counterpart 
to  it  except  in  the  devotion  of  the  Church 
to  her  Christ.” — Bagster:  Bible  Helps.  See 
Zockler :  Commentary  on  the  Song  of  Solomon 
(in  Lange  series);  W.  E.  Griffis:  The  Lilv 
Among  the  Thorns  (1889). 

Sorbonne,  a  celebrated  college,  founded 
at  Paris,  in  1252,  by  Robert  Sorbonne,  chap¬ 
lain  of  Louis  IX.  It  is  connected  with  the 
University  of  Paris,  and  was  originally  in¬ 
tended  for  the  training  of  poor  theological 
students.  In  the  first  three  centuries  of  its 
existence  it  had  a  remarkable  growth,  and 
its  influence  in  connection  with  doctrinal, 
liturgical,  and  ecclesiastical  controversy 
was  very  great.  At  the  Revolution  it  was 
destroyed  with  the  other  ecclesiastical  es¬ 
tablishments.  It  was  reestablished  in  1808 
with  a  faculty  of  Roman  Catholic  theolo¬ 
gians,  but  its  position  is  very  inferior  to  that 
of  former  days. 

Soteriology  (from  Greek  soteria,  salvation, 
and  logos,  knowledge),  that  branch  of  the¬ 
ology  which  treats  of  the  work  of  the  Sav- 


Sou 


(  870  ) 


Sou 


iour  in  the  salvation  of  men.  See  Atone¬ 
ment;  Justification,  etc. 

Soul.  This  word  is  used  as  the  English 
version  of  the  Hebrew  word  nephesh ,  and 
the  Greek  psyche ,  and  signifies  primarily 
“  animal  life.”  But  it  is  used  more  widely 
to  express  the  whole  region  of  mind  as 
contrasted  with  visible  substance.  The 
deep  conviction  of  mankind  that  there  is  in 
man  a  nature  which  differentiates  him  from 
the  brutes  led  to  a  belief  in  a  threefold 
nature,  and  this  view  finds  confirmation  in 
Scripture,  which  speaks  of  the  body  (soma) 
or  flesh  (sarx),  the  soul  or  life  ( psyche  ),  and 
the  spirit  ( pneuma )  (1  Thess.  v.  23). 
Speculations  as  to  the  origin  of  the  soul, 
its  essence  and  seat,  were  afloat  from  the 
earliest  times,  and  are  by  no  means  at  an 
end  in  our  own  day,  but  form  one  of  the 
questions  of  some  biologists.  The  Epicu¬ 
reans  thought  that  the  soul  was  a  subtle 
air,  composed  of  primitive  atoms;  the 
stoics,  that  it  was  a  flame,  a  portion  of 
heavenly  light;  while  the  Cartesians  made 
thinking  the  essence  of  the  soul.  The  Ego 
was  the  living  personality  which  the  body 
covered,  but  was  independent  of  it.  Both 
Pythagoras  and  Plato  held  the  brain  to  be 
the  central  dwelling-place  of  the  soul.  The 
materialist  carries  that  view  to  the  length 
of  attributing  all  consciousness  and  thought 
to  the  vibrations  of  the  brain-fibre — and 
holds  the  soul  to  be,  in  fact,  a  product  or 
property  of  the  bodily  organization,  and  in 
no  sense  independent  of  it.  Consequently, 
as  the  body  is  not  immortal,  so  neither  can 
the  soul  be.  (This  subject  has  been  dis¬ 
cussed  in  the  article  on  Materialism.) 
Such  a  view  is  contradicted  by  the  inner¬ 
most  consciousness  of  us  all.  Non  o?nnis 
moriar ,  said  the  heathen  poet,  “  Not  all  of 
me  will  die.”  Even  now  I  am  not  bound 
to  this  body,  for  there  is  within  me  a  prin¬ 
ciple  which  can  travel  into  far-off  scenes, 
while  I  remain  at  home.  I  can  think  of 
scenes  of  my  childhood  which  I  may  never 
see  again.  Therefore,  there  is  nothing  im¬ 
probable  in  the  belief  that,  whilst  chemical 
agencies  dissolve  the  body,  they  have  no 
power  over  the  Ego,  over  my  innermost 
self.  The  doctrine  of  transmigration 
(q.  v.)  was  plainly  one  form  of  assertion  of 
the  responsibility  of  the  individual  soul, 
and  so  far  seems  to  be  a  step  above  the 
theory  of  absorption  which  has  found  favor 
with  many  rationalizing  philosophers — the 
theory  that  souls  are  swallowed  up  in  the 
great  ocean  of  a  Divine  Life.  Such  a  the¬ 
ory  is  a  denial  of  moral  responsibility, 
destroying  the  faith  in  a  conscious  continu¬ 
ance  of  intellectual  life  and  affection.  It  is 
one  of  the  many  evidences  of  the  obscurity 
of  Spinoza’s  philosophy  on  some  points, 


that  he  has  been  claimed,  both  by  those 
who  preach  the  immortality  of  the  soul, 
and  by  those  who  deny  it,  as  being,  respect¬ 
ively,  on  their  side.  Dr.  Martineau,  who 
has  not  a  high  idea  of  Spinoza,  believes 
that  he  had  no  conviction  of  such  immor¬ 
tality. 

As  we  review  the  arguments  adduced  in 
favor  of  this  all-important  doctrine  of  the 
Christian  faith,  the  vast  capacities  of  the 
thinking  part  of  man,  the  universal  consent 
of  all  nations,  the  consciousness  of  sin  and 
the  conviction  of  God’s  justice, we  still  hold 
that  beyond  them  all,  mighty  as  they  are, 
is  the  fact  of  the  Resurrection  of  Christ  and 
the  evidence  thereof.  Death  could  not 
hold  him,  and  when  he  came  forth  from 
the  grave  it  was  not  only  as  the  image  of 
the  Invisible  God,  but  as  “  the  first-born 
of  every  creature.” — Benham:  Diet,  op 
Religion . 

South,  Robert,  the  son  of  a  London 
merchant;  b.  at  Hackney,  in  1633;  d.  at 
Islip,  1716.  He  was  educated  at  West¬ 
minster  School  under  Dr.  Busby,  and  in 
1651  went  to  Christ  Church,  Oxford;  was 
ordained  in  1658,  and  in  1660  became  Uni¬ 
versity  Orator.  He  was  appointed  domes¬ 
tic  chaplain  to  the  Lord  Chancellor  Claren¬ 
don  on  account  of  a  speech  which  he  had 
delivered  on  Clarendon’s  being  installed  in 
his  office  at  Oxford.  In  1663  he  took  his 
D.  D.  degree,  and  became  a  prebendary  of 
Westminster,  and  in  1670  a  canon  of  Christ 
Church.  In  1677,  Laurence  Hyde,  son  of 
the  Lord  Chancellor,  and  afterward  Earl  of 
Rochester,  was  sent  as  ambassador  to  Po¬ 
land;  and  South,  who  had  been  his  tutor, 
accompanied  him.  On  his  return  to  Eng¬ 
land  he  became  rector  of  Islip,  in  Oxford¬ 
shire,  and  chaplain-in-ordinary  to  the  king. 
He  refused  all  further  preferment,  being 
strongly  opposed  to  James  II. ’s  attempts 
to  restore  Roman  Catholicism.  However, 
he  believed  in  the  duty  of  submission  to 
the  rightful  sovereign,  and  it  was  with  dif¬ 
ficulty  that  he  was  persuaded  to  swear  al¬ 
legiance  to  William  and  Mary;  and  he  ut¬ 
terly  refused  to  take  the  see  of  either  of 
those  who  were  ejected  for  refusing  to 
take  the  oath.  He  remained  at  Islip,  writ¬ 
ing  and  preaching  against  Puritanism  till 
his  death.  He  was  buried  in  Westminster 
Abbey.  The  most  famous  of  his  works 
are  his  sermons,  which  are  characterized 
by  vigorous  sense  and  sound  English. — 
Benham:  Diet,  of  Religion.  An  edition  of 
South’s  Sermons  was  published  in  Boston 
(1867-71),  5  vols.,  London  (1878),  2  vols. 

Southcott,  Joanna,  a  fanatical  woman 
who  lived  in  Devonshire,  England,  about 
the  middle  of  the  eighteenth  century,  and 


Sou 


(  37i  ) 


Spe 


claimed  that  she  was  the  bride  of  the 
Lamb,  and  when  she  was  over  sixty  years 
old,  announced  that  she  was  about  to  give 
birth  to  the  Messiah.  She  published  a 
collection  of  her  “  prophecies,”  inter¬ 
spersed  with  doggerel  verses,  which  made 
two  large  8vo  volumes.  She  gained  thou¬ 
sands  of  followers,  and  after  her  death 
(Dec.  27,  1814)  many  of  them  continued 
to  observe  the  ceremonies  she  had  pre¬ 
scribed. 

South-Sea  Islands.  See  Fiji  Islands. 

Spain.  Out  of  a  population  of  17,268,- 
600.  all  but  34,000  are  nominally  connected 
with  the  Roman  Catholic  Church.  The 
number  of  Protestants  is  given  at  6,654. 
The  constitution  of  1876  grants  toleration, 
and  makes  all  civil  and  political  rights  in¬ 
dependent  of  religious  beliefs. 

Spangenberg,  August  Gottlieb,  an  em¬ 
inent  Moravian;  b.  at  Klettenberg,  Prussia, 
July  15,  1704;  d.  at  Berthelsdorf,  Saxony, 
Sept.  18,  1792.  He  was  graduated  at  the 
University  of  Jena,  1726,  where  he  began 
to  lecture  and  occasionally  to  preach.  He 
formed  a  friendship  with  Zinzendorf,  which 
resulted  in  his  uniting  with  the  Moravians. 
He  labored  as  a  missionary  in  Germany, 
America,  England,  and  the  West  Indies. 
While  in  England  he  organized  the  Society 
for  the  Furtherance  of  the  Gospel  among 
the  Heathen,  which  still  exists.  After  his 
consecration  as  a  bishop  (1744),  he  stood 
at  the  head  of  the  Moravian  Church  in  this 
country,  and  was  active  in  missionary 
labors  among  the  colonists  and  the  Indians. 
Returning  to  Europe  in  1772,  he  took  a 
prominent  part  in  framing  the  new  consti¬ 
tution  of  the  Moravian  Church.  Among 
his  numerous  works  the  most  important 
are  :  Exposition  of  Christian  Doctrine 
(trans.,  London,  1784),  and  a  Life  of  Zin¬ 
zendorf  (trans.  by  Jackson,  London,  1838). 
He  composed  some  well-known  German 
hymns;  see  Ledderhose:  Leben  Spangen- 
bergs  (1846;  Eng.  trans.,  London,  1855). 

Spener,  Philipp  Jakob,  founder  of  the 
pietists  (y.  v. )  in  Germany;  b.  at  Rappolt- 
stein,  Jan.  13,  1635;  d.  at  Berlin,  Feb.  5, 
1705.  His  father  was  counsellor  to  the 
Count  of  Rappoltstein;  and  the  countess, 
who  was  godmother  to  Philipp  Jakob 
Spener,  took  a  great  interest  in  him,  and 
had  him  educated  by  the  court  chaplain, 
Joachim  Stoll.  At  the  age  of  fifteen  he 
went  to  Colmar,  and  a  year  later  to  Stras- 
burg  University.  Here  he  pursued  his 
theological  studies  under  Sebastian  and 
Johann  Schmidt  and  Dannhauer,  all  of 
whom  were  zealous  Lutherans,  Here  also 


he  studied  Hebrew  and  Arabic.  In  1659 
he  went  to  Basel,  where  he  took  lessons  in 
Hebrew  from  Buxtorf;  he  also  visited  the 
universities  of  Tubingen,  Freyburg,  and 
Wiirtemberg.  In  1662  he  was  chosen  pub¬ 
lic  preacher  at  Strasburg,  and  also  gave 
lectures  at  the  university  on  history  and 
philosophy.  In  1664  he  took  his  D.  D., 
and  the  Senate  of  Frankfort-on-the-Main 
invited  him  to  become  chief  preacher  of 
that  city.  His  early  training  had  given 
him  strong  religious  impressions,  and  his 
preaching  was  characterized  by  great  ear¬ 
nestness  and  sincerity,  and  his  life  by  its 
singular  purity;  but  'his  zeal  against  the 
Calvinists,  who  were  an  influential  body  in 
Frankfort,  made  him  many  enemies.  How¬ 
ever,  he  soon  ceased  to  contend  with  them, 
and  turned  his  mind  to  the  great  object  of 
his  life,  which  was  to  enforce  purity  of 
doctrine  and  to  make  his  hearers  acquaint¬ 
ed  with  the  contents  of  the  whole  Script¬ 
ures,  instead  of  only  just  the  portions 
appointed  to  be  read  during  church  ser¬ 
vice.  To  encourage  the  study  of  the  Bible, 
he  in  1670  instituted  his  Collegia  Pietatis , 
where  he  explained  passages  of  the  New 
Testament,  and  invited  discussion  and  fur¬ 
ther  inquiry  from  his  hearers  of  both  sexes. 
He  thus  unintentionally  founded  the  sect 
of  pietists.  In  1675  he  published  his  Pia 
Desideria ,  urging  the  need  of  a  general 
reform  in  the  mode  of  preaching  and  teach¬ 
ing  Christian  doctrines.  In  1686,  at  the 
request  of  the  Elector  of  Saxony,  he  ac¬ 
cepted  the  post  of  court  preacher  at  Dres¬ 
den,  and  he  soon  became  involved  in  a 
religious  dispute  with  the  theological 
teachers  of  Leipzig  (Carpzov,  Alberti, 
etc.).  Spener  had  founded  in  Leipzig  a 
Collegium  P hilobiblicum  for  studying  the 
Bible  in  its  original  languages,  and  this 
was  looked  on  as  a  censure  on  the  univer¬ 
sity  for  its  neglect  of  exegetical  teaching. 
Jealousy,  moreover,  at  Spener’s  having 
been  appointed  to  one  of  the  most  coveted 
Church  preferments  had  much  to  do  with 
causing  opposition  to  his  views,  and  his 
enemies  succeeded  in  prejudicing  the 
elector  against  him,  and  getting  his  re¬ 
ligious  meetings  forbidden.  (It  was  at 
Leipzig  that  the  nickname  of  pietists  was 
given  to  Spener’s  followers.)  Spener, 
therefore,  removed  to  Berlin  in  1690,  and 
here  again  he  commenced  his  catechetical 
instructions,  and  enjoyed  universal  respect. 
His  adherents  at  Leipzig  (Francke,  Anton 
and  Breithaupt)  were  in  1692  made  pro¬ 
fessors  of  theology  at  the  new  University 
of  Halle,  which  henceforth  became  the 
home  of  pietism.  The  theologians  of  Wit¬ 
tenberg  next  attacked  Spener,  accusing  him 
of  founding  various  fanatical  sects,  and  of 
holding  no  less  than  two  hundred  and 


Spi 


(872) 


Spi 


eighty-three  heretical  opinions.  To  them 
Spener  replied  in  1695  by  his  True  Agree¬ 
ment  with  the  Confession  of  Augsburg.  Soon 
after  this  he  was  mixed  up  in  a  very  seri¬ 
ous  dispute  concerning  the  necessity  of 
confession  before  receiving  the  sacrament, 
and  Spener  gave  it  as  his  opinion  that 
Christians  might  be  allowed  to  use  their 
own  judgment  in  this  matter.  In  1694  the 
new  elector,  Frederick  Augustus,  urged 
Spener  to  return  to  Dresden,  but  he  re¬ 
fused  the  offer.  His  last  work  was  On  the 
Eternal  Godhead  of  Christ,  which  he  finish¬ 
ed  shortly  before  his  death  in  1705. — Ben- 
ham:  Diet,  of  Religion.  See  the  Life  of 
Spener ,  by  Wildenhahn;  trans.  by  G.  A. 
Wenzel  (Phila. ,  1881). 

Spices  ( basam ),  “  not  pungent,  as  pep¬ 
per,  ginger,  etc.,  but  aromatic  woods,  seeds, 
or  gums.  (S.  of  Sol.  vi.  2;  v.  1.)  Balsam 
or  balm  of  Gilead ,  a  tropical  plant  that 
grew  in  the  plains  of  Jericho,  and  the  hot 
valleys  of  southern  Palestine.  The  balm 
of  Gilead  tree  is  not  more  than  15  feet 
high,  with  straggling  branches  and  scanty 
foliage.  The  balsam  is  procured  from  the 
bark  by  incision,  and  from  the  green  and 
ripe  berries.  The  nekoth,  ‘  spicery  ’  (Gen. 
xxxvii.  25),  is  the  storax  or  gum  of  the 
styrax  tree.  Arabic  nekaat ,  the  gum  ex¬ 
uding  from  the  tragacanth  ( astragalus ); 
when  exposed  to  the  air  it  hardens  into 
lumps  or  worm-like  spires.  In  2  Kings 
xx.  13  marg. ,  *  house  of  spicery  ’  expresses 
the  original  design  of  the  house;  but  it 
was  used  ultimately  for  storing  Hezekiah’s 
other  *  precious  things.’  Sammim ,  a  gen¬ 
eral  term  for  aromatics  used  in  preparing 
the  holy  anointing  oil.  Certain  Levites 
specially  ‘  oversaw  the  frankincense  and 
spices.’  (1  Chron.  ix.  29,  30.)  Myrrh  and 
aloes  were  among  the  spices  wrapped  with 
Jesus’  body.  (John  xix.  39,  40;  comp,  also 
2  Chron.  xvi.  4;  Mark  xvi.  1;  Luke  xxiii. 
56;  xxiv.  1.)” — Fausset:  Bible  Cyclopcedia. 

Spino'za  {spe-no'za),  Baruch,  or  Bene¬ 
dict,  “  b.  at  Amsterdam,  Nov.  24,  1632; 
d.  at  the  Hague,  Feb.  21,  1677;  a  celebrated 
philosopher,  noted  as  the  author  of  a  mod¬ 
ern  system  of  pantheistic  philosophy.  His 
father  was  a  Portuguese  Jew  of  Amster¬ 
dam,  and  was  engaged  in  commerce  in 
that  city.  He  was  well  instructed  in  his 
youth  in  the  literature  of  his  race,  as  well  as 
in  Greek  and  Latin  literature;  but  he  was 
early  induced  to  enter  upon  theological  and 
philosophical  studies,  which  led  to  his 
doubting  the  divine  authority  of  Judaism. 
Having  made  no  secret  of  his  doubts,  he 
was  excommunicated  by  the  Jewish  rab¬ 
bins;  whereupon  he  attached  himself  to 
som^  Christians  of  his  acquaintance,  and 


frequented  the  assemblies  of  the  Armin- 
ians  and  Mennonites.  When  about  twenty- 
eight  years  of  age  he  withdrew  to  Rhyns- 
burg,  near  Leyden,  and  there  occupied 
himself,  probably  as  a  means  of  subsist¬ 
ence,  in  polishing  lenses  for  telescopes; 
but  he  still  pursued  his  philosophical  stud¬ 
ies  with  ardor,  and  in  1663  published  his 
treatise,  entitled  The  Principles  of  the  Carte¬ 
sian  Philosophy  De?7ionstrated  Geometrically , 
but  with  an  appendix,  in  which  he  avowed 
opinions  wholly  at  variance  with  those  of 
Des  Cartes.  The  publication  of  this  work 
made  him  famous  throughout  Europe,  and 
led  him  into  correspondence  with  the  most 
advanced  thinkers  of  his  day.  In  1664  he 
accepted  an  invitation  from  Jan  de  Witt, 
the  greatest  statesman  in  Holland,  to  take 
up  his  residence  at  the  Hague;  and  there, 
in  1670,  he  published  his  Tractatus  Theolog- 
ico-politicus ,  which  was  followed  by  several 
other  works  on  the  same  subject,  his 
greatest  work,  Ethica  Ordine  Geometrico 
Demonstrata ,  not  being  published  till  after 
his  death.  He  died  of  consumption  in  the 
forty-fifth  year  of  his  age.  A  memorial 
statue  of  Spinoza  was  inaugurated  at  the 
Hague  in  1880.  A  good  account  of  his  life 
and  work  is  to  be  found  in  Spinoza ,  His  Life 
and  Philosophy ,  by  Frederick  Pollock 
(1880).” — Cassell:  Cyclopcedia. 

The  Rev.  J.  H.  Blunt  thus  constructs 
the  Spinozistic  Creed  from  passages  in  the 
philosopher’s  writings:  “  I  believe  in  One 
Infinite  and  Undivided  God,  Eternal  and 
Unchangeable,  existing  and  acting  by  the 
sole  necessity  of  his  nature;  of  infinite 
attributes,  whereof  two  only  are  capable  of 
being  conceived  by  man — Extension  and 
Thought,  whereof  he  himself  is  the  Iden¬ 
tity;  of  all  things  the  Free  Cause;  imma¬ 
nent,  not  transient;  in  whom  all  things 
consist,  and  without  whom  nothing  can 
exist  or  be  conceived.  By  whom  all  things 
were  made,  not  by  design  or  for  the  sake  of 
any  end,  but  predetermined,  and  following 
necessarily  from  the  absolute  nature  or  in¬ 
finite  power  of  God.  Of  which  world  is 
Man,  whose  consciousness  is  the  basis  of 
all  certitude,  in  which  whatsoever  is  clear¬ 
ly  perceived  is  true,  and  exists  objectively 
in  nature;  whose  will  is  not  free,  but  nec¬ 
essary  or  constrained ;  whose  acts  and 
desires  are  good  so  far  as  they  are  defined 
by  reason,  and  whose  salvation,  liberty, 
and  beatitude  consists,  not  in  the  reward 
of  virtue,  but  in  the  virtue  itself,  whereby 
affections  are  restrained,  and  in  the  constant 
and  eternal  knowledge  and  love  of  God; 
whose  worship  by  man  consists  in  the 
exercise  of  obedience,  charity,  and  justice. 
And  I  believe  in  the  communion  and 
fellowship  of  all  men  in  so  far  as  they  are 
led  by  reason,  and  in  the  eternity  of  the 


Spi 


(  873  ) 


Spr 


mind.”  Several  of  Spinoza’s  works  have 
been  translated  into  English.  See  James 
Martineau:  Spinoza  (N.  Y.,  1882). 

Spirit,  Holy.  See  Holy  Spirit. 

Spiritual  Gifts.  See  Gifts,  Spiritual. 

Spirit.  See  Soul. 

Spiritualism,  Spiritualists.  Spiritualism 
had  its  origin  in  America  in  1848,  when 
certain  yappings  in  the  house  of  Mr.  Fox, 
at  Hydeville,  New  York,  were  heard, which 
could  not  be  accounted  for,  and  by  which 
it  was  said  communications  could  be  held 
with  the  spirits  of  the  departed.  These 
raps  were  arranged  into  a  sort  of  alphabet¬ 
ical  order  for  the  purpose  of  the  supposed 
communications,  and  were  supplemented 
by  the  motion  of  articles  of  furniture  about 
the  room,  the  disembodied  spirits  being 
said  to  have  discovered  the  means  of  dis¬ 
coursing  by  electric  detonation;  then  musi¬ 
cal  instruments  were  said  to  sail  about  the 
room  and  utter  unearthly  melodies;  sen¬ 
tences  were  written  by  unseen  hands; 
shadowy  forms  were  descried  in  the  dark¬ 
ness;  light  touches  felt;  and,  lastly,  the 
complete  embodiment  of  a  spirit  so  far  as 
to  be  recognized  by  relatives.  The  spirits 
were  also  said  to  give  their  names.  The 
believers  in  these  manifestations  increased 
very  rapidly,  and  many  converts  were 
made  in  England,  while  in  the  United 
States  it  is  said  that  at  one  time  no  fewer 
than  30,000  “  spirit  mediums  ”  were  prac¬ 
tising.  The  doctrines  of  spiritualists  are 
much  as  follows:  “  God  is  a  Spirit,  and  the 
visible  universe  is  an  expression  to  man  of 
his  Infinite  Life.  Man  is  a  spiritual  being: 
each  individual  spirit  is  a  part  of  the  great 
oversoul,  or  aninta  mundi.  The  spirit  is 
enthralled  in  a  body  during  this  life;  when 
released  it  at  once  enters  upon  the  posses¬ 
sion  of  higher  powers  and  more  extended 
knowledge,  and  its  condition  is  one  of  reg¬ 
ularly  progressive  advancement.  Disem¬ 
bodied  spirits  are  able  to  hold  converse 
with  those  in  the  body;  not  with  all  im¬ 
mediately,  but  through  the  instrumentality 
of  privileged  or  specially  gifted  persons 
called  mediums,  who  are,  on  occasion,  influ¬ 
enced  or,  as  they  term  it,  controlled  by  the 
spirits.  Spirits  can  also  apply  force  to 
physical  objects,  perform  certain  actions, 
such  as  writing,  and  produce  sounds;  they 
can  sometimes  show  themselves  in  mate¬ 
rialized  forms,  some  of  the  material  being 
borrowed  from  the  medium.  A  new  era  is 
now  dawning  on  us.  The  old  religions, 
Christianity  included,  have  played  their 
part,  and  must  pass  away  in  face  of  clearer 
light.  By  intercourse  with  the  spirit  world, 


man  will  advance  as  he  never  has  advanced 
before  in  knowledge,  purity,  and  brotherly 
love.”  Among  the  spiritualists  who  have 
attracted  most  notice  have  been  Douglas 
Home,  who  gave  sittings  before  Napoleon 
III.  and  Alexander  II.  of  Russia,  and  Rob¬ 
ert  Dale  Owen,  who  emigrated  to  the 
United  States,  and  became  the  most  prom¬ 
inent  of  the  spiritualists.  Spiritualism  has 
been  claimed  by  some  as  an  adjunct  to  the 
Christian  religion,  by  others  as  a  sub¬ 
stitute  for  it.  As  an  adjunct,  it  is  rejected 
by  almost  all  the  leaders  of  the  Christian 
Communion;  as  a  substitute,  it  involves 
the  virtual  setting  aside,  more  or  less  com¬ 
pletely,  of  the  authority  of  Holy  Scripture 
and  of  the  teaching  of  the  Church  Univer¬ 
sal.  Some  have  not  inaptly  called  it  a 
“  ghastly  caricature  of  religion.” — Benham: 
Diet,  of  Religion.  See  R.  D.  Owen:  Foot¬ 
falls  on  the  Boundary  of  Another  World 
(Phila. ,  i860),  and  The  Debatable  Land  Be¬ 
tween  this  World  and  the  Next  (N.  Y.,  1872); 
Wallace:  On  Miracles  and  Modern  Spirit¬ 
ualism  (London,  1875). 

Sponsors  were  probably  unknown  before 
infant  baptism  came  into  existence.  At 
first  parents  usually  took  the  vows,  but  in 
time  this  was  forbidden.  The  duties  of 
sponsors  are  laid  down  with  much  detail 
and  exactness  in  the  Roman  Church.  In 
the  English  Church  the  number  of  sponsors 
is  three,  two  godfathers  and  one  godmother 
for  a  male,  two  godmothers  and  a  godfather 
fora  female.  In  the  Roman  Church  it  is  only 
necessary  to  have  one  godparent,  though 
there  are  sometimes  more,  and  in  this 
church  no  person  is  allowed  to  marry  his 
or  her  sponsor. 

Sports,  Book  of,  a  royal  proclamation 
drawn  up  by  Bishop  Morton  and  issued  by 
James  I.,  in  1618.  Under  the  direction  of 
Laud  it  was  republished  by  Charles  I.  It 
encouraged  those  who  had  attended  wor¬ 
ship  to  spend  the  remainder  of  Sunday 
after  evening  prayers  in  such  “  lawful  rec¬ 
reations  ”  as  dancing  and  other  forms  of 
amusement.  It  was  required  that  the  proc¬ 
lamation  should  be  read  in  every  parish 
church,  but  most  of  the  Puritan  ministers 
refused  to  do  so,  and  some  were  suspended. 

Sprague,  William  Buell,  D.  D.,  LL.  D., 
Presbyterian;  b.  at  Andover,  Conn.,  Oct. 
16,  1795;  d.  at  Flushing,  N.  Y. ,  May  7, 
1876.  He  was  a  graduate  of  Yale  College 
(1815),  and  Princeton  Theological  Semi¬ 
nary  (1819).  Immediately  after  completing 
his  studies  he  became  pastor  of  the  Con¬ 
gregational  Church  in  West  Springfield, 
Mass.  In  1829  he  accepted  a  call  to  the 
Second  Presbyterian  Church  of  Albany, 


Spr  (  874  )  Sta 


N.  Y.,  in  which  field  he  labored  for  forty 
years,  resigning  his  charge  in  1869.  Dr. 
Sprague  was  an  able  preacher  and  beloved 
pastor.  He  wrote  several  works,  but  his 
fame  rests  upon  his  Annals  of  the  American 
Pulpit ,  of  which  there  are  nine  published 
volumes. 

Spring,  Gardiner,  D.  D.,  LL.  D.,  Pres¬ 
byterian;  b.  at  Newburyport,  Mass.,  Feb. 
24,  1785;  d.  in  New  York  City,  Aug.  18, 
1873.  He  was  graduated  from  Yale  Col¬ 
lege,  1805;  taught  in  Bermuda  until  1807; 
admitted  to  the  bar,  1808;  abandoned  law 
and  studied  for  the  ministry  at  Andover 
Theological  Seminary,  1809-10.  He  was 
ordained  pastor  of  the  Brick  (Presbyterian) 
Church,  New  York  City,  Aug.  8,  1810,  and 
held  this  position  until  his  death.  His 
ministry  was  eminently  fruitful  and  influ¬ 
ential.  Among  his  published  works  are: 
The  Power  of  the  Pulpit  (1848);  The  Mercy 
.S>a/(l85o);  The  Glory  of  Christ  (1852),  2 
vols. ;  Pulpit  Alinistration  (1864),  2  vols. ; 
and  Personal  Reminiscences  of  the  Life  and 
Times  of'  Gardiner  Spring  (1866),  2  vols. 
(his  autobiography). 

Spring,  Samuel,  D.  D.,  b.  in  North- 
bridge,  Mass.,  Feb.  27,  1746;  d.  in  New¬ 
buryport,  Mass.,  March  4,  1819.  A  grad¬ 
uate  of  Princeton  College  in  1771, he  studied 
theology  first  with  Dr.  John  Witherspoon, 
and  then  with  Drs.  Bellamy,  West,  and 
Hopkins.  In  1775  he  was  a  chaplain  in 
the  Continental  army,  and  in  1777  be¬ 
came  pastor  of  the  Second  Congregational 
Church  in  Newburyport,  Mass.,  which  re¬ 
lation  continued  until  his  death.  Theolog¬ 
ically  he  was  most  in  sympathy  with  his 
brother-in-law,  Dr.  Emmons.  Besides 
many  sermons,  he  published:  Dialogue  on 
the  Nature  of  Duty  (1784);  Moral  Disqui¬ 
sitions  and  Strictures  on  the  Rev.  David  Tap- 
pan'  s  Letters  (in  reply  to  his  Dialogue ,  2d 
ed.,  1815). 

Spurgeon,  Charles  Haddon,  Baptist; 
b.  at  Kelvedon,  Essex,  Eng.,  June  19,  1834. 
The  son  of  an  Independent  minister,  he 
enjoyed  fair  educational  privileges,  but  was 
disappointed  in  receiving  a  collegiate  train¬ 
ing.  Near  the  close  of  1850,  when  at  home 
for  a  holiday,  he  was  converted  in  the  Col¬ 
chester  Primitive  Methodist  Chapel,  under 
the  preaching  of  an  unknown  minister,  who 
chose  for  his  text  Isa.  xlv.  22,  emphasizing 
the  words  “  Look  ....  and  be  saved.” 
He  was  immersed  at  Isleham,  May  3,  1851, 
and  from  this  time  actively  engaged  in 
Christian  work.  The  following  year  he 
preached  his  first  sermon  from  1  Peter  ii.  7, 
at  Teversham,  near  Cambridge.  In  1852 
he  became  pastor  at  Waterbeach,  and  dur¬ 


ing  his  ministry  of  two  years  in  this  place 
the  membership  increased  from  forty  to 
nearly  one  hundred.  An  address  which  he 
made  at  the  Cambridge  Union  of  Sunday- 
Schools,  in  1853,  led  to  his  recommenda¬ 
tion  as  a  candidate  for  the  then  vacant  Bap¬ 
tist  Church  of  New  Park  Street,  South¬ 
wark,  London.  This  once  prosperous 
church  had  so  dwindled  that  only  one  hun¬ 
dred  persons  attended  Mr.  Spurgeon’s  first 
service.  He  accepted  the  pastorate  in 
April,  1854,  and  within  a  year  it  was  found 
necessary  to  enlarge  the  building.  While 
the  alterations  were  being  made  he  preach¬ 
ed  in  Exeter  Hall.  But  the  enlarged  build¬ 
ing  could  not  hold  the  crowds  that  desired 
to  hear  the  youthful  preacher,  and  in  1856 
he  preached  at  the  Royal  Surrey  Gardens 
Music  Hall,  which  seated  seven  thousand 
persons.  The  new  Metropolitan  Taber¬ 
nacle  was  opened  for  service  March  25, 
1861.  This  building  seats  about  five  thou¬ 
sand  persons.  The  Tabernacle  pulpit  has 
gained  a  world-wide  fame,  and  the  name  of 
Mr.  Spurgeon  is  familiar  in  the  Christian 
homes  of  every  land.  In  addition  to  the 
work  of  his  church  the  great  preacher  has 
founded  and  carried  on  two  important  en¬ 
terprises,  the  Pastors’  College  and  the 
Stockwell  Orphanage.  Mr.  Spurgeon’s  pen 
has  been  almost  as  busy  as  his  voice. 
More  than  two  thousand  of  his  sermons 
have  been  published,  and  many  of  them 
have  been  translated  in  different  languages, 
and  hundreds  of  thousands  circulated. 
Among  his  more  important  works  are: 
Morning  by  Morning;  or.  Daily  Readings 
for  the  Family  or  Closet  (1866);  Evening  by 
Evening ;  or,  Readings  at  Eventide  for  the 
Fa?nily  or  Closet  (1868);  John  Ploughman' s 
Talks;  or,  Plain  Advice  for  Plain  People; 
The  Treasury  of  David  (an  exposition  of 
the  Psalms,  1870-85),  7  vols.;  Lectures  to 
My  Students  (2  series,  1875-77);  John 
Ploughman' s  Pictures;  or,  More  of  Plain 
Talk  for  Plain  People  (1880);  The  Clue  of 
the  Maze  (1884);  My  Sermon  Notes  (outlines 
of  discourses,  1884-87),  4  vols. ;  Storm  Sig¬ 
nals  (sermons,  1886);  Salt  Cellars  (1889). 
Since  1S65  Mr.  Spurgeon  has  edited  The 
Sword  and  Trowel,  for  which  he  contrib¬ 
utes  largely.  Since  1867  he  has  suffered 
frequently  from  attacks  of  illness,  but  with 
the  aid  of  his  brother,  Rev.  James  A. 
Spurgeon,  and  an  efficient  corps  of  assist¬ 
ants,  he  still  continues  to  carry  forward 
the  work  of  his  church  and  its  various  en¬ 
terprises  with  remarkable  efficiency. 

Stabat  Mater,  the  opening  words  of  a 
hymn  composed  about  the  end  of  the  thir¬ 
teenth  century  by  Jacopone  da  Todi.  It 
is  one  of  the  most  beautiful  of  Latin  hymns, 
and  describes  the  Virgin  at  the  foot  of  the 


Sta 


(875) 


Sta 


cross,  as  depicted  in  St.  John’s  Gospel. 
The  beauty  of  the  hymn,  and  the  adoration 
paid  to  the  Virgin  have  made  it  a  great 
favorite  in  the  Roman  Church,  and  it  has 
been  set  to  music  by  Nanini,  Palestrina, 
Pergolese,  Haydn,  and  Rossini,  whose  ver¬ 
sion  is  the  best  known  in  England.  It  has 
been  many  times  translated  into  English, 
German  and  Dutch.  Another  Stabat  Mater, 
supposed  to  be  by  the  same  author,  de¬ 
scribes  the  joy  of  the  Virgin  at  Christ’s 
birth;  but  it  is  little  known,  and  far  inferior 
to  the  Stabat  Mater  Dolorosa .  One  of  the 
best  translations  is  that  beginning,  “At  the 
cross  her  station  keeping.” 

Stalker,  James,  Free  Church  of  Scotland; 
b.  at  Crieff,  Perthshire,  Scotland,  Feb.  21, 
1848;  was  graduated  at  Edinburgh  Univer¬ 
sity  and  New  College;  and  since  1874  has 
been  minister  of  St.  Brycedale  Free 
Church,  Kirkcaldy.  He  is  the  author  of: 
The  Life  of  fesus  Christ  (1879)  ;  The  New 
Song: Sermons  for  Children  (1883);  The  Life 
of  St.  Paul  (1884);  L?nago  Christi,  the  Exam¬ 
ple  of  Jesus  Christ  (1889). 

Stanley,  Arthur  Penrhyn,  dean  of 
Westminster  ;  b.  at  Alderley,  Cheshire, 
where  his  father  was  rector,  Dec.  13,  1815; 
d.  in  London,  July  18,  1881.  In  January, 
1829,  he  entered  as  a  scholar  at  Rugby, 
where  he  showed  a  remarkable  talent  for 
history,  and  a  very  retentive  memory,  but 
an  incapacity  for  the  study  of  mathematics, 
which  was  a  serious  drawback  to  his  prog¬ 
ress.  He  was  entered  at  Balliol  College, 
Oxford,  in  1833,  where  he  gained  the  New- 
digate  prize  fora  poem  on  The  Gipsies ;  and 
in  1840-41  he  traveled  in  Greece  for  the 
purpose  of  pursuing  his  classical  studies. 
His  father  had  been  appointed  to  the  bish¬ 
opric  of  Norwich  in  1837.  On  his  return 
to  England,  Stanley  began  his  career  as  a 
college  tutor,  and  met  with  good  success. 
His  lectures  showed  more  than  ordinary 
ability,  and  he  became  known  by  two 
works  which  he  published:  a  Life  of  Ar¬ 
nold ,  which  appeared  in  1844,  and  Scr?nons 
and  Essays  on  the  A postolic  Age  (  r  846),  which 
took  an  entirely  new  line  in  dealing  with 
the  lives  of  the  apostles.  He  was  made 
secretary  to  the  first  Oxford  Commission, 
and  in  1850,  in  writing  in  the  Edinburgh 
Review  on  the  Gorham  judgment,  he  began 
a  series  of  criticisms  on  ecclesiastical  ques¬ 
tions.  In  1851  he  was  appointed  canon  of 
Canterbury,  and  during  the  years  in  which 
he  held  that  office  he  wrote  a  Commentary 
on  the  Epistles  to  the  Corinthians ;  Memorials 
of  Canterbury ,  and  Sinai  and  Palestine ,  a 
delightful  volume,  in  which  he  brought  the 
observation  of  his  travels  to  bear  upon  the 
Sacred  History.  It  was  in  consequence  of 


this  volume  that  he  was  appointed  by  the 
queen  to  accompany  the  Prince  of  Wales 
in  his  tour  in  the  East  in  1862.  He  had 
previously  made  a  tour  in  Russia,  which 
led  him  to  deliver  lectures  on  its  history, 
published  in  1861.  He  became  dean  of 
Westminster  in  1863,  and  soon  afterward 
married  Lady  Augusta  Bruce,  who  was 
equally  in  earnest  with  himself  in  the  labors 
which  he  undertook  among  the  people  of 
Westminster,  while  neither  lost  sight  of 
the  duties  which  they  owed  to  society. 
Dean  Stanley  devoted  himself  to  beautify¬ 
ing  the  abbey,  and  making  it  popular,  and 
to  cultivating  the  friendship  and  religious 
feeling  of  the  poor  of  the  neighborhood, 
and  he  spent  much  time  in  lecturing  and 
preaching  in  all  causes  for  the  good  of  the 
people.  His  tenure  of  the  office  of  dean 
was  an  epoch  which  will  never  be  forgot¬ 
ten  in  the  history  of  Westminster,  and  of 
the  religious  life  of  England.  He  was  a 
Broad-Churchman, always  eager  topromote 
union  with  other  denominations.  His  wife 
died  in  1875;  this  was  felt  by  him  as  a  life¬ 
long  sorrow.  He  was  never  the  same  man 
again;  but  he  was  brave  in  his  endurance, 
and  did  not  neglect  his  good  and  holy  work, 
and  in  1878  he  visited  America,  where  he 
was  cordially  received,  and  delivered  nu¬ 
merous  addresses  and  sermons.  His  other 
works  are:  Lectures  on  the  Jewish  Church , 
three  series  (1863-1879);  Historical  Memo¬ 
rials  of  Westminster  Abbey  (1868);  Essays 
on  Church  and  State  (1870);  a  History  of 
the  Church  of  Scot  land  (1872);  Christian  Ln- 
stitutes  ( 1 881 ) ;  Memoirs  of  his  Father  and 
Mother ,  Edward  and  Catherine  Stanley , 
and  numerous  articles  in  reviews. 

Stanley’s  courageous  endeavors  to  pro¬ 
mote  union  with  Nonconformists,  and 
also  to  protect  the  freethinking  divines  of 
the  Church  of  England,  notably  the  writ¬ 
ers  of  Essays  and  Reviews,  and  Bishop 
Colenso  ( q .  v.),  exposed  him  to  many  hard 
words.  But  his  courage  made  him  popu¬ 
lar  even  with  those  who  opposed  him,  and 
his  conspicuous  piety  and  philanthropy 
were  admitted  on  all  hands.  His  funeral 
in  Westminster  Abbey  was  a  marvelous 
spectacle,  from  the  crowds  which  gathered 
to  it,  representing  every  phase  of  religious 
belief  and  of  intellectual  greatness. — Ben- 
ham:  Diet,  of  Religion. 

Starobradtzi,  Starovertzi,  or  Raskol- 
niks.  See  Russian  Church. 

Stationary  Days.  Wednesdays  and  Fri¬ 
days  are  so  called  as  being  the  days  for 
week-day  services  of  greater  length  than 
on  other  week-days  ;  Wednesday,  because 
it  was  the  day  on  which  the  Jews  took 
counsel  to  kill  our  Lord;  Friday,  because 


Sta 


( 8?o  > 


Ste 


it  was  the  day  of  the  Crucifixion.  In  the 
Western  Church  the  fast  was  obligatory  on 
Friday,  while  that  on  Wednesday,  always 
voluntary,  gradually  died  out.  In  the 
Eastern  Church  both  days  are  still  kept. 
The  fast  lasted  always  till  three  o’clock  in 
the  afternoon. 

Staupitz,  Johann  von,  at  one  time  the 
helpful  friend  of  Martin  Luther;  d.  at  Salz¬ 
burg,  Dec.  28,  1524.  He  was  a  member  of 
the  Augustinian  order,  and  in  1500  became 
prior  of  a  convent  in  Ttibingen.  Two 
years  later,  at  the  invitation  of  the  Elector 
of  Saxony  he  removed  to  Wittenberg  to 
aid  in  the  founding  of  the  university  there. 
In  1503  he  was  chosen  vicar-general  of  the 
Augustinians  in  Germany.  He  met  Lu¬ 
ther  in  the  convent  at  Erfurt  in  1505,  and  at 
once  became  interested  in  his  spiritual 
welfare,  and  pointed  him  to  Christ  and  his 
atoning  love.  At  his  recommendation 
Luther  was  called  to  Wittenberg  in  1508. 
The  progress  of  the  Reformation  finally 
severed  their  friendship,  as  Staupitz  sub¬ 
mitted  to  the  Roman  Church.  He  joined 
the  order  of  the  Benedictines,  and  became 
their  abbot  at  Salzburg  in  1522. 

Steele,  Anne,  the  author  of  many  well- 
known  hymns;  the  daughter  of  a  Baptist 
minister  at  Broughton  in  Hampshire,  Eng¬ 
land,  where  she  was  b.  1716,  and  d.  Nov., 
1778.  She  was  an  invalid  through  her 
entire  life.  Her  Poems  on  Subjects  Chiefly 
Devotional,  by  Theodosia ,  appeared  in  1760 
in  two  volumes,  and  were  reprinted  (1780) 
with  a  third  volume  of  Miscellaneous  Pieces 
in  Verse  and  Prose .  They  were  reissued 
at  Boston  in  two  volumes  (1808),  and  a 
large  portion  of  them  in  one  volume,  by 
D.  Sedgwick  (1863). 

Stennett,  Joseph,  an  English  hymn- 
writer;  b.  at  Abingdon,  Berks,  1663;  d. 
at  Knaphill,  Bucks,  July  11,  1713.  He 
was  ordained  in  1690  pastor  of  a  Baptist 
Church  in  Devonshire  Square,  London,  in 
which  relation  he  continued  till  his  death. 
His  Hytnns  for  the  Lord s  Supper  appeared 
in  1697,  and  with  considerable  additions 
in  a  third  edition  in  1709.  He  published  a 
Version  of  Solomon' s  Song  with  the  Forty- 
Seventh  Psalm  (1700),  and  twelve  hymns 
on  the  Believer's  Baptism  (1712).  He  is 
the  author  of  the  familiar  hymn,  “  An¬ 
other  six  days’  work  is  done.” 

Stennett,  Samuel,  a  grandson  of  the  pre¬ 
ceding;  b.  in  1727  at  Exeter  in  Eng.,  where 
his  father  was  pastor  of  the  Baptist 
Church  ;  d.  in  London,  Aug.  24,  1795. 
He  was  the  assistant  of  his  father  in  the  pas¬ 
torate  of  the  Baptist  Church  in  Little  Wild 


Street,  London,  and  in  1758  became  his  suc¬ 
cessor.  He  spent  his  life  with  this  parish, 
and  gained  wide  influence.  His  Works 
were  published  with  a  memoir  in  1824,  3 
vols.  His  best  hymns  are:  “  On  Jordan’s 
stormy  banks  I  stand,”  “  Majestic  sweet¬ 
ness  sits  enthroned,”  and  “  'Tis  finished  ! 
so  the  Saviour  cried.” 

Stephen,  the  name  of  ten  popes.  See 
Popes. 

Stephen,  St.,  patron  saint  and  apostle  of 
Hungary;  b.  about  977;  d.  Aug.  15,  1038. 
His  father  Geysa,  Duke  of  Hungary,  was 
converted  to  Christianity,  and  all  his  house¬ 
hold  were  baptized.  Stephen,  when  he  suc¬ 
ceeded  to  the  dukedom,  withstood  the 
Pagan  party,  and  in  the  conflict  of  arms 
defeated  them.  He  built  a  large  number 
of  schools  and  churches,  and  divided  his 
territory  into  ten  bishoprics.  He  drew  up  a 
code  of  laws  which  form  the  groundwork 
of  the  present  Constitution  of  Hungary. 
Stephen  was  canonized  by  Innocent  XI.  in 
1687. 

Sternhold  and  Hopkins,  authors  of  the 
old  Metrical  Versions  of  the  Psalms.  Stern- 
hold  was  Groom  of  the  Chambers  to  Henry 
VIII.,  and  afterward  to  Edward  VI.,  and 
it  is  said  he  owed  that  position  to  his  poet¬ 
ical  talents.  Certain  it  is,  that  although 
many  Psalms  had  been  translated  into  verse 
by  different  scholars,  Sternhold’s  version 
was  the  first  introduced  into  England.  Of 
his  fellow-laborer,  Hopkins,  little  is  known, 
save  that  he  was  a  clergyman  and  school¬ 
master  in  Suffolk,  and  by  some  considered 
even  a  better  poet  than  Sternhold.  There 
was  published  also  a  collection  of  Psalms 
in  verse  by  different  poets,  to  which  Wil¬ 
liam  Whyttingham,  a  friend  of  Calvin  and 
Knox,  was  a  contributor.  Sternhold  died 
in  1549,  a°d  in  the  same  year  fifty-one 
Psalms,  versified  by  him,  were  printed.  A 
more  complete  version  was  published  in 
1562. — Benham:  Diet,  of  Religion. 

Stevens,  Abel,  LL.  D. ,  Methodist;  b.  in 
Philadelphia,  Penn.,  Jan.  19,  1815.  After 
completing  a  course  of  study  in  the  Wes¬ 
leyan  University,  Middletown,  Conn.,  1834, 
he  was  in  the  pastorate  till  1840,  when  he 
became  editor  of  Zion's  Herald,  Boston, 
of  The  National  Magazine,  1852;  of  The 
Christian  Advocate,  1856;  associate  editor 
of  The  Methodist,  1860-74.  He  is  the 
author  of  several  volumes,  but  is  best 
known  for  his  standard  History  of  the 
Methodist  Episcopal  Church  (1864-67,  4 
vols.;  abridgment,  1S67,  1  vol.). 

Steward,  the  title  of  a  lay  officer  in  the 


Sti 


(  877  ) 


Sto 


Methodist  Church  whose  duties  correspond 
to  those  of  deacons  in  Congregational  and 
Reformed  churches.  See  Discipline  of  the 
Methodist  Episcopal  Church. 

Stier,  Rudolf  Ewald,  b.  at  Fraustadt, 
March  17,  1800;  d.  at  Eisleben,  Dec.  16, 
1862.  He  studied  law  at  Jena,  but  in  1816 
he  became  a  student  of  theology,  and  was 
for  a  while  a  disciple  of  Richter,  but  his 
deep  religious  earnestness  led  him  to  yield 
obedience  to  the  faith  and  doctrine  of  the 
gospel.  He  went  to  Halle  in  1818,  and  was 
made  head  of  the  Burschenschaft  there,  and 
he  subsequently  studied  and  taught  at  Ber¬ 
lin,  Wittenberg,  Karalene,  and  Basel.  He 
became  pastor  at  Frankleben  in  1829,  and 
at  Wichlinghausen  in  1838  ;  after  eight 
years  he  retired,  and  became  superintend¬ 
ent,  first  at  Schkeuditz,  and  afterwards  at 
Eisleben.  His  writings  are  numerous,  and 
of  deep  value  for  their  piety  and  suggest¬ 
iveness  for  homiletical  purposes;  the  most 
important  is  Words  of  the  Lord  Jesus ,  writ¬ 
ten  in  1843,  which  he  insists  strongly  on 
the  doctrine  of  inspiration.  He  wrote  also 
The  Words  of  the  Apostles  and  The  Words 
of  the  Angels ;  Altes  und  JVeues  in  deutscher 
Bibel ;  Auslegung  von  70  ausgewahlten 
Psalmen.  The  most  important  of  his  works 
are  translated  in  Clark's  Theological  Library. 
— Benham:  Diet,  of  Religion. 

Stigmata,  the  miraculous  wounds  which 
are  said  to  have  appeared  in  the  hands, 
feet,  and  side  of  persons,  resembling  those 
received  by  our  Lord  when  crucified.  The 
first  instance  of  the  appearance  of  the  stig¬ 
mata  is  that  of  St.  Francis,  who  is  said,  in 
1224,  to  have  seen  the  crucified  Saviour  in 
a  vision,  and  when  he  awakened  found 
marks  on  his  hands  and  feet.  Among  the 
many  cases  that  have  been  noted — 145  are 
upon  record  —  of  peculiar  marks  thus 
appearing,  “  leaving  out  of  account  the  ele¬ 
ment  of  fraud,  it  may  be  said  that  ‘  stig- 
matic  neuropathy’  is  a  pathological  condi¬ 
tion  of  occasional  occurrence,  explicable  by 
physical  and  mental  conditions.” 

Stillingfleet,  Edward,  a  prelate  of  the 
Church  of  England;  b.  at  Cranbourne,  in 
Dorsetshire,  April  17,  1635;  d.  at  West¬ 
minster,  March  27,  1699.  He  was  educated 
at  Cambridge,  where  he  received  a  fellow¬ 
ship  in  1653.  From  1670  to  1678  he  was 
canon  of  St.  Paul’s;  dean  of  the  same  ca¬ 
thedral,  1678-88;  bishop  of  Worcester  from 
1688  till  his  death.  His  principal  work  was 
Origines  Sacrce  ;  or,  A  Rational  Account  of 
the  Grounds  of  Natural  and  Revealed  Relig¬ 
ion  (1662).  This  work  is  still  esteemed  a 
classic.  He  took  an  active  part  in  the 
great  doctrinal  controversies  of  his  age, 


and  made  sharp  attacks  upon  the  Roman 
Catholics  in  his  Rational  Account  of  the 
Grounds  of  the  Protestant  Religion  (1665), 
and  upon  the  Nonconformists  in  his  Mis¬ 
chiefs  of  Separation  (1680).  A  collected 
edition  of  his  works,  with  a  memoir,  was 
published  in  1699. 

Stipendiary  Curate.  See  Perpetual 
Curate. 

Stoddard,  David  Tappan,  Congregational 
missionary;  b.  at  Northampton,  Mass., 
Dec.  2,  1818;  d.  at  Tabriz,  Persia,  Jan.  22, 
1857.  Graduating  at  Yale  College,  1838, 
and  at  Andover  Theological  Seminary, 
1841,  he  went  as  a  missionary  to  the  Nes- 
torians  in  1843  and  labored  in  this  field 
until  his  death,  with  the  exception  of  a 
visit  to  the  United  States  from  1848  to 
1851.  He  was  eminently  successful  in  his 
work.  See  J.  P.  Thompson:  Memoir  of  D. 
T.  Stoddard  (N.  Y. ,  1858). 

Stoics,  a  sect  of  Greek  philosophers, 
who  derived  their  name  from  the  Stoa,  or 
colonnade,  in  which  their  leader,  Zeno, 
lectured  at  Athens,  about  308  b.  c.  The 
doctrines  of  Zeno,  it  is  thought,  may  have 
been  derived  partly  from  the  Jewish  Script¬ 
ures,  but  it  is  certain  that  Socrates  and 
Plato  had  taught  much  of  them  before,  and 
stoicism  came  nearest  in  morality  to  Chris¬ 
tianity,  for  which  it  prepared  the  way.  The 
stoics  maintained  that  nature  (which  in 
reality  they  identified  with  God)  impels 
man  to  do  that  which  is  good;  and  that 
conformity  to  the  laws  of  nature  constitutes 
virtue.  Every  one  who  has  a  right  dis¬ 
cernment  of  what  is  good,  desires  to  follow 
the  will  of  Nature  in  all  his  desires  and 
pursuits;  and  beyond  this  he  must  have  no 
desires,  but  be  independent  of  all  surround¬ 
ing  circumstances.  All  external  things  are 
indifferent,  and  incapable  of  affecting  the 
happiness  of  man ;  pain ,  which  has  nothing  to 
do  with  the  mind,  is  not  evil;  and  a  wise 
man  will  be  happy  in  the  midst  of  torture, 
because  virtue  itself  is  happiness.  Stoi¬ 
cism  gained  a  firm  hold  on  the  mind  of  the 
Romans,  chiefly  through  its  fundamental 
principle  that  action  is  far  superior  to 
meditation  or  to  enjoyment;  and  it  was  ex¬ 
pounded  in  Rome  by  Seneca,  and  by  the 
Emperor  Marcus  Aurelius,  and  Epictetus 
the  slave.  Such  was  stoicism  in  theory, 
and  such  were  the  best  of  its  teachers;  but 
practically  the  stoics  lived  pretty  much  as 
they  felt  inclined  to  live,  without  any  very 
strict  reference  to  their  philosophy  about 
virtue;  and  their  theory  about  endurance 
of  suffering  often  led  them  to  suicide  as 
the  easiest  way  of  escaping  it;  of  which 
Zeno  himself,  as  well  as  Cato,  are  notable 


Sto 


(  878  ) 


Str 


examples.  —  Benham  :  Diet,  of  Religion. 
See  W.  W.  Capes  :  Stoicism  (London, 
1880). 

Stole,  the  name  of  a  sacred  vestment 
used  in  the  Roman  and  Episcopal  Churches 
and,  with  some  modification,  in  the  Greek 
Church.  It  is  a  narrow  band  of  silk  or 
precious  stuff,  fringed  with  gold  embroid¬ 
ery,  and  is  worn  over  the  shoulders  by 
priests  and  deacons.  The  former  wear  it 
over  both  shoulders  with  the  ends  hang¬ 
ing  in  front  or  crossed  upon  the  breast: 
the  latter  carry  it  from  the  left  shoulder 
to  the  right  side  where  the  ends  are  fast¬ 
ened. 

Storrs,  Richard  Salter,  D.  D.  (Union 
College,  Schenectady,  N.  Y.,  1853;  Har¬ 
vard  College,  1859),  LL.  D.  (College  of 
New  Jersey,  Princeton,  1874),  Congrega¬ 
tionalism  b.  at  Braintree,  Mass.,  Aug.  21, 
1821;  was  graduated  at  Amherst  College, 
1839,  andat  Andover  Theological  Seminary, 
1845;  became  pastor  of  the  Harvard  Con¬ 
gregational  Church,  Brookline,  Mass., 
1845;  and  of  the  Church  of  the  Pilgrims, 
Brooklyn,  N.  Y. ,  1846.  From  1848  to 
1861  he  was  one  of  the  editors  of  The  In¬ 
dependent.  He  is  the  author  of:  The  Con¬ 
stitution  of  the  Human  Soul  (N .  Y. ,  1857); 
Conditions  of  Success  in  Preaching  Without 
Notes  ( 1875);  Declaration  of  Independence , 
and  the  Effects  of  It  (1876);  John  Wy  cliff e 
and  the  First  English  Bible  (1880);  Recogni¬ 
tion  of  the  Supernatural  in  Letters  and  in 
Life  (1871):  Manliness  in  the  Scholar  (1883); 
The  Divine  Origin  of  Christianity  Indicated 
by  its  Historical  Effects  (1884). 

Stowell,  Hugh,  a  prominent  English 
evangelical  clergyman;  b.  at  Douglas,  Isle 
of  Man,  Dec.  3,  1799;  d.  at  Salford,  Oct.  8, 
1865,  where  he  was  rector  of  Christ  Church. 
He  wrote:  The  Pleasures  of  Religion ,  with 
other  Poems  (1832);  Tractarianism  Tested 
(1845),  2  vols. ;  A  Model  for  Men  of  Busi¬ 
ness,  and  edited  A  Selection  of  Psalms  and 
Hymns  (1831),  which  contained  the  familiar 
hymn,  “  From  every  stormy  wind  that 
blows.”  See  his  Memoir,  by  Rev.  J.  B. 
Marsden  (1868). 

Strack,  Hermann  Lebrecht,  Ph.  D. 
(Leipzig,  1872),  D.  D.  (same,  1884),  Prot¬ 
estant  theologian;  b.  in  Berlin,  May  6, 
1848;  studied  at  Berlin  and  Leipzig,  1865- 
70;  taught  in  Kaiser  Wilhelm  Gymnasium, 
1872-73;  engaged  in  editing  the  Codex 
Babylonicus  Petropolitanus  in  the  Imperial 
Library  at  St.  Petersburg,  1873-76;  became 
professor  extraordinary  of  theology  at 
Berlin,  1877.  He  is  the  author  of  several 
important  works.  An  Eng.  trans.  of  his 


Hebrezu  Grammar  was  published. in  New 
York  and  London,  1886. 

Strauss  (strowss),  David  Friedrich,  the 
leader  in  our  century  of  the  extreme  ra- 
tionists  on  the  subject  of  the  Life  of  Christ: 
b.  at  Ludwigsburg,  in  Wlirtemberg,  1808; 
d.  there,  1874;  studied  theology  at  Blau- 
beuren,  and  afterward  at  Tubingen.  He 
went  to  the  seminary  at  Maulbronn  as  pro¬ 
fessor’s  assistant  in  1830,  and  was  at  first 
a  follower  of  Schellingand  Boehme,  but  at 
Berlin,  where  he  next  went  to  study,  his 
early  opinions  were  exchanged  for  the  phi¬ 
losophy  of  Hegel  and  the  theology  of 
Schleiermacher.  He  became  under-teach¬ 
er  at  the  seminary  at  Tubingen,  but  for¬ 
feited  this  post  through  the  publication  of 
Das  Leben  Jesu ,  kritisch  bearbeitet,  in  which 
he  maintained  that  the  Gospel  history  is  a 
collection  of  myths,  written  in  the  first  and 
second  centuries  of  the  Christian  era,  and 
founded  on  the  Old  Testament  prophecies 
concerning  the  Messiah.  Strauss  was 
next  appointed  teacher  in  the  Lyceum  at 
Ludwigsburg,  and  in  1839  was  chosen  by 
the  Council  of  Education  to  fill  the  office  of 
professor  of  divinity  and  church  history  at 
Zurich;  but  the  appointment  met  with  so 
much  opposition  from  the  people  that  he 
was  dismissed  with  a  small  pension.  He 
published:  Zwei  Friedliche  Blatter ,  Charak- 
teristiken  und  Kritiken,  and  Die  Christliche 
Glaubenslehre ,  in  ihrer  geschichtlichen  En- 
twickelung  und  im  Kampf  mit  der  ?tiodernen 
Wissenschaft,  between  1838  and  1841,  and 
raised  thereby  a  controversy  in  which  Ne- 
ander,  Tholuck,  and  others  wrote  in  refu¬ 
tation  of  his  doctrines.  In  1847  he  pub¬ 
lished  Der  Romantiker  auf  dem  Throne  der 
Casaren,  oder  Julian  der  Abtriinnige,  a  po¬ 
litical  satire,  in  which  he  gave  great  offence 
by  comparing  the  Roman  Emperor  to 
Friedrich  Wilhelm  IV.  of  Prussia.  In  1848 
he  was  elected  a  member  of  the  Wiirtem- 
berg  Diet  for  Ludwigsburg,  but  disap¬ 
pointed  his  constituents  by  taking  the  side 
of  the  Conservatives,  and  soon  after  re¬ 
signed.  Strauss’s  later  works  were:  Die 
Halben  und  die  Ganzen ,  Der  Christus  des 
Glaubens  und  der  Jesus  der  Geschichte  and 
Der  alte  und  der  neue  Glaube;  in  these  he 
retracted  his  former  reverence  for  Chris¬ 
tianity,  denied  the  possibility  of  personal 
religion  or  belief  in  any  god  but  the  uni¬ 
verse,  which  is  “  the  development  from  a 
blind  force  of  law,  without  any  foreseen 
end,”  and  expressed  the  opinion  that  there 
is  no  life  hereafter.  The  hopelessness  of 
such  a  creed  made  itself  evident,  and  even 
rationalists  recoiled  from  it.  The  theories 
of  Strauss  find  but  little  acceptance,  and 
have  been  successfully  rebutted  by  both 
English  and  German  critics.  —  Benham: 


Str 


(  879  ) 


Sub 


Did.  of  Religion.  Among  the  replies  to 
Strauss’s  Old  Faith  and  New  is  that  of  Ul- 
rici,  translated  and  annotated  by  Krauth 
(Phila. ,  1877). 

Strong,  James,  S.  T.  D.,  LL.  D.  (Wesley¬ 
an  University,  Middletown,  Conn.,  1856 
and  1881),  Methodist  layman;  b.  in  New 
York  City,  Aug.  14,  1822;  was  graduated 
at  Wesleyan  University,  Middletown, 
Conn.,  1844;  engaged  in  teaching,  and  since 
1868  has  been  professor  of  exegetical  the¬ 
ology  in  Drew  Theological  Seminary,  Mad¬ 
ison,  N.  J.  He  was  a  member  of  the 
American  Old  Testament  Company  of  Bible 
Revisers;  and  has  published:  Harmony  and 
Exposition  of  the  Gospels  (1852);  Harmony 
in  Greek  ( 1854);  Scripture  History  D elineated 
front  the  Bible  Records  and  all  other  Accessi¬ 
ble  Sources  (1878);  Irenics:  A  Series  of  Es¬ 
says  showing  the  Virtual  Agreement  between 
Science  and  the  Bible  (1883).  The  work 
with  which  the  name  of  Dr.  Stong  is  best 
known  is  the  Cyclopcedia  of  Biblical ,  Theo¬ 
logical  and  Ecclesiastical  Literature  (1867- 
Si),  10  vols. ,  supplement  in  2  vols.  He 
was  connected  with  Dr.  McClintock  in  the 
editorship  of  three  volumes  of  this  great 
work,  and  then  had  the  entire  charge  of  its 
preparation. 

Strong,  Nathan,  D.  D.,  an  eminent 
Congregational  minister;  b.  in  Coventry, 
Conn.,  Oct.  16,  1748;  d.  in  Hartford, 
Conn.,  Dec.  25,  1816.  He  was  graduated 
at  Yale  College,  1769,  and  ordained  pastor 
of  the  First  Congregational  Church  in 
Hartford,  Conn.,  1774.  His  ministry  in 
this  place  continued  nearly  forty  -  two 
years.  He  was  an  able  preacher,  and  ex¬ 
erted  a  commanding  influence  far  beyond 
the  bounds  of  his  parish.  He  was  a  pioneer 
in  the  cause  of  missions,  and  one  of  the 
founders  of  the  Connecticut  Missionary 
Society,  the  oldest  of  the  permanent  mis¬ 
sionary  societies  in  this  country.  He  pub¬ 
lished  two  volumes  of  sermons  (1798-1800), 
but  his  most  elaborate  work  is  entitled 
The  Doctrine  of  Eternal  Alisery  Reconcil¬ 
able  with  the  Infinite  Benevolence  of  God 
(I796)- 

Stuart,  Moses,  an  eminent  American  di¬ 
vine  and  scholar;  b.  at  Wilton,  Conn., 
March  26,  1780;  d.  at  Andover,  Mass., 
Jan.  8,  1852.  Graduating  at  Yale  College 
in  1799,  he  studied  law  and  was  admitted 
to  the  bar  in  1802.  Accepting  a  tutorship 
at  Yale,  he  decided  to  enter  the  ministry, 
and  studied  theology  with  President 
Dwight.  In  1806  he  was  ordained  pastor 
of  the  First  Congregational  Church  at  New 
Haven,  Conn.  His  ministry  here  was 
very  successful.  In  1810  he  became  pro¬ 


fessor  of  sacred  literature  in  Andover  The¬ 
ological  Seminary,  where,  in  spite  of  ill- 
health,  he  attained  great  eminence  as  a 
teacher  and  author.  Among  his  works  are 
a  Hebrew  Grammar ,  without  points  (1813), 
with  points  (1821);  Letters  to  Dr.  W.  E. 
C banning  on  the  Divinity  of  Christ  (1819); 
Commentary  on  the  Epistle  to  the  Hebrews 
(1827-28),  2  vols. ;  Romans  (1832)  2  vols.; 
Daniel  { 1850);  Ecclesiastes  (1851);  Proverbs 
(1852). 

Stylites.  See  Simeon  Stylites. 

Suarez,  Francis,  a  learned  scholar  and 
writer  of  the  order  of  the  Jesuits;  b.  at 
Granada,  Spain,  Jan.  5,  1548;  d.  at  Lisbon, 
Sept.  25.  1617.  His  works  were  published 
at  Lyons  and  Mainz  (1630)  in  twenty-three 
volumes  and  reprinted  at  Venice  (1740). 
They  treated,  for  the  most  part,  of  the 
Aristotelian  philosophy  and  the  scholastic 
theology.  He  wrote  a  Defence  of  the  Catho¬ 
lic  and  Apostolic  Eaith  against  the  Errors  of 
the  Anglican  Sect  (1613),  which  was  burned 
by  the  public  hangman  in  front  of  St  Paul’s, 
London. 

Subdeacons,  the  principal  of  the  minor 
orders  of  the  clergy  in  the  early  Church. 
They  were  ordained  without  imposition  of 
hands.  Their  chief  duties  were  to  prepare 
the  sacred  vessels  for  the  Eucharistic  Ser¬ 
vice,  to  deliver  them  to  the  deacon  at  the 
proper  time,  and  to  attend  at  the  doors  of 
the  church  during  the  celebration  of  the 
Communion.  They  were  also  the  bishop’s 
messengers,  employed  by  him  to  convey 
letters  to  foreign  churches 

Sublapsarianism  is  the  theory  which 
holds  that  God  decreed  to  permit  the  fall, 
and  then,  in  view  of  his  purpose  of  provid¬ 
ing  redemption  for  the  race,  elected  out  of 
fallen  men  a  people  to  his  praise.  See 
Infralapsarianism  and  Supralapsarian- 

ISM. 

Substance.  This  word  signifies,  in  theo¬ 
logical  language,  the  essence, that  which  con¬ 
stitutes  a  thing  what  it  is.  Thus  the  word 
is  applied  in  the  Athanasian  and  Nicene 
Creeds  to  God,  and  signifies  the  Divine 
Nature  —  that  which  distinguishes  God 
from  his  creatures,  and  in  which  all  his 
divine  attributes  inhere.  (Hypostasis.)  In 
the  Roman  doctrine  of  transubstantiation 
it  is  held  that  the  substance  of  the  sacra¬ 
ment  is  changed,  while  the  accidents  of 
bread  remain.  The  word  has  no  connection 
whatever  with  material  form  or  solidity,  as 
used  in  ordinary  language. 

Substrati.  See  Genuflectentes. 


Sue  (  880  )  Sun 


Succession.  See  Apostolical  Succes¬ 
sion. 

Suc'coth-Be'noth  ( tents  of  daughters'),  an 
idol-divinity  of  the  Babylonians  for  whom 
they  built  a  temple  upon  their  arrival  in 
Samaria.  (2  Kings  xvii.  30.) 

Suffragan  at  one  time  designated  any 
ecclesiastic  whose  duty  it  was  to  assist  the 
bishop,  but  the  term  was  more  especially 
applied  to  bishops  in  partibus  infidelium, 
who  assisted  regular  diocesan  bishops,  and 
also  to  designate  the  relation  of  the  latter 
to  their  Metropolitans. 

Summerfield,  John,  famed  for  his  won¬ 
derful  pulpit  eloquence;  b.  in  Preston, 
Eng.,  Jan.  31,  1798;  d.  in  New  York  City, 
June  13,  1825.  He  was  the  son  of  a  Wes¬ 
leyan  local  preacher,  and  in  1819  entered 
the  Methodist  Conference  of  Ireland.  Emi¬ 
grating  to  this  country  in  1821  he  joined 
the  New  York  Conference,  and  at  once 
gained  immense  popularity  as  a  pulpit 
orator.  He  preached  to  great  congregations 
in  Philadelphia,  Baltimore,  and  Washing¬ 
ton  in  1822,  but  his  health  gave  way,  and 
he  spent  the  winter  of  1822-23  in  France. 
He  returned  to  New  York  in  the  spring  of 
1824,  but  was  never  able  to  resume  full 
work.  A  volume  of  his  Sermons  and 
Sketches  of  Sertnons  was  published  in  1842. 
Several  memoirs  have  appeared. 

Summers,  Thomas  Osgood,  D.  D., 
LL.  D.,  an  eminent  minister  of  the  Metho¬ 
dist  Episcopal  Church,  South;  b.  near  Corfe 
Castle,  Isle  of  Purbeck,  Dorsetshire,  Eng., 
Oct.  11,  1812;  d.  at  Nashville,  Tenn.,  May 
5,  1882.  In  early  youth  he  came  to  this 
country  with  his  parents,  who  settled  at 
Baltimore.  He  entered  the  Baltimore  Con¬ 
ference  in  1835,  and  was  secretary  of  the 
Louisville  Convention  in  1845,  which 
organized  the  Methodist  Episcopal  Church, 
South.  He  was  for  many  years  editor  of 
the  Nashville  Christian  Advocate  and  of  the 
Quarterly  Review.  At  the  founding  of  Van¬ 
derbilt  University  he  was  elected  professor 
of  systematic  theology,  which  position  he 
retained  until  his  death.  He  wrote  a  Com¬ 
mentary  on  the  Gospels ,  Acts ,  and  Romans , 
in  6  vols. ;  Commentary  on  the  Ritual  of  the 
Methodist  Episcopal  Church ,  South ;  Way  of 
Salvation ,  and  many  other  works  on  doc¬ 
trinal  and  practical  subjects. 

Sun.  “  The  worship  of  the  sun  was  the 
earliest  form  of  idolatry  (Job  xxxi.  26,  27); 
Ra  was  the  sun-god  in  Egypt;  On  was  the 
city  of  the  sun-worship  (Jer.  xliii.  13),  Heb. 
Beth-shemesh,  ‘  house  of  the  sun,’  Gr. 
Heliopolis,  Joshua’s  causing  the  sun  to 


stand  still,  phenomenally,  virtually  pro¬ 
claimed  his  God,  Jehovah,  to  be  Lord  of 
the  sun  and  all  creation,  in  the  face  of 
heathendom.  The  valley  of  Ajalon  is  still 
called  wady  el  Mikteleh ,  ‘  the  valley  of 
slaughter.’  The  Phoenician  Baal,  the  Am¬ 
monite  Moloch  and  Milcom,  the  Syrian 
Hadad,  latterly  the  Persian  Mithras  (Zoro¬ 
aster  previously  had  reformed  the  wor¬ 
ship).  The  sun-images  were  called  in  He¬ 
brew  chammanii?i  (Lev.  xxvi.  30;  marg. ; 
2  Chron.  xiv.  5;  xxxiv.  4),  stone  statues  to 
solar  Baal  or  Baal-Haman  in  Carthaginian 
inscriptions.  The  temple  at  Baalbec  was 
dedicated  to  the  worship  of  the  sun.  Ma- 
nasseh  introduced  direct  sun-worship.  (2 
Kings  xxi.  3,  5.)  Josiah  destroyed  by  fire 
(the  very  element  which  was  worshipped) 
the  chariots,  and  removed  the  horses  con¬ 
secrated  to  the  sun  (xxiii.  5,  11,  12).  The 
housetop  was  the  place  of  sun-altars  and 
incense-burning.  (Zeph.  i.  5.)  Worship  was 
directed  to  the  rising  sun  (Ezek.  viii.  16, 
17);  they  used  to  hold  a  bunch  of  tamarisk 
branches  ( barsorn )  to  their  nose  at  daybreak, 
whilst  singing  hymns  to  the  rising  sun. 
( Strabo ,  i.  15,  §  733.)  The  horses  sacred 
to  the  sun,  and  used  in  processions  to  meet 
the  rising  sun,  were  kept  at  the  entering-in 
of  the  house  of  Jehovah  in  the  portico  (as 
Gesenius  explains  parvarim  in  2  Kings 
xxiii.  11,  not  ‘suburbs’)  at  the  western 
side  of  the  outer  temple  court.  An  insult 
to  the  only  true  God,  in  his  own  house  ! 

“  Spiritually ,  God’s  law  is  the  sun.  (Psa. 
xix.  7.)  He  is  a  Sun  to  cheer;  and  ‘the 
Sun  of  righteousness,’  from  whom  we  re¬ 
ceive  all  righteousness  by  imputation  for 
justification,  and  by  impartation  for  sancti¬ 
fication.  (Mai.  iv.  2;  Rev.  i.  16.)” — Fausset: 
Bible  Cyclopcedia. 

Sun'day  “  is  of  heathen  origin  (like  our 
designation  of  the  other  days  of  the  week), 
and  means  ‘  the  day  of  the  sun,’  or  ‘  sacred 
to  the  god  of  the  sun.’  It  does  not  occur 
in  the  Bible,  but  is  now  in  common  use  for 
the  first  day  of  the  week,  which  has  taken 
the  place  of  the  Jewish  Sabbath,  and 
should  properly  be  called  the  Lord’s  Day 
(Rev.  i.  10),  as  the  day  of  the  resurrection 
of  Christ.” — Schaff:  Bible  Did.  See  Lord’s 
Day  and  Sabbath. 

Sunday  Laws  in  the  United  States. 
The  best  Sabbath  laws  of  the  various 
States  may  be  concisely  epitomized  as  fol¬ 
lows:  Sunday  being  set  apart,  by  general 
consent,  as  a  day  of  rest  and  worship,  the 
law  forbids  labor  from  midnight  on  Satur¬ 
day  to  midnight  on  Sunday,  except  of  neces¬ 
sity  and  mercy,  and  except  private  work 
by  Saturday  keepers;  opening  of  business 
places,  except  for  milk  and  medicines; 


Sun 


(  881  ) 


Sun 


making  contracts  ( dies  non  for  all  commer¬ 
cial  paper);  opening  of  rooms  where  liq¬ 
uors  are  commonly  sold,  or  hiding  inte¬ 
riors  of  such  by  screens;  amusements  for 
gain,  or  noisy,  or  public;  admittance  fees 
anywhere;  street  processions  passing 
churches  with  music;  all  court  service  ex¬ 
cept  criminal  arrests  and  to  prevent  fraud 
( dies  non  for  court  purposes);  penalty,  fine 
and  imprisonment  after  first  offense. 

The  General  Government  has  several 
Sunday  laws,  enough  to  serve  as  precedent 
for  more  adequate  ones.  The  Constitution 
in  the  First  Article,  seventh  section,  gives 
the  President  “ten  days  (Sundays  except¬ 
ed)”  to  work  upon  bills  sent  to  him  by  Con¬ 
gress.  The  petitions,  endorsed  by  individ¬ 
uals  and  organizations  representing  the 
churches  and  labor  organizations  generally, 
that  ask  Congress  for  a  “  Sunday-Rest 
Law,”  for  the  District  of  Columbia  and 
the  Territories  for  Government  employes, 
and  for  those  engaged  in  interstate  com¬ 
merce,  are  only  a  request  that  that  acorn 
(“Sundays  excepted”)  shall  be  allowed 
to  grow  into  its  legitimate  result,  the  wide- 
spreading  oak  of  a  Sunday-Rest  Law,  un¬ 
der  which  all  who  are  under  the  jurisdic¬ 
tion  of  the  General  Government  may,  with 
the  President,  enjoy  their  rightful  day  of 
rest. 

Sunday  laws  are  not  “  religious  legisla¬ 
tion  ”  because  they  come  from  the  Bible, 
any  more  than  the  laws  against  adultery, 
which  are  as  distinctly  a  part  of  biblical 
morality  in  distinction  from  heathen  mo¬ 
rality,  as  Sabbath  laws.  Both  the  Bible  and 
the  codes  of  the  most  advanced  govern¬ 
ments  forbid  murder,  theft,  adultery,  false 
witness,  and  work  on  the  Sabbath.  Religion 
renders  to  God  the  things  that  are  God’s 
by  forbidding  these  things  chiefly  as  sins 
against  God.  Government  renders  to  Cae¬ 
sar  the  things  that  are  Caesar’s  by  forbid¬ 
ding  them  as  crimes  against  man.  From  a 
labor  standpoint  a  Sunday  law  is  only  a 
six-day  law ,  forbidding  work  for  more  than 
six  days  of  the  week,  as  the  ten-hour  law 
forbids  work  for  more  than  ten  hours  of 
the  day. 

Sabbath  laws  are  constitutional.  The  Su¬ 
preme  Courts  of  the  twenty-five  States  in 
which  the  matter  has  been  tested  have  so 
declared.  This  is  one  of  the  rare  instanc¬ 
es  in  which  the  final  decisions  in  all  the 
highest  courts  are  all  on  one  side.  One  of 
these  decisions,  that  of  Judge  Thurman,  of 
Ohio,  was,  in  part,  as  follows: 

“  We  have  no  union  of  Church  and  State, 
nor  has  our  Government  ever  been  vested 
with  authority  to  enforce  any  religious  ob¬ 
servance  simply  because  it  is  religious. 
Of  course,  it  is  no  objection,  but,  on  the 
contrary,  is  a  high  recommendation,  to  a 


legislative  enactment,  based  on  justice  or 
public  policy,  that  it  is  found  to  coincide 
with  the  precepts  of  a  pure  religion;  but  the 
fact  is,  nevertheless,  true  that  the  power  to 
make  the  law  rests  in  the  legislative  con¬ 
trol  over  things  temporal,  and  not  over 
things  spiritual.  Thus  the  statute  upon 
which  the  defendant  relies,  prohibiting 
common  labor  on  the  Sabbath,  could  not 
stand  for  a  moment  as  a  law  of  this  State, 
if  its  sole  foundation  was  the  Christian 
duty  of  keeping  that  day  holy  and  its  sole 
motive  to  enforce  the  observance  of  that 
day.”  Wilbur  F.  Crafts. 

Sunday-Schools.  The  Sunday-school  is 
for  religious  instruction  and  worship.  Its 
text-book  is  the  Bible;  its  time  of  meeting 
is  on  Sunday;  its  membership  comprises 
old  and  young.  The  school  method  im¬ 
plies:  (i)  division  into  classes,  taught  by 
separate  teachers;  (2)  instruction  by  ques¬ 
tion  and  answer. 

History. — Though  modern  in  form,  the 
Sunday-school  is  old  in  fact.  The  Mosaic 
law  enjoined  the  instruction  of  the  children. 
(Deut.  vi.  7;  xi.  19.)  In  Samuel’s  time, 
and  later,  there  were  schools  of  the  proph¬ 
ets.  After  the  captivity,  schools  were  at¬ 
tached  to  the  Jewish  synagogues.  The 
early  Christian  Church  had  schools  for 
catechumens. 

After  the  Reformation. — With  the  Refor¬ 
mation  came  a  revival  of  Bible  study. 
Special  care  was  given  to  the  instruction 
of  the  young.  Luther  published  a  cate¬ 
chism  in  1529.  Calvin,  Knox,  Spener, 
Zinzendorf  and  others  fostered  instruction 
in  the  Scriptures.  The  nearest  resemblance 
to  the  modern  Sunday-school  was  the  sys¬ 
tem  adopted  by  Cardinal  Borromeo.  As 
Archbishop  of  Milan  he  caused  the  children 
to  assemble  in  the  cathedral  to  be  taught 
on  Sunday  afternoons.  He  died  in  1584, 
but  his  method  long  endured;  and,  indeed, 
it  is  substantially  that  of  many  Roman 
Catholic  Churches  at  the  present  day. 
The  creed,  Lord’s  Prayer,  Ten  Command¬ 
ments,  Church  festivals,  etc.,  are  explain¬ 
ed;  but  the  Scriptures  are  not  taught. 

Scattered  Su7iday-schools. — Godly  men  in¬ 
structed  the  young,  using  the  school 
method  in  scattered  localities.  Joseph  Al- 
leine  (died  1668),  in  Bath,  England,  gather¬ 
ed  sixty  or  seventy  children.  In  1693 
Bishop  Frampton  catechised  children,  and 
explained  his  sermons.  In  1763  Rev. 
Theophilus  Lindsey  did  the  same.  In  1765, 
Miss  Harrison,  at  Bedale  taught  in  a  small 
back  kitchen.  Among  other  pioneers  were 
Hannah  Ball,  in  1769,  James  Heys,  in  1775, 
and  Rev.  David  Simpson,  in  1778.  In  the 
United  States,  at  Roxbury,  1674,  and  at 
Plymouth,  Mass.,  as  early  as  1680,  the 


Sun 


(  882  ) 


Sun 


deacons  were  asked  to  assist  the  pastor  in 
the  instruction  of  the  children,  between  the 
Sabbath  sermons.  In  1737,  John  Wesley- 
instituted  a  Sunday-school  at  Savannah, 
Ga. ,  which  was  continued  by  Charles  Wes¬ 
ley  and  Rev.  Geo.  Whitefield.  In  1739-40 
Ludwig  Hocker,  at  Ephrata,  Pa.,  began  a 
Bible  school,  which  was  continued  over 
thirty  years.  In  1740  Dr.  Joseph  Bellamy 
began  a  school  in  the  Congregational 
Church,  which  still  exists.  Many  other 
scattered  examples  have  been  accumulated, 
but  there  was  no  real  system  of  Sunday- 
schools  until  1780. 

The  Work  of  Robert  Raikes. — Robert 
Raikes  is  entitled  to  the  honor  of  inaugu¬ 
rating  the  Sunday-school  era.  He  was  born 
in  Gloucester,  Eng.,  Sept.  14,  1736,  and 
succeeded  his  father  as  proprietor  of  The 
Gloucester  Journal.  A  business  errand  in 
a  neglected  part  of  the  city  revealed  to  him 
the  terrible  condition  of  the  children.  In 
1780  he  hired  four  women  to  teach  the  boys 
and  girls  from  six  to  fourteen  years  old, 
on  Sunday  afternoons,  paying  them  a  shil¬ 
ling  a  day.  In  a  few  weeks  300  children 
were  collected.  A  clergyman,  Rev.  Mr. 
Stock,  lent  his  aid  in  religious  instruction. 
Such  a  work  then  had  scant  recognition  in 
the  newspapers,  and  it  was  not  until  1783 
that  Raikes  published  an  account  of  the 
work  in  his  own  paper.  The  Gentleman' s 
Magazine  gave  the  facts  currency  among 
the  upper  classes.  The  Queen  of  England 
granted  Raikes  an  interview,  and  the  Em¬ 
press  of  Russia  sent  him  her  portrait.  The 
Raikes  Semi  -  Centennial  was  celebrated 
Sept.  4,  1831,  the  poet  Montgomery  writ¬ 
ing  two  hymns  for  the  occasion.  The  Cen¬ 
tenary  celebration  in  London  in  1880,  gath¬ 
ered  delegates  from  every  Christian  land. 

Two  Features  of  the  Raikes  System. — 
There  were  two  features  of  the  Raikes 
system  which  seem  strange  in  our  times: 
(1)  the  children  were  given  secular  instruc¬ 
tion;  (2)  the  teachers  were  paid  for  their 
services.  Before  the  public-school  system, 
poor  children  had  no  other  place  to  learn 
reading,  writing,  and  arithmetic.  And 
secular  instruction  continued  within  the 
memory  of  those  now  living.  Its  necessity 
ceased  when  the  State  took  charge  of  pub¬ 
lic  education.  The  idea  that  Sunday- 
schools  are  for  the  poorer  classes  and  for 
mission  districts  still  has  too  much  hold 
in  England;  but  in  America  the  presidents 
of  the  United  States,  cabinet  officers,  gov¬ 
ernors  of  States,  senators,  judges,  college 
professors,  and  representatives  of  the  high¬ 
est  official  and  social  positions  have  felt 
honored  to  bear  the  name  of  Sunday-school 
teachers.  The  pay  of  teachers  was  from 
one  to  two  shillings  a  Sunday.  The  Sunday- 
School  Society  expended  ^500  in  a  single 


year  for  teachers’  salaries,  and  ^4,383  in 
twenty-four  years.  The  Oldham  Metho¬ 
dists  said,  “  Let  us  do  it  ourselves,”  and, 
after  1811,  Sunday-school  teachers  ceased 
to  receive  pecuniary  reward.  The  services 
now  rendered  freely  by  voluntary  teachers 
could  not  be  hired  for  many  millions  of 
dollars. 

Early  Sunday-schools  after  Raikes. — After 
Raikes,  the  Sunday-school  idea  made  rapid 
progress,  although  many  clergymen  op¬ 
posed  it.  Rowland  Hill  organized  the  first 
school  in  London  at  Surrey  Chapel  in  1784. 
It  was  instructed  by  paid  teachers  for 
twenty  years.  Hannah  More  with  her  sis¬ 
ters,  in  Oct.,  1789,  began  a  school  in  a 
parish  where  she  saw  but  one  Bible,  and 
that  was  used  to  prop  up  a  flower-pot.  In 
1785,  Bishop  Asbury  planted  a  Sunday- 
school  in  Virginia.  Others  followed  so 
fast  that  only  a  few  can  be  recorded:  Paw¬ 
tucket,  R.  I.,  1797;  New  York  City,  under 
Mrs.  Isabella  Graham  and  her  daughter, 
Mrs.  Bethune,  1803;  Bath,  N.  H.,  in  1807, 
where  the  Scriptures  and  poetry  were 
recited  ;  Pittsburg,  Pa.,  in  the  Court¬ 
house,  1807;  Beverly,  Mass.,  1810;  Boston, 
1812;  Newburyport,  1814;  Newark,  N.  J. , 
for  colored  children,  1815.  We  find  it  re¬ 
corded  of  several  of  these  that  they  were 
“  the  first  Sunday-schools,”  but  wider  re¬ 
searches  demolish  the  claims. 

Sunday  -  school  Societies.  In  Great 
Britain.  —  A  London  merchant,  William 
Fox,  corresponded  with  Raikes,  and  The 
Society  for  Promoting  Sunday-Schools 
throughout  the  British  Dominions  was 
organized,  Sept.  7,  1785.  Its  chief  object 
was  to  supply  Bibles,  Testaments,  class- 
books,  and  spelling-books;  and  to  pay 
teachers  a  shilling  or  two  a  week.  The 
society  existed  until  1864;  then  its  balance 
was  transferred  to  the  Sunday-School 
Union,  London,  which  was  organized  July 
13,  1803,  and  still  continues  its  career  of 
usefulness.  Associated  with  it  are  more 
than  200  Sunday-School  Unions  and  6,000 
Sunday-schools.  It  has  a  system  of  exam¬ 
inations,  at  which  17,670  teachers  present¬ 
ed  themselves  in  20  years,  and  30,000 
scholars  in  1889.  Weekly  meetings  are 
maintained  for  the  study  of  the  Sunday- 
school  lessons.  “  Baptists,  Congregation- 
alists,  Presbyterians  and  others  have  no 
difficulty  in  working  together,”  says  Foun¬ 
tain  J.  Hartley.  The  Church  of  England 
Sunday-School  Institute,  organized  in  1S43, 
does  not  use  the  international  lessons,  nor 
take  part  in  the  great  world’s  conventions. 
In  1874  the  Primitive  Methodists  formed  a 
Sunday-School  Union,  followed  by  the  Wes- 
leyans  in  1875.  The  Unitarians  also  have 
a  Sunday-school  society  in  England.  A 
society  was  formed  in  Dublin  in  1809. 


Sun 


(883) 


Sun 


In  America. — The  First-Day,  or  Sunday- 
School  Society  was  organized  at  Philadel¬ 
phia,  Jan.  11,  1791.  It  still  maintains  its 
existence,  and  now  claims  to  be  “  the  old¬ 
est  Sunday-school  Society  in  the  world.” 
Bishop  White  was  the  first  president. 
Men  of  various  denominations  united.  It 
paid  Sunday-school  teachers,  after  the  man¬ 
ner  of  the  early  Raikes  schools  in  England. 
Funds  are  now  used  for  making  grants  of 
lesson  helps  and  Christian  literature  to 
needy  schools  in  Philadelphia.  The  New 
York  Female  Union  Society  was  founded 
in  New  York  by  Mrs.  Bethune,  Feb.  26, 
1816,  and  a  society  of  men  for  the  same 
purpose  a  few  months  later.  The  same 
year  came  into  being  the  Boston  Society 
for  the  Moral  and  Religious  Instruction 
of  the  Poor,  which  in  1817  had  Sunday- 
schools  under  its  care.  The  Philadel¬ 
phia  Sunday  -  School  and  Adult  Union 
was  organized,  May  26,  1817.  After 

seven  years  it  was  merged,  May  25,  1824, 
in  the  American  Sunday-School  Union, 
whose  object  was  and  is  “  to  endeavor  to 
plant  a  Sunday-school  wherever  there  is  a 
population.”  In  the  prosecution  of  this 
purpose  the  Society  has  planted  an  aver¬ 
age  of  three  and  a  half  new  Sunday-schools 
every  day  for  66  years.  Its  last  statement 
for  the  year  ending  March  1,  1890,  showed, 
as  the  result  of  its  work  from  the  begin¬ 
ning,  85,896  Sunday-schools  organized, 
containing  581,201  teachers,  and  3,554,948 
scholars.  Aid  was  also  extended  to  148,- 
804  other  schools,  with  a  membership  of 
9,414,469,  making  the  total  number  bene¬ 
fited  by  this  Society,  12,969,417.  During 
the  last  year  1,685  new  schools  were  organ¬ 
ized  in  31  States  and  Territories,  while 
6,313  other  schools  were  aided.  The 
churches  organized  from  Union  schools 
numbered  one  hundred;  4,852  conversions 
were  reported.  Christian  literature  to  the 
amount  of  58,000  volumes  was  distributed 
through  other  agencies,  besides  that  circu¬ 
lated  by  missionaries.  The  value  of  pub¬ 
lications  distributed  in  its  history  has  been 
over  |8,ooo,ooo. 

The  Baptist  General  Tract  Society,  or¬ 
ganized  at  Washington,  D.  C.,  in  1824, 
grew  into  the  American  Baptist  Publica¬ 
tion  Society,  located  at  Philadelphia.  The 
Massachusetts  Sabbath-School  Union  was 
organized  May  24,  1825,  and  was  auxiliary 
to  the  American  Sunday-School  Union  until 
1839.  It  is  now  the  Congregational  Sun¬ 
day-School  and  Publishing  Society  of  Bos¬ 
ton.  The  Sunday-School  Union  of  the 
Methodist  Episcopal  Church  was  formed 
in  1840,  remodeled  in  1844,  and  its  first  re¬ 
port  in  pamphlet  form  issued  in  1845.  Its 
headquarters  are  in  New  York. 

The  Presbyterian  Board  of  Publication, 


at  Philadelphia,  also  conducts  the  Sunday- 
school  work  of  that  Church.  Other  de¬ 
nominations  have  their  societies,  which 
combine  the  publication  of  Christian  liter¬ 
ature  and  Sunday-school  helps  with  more 
or  less  of  missionary  activity  in  gathering 
the  neglected.  That  more  than  ten  millions 
of  youth  in  the  United  States  are  without 
any  regular  religious  instruction,  shows 
that  the  efforts  of  union  and  denominational 
organizations  combined  are  not  adequate 
to  the  needs  of  the  times. 

Organization  and  Methods. — There  are 
church-schools  and  mission-schools.  The 
Sunday-school,  at  first,  was  received  with 
little  favor  by  church  officers,  since  it  was 
regarded  as  encroaching  upon  the  prerog¬ 
atives  of  the  clergy,  who  are  the  proper 
leaders  in  religious  instruction.  Hence 
the  early  schools  were  independent  of 
church  authority,  even  where  no  antago¬ 
nism  was  shown.  But  the  Sunday-school  is 
now  a  recognized  department  of  church 
work  in  most  religious  bodies,  and  is  put 
under  the  control  of  the  regular  church 
officers,  either  by  church  law  or  custom. 
There  are,  however,  many  exceptions. 
The  mission-school  may  be  in  a  frontier 
district,  or  in  a  neglected  part  of  a  city  or 
town.  It  may  be  planted  by  members  of  a 
neighboring  church,  or  by  missionaries  of 
the  great  Sunday-school  societies.  These 
mission-schools  often  develop  into  church¬ 
es.  Some  of  the  most  flourishing  had  such 
an  origin. 

The  officers  usually  are  a  superintendent 
and  assistants,  a  secretary,  treasurer,  libra¬ 
rian,  and  music  leader.  Women  frequently 
act  as  superintendents  in  the  new  regions, 
where  men  will  not  serve.  Teachers  are 
male  and  female,  and  of  all  ages  and  grades. 
Some  of  the  best  educated,  and  those  high¬ 
est  in  social  and  official  life  freely  give 
their  services. 

Time  of  Meeting. — The  large  majority  of 
English  schools  have  two  sessions — morn¬ 
ing  and  afternoon,  but  the  afternoon  attend¬ 
ance  is  nearly  double  that  of  the  morning. 
In  America  the  double  session  was  once 
common,  but  is  now  infrequent.  In  the 
large  cities  the  most  usual  time  is  on  Sun¬ 
day  afternoon,  though  many  adopt  the 
hour  before  the  morning  church  service, 
especially  during  the  summer.  Formerly, 
in  New  England  and  in  some  parts  of  the 
West,  the  Sunday-schools  were  held  at 
noon,  following  the  morning  service.  These 
were  called  “  hungry  Sunday-schools,” 
but  the  hunger  indicated  was  rather  for 
dinner  than  for  spiritual  food.  In  Scotland, 
schools  are  sometimes  held  from  six  to 
eight  o’clock  in  the  evening.  The  usual 
time  occupied  by  a  session  is  about  an  hour 
and  a  half. 


Sun 


(  884) 


Sun 


Departments  of  a  Sunday-school. — In  the 
smaller  schools  all  meet  in  one  room,  but 
the  tendency  is  to  more  or  less  division. 
First,  the  infant-class  is  put  in  a  separate 
room:  others  follow.  A  fully  organized 
school  needs  not  less  than  seven  depart¬ 
ments:  (1)  The  Infant-class  (since  mere 
babies  are  sent,  and  will  disturb  the  others). 
(2)  The  Primary  Department  (scholars 
from  five  to  eight  years  old).  (3)  The  In¬ 
termediate  Department  (scholars  from  nine 
to  twelve).  (4)  The  Main  School  (scholars 
from  thirteen  to  twenty).  (5)  The  Bible- 
class  Department  (scholars  from  twenty  to 
ninety  years  old).  (6)  The  Normal  Depart¬ 
ment  for  training  teachers.  (7)  The  Vis¬ 
itors’  Department.  This  last  is  peculiarly 
desirable,  and  yet  is  seldom  provided. 
People  will  not  visit  Sunday-schools  if  no 
place  is  provided  for  them. 

Sunday-school  Buildings. — The  new-born 
school  must  meet  where  it  can.  A  tree, 
arbor,  kitchen,  barn,  canal-boat,  freight- 
car,  railroad  depot,  factory,  bar-room, 
school-house,  hall — all  have  been  utilized. 
The  main  audience  room  of  a  church  is  a 
frequent  meeting-place,  putting  the  infant- 
class  and  Bible-classes  in  galleries.  Build¬ 
ings  are  sometimes  devoted  entirely  to 
Sunday-school  purposes.  Some  of  the  best 
cost  as  much  as  a  hundred  thousand  dol¬ 
lars.  These  provide  rooms  for  the  super¬ 
intendent  and  librarian,  a  teacher’s  parlor, 
kitchen,  dressing-rooms,  and  accommodate 
the  before-mentioned  six  or  seven  depart¬ 
ments.  The  model  Sunday-school  building 
has  not  yet  been  erected,  but  it  is  on  the 
way.  There  must  be  a  uniting  of  two  op¬ 
posite  things  not  easily  secured:  (1)  a  bring¬ 
ing  together  of  all  the  departments  for  wor¬ 
ship;  (2)  separation  for  the  purpose  of 
instruction  by  departments  and  classes. 

Sunday-school  Music. — The  old  church 
tunes,  few  and  not  cheerful,  were  the  stock 
of  the  first  Sunday-schools,  and  the  leader 
fixed  the  key  by  the  “  tuning-fork;  ”  but 
now  the  brightest  of  hymn-writers  and  the 
most  gifted  of  composers  lend  their  aid  to 
the  children’s  songs.  The  old  melodeon 
was  followed  by  the  organ  or  piano,  and 
not  unfrequently  quite  an  orchestra  of 
musical  instruments  is  employed. 

Sunday-school  Lessons. — The  Bible  is  the 
text-book.  Catechisms,  which  were  once 
foremost,  do  not  supplant  the  Scriptures. 
Memorizing  portions  of  Scripture  was  an 
early  method,  from  ten  to  twenty  verses 
constituting  a  lesson.  There  was  no  uni¬ 
formity.  In  the  same  school  one  class 
might  be  studying  Genesis  and  another  the 
Revelation.  The  London  Sunday-School 
Union,  in  1842,  published  a  select  list  of 
Scripture  lessons  for  Sunday-schools.  In 
1825  the  American  Sunday-School  Union 


published  a  card  containing  questions  fora 
year.  Later  the  Union  Question  Books  were 
issued,  and  millions  of  copies  were  sold. 

The  International  Lessons. — In  1872  a 
trial  series  of  uniform  lessons  was  begun. 
At  the  Indianapolis  Convention  a  commit¬ 
tee  was  appointed  to  prepare  ,a  series  of 
lessons  which  were  to  cover  the  whole 
Bible  in  seven  years.  That  system,  begin¬ 
ning  in  1873,  has  been  continued.  It  is 
used  extensively  in  the  United  States, 
Canada,  Great  Britain,  and  in  Europe  and 
many  mission  lands.  Among  its  many 
advantages  is  the  fact  that  the  Sunday- 
school  traveler  may  be  ready  for  his  Sun¬ 
day-school  lesson  anywhere. 

Lesson  Helps. — The  question  books  be¬ 
fore  noted  have  been  very  generally  dis¬ 
placed  by  helps  upon  the  current  Interna¬ 
tional  Lessons.  These,  in  the  form  of 
weekly  papers,  monthly  magazines,  quar¬ 
terlies,  lesson  leaves,  etc.,  are  scattered  by 
the  millions.  Many  papers  not  distinct¬ 
ively  religious  give  notes  upon  the  cur¬ 
rent  lessons.  Thus  the  infant-scholar  may 
learn  facts  illustrating  the  Scriptures, which 
were  unknown  to  doctors  of  divinity  half  a 
century  ago. 

Teachers'  Meetings. — These  meetings  are 
held  regularly  in  connection  with  many 
schools, in  church  parlors  or  private  houses, 
conducted  by  pastor,  superintendent  or 
teachers  in  turn.  Everybody  praises  such 
meetings  but  says  they  are  not  easily  sus¬ 
tained.  In  England  “  teachers’  prepara¬ 
tion  classes  ”  were  begun  forty  years  ago. 
In  the  larger  cities  and  towns  of  America 
union  meetings  for  the  exposition  of  the 
lessons  are  held  at  some  central  point,  fre¬ 
quently  the  rooms  of  the  Y.  M.  C.  A.  In 
New  York,  Philadelphia,  Chicago,  Brook¬ 
lyn,  Boston  and  other  cities,  such  meet¬ 
ings  have  awakened  much  enthusiasm  and 
been  widely  useful. 

Methods  of  Discipline. — A  teacher  of  half 
a  century  ago  said  that  there  were  times 
in  Sunday-school  when  “  nothing  was  so 
useful  as  the  rattan.”  That  day  has  gone 
by.  Flogging  in  Sunday-schools  is  now 
exceedingly  rare.  Expulsion  is  the  last 
resort.  Hon.  John  Wanamaker  declared 
that  he  never  expelled  a  scholar  from  his 
Sunday-school  (the  Bethany  at  Philadel¬ 
phia)  though  it  was  probably  the  foremost 
school  in  America.  The  general  tone  of 
order  in  Sunday-schools  has  greatly  im¬ 
proved.  Street  boys  who  were  veritable 
“  terrors  ’’soon  become  tractable.  Rewards 
rather  than  punishments  are  adopted. 
Christmas  festivals,  summer  excursions, 
anniversaries  and  Children’s-Day  services 
(on  the  second  Sabbath  in  June)  are  glad 
days  for  the  little  folks  and  those  who  love 
them. 


4 


Sun  ( 885  )  Sun 


Sunday-school  Libraries . — Within  the  mem¬ 
ory  of  living  men  the  religious  books  for 
children  could  be  counted  upon  the  fin¬ 
gers.  The  most  noteworthy  were  Pilgrim's 
Progress  and  Hannah  Morts  Moral  Tales. 
The  first  book  for  children,  published  by 
the  Philadelphia  Sunday-School  and  Adult 
Union,  was  Little  Henry  and  His  Bearer. 
Soon  the  number  increased  to  forty  books, 
and,  later,  five  hundred  juvenile  books  were 
issued  in  a  single  year.  Of  course,  many 
of  those  were  not  religious.  The  books 
now  available  for  children  cover  every 
field  of  their  thought,  in  story,  biography, 
travel,  history  and  Bible  study.  There  is 
no  longer  need  for  children  to  read  trash 
because  nothing  else  exists  to  satisfy  their 
appetites. 

Sunday-school  Conventions ,  etc.  —  These 


have  been  very  helpful  in  arousing  enthu¬ 
siasm,  and  imparting  knowledge  of  meth¬ 
ods.  They  have  been  sometimes  mass- 
meetings  and  sometimes  representative 
gatherings.  Efforts  have  been  made  to 
carry  them  into  every  county  and  almost 
every  town.  The  Sunday-School  Institute 
was  more  devoted  to  instruction,  having 
normal  classes,  and  lectures  by  specialists. 
The  Summer  Assemblies  are  an  expansion 
of  the  institute  idea.  Chautauqua  was  a 
pioneer,  and  now  such  assemblies  are 
found  by  the  score.  Extensive  courses  of 
study  are  provided,  and  one  may  learn  a 
little  of  everything,  though  he  is  not  likely 
to  learn  everything  of  something. 

National  and  International  Gatherings  in 
America. — The  first  National  Sunday- 
School  Convention  met  in  New  York  City, 


SUNDAY-SCHOOL  STATISTICS  OF  ALL  NATIONS. 


Compiled  for  the  World's  Sunday-School  Convention,  London ,  yuly,  i88g. 


Sunday- 

schools. 

Teachers. 

Scholars . 

Total 

Membership 

Europe. 

England  and  Wales . . . 

35*9^3 

616,941 

5.733,325 

6,350,266 

Scotland . 

5*648 

59.213 

651,975 

711,188 

Ireland . 

3*3i3 

28,132 

310,099 

338,231 

Total  United  Kingdom . 

44*944 

704,286 

6,695,399 

7,399,685 

Austria . . . 

140 

312 

4,5i9 

4,83t 

Belgium . 

62 

186 

2,356 

2,542 

Denmark . . . 

300 

2,000 

35,ooo 

37,000 

Finland . 

120 

800 

8,000 

8,800 

France. . . . . 

1,200 

3,110 

50,000 

53*1*0 

Germany . . . 

3.231 

20,240 

410,981 

431,221 

Holland . 

1.471 

5,676 

152,000 

157,676 

200 

850 

12,560 

13,4*0 

Norway . 

250 

2,190 

25,000 

27,190 

Portugal . 

30 

IOO 

2,000 

2,100 

Russia . 

23 

438 

6,007 

6,445 

IOO 

400 

8,000 

8,400 

Sweden . . . 

3.350 

15,355 

222,727 

238,082 

Switzerland . . . 

1,162 

5,459 

84,000 

89.459 

Asia. 

China . 

105 

1,053 

5,264 

6,3*7 

India  (including  Burmah  and  Ceylon) . 

2.757 

5,744 

110,270 

116,014 

150 

39° 

7,019 

7,409 

Persia . . . 

107 

440 

4,876 

5,3*6 

Central  Turkey . 

60 

600 

7,000 

7,600 

Africa .  . 

4.246 

8,455 

161,394 

169,849 

North  America. 

United  States . 

101,824 

1,100,104 

8,345,431 

9*445,535 

Canada . 

6,636 

55,050 

467,292 

522,342 

Newfoundland  and  Labrador . 

314 

2,162 

22,817 

24,979 

West  Indies . 

2,185 

9.673 

110,233 

119,906 

Central  America  and  Mexico . 

550 

1,300 

15,000 

16,300 

South  America . 

35° 

3,000 

150,000 

153,000 

OCEANICA. 

Australia . 

4.719 

35,295 

422,434 

457,729 

New  Zealand . 

890 

9,988 

99,884 

109,872 

Fiji  Islands . 

L474 

2,700 

42,909 

45,609 

Hawaiian  Islands . 

230 

1,413 

*5.840 

*7,253 

Other  Islands. . . 

210 

800 

10,000 

10,800 

Total  the  World . 

183,390 

1,999,569 

17,716,212 

19.7*5,78* 

Sun 


(  886  ) 


Sun 


♦ 


in  1832;  the  second  at  Philadelphia,  in 
1833;  the  third  at  Philadelphia,  in  1859; 
the  fourth  at  Newark,  N.  J.,  in  1869;  the 
fifth  at  Indianapolis,  in  1872,  where  the 
International  System  of  Lessons  was  adopt¬ 
ed.  Then  came  the  first  International  Con¬ 
vention  (the  Sixth  National)  at  Baltimore, 
in  1875;  the  second  in  Atlanta,  in  1878;  the 
third  at  Toronto,  in  1881;  the  fourth  at 
Louisville,  in  1S84;  the  fifth  at  Chicago,  in 
1887;  and  the  sixth  at  Pittsburg,  in  1890. 

In  England. — The  noteworthy  meetings 
have  been:  the  Raikes’  Semi-Centenary,  in 
1831  (though  Raikes  began  his  work  in 
1780);  the  General  Sunday-school  Conven¬ 
tion,  in  1862  (at  which  seven  delegates 
were  present  from  the  United  States,  and 
one  from  Canada);  the  Raikes’  Centenary, 
in  18S0;  and  the  World’s  Sunday-School 
Convention,  in  1889,  at  which  hundreds  of 
Americans  were  present.  It  is  proposed 
to  hold  a  World’s  Sunday-school  Conven¬ 
tion  in  the  United  States,  in  1893,  which 


will  synchronize  with  the  meeting  of  the 
International  Convention,  and  the  celebra¬ 
tion  of  the  discovery  of  America. 

Sunday-schools  in  Foreign  Lands. — Great 
Britain  and  America  are  the  homes  of  Sun¬ 
day-schools.  From  those  countries  an  in¬ 
fluence  has  gone  out  to  other  lands.  The 
London  Sunday-School  Union  has  its  con¬ 
tinental  work.  The  Foreign  Sunday-School 
Union  of  America  carries  on  correspond¬ 
ence  in  six  or  eight  languages.  In  Ger¬ 
many  an  early  Sunday-school  was  at  Ham¬ 
burg,  1824.  One  in  Berlin  contains  1,300 
scholars,  and  one  in  Berne,  800.  In  Hol¬ 
land  the  first  Sunday-school  was  in  1836, 
when  a  converted  Jew  taught  a  boy  and  girl 
in  his  own  house.  A  Dutch  Sunday-school 
Union  was  organized  in  1866.  In  France  a 
society  for  encouraging  Sunday-schools 
was  organized  in  1826,  and  there  was  a 
Protestant  Sunday-school  in  Paris  the 
year  previous.  The  French  Sunday-School 
Union,  founded  by  Paul  Cook,  held  its  first 


SUNDAY-SCHOOL  STATISTICS  IN  CITIES  IN  THE  UNITED  STATES 

Containing  100,000  Population  and  Over. 


Cities. 

Sunday- 

Schools. 

Teachers 

and 

Officers. 

Membership. 

Scholars. 

Total. 

Population . 

Percent¬ 
age  of 
Population 
in  S.  S. 

1.  *  Albany . 

67 

1,284 

16,408 

17,692 

103,000 

1 7 

2.  *  Allegheny . 

5i 

1, 492 

1 5, 254 

16,746 

120,000 

14 

3.  *  Baltimore . 

338 

7.965 

75,772 

83,837 

500,000 

16J 

4.  t  Boston . 

131 

3.5i4 

3i,475 

34,989 

416,226 

9§ 

5.  *  Brooklyn . 

273 

10,398 

94,239 

104,637 

835,000 

12* 

6.  *  Buffalo . 

147 

3.653 

36,315 

39,968 

265,000 

15 

7.  *  Chicago . 

459 

10,292 

h3,958 

124,250 

1,150,000 

10 i 

8.  *  Cincinnati . . 

i74 

3,481 

42,3I3 

45.794 

325,000 

14* 

9.  *•  Cleveland . 

IO7 

3.109 

30,043 

33, r52 

275,000 

12 

10.  *  Columbus . 

55 

1,250 

12,000 

13,250 

100,000 

j3£ 

11.  *  Denver . 

58 

1,091 

9,730 

10,821 

130,000 

H 

12.  *  Detroit . 

125 

2,625 

21,250 

23,975 

235,000 

10 

13.  *  Indianapolis . 

IOO 

1,000 

18,000 

19,000 

130,000 

142 

14.  *  Jersey  City . 

70 

2,197 

20,674 

22,853 

195,000 

II* 

15.  *  Kansas  City . 

80 

1,000 

16,000 

17,000 

200,000 

8* 

16.  t  Louisville . 

137 

2,031 

19,442 

2i,473 

200,000 

I2£ 

17.  t  Milwaukee . 

59 

1,283 

12,223 

13,506 

210,000 

8 

18.  *  Minneapolis . 

J59 

2,772 

40,327 

43,099 

225,000 

19 

19.  *  Newark . 

94 

2,970 

25,365 

28,335 

175,000 

!5§ 

20.  t  New  Orleans . 

77 

924 

7,278 

8,202 

260,000 

4 

21.  *  New  York . 

600 

15,000 

172,000 

187,000 

1,800,000 

10} 

22.  *  Omaha . 

58 

1.357 

14,042 

!5,399 

135,000 

12 

23.  *  Philadelphia . 

616 

16,937 

178,865 

195,802 

1,250,000 

154 

24.  *  Pittsburg . 

106 

2,695 

26,904 

29,599 

250,000 

n* 

25.  *  Providence . 

150 

2,715 

22,285 

25,000 

132,000 

19 

26.  *  Rochester . 

78 

2,565 

22,297 

24,862 

120,000 

20j 

27.  t  San  Francisco . 

75 

1,247 

11,316 

12,563 

335,000 

54 

28.  *  Scranton . . 

56 

1,072 

11,380 

12,452 

100,000 

12* 

29.  t  St.  Louis . . 

229 

3.337 

36,694 

40,031 

500,000 

IO 

30.  *  St.  Paul . 

120 

1,774 

14,887 

16,661 

220,000 

74 

31.  *  Toledo . . 

52 

1,157 

10,991 

12, 148 

100,000 

12 

32.  *  Washington . 

194 

4,634 

44,970 

49.604 

230,000 

20f 

Note. — The  above  statistics  include  Evangelical  denominations  only,  excepting  the  city  of  Baltimore,  which 
includes  Roman  Catholic  and  other  non-Evangelical  denominations. 

*  Report  presented  to  the  Sixth  International  Convention,  Pittsburg,  Pa.,  June  24-27,  1890,  including  the  per¬ 
centage  of  population  as  given  at  that  time. 

t  Report  presented  to  th'e  Fifth  International  Convention,  Chicago,  111.,  June  1-3,  1887. 
t  Report  presented  to  the  Fourth  International  Convention,  Louisville,  Ky.,  June  n-13,  1884. 


SUNDAY-SCHOOL  STATISTICS  FOR  THE  UNITED  STATES  AND  BRITISH  AMERICAN 

PROVINCES. 

Sixth  International  Conven:ion,  Pittsburg,  Pa.,  June  2U-27,  1890. 

E.  Payson  Porter,  Statistical  Secretary,  195  Broadway,  New  York,  U.  S.  A. 


United  States. 

Sunday- 

Schools. 

Membership. 

County  Organization. 

Teachers 

and 

Officers. 

Scholars. 

Total. 

No.  of 
Counties. 

Organ¬ 

ized. 

Banner 

Counties. 

Alabama . 

3.573 

22,340 

193,825 

216,165 

66 

3° 

Alaska  Territory . 

14 

52 

1,100 

1,152 

.  « 

Arizona  Territory . 

32 

222 

1,369 

i.59T 

5 

Arkansas . 

1,712 

11,965 

94.305 

106,270 

75 

l6 

California . 

803 

7,863 

71,687 

79,550 

52 

3° 

Colorado. . . . 

423 

4,084 

32,141 

36,225 

45 

23 

Connecticut . 

1,112 

19,284 

149,999 

169,283 

8 

8 

8 

Delaware .  . 

217 

2»9T3 

22,706 

25,619 

3 

3 

3 

District  of  Columbia . 

194 

4,634 

44.970 

49,604 

I 

I 

I 

Florida . 

1,080 

6,158 

56,594 

62,752 

45 

1 7 

,  # 

Georgia . . . 

6,748 

55,338 

298,498 

353,836 

i37 

58 

3 

Idaho  Territory . 

43 

396 

3,223 

3,619 

II 

Illinois . - 

6,908 

77,213 

583,756 

659,969 

102 

102 

24 

Indian  Territory .  . 

260 

I>333 

10,455 

11,788 

7 

Indiana . 

5.508 

45.109 

374,i85 

419,294 

92 

92 

28 

Iowa . 

5. 112 

43,295 

319,128 

362,423 

99 

99 

15 

Kansas . 

3.544 

32,132 

214,422 

246,554 

106 

86 

3 

Kentucky . 

2,647 

31,606 

225,801 

257,407 

Il6 

50 

2 

Louisiana . 

522 

4,131 

32,617 

36,748 

57 

4 

Maine. ...  . . 

1.336 

11,625 

92,875 

104,500 

l6 

II 

Maryland . 

2,126 

26,065 

206,196 

232,261 

23 

23 

23 

Massachusetts . 

1,79° 

33,923 

237,593 

271,516 

14 

4 

1 

Michigan . 

3.5oo 

37,800 

277,200 

315,000 

79 

60 

5 

Minnesota . 

t.  564 

15,014 

133-784 

148,798 

80 

61 

Mississippi . 

1,614 

11,767 

84,677 

96,444 

74 

22 

2 

Missouri . 

3,955 

37,284 

280,922 

318,206 

114 

9° 

14 

Montana . 

122 

745 

5,883 

6,628 

13 

•  • 

Nebraska . 

2,3I4 

23,324 

161,014 

184,338 

67 

60 

5 

Nevada . 

30 

812 

2,060 

2,872 

15 

%  % 

New  Hampshire . 

5i9 

6,640 

49,335 

55,975 

IO 

IO 

I 

New  Jersey . 

2,000 

33.709 

247,648 

281,357 

21 

21 

21 

New  Mexico  Territory . 

45 

225 

i,345 

1,570 

13 

.  • 

#  # 

New  York . 

7,193 

108,272 

979,415 

1,087,687 

60 

60 

IO 

North  Carolina . 

4,273 

32,172 

255,013 

287,185 

96 

72 

2 

North  Dakota . 

500 

2,760 

20,240 

23,000 

53 

19 

.  . 

Ohio . 

6,760 

88,461 

620,107 

708,568 

88 

51 

5 

Oklahoma  Territory . 

45 

360 

2,340 

2,700 

,  . 

Oregon .  . 

290 

2,53i 

20,749 

23.280 

23 

12 

,  , 

Pennsylvania . 

8,729 

123,484 

964>599 

1,088,083 

67 

60 

8 

Rhode  Island . 

3l6 

5,178 

49,422 

54,600 

5 

4 

South  Carolina . 

1,667 

13,054 

103,315 

116,369 

32 

1 6 

I 

South  Dakota . 

860 

6,300 

40,700 

47,000 

78 

30 

.  . 

Tennessee . 

4,224 

38,016 

274,560 

312,576 

96 

40 

2 

Texas . 

3.097 

23,161 

190,625 

213,786 

172 

80 

I 

Utah  Territory . 

93 

554 

6,741 

7,295 

20 

2 

•  • 

Vermont . 

632 

7,39° 

53.809 

61,199 

14 

13 

•  • 

Virginia . 

3,907 

43.531 

283,336 

326,867 

IOO 

75 

•  , 

Washington . 

732 

4,210 

29,475 

33,685 

34 

8 

•  . 

West  Virginia . 

1,888 

19,212 

120,811 

140,023 

54 

24 

4 

Wisconsin . 

1,610 

15,211 

114,869 

130,080 

60 

10 

Wyoming  Territory . 

69 

332 

2,816 

3,148 

5 

•• 

Totals  for  United  States . 

108,252 

1,143,190 

8,643,255 

9,786,445 

2,625 

i,557 

I92 

Canada. 

Ontario . 

Quebec .  .... 

Nova  Scotia . 

New  Brunswick . 

Prince  Edward  Island . 

Manitoba . 

British  Columbia . 

3,961 

707 

804 

867 

189 

150 

11 

37,867 

4,639 

6,195 

5,297 

1,051 

600 

57 

320,613 

40,128 

55,487 

41,414 

9,554 

5,000 

427 

358,480 

44.767 

61,682 

46,711 

10,605 

5,600 

484 

38 

62 

18 

15 

3 

5 

24 

8 

8 

15 

4 

1 

Totals  for  Canada . 

6,689 

55,706 

472,623 

528,329 

141 

55 

5 

Newfoundland  and  Labrador . 

3i4 

2,162 

22,817 

24,979 

. . 

Totals  for  United  States  and  Brit¬ 
ish  American  Provinces . 

115,255 

1,201.058 

9,!38,695 

io,33o,753 

2  7  66 

1,612 

197 

(  887  ) 


Sup 


(  888  ) 


Swe 


public  meeting  in  Paris,  April,  1S53.  In 
1889  a  hundred  schools  were  reported  in 
Paris,  and  1,200  in  France.  Russia  is  out¬ 
side  the  current,  but  a  report  comes  of  the 
founding  of  a  Sunday-school  at  St.  Peters¬ 
burg.  Special  Sunday-school  buildings 
are  rare  on  the  continent;  but  good  ones 
exist  in  Berlin,  Lausanne,  Stockholm, 
Berne  and  Utrecht. 

In  Mission  Lands . — Sunday-schools  are 
associated  with  mission  day-schools.  India 
has  fifty  million  youths,  of  whom  110,000 
are  under  Sunday-school  instruction.  A 
Sunday-School  Union  was  organized  in 
1876;  and  in  1890  Rev.  Dr.  J.  L.  Phillips 
returned  to  India  under  appointment  as 
general  secretary  of  Sunday-school  work 
for  India.  Other  facts  concerning  the  ex¬ 
tent  of  the  work  throughout  the  world 
may  be  learned  from  the  statistical  tables 
accompanying  this  article. 

Bibliography. — The  literature  of  the  Sun¬ 
day-school  is  so  voluminous,  that  there  is 
no  space  even  to  attempt  a  catalogue  of 
books  useful  for  reference.  Those  who 
desire  an  extended  list  of  such  works  are 
referred  to  pp.  381-392  of  Dr.  H.  Clay 
Trumbull’s  Yale  Lectures  on  the  Sunday- 
school.  Moseley  H.  Williams. 

Supererogation,  Works  of,  in  the  Ro¬ 
man  Church,  are  good  works  done  beyond 
those  which  God  absolutely  requires  for 
eternal  salvation.  The  merit  of  all  such 
works  is  gathered  up,  and  may  be  given  to 
those  who  have  not  done  enough.  This 
doctrine  is  defended  by  Matt.  xix.  21,  where 
it  is  alleged  our  Lord  distinguishes  be¬ 
tween  works  necessary  to  eternal  life,  and 
works  which  make  perfect.  The  Greek 
Church  rejects  this  doctrine,  and  it  is  not 
mentioned  in  the  Council  of  Trent,  but  is 
held  by  all  Romanists.  See  Indulgences. 

Supralapsarianism,  “a  theory  held  by  the 
strictest  Calvinists,  according  to  which 
God  not  only  foresaw  and  permitted,  but 
actually  decreed,  the  fall  of  man,  and  over¬ 
ruled  it  for  his  redemption;  it  being  sup¬ 
posed  that  nothing  could  happen  independ¬ 
ently  of  the  divine  will.  It  is  logically  the 
most  consistent  type  of  Calvinism,  but 
borders  on  fatalism  and  pantheism,  and 
hence  was  excluded  from  the  Reformed 
Confessions,  all  of  which  deny  emphatically 
that  God  is  the  author  of  evil.” — Schaff- 
Herzog:  Ency.  See  Infralapsarianism; 
SUBLAPSARIANISM. 

Supranaturalism.  See  Rationalism. 

Surplice  (Latin  superpelliceum ,  overgar¬ 
ment),  a  loose  white  garment  worn  by  the 
Episcopal  clergy  while  engaged  in  the  ser¬ 


vices  of  the  Church.  It  is  also  worn  dur¬ 
ing  the  celebration  of  the  Lord’s  Supper 
by  clergymen  of  the  Danish,  Norwegian, 
and  Swedish  Churches.  The  white  gar¬ 
ment  is  supposed  to  be  the  emblem  of  the 
light  and  purity  of  the  Gospel. 

Susannah.  See  Apocrypha. 

Sweden.  Christianity  was  introduced 
to  this  country  by  Ansgar,  a  monk  of 
Westphalia,  about  830,  but  it  was  not  until 
1026  that  it  became  the  religion  of  the 
state.  Even  at  this  time  a  very  large  part 
of  the  population  were  pagans.  The  Ro¬ 
man  Catholic  Church  gained  a  very  strcng 
hold  in  Sweden,  but  after  the  great  political 
revolution  of  1523  the  Reformation  made 
rapid  advance,  and  in  a  short  time  the  whole 
country  became  Lutheran.  The  relations 
of  the  Church  with  the  State  are  very  close. 
Unlike  the  Lutheran  Church  of  Germany, 
the  government  is  Episcopal.  They  have 
one  archbishop  and  eleven  bishops,  but  the 
king  is  considered  the  head  of  the  Church. 
In  late  years,  especially  in  the  north  of 
Sweden,  thousands  have  withdrawn  from 
the  Established  Church,  and,  while  they 
have  no  regular  pastors,  carry  on  religious 
services  as  best  they  can. 

% 

Swedenborg.  Emanuel  Swedenborg,  the 
founder  of  the  body  of  Christians  called 
after  his  name,  was  born  at  Stockholm, 
1688;  died  in  London,  1772.  His  father 
was  bishop  of  Skara,  in  West  Gothland, 
and  much  esteemed  by  Charles  XII. 
Emanuel  was  sent  to  the  University  of 
Upsala,  where  he  distinguished  himself  in 
physics  and  mathematics.  For  some  years 
he  held  the  office  of  Assessor  of  the  Metal¬ 
lic  College,  which  he  retained  under 
Charles’s  successor,  Ulrica  Eleonora,  who, 
in  recognition  of  his  great  talents,  gave 
him  a  patent  of  nobility  in  1719.  He 
still  spent  much  time  at  his  favorite  studies, 
and  in  1733  completed  his  Opera  Philo- 
sophica  et  Mineralia ,  in  3  vols.  The  first 
volume  treats  of  the  elementary  world, 
and  the  two  latter  of  the  mineral  kingdom. 
His  next  work  was  Philosophy  of  the  In¬ 
finite.  In  1745  he  gave  up  secular  pursuits 
and  his  official  duties,  believing  himself 
called  in  a  miraculous  manner  to  a  holy 
office,  which  he  thus  himself  describes: — 
“  I  have  been  called  to  a  holy  office  by  the 
Lord  himself,  who  most  graciously  mani¬ 
fested  himself  before  me,  his  servant,  in 
the  year  1745,  and  then  opened  my  sight 
into  the  spiritual  world,  and  gave  me  to 
speak  with  spirits  and  angels,  as  I  do  even 
to  this  day.  From  that  time  I  began  to 
publish  the  many  arcana  which  I  have 
either  seen,  or  which  have  been  revealed 


Swe 


(  8s9  > 


Swe 


I 


to  me,  concerning  heaven  and  hell,  con¬ 
cerning  the  state  of  man  after  death,  con¬ 
cerning  the  true  divine  worship,  and 
concerning  the  spiritual  sense  of  the  Word, 
besides  other  things  of  the  highest  im¬ 
portance,  conducive  to  salvation  and  wis¬ 
dom.”  He  says  he  was  permitted  several 
times  to  enter  heaven,  and  describes  the 
abodes  of  bliss  as  “  arranged  in  streets  and 
squares  like  earthly  cities,  but  with  fields 
and  gardens  interposed.”  Of  the  angels 
he  writes:  “  From  all  my  experience, 
which  has  now  continued  for  several  years, 
I  can  say  and  affirm  that  angels,  as  to» their 
form,  are  altogether  men;  ”  and  elsewhere 
he  affirms  that  they  marry  as  mankind  do. 
He  also  gives  an  account  of  a  Coicncil  of 
Angels: — “  There  was  shown  to  me  a 
magnificent  palace,  with  a  temple  in  its  in¬ 
most  part,  and  in  the  midst  of  the  temple 
was  a  table  of  gold,  on  which  lay  the  Word, 
and  two  angels  stood  beside  it.  About  the 
table  were  three  rows  of  seats;  the  seats 
of  the  first  row  were  covered  with  silk 
damask  of  a  purple  color;  the  seats  of  the 
second  row  with  silk  damask  of  a  blue 
color;  and  the  seats  of  the  third  row  with 
white  cloth.  Below  the  roof,  high  above 
the  table,  there  was  seen  a  spreading  cur¬ 
tain,  which  shone  with  precious  stones, 
from  whose  lustre  there  issued  forth  a 
bright  appearance  as  of  a  rainbow  when 
the  firmament  is  clear  and  serene  after  a 
shower.  Then  suddenly  there  appeared 
a  number  of  clergy  sitting  on  the  seats, 
all  clothed  in  the  garments  of  their 
sacerdotal  office.  On  one  side  was  a  ward¬ 
robe,  where  stood  an  angel  who  had  the 
care  of  it,  and  within  lay  splendid  vest¬ 
ments  in  beautiful  order.  It  was  a  Council 
convened  by  the  Lord ,  and  I  heard  a  voice 
from  heaven  saying,  ‘  Deliberate ;'  but  they 
said,  ‘  On  what?'  It  was  said,  *  Concern¬ 
ing  the  Lord  the  Saviour ,  and  concerning 
the  Holy  Spirit.'  But  when  they  began  to 
think  on  these  subjects  they  were  without 
illustration;  wherefore  they  made  supplica¬ 
tion,  and  immediately  light  issued  down 
out  of  heaven,  which  first  illuminated  the 
hinder  part  of  their  heads,  and  afterward 
their  temples,  and  last  of  all  their  faces; 
and  then  they  began  their  deliberations.” 

Of  Swedenborg’s  capacity,  knowledge, 
and  perfect  honesty,  there  can  be  no  doubt: 
but  his  diary  of  the  year  1744,  which  was 
discovered  so  late  as  the  year  1858  by  Herr 
Klemming,  royal  librarian  at  Stockholm, 
leaves  no  doubt  in  the  minds  of  ordinary 
readers  that  in  that  year  he  suffered  a  de¬ 
plorable  mental  derangement,  from  which 
he  never  recovered.  This  may  account  for 
his  strange  moral  judgments;  for  Sweden¬ 
borg  classes  David  and  St.  Paul  amongst 
the  lost,  while  Louis  XIV.  and  George  II. 


are  amongst  the  distinguished  angels!  It 
is  also  noteworthy,  that  while  he  narrates 
visits  of  angels  from  all  the  known  planets, 
there  are  none  from  Uranus  and  Neptune, 
then  undiscovered. 

Swedenborg  explained  his  peculiar  views 
in  a  work  of  eight  vols.,  4to.,  Arcana  Cceles- 
tia,  in  which  he  presses  his  doctrine  of 
Correspondences,  a  science  which  he  says 
had  been  lost  since  the  time  of  Job  till  now 
restored  to  him  by  a  special  revelation  from 
the  Lord.  He  says  that  there  are  certain 
links  of  harmony  and  correspondence  exist¬ 
ing  between  the  natural  and  spiritual 
worlds,  so  that  matter  and  spirit  are  con¬ 
nected  by  an  eternal  law,  and  wherever  an 
analogy  exists,  it  must  be  a  predetermined 
“  correspondence.”  By  this  test  he  tries 
the  authenticity  of  Scripture,  and  rejects  as 
uncanonical  all  those  books  in  which  he 
fails  to  discern  a  spiritual  sense.  In  the 
Old  Testament  he  only  accepts  twenty-nine 
books,  and  rejects  the  whole  of  the  New 
Testament  but  the  four  Gospels  and  the 
Apocalypse.  When  once  the  spiritual  sense 
of  a  word  is  ascertained  by  the  spiritual 
key,  its  application  is  uniform  wherever  it 
may  occur.  Thus  water  is  said  to  be  the 
representative  of  truth;  blood ,  of  divine 
truth ,  etc.  The  writings  of  Swedenborg  are 
held  by  his  followers  to  contain  the  true 
exposition  of  Scripture  as  revealed  to  him 
by  a  special  illumination  from  the  Lord. 

Amongst  his  chief  doctrines  are  that  the 
Last  Judgment  has  already  taken  place  (in 
^Syl.that  the  “  New  Jerusalem  ”  has  come 
in  the  form  of  the  “  New  Church,”  and 
that  the  power  and  glory  of  Christ  as 
shown  in  this  New  Church  is  spiritually 
his  second  coming.  Of  the  Trinity  he  held 
and  expressed  views  resembling  those  of 
Sabellius.  He  rejects  the  doctrine  of  justi¬ 
fication  by  faith  alone,  and  says,  “  To  fear 
God  and  to  work  righteousness  is  to  have 
charity;  and  whoever  has  charity,  what¬ 
ever  his  religious  sentiments  may  be,  will 
be  saved.”  The  resurrection  is  to  be  that 
of  a  spiritual  body  only,  which  will  pass  at 
first  into  a  state  of  purgatory,  where  the 
good  will  be  fitted  for  heaven,  and  the  bad, 
having  rejected  all  truth,  will  be  utterly 
lost.  His  system  is  remarkable,  further,  for 
the  prominence  and  permanence  which  it 
assigns  to  the  relation  of  the  sexes. 

The  last  twenty-seven  years  of  Sweden¬ 
borg’s  life  were  spent  in  writing  and  pub¬ 
lishing  his  books,  which  were  mostly 
printed  in  Amsterdam.  He  does  not  seem 
to  have  anticipated  the  immediate  formation 
of  a  separate  Church, and  therefore  did  not 
dissever  himself  from  the  Lutherans.  He 
died  in  Great  Bath  Street,  Colbath  Fields, 
on  March  29,  1772,  and  was  buried  in  the 
Swedish  Church  in  Ratcliffe  Highway. 


Swi 


(  890  ) 


Syn 


For  the  history  of  the  sect  of  Svveden- 
borgians  after  their  founder’s  death  see 
New  Jerusalem  Church. — Benham:  Diet, 
of  Religion.  See  W.  White:  Swedenborg, 
His  Life  and  Writings  (1856,  Phila. ,  1866). 

Swithin,  St.,  bishop  and  patron  saint  of 
Winchester;  d.  July  2,  862.  Of  noble  birth, 
he  was  educated  at  the  Old  Monastery  in 
Winchester,  where  he  became  dean.  Eth- 
elwolf,  the  son  of  Egbert,  king  of  the 
West  Saxons,  was  educated  under  his  care, 
and  when  he  succeeded  his  father  he  ap¬ 
pointed  his  old  teacher  bishop  of  Winches¬ 
ter.  St.  Swithin’s  Day  is  July  15.  There 
is  an  old  saying  that  “If  it  rains  on  St. 
Swithin’s  Day,  there  will  be  rain,  more  or 
less,  for  forty  succeeding  days.”  See  But¬ 
ler:  Lives  of  the  Saints. 

Switzerland.  Christianity  was  estab¬ 
lished  at  Geneva  in  the  middle  of  the  third 
century.  It  was  not  until  after  the  sixth 
century  that  it  was  everywhere  received. 
Previous  to  the  sixteenth  century  the 
churches  had  again  and  again  asserted 
their  independence,  in  many  ways,  of  the 
papal  power,  but  with  the  majority  of  the 
people  it  still  continues  a  controlling  influ¬ 
ence.  For  the  period  from  1519  till  1556 
see  Reformation.  The  conflict  between 
Protestants  and  Roman  Catholics  did  not 
terminate  until  after  the  second  battle  of 
Vilmergen  in  1712.  With  the  opening  of 
the  present  century  there  was  increased  re¬ 
ligious  activity,  but  rationalistic  views 
found  a  welcome  in  many  directions  and 
stayed  the  progress  of  evangelical  truth. 
In  1845  the  Vaudese  clergy  left  the  Estab¬ 
lished  Church,  and  formed  the  Free  Church 
of  the  Vaud  Canton.  In  1847-48  the  regu¬ 
lation  which  forbade  the  establishment  of 
Reformed  churches  in  the  Roman  Catholic 
cantons  and  vice  versa,  was  abrogated.  Ac¬ 
cording  to  the  census  of  1886  the  popula¬ 
tion  of  Switzerland  was  2,846,102,  of  which 
1,667,109  were  Protestants  (Reformed 
Church), 1,  160,782  Roman  Catholics,  10,838 
of  minor  Christian  sects,  and  7,373  Jews. 

Syllabus,  The  Papal,  a  list  of  heresies 
condemned  by  Pius  IX.  in  1864.  They 
number  eighty,  and  are  divided  into  ten 
sections.  They  attack  rationalism,  pan¬ 
theism,  latitudinarianism,  etc.,  and  treat 
of  errors  concerning  the  Church,  society, 
marriage,  the  power  of  the  pope,  etc.  The 
Syllabus  claims  to  be  infallible, and  upholds 
all  the  dogmas  of  the  Roman  Church. 

Sylvester,  the  name  of  three  popes:  I. 
314-335.  II.  999-1003.  III.  The  antipope 
of  Benedict  IX.  and  Gregory  VI. — was  de¬ 
posed,  1046.  See  Popes. 


Symbol  (Gr.  symbolon,  that  which  is 
thrown  together  with)  denotes  a  sign  or 
emblem.  Originally  it  had  reference  to 
the  Apostles’  Creed  as  a  confession  or  sign 
distinguishing  Christians  from  all  others. 
Luther  and  Melanchthon  first  applied  the 
words  to  Protestant  creeds.  Baptism  and 
the  Lord’s  Supper  are  now  spoken  of  as 
symbols,  or  visible  signs,  of  an  invisible 
salvation. 

Symphorosa,  a  Christian  widow,  whose 
husband  suffered  martyrdom.  She  refused 
to  obey  the  command  of  the  Emperor 
Hadrian  to  sacrifice,  and  take  part  in  the 
pagan  consecration  of  the  imperial  palace 
at  Tibur.  With  her  seven  sons  she  was 
cruelly  tortured  and  killed.  They  are  com¬ 
memorated  July  18. 

Synagogue,  The  Great,  according  to 
tradition  a  council  organized  at  the  return 
of  the  Jews  from  Babylon  to  arrange  relig¬ 
ious  matters. 

Synagogue  (Gr.  synagd,  to  assemble)  is 
the  name  of  a  Jewish  place  of  worship. 
Synagogues  appear  to  have  been  unknown 
previous  to  the  Captivity.  Until  this  time 
the  temple  and  the  tabernacle  had  been 
the  only  sacred  buildings  recognized  by  the 
Jews.  After  the  Captivity  synagogues  in¬ 
creased  rapidly,  and  at  the  time  of  the 
Maccabees  there  were  480  in  Jerusalem 
alone.  The  services  are  simple,  and  consist 
almost  entirely  in  reading  the  Law,  first  in 
Hebrew,  and  then  translated  by  an  inter¬ 
preter.  Forms  of  prayer  in  Hebrew  are 
also  used.  Services  are  generally  held  on 
Monday  evening,  Friday  evening,  and 
Saturday,  and  in  some  places  on  Thurs¬ 
day.  The  interior  of  the  Synagogue  is 
severely  plain,  with  Scripture  texts  printed 
on  the  whitewashed  walls.  The  platform 
is  enclosed  by  a  rail,  and  beyond  it  stands 
the  ark  of  the  covenant,  which  contains 
copies  of  the  Law.  The  entire  congrega¬ 
tion  sits  so  as  to  face  the  ark.  Any  male 
member  of  the  synagogue  may  read  and 
expound  the  Law. 

Syncellus,  a  term  having  several  signifi¬ 
cations.  (1)  At  first  it  was  a  name  given 
to  any  monk  who  shared  a  cell  with  another. 
(2)  The  attendant  of  a  bishop  or  abbot.  (3) 
An  ecclesiastical  dignitary.  The  highest 
dignitaries  in  the  Greek  Church  are  called 
Syncelli. 

Syncretism,  a  word  used  to  designate 
the  attempt  to  reconcile  discordant  views, 
especially  those  relating  to  religion.  The 
word  came  into  general  use  in  Germany  at 
the  beginning  of  the  seventeenth  century. 


Syn 


(  891  ) 


Syr 


It  is  said  to  be  derived  from  a  saying 
among  the  Cretians,  that  while  disposed  to 
quarrel  among  themselves,  they  were  to 
unite  in  fighting  a  foreign  foe. 

Synergists  (Gr.  synergesis ,  cooperation), 
a  name  given  to  some  German  divines  of 
the  sixteenth  century,  who  held  that  the 
cooperation  of  man  was  needed  in  the 
work  of  renovation,  in  addition  to  the  grace 
of  God.  This  was  first  stated  by  Melanch- 
thon  in  opposition  to  Luther,  who  in  his 


cius  Illyricus,  both  of  whom  were  profess¬ 
ors  at  Jena.  The  discussion  took  place  at 
Weimar.  The  Duke  of  Saxony  favored 
Strigel,  but  the  latter  refused  to  sign  a 
paper  drawn  up  by  Flacius’s  party,  and 
fled  to  Leipzig,  refusing  to  return  to  Jena 
in  spite  of  all  overtures  of  friendship. 
Three  disciples  of  Melanchthon  were  called 
to  Jena,  but  on  the  accession  of  a  new  duke 
in  1567  these  were  turned  out,  and  Flacians 
took  their  place. — Benham:  Diet,  of  Relig¬ 
ion. 


A  MODERN  SYNAGOGUE. 


De  Servo  Arbitrio(  1524) strongly  maintain¬ 
ed  justification  by  faith  alone.  But  before 
his  death  his  views  became  modified,  and 
he  had  partially  adopted  the  doctrine  of 
free-will  and  of  good  works.  These  views 
were  explained  by  Pfefflnger,  professor  of 
Leipzig,  who,  with  his  followers,  received 
the  name  of  Synergists  from  Amsdorff  and 
ochers,  who  opposed  them.  In  1560  the 
“  Synergistic  controversy  ”  was  at  its 
height,  the  leaders  being  Victorin  Strigel, 
a  pupil  of  Melanchthon,  and  Mathias  Fla- 


Synod,  The  Holy.  See  Russian  Church. 

Synods.  See  Council. 

Syria,  a  division  of  Asiatic  Turkey, 
bounded  on  the  north  by  portions  of  Asia 
Minor,  on  the  west  by  the  Mediterranean, 
and  on  the  south  by  Arabia  Petraea.  “The 
history  of  Syria  stretches  far  back  into  re¬ 
mote  antiquity.  In  the  time  of  Abraham 
(2006  b.  c.)  Damascus  was  a  city;  in  the 
oldest  literature  of  Greece  Sidon  figures  as 


Syr 


(  892  ) 


Tab 


the  capital  of  a  rich,  populous,  and  civilized 
state;  and  in  the  Hebrew  Scriptures,  Ca¬ 
naan  or  Palestine  is  crowded  with  towns 
at  the  period  of  its  conquest  by  Joshua; 
but,  like  most  other  so-called  nations  in 
early  times,  Syria  did  not  form  a  single 
state;  it  was  rather  a  congeries  of  inde¬ 
pendent  states,  whose  inhabitants  belonged 
to  the  same  race.  Every  important  city 
had  its  king,  whose  normal  occupation 
was  fighting  with  his  neighbors.  Under 
David  and  Solomon  something  like  political 
unity  was  achieved;  yet  it  does  not  appear 
that  these  great  rulers  dispossessed  the 
princes  whom  they  subdued,  but  only 
made  them  tributary,  and  after  their  death 
things  reverted  to  their  previous  condition. 
Rezin,  a  slave,  then  made  himself  master 
of  Damascus,  and  extended  the  Damascene 
monarchy  over  all  northern  and  central  Syr¬ 
ia;  but  the  conquests  of  Tiglath-pileser 
resulted  in  its  becoming  a  province  of  the 
Assyrian  Empire.  Subsequently  the  whole 
land,  including  Palestine,  became  part  of 
the  successive  empires  of  Babylonia,  Me¬ 
dia,  Persia,  and  Macedonia.  Then  follow¬ 
ed  the  dynasty  of  the  Seleucidae.  After 
their  fall  Syria  passed  into  the  hands  of 
the  Romans,  who  retained  it,  though  not 
continuously — for  on  several  occasions  the 
Persian  Sassanidse  managed  to  wrest  it 
from  them — until  the  Arab  conquest  (sev¬ 
enth  century  A.  D.).  During  the  crusades 
(y.  v. )  of  the  Middle  Ages  several  Chris¬ 
tian  principalities  were  established  here, 
but  endured  only  for  a  short  period.  Syria 
now  became  a  possession  of  the  sultans  in 
Egypt,  in  whose  time  it  was  frightfully 
devastated  by  the  Mongols.  In  the  six¬ 
teenth  century  it  was  conquered  by  the 
Turks,  and  has  ever  since  formed  part  of 
the  Turkish  empire.” — International  Cyclo¬ 
pedia. 

The  population  of  Syria  in  1881  was  es¬ 
timated  at  2,076,300,  distributed  as  follows: 


Mohammedans, 

•  1,000,000 

Nusairiyeh, 

.  250,000 

Maronites 

.  250,000 

Orthodox  Greeks, 

235,000 

Papal  Sects, 

.  80,000 

Jews, 

.  30,000 

Ismailiyeh  Gypsies, 

etc.,  30,000 

Armenians, 

.  20,000 

Jacobites, 

.  15,000 

Druzes, 

.  100,000 

Protestants, 

6,300 

Bedouin  Arabs, 

.  60,000 

The  Maronites  are  fervent  followers  of 
the  papacy;  the  Ismailiyeh  are  heretical 
Mohammedans,  as  are  also  the  Bedouins; 
theDruzesand  Nusairiyeh  are  semi-pagan. 
The  native  Oriental  Churches  are  the  Or¬ 
thodox  Greek,  the  Maronite,  the  Papal 


Greek,  the  Jacobite,  and  Armenian.  Amer¬ 
ican  missionary  societies  have  founded 
several  flourishing  missions,  notably  at 
Beirut.  Several  of  the  Protestant  mission¬ 
ary  societies  of  Europe  have  successful 
missions  in  the  country. 

T. 

Tabernacle  “(Heb.  Ohel  Moed ,  tent  of 
meeting,  scil. ,  between  God  and  man;  LXX. 
Skene,  Vulg.  Tabernaculum  Foederis ),  or, 
more  fully,  ‘  tabernacle  of  the  congrega¬ 
tion,’  was  the  tent  first  erected  by  Moses 
in  the  desert  as  a  visible  symbol  of  the 
divine  Presence  in  the  midst  of  the  people. 
It  was  the  place  where  he  went  to  receive 
his  inspirations  as  their  representative 
when  they  ‘came  to  seek  Jehovah.’  A 
cloudy  pillar  descended,  and  stood  at  the 
door  of  the  Tabernacle  while  ‘  the  Lord 
spake  to  Moses.’  The  detailed  description 
of  the  tabernacle,  contained  in  Ex.  xxv. 
sqq. ;  xxxvi.  sqq. ,  renders  more  than  a  brief 
outline  superfluous  in  this  place.  Suffice 
it  to  mention  that  it  was  divided  into  the 
‘  sanctuary  ’  proper — which  formed  the 
front  part,  and  the  dimensions  of  which 
were  twenty  cubits  in  length,  ten  in  width, 
and  ten  in  height — and  the  ‘Holy  of  Holies,’ 
which  was  ten  cubits  square,  and  ten  high. 
A  kind  of  courtyard,  formed  by  curtains 
suspended  between  columns,  ran  round  the 
tabernacle,  one  hundred  cubits  long,  and 
fifty  wide.  The  entrance  was  toward  the  east 
— the  rising  of  the  sun — and  closed  by 
another  costly  curtain,  into  which,  like  unto 
the  first  covering,  figures  of  ‘  cherubim  ' 
were  woven.  The  surrounding  court  was 
much  larger  on  this  eastern  than  on  the 
1  western  side,  for  here  it  was  that  the  peo¬ 
ple  assembled  for  the  purpose  of  worship. 
Here  also  stood  the  altar,  made  of  acacia- 
wood,  upon  which  a  perpetual  fire  was  kept 
burning,  and  the  brazen  laver.  The  sanc¬ 
tuary  contained  the  gilded  table  with  the 
showbread  to  the  right,  the  golden  candle¬ 
stick  with  the  seven  branches  to  the  left, 
and  between  both  the  ‘  golden  altar,’  or  the 
‘  altar  of  incense,’  upon  which  the  high- 
priest  burned  incense  in  the  morning  and 
evening.  In  the  Holy  of  Holies,  the  holy 
ark,  or  ark  of  the  covenant,  alone  was  kept; 
a  box  of  acacia- wood,  plated  with  pure 
gold,  both  inside  and  outside,  containing 
the  two  tables  of  the  Ten  Commandments. 
On  the  top  of  it  were  the  two  cherubim, 
their  faces  turned  toward  each  other;  and 
between  them  there  was  the  symbolical 
presence  of  Jehovah  (the  Shechinah),  to 
which  Moses  appealed  for  guidance. 

“  Only  once  a  year,  on  the  Day  of  Atone¬ 
ment,  the  high-priest  was  allowed  to  enter 
the  Holy  of  Holies, while  the  sanctuary  was 


Tab 


(  893  ) 


Tab 


the  ordinary  place  of  the  priests,  and  the 
court  that  of  the  Levites.  The  tribe  of 
Levi  was  also  that  to  which  the  place  near¬ 
est  to  the  tabernacle,  around  which  the 
twelve  tribes  were  grouped,  was  assigned, 
as  it  also  was  the  duty  of  its  members  to 
convey  the  building  from  place  to  place 
during  the  migrations. 

“  The  tabernacle,  after  the  people  had 
settled  in  Canaan,  was  erected  at  Shiloh, 
where  it  was  still  found  at  the  time  of 
Saul,  although  the  ark  of  the  covenant  it¬ 
self  had  been  carried  away  by  the  Philis¬ 
tines,  in  the  time  of  Eli,  and  when  restored, 
placed  at  Kirjath-jearim.  Nor  was  the  tab¬ 
ernacle  of  Shiloh  the  only  sanctuary,  as  it 
was  intended  to  be.  We  find  other  local  sanc¬ 
tuaries  with  priests — at  Bethel,  Nob,  Si- 
chem,  Mizpah,  etc. — at  which  even  Samuel 
worshiped,  as  in  legally  instituted  places. 


it  did  not  prove  effective  enough.” — Cham¬ 
bers:  Cyclopcedia. 

Tabernacle,  another  name  for  Baldac- 
chino  (q.  v.). 

Tabernacles,  The  Feast  of,  the  last  of 
the  three  yearly  festivals  which  were  cele¬ 
brated  according  to  the  Mosaic  law  in  the 
tabernacle.  It  was  also  called  the  feast  of 
ingathering.  (Exod.  xxiii.  16.)  The  festi¬ 
val  was  celebrated  seven  days,  in  memory 
of  the  time  when  the  Israelites  dwelt  in 
booths  in  the  wilderness,  and  is  described 
in  Exod.  xxiii.  14  sqq. ;  Lev.  xxiii.  34  sqq.; 
Deut.  xvi.  13  sqq.  The  booths  were  erect¬ 
ed  in  the  streets,  outside  the  walls  of  Jeru¬ 
salem,  and  on  the  roofs.  They  were  the 
scene  of  joy  and  mirth.  Four  hundred 
and  twenty-four  priests  were  in  attendance 


A  FRONT  VIEW  OF  THE  TABERNACLE,  WITH  ITS  TENT. 


When  David  is  reported  to  have  removed 
the  ark  from  Kirjath-jearim  to  Jerusalem, 
nothing  is  said  about  the  tabernacle  of 
Shiloh;  on  the  contrary,  David  erected  a 
new  one  on  purpose  for  the  ark.  It  seems 
probable  that  it  was  removed  at  some  time 
or  other  from  Shiloh  to  Nob,  and  thence 
to  Gibeon,  whence  Solomon  seems  to 
have  fetched  it  away,  with  all  its  vessels, 
thus  putting  an  end  to  the  double  worship 
that  under  David  had  divided  the  faithful 
between  Gibeon,  where  Zadok  officiated, 
and  Jerusalem,  with  Asaph’s  worship. 
Nothing  is  further  known  of  the  tabernacle, 
which,  besides  being  a  symbol  of  God’s 
presence,  has  also  served  the  purpose  of  a 
visible  political  and  religious  link  between 
the  tribes.  As  a  safeguard  against  idolatry 
and  unlimited  sacrificial  worship,  however, 


to  serve  in  the  public  sacrifices,  and  there 
were  brilliant  illuminations  at  night.  Once 
in  each  day  the  people  surrounded  the  al¬ 
tar  of  burnt-offering,  waving  palm-branch¬ 
es.  This  was  repeated  seven  times  on  the 
seventh  day,  in  memory  of  Jericho.  Dur¬ 
ing  the  sacrifices  the  great  Hallel  (Psa. 
cxiii.-cxviii.)  was  sung,  and  when  the 
twenty-fourth  verse  of  Psa.  cxviii.  was 
sung  every  one  shook  his  palm-branch  sev¬ 
eral  times.  Wine  and  water  from  the 
brook  of  Siloam  was  used  morning  and 
evening  as  a  drink-offering.  A  priest  car¬ 
ried  a  cup  of  the  water  through  the  water- 
gate  of  the  temple,  and  another  priest  as  he 
took  it  repeated  the  words, “With  joy  shall 
ye  draw  water  out  of  the  wells  of  salvation.” 
(Isa.  xii.  3.)  The  eighth  day  of  the  feast 
(Lev.  xxiii.  39)  the  booths  were  dismantled. 


Tab 


(  894  ) 


Tad 


Ta'bor  ( mount ),  one  of  the  most  re¬ 
markable  of  the  mountains  of  Palestine. 
It  is  beautifully  situated  at  the  northeast¬ 
ern  extremity  of  the  plain  of  Esdraelon, 
about  six  or  eight  miles  east  of  Nazareth. 
The  ruins  of  an  ancient  fortress  are  found 
upon  its  summit.  It  is  now  called  Jebel  et 
Tilr.  “  Whilst  now  a  little  chapel  stands 
here,  where  the  priests  from  Nazareth  per¬ 
form  divine  service,  in  olden  times  the 
mountain  had  cities  and  a  large  population. 
Thus  a  city  of  Tabor  is  mentioned  in  the 
lists  of  1  Chron.  vi.,  as  a  city  of  the  Me- 
rarite  Levites  in  the  tribe  of  Zebulun. 
Mount  Tabor  makes  a  prominent  figure  in 
ancient  history.  Here  Barak  assembled 
his  forces  against  Sisera.  (Judg.  iv.  6-15.) 


tified  the  mount,  at  whose  base  the  main 
street  runs  from  Egypt  to  Damascus.  In 
their  time  Mount  Tabor  was  an  archiepis- 
copal  see  belonging  to  the  patriarch  of  Je¬ 
rusalem.  Tancred  built  a  church  there, 
and  the  Cluniacensians  a  monastery.  But 
all  was  lost  in  the  battle  of  Hattin,  July  5, 
1187.  The  Saracens,  under  Saladin,  de¬ 
stroyed  the  fortresses;  and  in  1283  Bro- 
cardes  only  found  the  remains  of  palaces, 
convents,  and  churches  there.” — Riietschi. 
Cf.  Schaff-Herzog:  Ency.,  vol.  iii.,  p.  2290. 

Taborites.  See  Utraquists. 

Tad'mor  (Heb.  Tamar ,  palms),  a  city 
built  by  Solomon.  (1  Kings  ix.  18;  2  Chron. 


MOUNT  TABOR,  GALILEE. 


The  brothers  of  Gideon  were  murdered 
here  by  Zebah  and  Zalmunna  (viii.  18,  19). 
In  the  year  b.  c.  218  Antiochus  the  Great 
got  possession  of  Tabor  by  stratagem,  and 
strengthened  its  fortifications.  In  the  mo¬ 
nastic  ages  Tabor,  in  consequence  partly  of 
a  belief  that  it  was  the  scene  of  the  Saviour’s 
transfiguration,  was  crowded  with  hermits 
(but  there  is  no  foundation  for  this  tradi¬ 
tion);  partly  because,  according  to  Matt, 
xvii.  1;  Mark  ix.  2;  Luke  ix.  28,  the  trans¬ 
figuration  must  have  taken  place  on  some 
high  mountain  near  Caesarea-Philippi ;  and 
partly  because  a  fortified  and  inhabited 
place  could  hardly  have  been  a  proper  place 
for  such  a  scene.  The  crusaders  again  for- 


viii.  4.)  It  is  undoubtedly  the  ancient  Pal¬ 
myra,  which  became  famous  in  Roman  his¬ 
tory  about  A.  D.  260,  in  connection  with 
Zenobia,  “  the  Queen  of  the  East,”  who, 
after  the  death  of  her  husband,  Odenathus, 
extended  the  supremacy  of  Palmyra  over 
Syria,  Mesopotamia,  and  parts  of  Egypt. 
Conquered  by  the  Roman  emperor,  the  un¬ 
happy  queen  was  led  through  the  streets 
of  Rome  in  his  triumphal  procession.  Pal¬ 
myra  never  regained  its  former  impor¬ 
tance.  Porter  says:  “  In  describing  the 
ruins  of  Palmyra,  it  would  be  almost  im¬ 
possible  to  exaggerate.  There  is  nothing 
like  them  in  the  world.  In  no  other  spot  in 
the  world  can  we  find  such  vast  numbers  of 


Tai 


(  895  ) 


Tal 


temples,  palaces,  colonnades,  tombs,  and 
monuments  grouped  together  so  as  to  be 
seen  at  a  single  glance.  The  ruins  extend 
over  a  plain  about  three  or  four  miles  in 
circuit.”  See  Wood:  The  Rums  of  Pal¬ 
myra  (London,  1753);  Porter:  Handbook  for 
Syria  and  Palestine. 

Tai-ping,  a  recent  sect  among  the  Chi¬ 
nese,  founded  by  Hung-sew-tseuen,  a  man 
of  humble  birth,  who  had  unsuccessfully 
sought  Government  employment.  Some 
Christian  tracts  which  came  into  his  hands 
caused  him  to  renounce  idolatry,  and  then 
he  pretended  to  have  Visions  from  a  man 
whom  he  chose  to  identify  with  Christ, 
who  commanded  him  to  root  out  the  Tar¬ 
tars  and  establish  a  new  kingdom  of  Tai- 
ping ;  or  Universal  Peace.  In  1840  he 
gathered  together  a  number  of  followers, 
and  proceeded  to  uproot  idolatry.  He  took 
on  himself  the  name  of  Heavenly  Prince, 
and  declared  himself  to  be  equal  with 
Christ  in  power  on  the  earth.  His  follow¬ 
ers  he  called  “  God-worshippers,”  and  he 
made  five  of  them  princes  with  himself. 
In  1850  they  fought  against  the  Govern¬ 
ment,  and  succeeded  in  taking  Nankin,  and 
made  further  conquests,  but  they  were 
repulsed  at  Shanghai,  in  1S60,  by  the  Eng¬ 
lish  and  French,  and  though  they  after¬ 
wards  rebelled  many  times,  they  were  fi¬ 
nally  suppressed  by  General  Gordon.  Their 
religion  was  a  mixture  of  the  Chinese  and 
Christian;  polygamy  was  allowed,  and 
while  they  adopted  baptism  they  rejected 
the  Lord’s  Supper. — Benham:  Diet,  of  Re¬ 
ligion. 

Tait,  Archibald  Campbell,  archbishop 
of  Canterbury;  b.  in  Edinburgh,  Dec.  22, 
1 81 1 ;  d.  at  Croydon,  Dec.  3,  1882.  He 
was  graduated  at  Balliol  College,  Oxford, 
in  which  he  became  tutor,  and  took  a 
prominent  part  in  opposing  Tractarianism. 
In  1842  he  was  appointed  Dr.  Arnold’s 
successor  at  Rugby,  where  he  labored  suc¬ 
cessfully  until  1850,  when  he  accepted  the 
deanery  of  Carlisle.  In  1856  he  was  ap¬ 
pointed  bishop  of  London,  and  in  1868  was 
raised  to  the  see  of  Canterbury.  Arch¬ 
bishop  Tait  was  a  man  of  large  sympathies, 
sound  judgment,  and  great  courtesy,  and 
by  his  catholic  views  endeared  himself  to 
Christians  of  every  name.  Among  his 
writings  are  two  volumes  of  Sermons  ( 1861); 
The  Dangers  and  Safeguards  of  Modern 
Theology  (1861);  The  Word  of  God  and  the 
Ground  of  Faith  (1863). 

Talmage,  Thomas  DeWitt,  D.  D.,  Pres¬ 
byterian;  b.  near  Bound  Brook,  N.  J.,  Jan. 
7,  1832;  was  graduated  at  the  University  of 
the  City  of  New  York,  1853,  and  at  the  New 


Brunswick  Theological  Seminary,  N.  J., 
1856;  pastor  of  the  Reformed  Dutch  Church 
at  Belleville,  N.  J.,  1856;  Syracuse,  N.Y., 
1859;  Second  Church,  Philadelphia,  Penn., 
1862;  Central  Presbyterian  Church,  Brook¬ 
lyn,  N.  Y.,  since  1869.  As  a  preacher  he 
draws  large  congregations,  and  his  sermons 
are  widely  published  both  in  Europe  and 
America.  He  is  the  author  of  many  vol¬ 
umes,  most  of  which  are  made  up  of  his 
sermons  and  lectures.  Among  the  best 
known  are:  Crumbs  Swept  Up',  Abomina¬ 
tions  of  Modern  Society;  Around  the  Tea- 
Table;  Night  Side  of  New  York;  The  Mar¬ 
riage  Ring;  The  Pathway  of  Life. 

Talmud  (from  the  Hebrew,  lamad ,  he 
has  learned,  doctrine).  It  signifies  among 
the  modern  Jews  an  enormous  collection 
of  traditions,  illustrative  of  their  laws  and 
usages,  forming  twelve  folio  volumes. 
There  are  two  works  which  bear  this  name 
— the  Talmud  of  Jerusalem  and  the  Tal¬ 
mud  of  Babylon.  Each  of  these  consists  of 
two  parts — the  Mishna,  which  is  the  text, 
and  the  Gemara,  or  commentary.  The 
Mishna,  or  Second  Law,  is  a  collection  of 
Rabbinical  rules  and  precepts,  made  in  the 
second  century  of  the  Christian  era.  The 
whole  civil  constitution  and  mode  of  think¬ 
ing,  as  well  as  language,  of  the  Jews,  had 
gradually  undergone  a  complete  revolu¬ 
tion,  and  were  entirely  different  in  the  time 
of  our  Saviour  from  what  they  had  been 
originally.  The  Mosaic  books  contained 
rules  no  longer  adapted  to  the  situation  of 
the  nation;  and  its  new  political  relations, 
connected  with  the  change  that  had  taken 
place  in  the  religious  views  of  the  people, 
led  to  many  difficult  questions,  for  which 
no  satisfactory  solution  could  be  found  in 
their  law.  The  Rabbis  undertook  to  sup¬ 
ply  this  defect,  partly  by  commentaries  on 
the  Mosaic  precepts,  and  partly  by  the 
composition  of  new  rules,  which  were 
looked  upon  as  almost  equally  binding  with 
the  former.  These  comments  were  called 
the  oral  tradition,  in  contradistinction  to 
the  old  law  or  written  code.  This  was 
the  work  of  the  Rabbi  Jehudah  (or  Judah) 
Hakkadosh,  surnamed  the  “  holy,”  who 
was  the  ornament  of  the  school  of  Tiberias, 
and  it  is  said  to  have  occupied  him  forty 
years.  The  commentaries  and  additions 
which  succeeding  Rabbis  made  were  col¬ 
lected  by  the  Rabbi  Jochanan  ben  Eliezer 
about  230  A.  D. ,  under  the  name  Gemara, 
the  Chaldaic  word  for  completion. 

The  Mishna  is  divided  into  six  parts: 
(1)  Seeds  or  fruits;  (2)  Feasts;  (3)  Women; 
(4)  Damages ;  (5)  Sacrifices  and  holy  things ; 
(6)  Purifications.  These  are  divided  into 
sixty-three  treatises,  and  these  again  into 
chapters.  It  contains  traditions  said  to 


Tam 


(896) 


Tar 


have  been  delivered  to  Moses  during  the 
time  of  his  abode  in  the  mount,  which  he 
afterward  communicated  to  Aaron,  Eleazar, 
and  his  servant  Joshua;  by  these  they 
were  transmitted  to  the  seventy  elders;  by 
them  to  the  prophets,  who  communicated 
them  to  the  men  of  the  great  Sanhedrim, 
from  whom  the  wise  men  of  Jerusalem  and 
Babylon  received  them.  According  to  Dr. 
Prideaux,  they  passed  from  Jeremiah  to 
Baruch,  from  him  to  Ezra,  and  from  Ezra 
to  the  men  of  the  Great  Synagogue,  the 
last  of  whom  was  Simon  the  Just,  who  de¬ 
livered  them  to  Antigonus  of  Socho,  and 
from  him  they  came  down  in  regular  suc¬ 
cession  to  that  Simeon  who  took  our  Sav¬ 
iour  in  his  arms;  to  Gamaliel,  at  whose 
feet  Paul  was  educated;  and  last  of  all  to 
Rabbi  Judah,  who  committed  them  to  writ¬ 
ing  in  the  Mishna.  This  Mishna  and  Gemara 
together  formed  the  Jerusalem  Talmud, 
relating  chiefly  to  the  Jews  of  Palestine; 
but  after  most  of  the  Jews  had  removed  to 
Babylon,  and  the  synagogues  of  Palestine 
had  well-nigh  disappeared,  the  Babylonian 
Rabbis,  Aseand  Abina,  gradually  composed 
new  commentaries  on  the  Mishna,  which 
were  completed  about  500  A.  D.,  and  thus 
formed  the  Babylonian  Talmud.  This  Tal¬ 
mud  is  the  one  most  valued  by  the  Jews: 
an  abridgment  of  it  was  made  in  the  twelfth 
century  by  Maimonides,  in  which  he  re¬ 
jects  some  of  the  greater  absurdities  with 
which  the  Gemara  abounds.  The  latter  is 
written  in  a  somewhat  coarse  style,  but  the 
Mishna  is  much  purer.  The  language  of 
the  Talmud  is  Aramaic  or  Chaldee,  and  is 
without  vowel-points,  and  abounds  in  ab¬ 
breviations.  The  Mishna  was  first  printed 
at  Naples,  1492;  the  Talmud  of  Jerusalem 
at  Venice,  about  1523;  the  Babylonian  Tal¬ 
mud,  which  is  four  times  as  large,  at  Ven¬ 
ice,  about  1520.  It  has  been  translated  into 
Latin,  and  is  also  published  in  most  of  the 
European  languages. — Benham:  Did.  of 
Religion. 

Tam'muz,  a  sun-god  worshiped  among 
the  Chaldaeans.  It  is  identified  by  some 
with  the  Adonis  of  Grecian  mythology. 
The  worship  of  Tammuz  in  Syria  was  con¬ 
ducted  with  obscene  rites.  (Ezek.  viii.  14.) 

Taoism,  or  Taouism,  one  of  the  three  re¬ 
ligions  of  China.  Its  founder,  Laotse,  lived, 
according  to  tradition,  six  hundred  years 
before  Christ.  Tao  is  a  word  meaning 
“  way,”  and  so  far  as  the  mystical  teaching 
can  now  be  understood,  it  would  seem  that 
Tao  represented  the  course  which  Laotse 
thought  a  man  should  pursue  in  order  to 
overcome  evil.  The  whole  teaching  was 
vague  and  unsatisfactory;  but  its  followers 
made  an  advance  on  those  that  had  pre¬ 


ceded  them,  by  believing  firmly  that  ulti¬ 
mately  good  would  gain  the  victory  over 
evil.  The  head  of  the  body  was  a  sort  of 
patriarch,  who  had  the  power  of  transmit¬ 
ting  his  dignity  and  office  to  a  member  of 
his  own  family,  and  the  descendants  of  the 
first  are  said  to  have  held  the  office  for  cen¬ 
turies.  They  attributed  to  their  Tao, 
whom  they  regarded  as  the  first  being  of 
the  universe,  various  qualities,  such  as 
eternity  and  invisibility;  but  they  do  not 
seem  to  have  regarded  him  as  being  in  any 
way  able  to  assist  or  comfort  his  followers. 
All  they  had  to  do  was  to  contemplate  him 
and  his  virtues — and  to  strive  to  keep  in 
the  Way.  When  Buddhism  (q.  v.)  appear¬ 
ed,  which  offered  something  more  tangible, 
both  Taoism  and  Foism  ( q .  v. )  to  a  great 
extent  disappeared,  though  some  traces  of 
the  teaching  of  both  are  still  to  be  found  in 
Chinese  theological  books.  —  Benham: 
Diet,  of  Religion. 

Tappan,  Henry  Philip,  D.  D.,  b.  at 
Rhinebeck,  N.  Y.,  April  23,  1805;  d.  at 
Vevay,  Switzerland,  Nov.,  1881;  was  grad¬ 
uated  at  Union  College,  1825;  studied 
theology  at  Princeton;  pastor  Congrega¬ 
tional  Church,  Pittsfield,  Mass.,  1828-32; 
professor  of  moral  philosophy  in  the  Uni¬ 
versity  of  the  City  of  New  York,  1832-38; 
chancellor  of  the  University  of  Michigan, 
1852-63.  The  rest  of  his  life  was  spent  in 
Europe.  He  wrote  several  works  on  the 
Will  that  attracted  wide  attention. 

Targum,  a  name  given  to  the  Chaldee 
paraphrases  of  the  books  of  the  Old  Testa¬ 
ment.  They  are  called  paraphrases  because 
they  are  rather  comments  than  literal  trans¬ 
lations.  During  the  Babylonish  exile, 
Chaldee  became  more  familiar  to  the  Jews 
than  Hebrew,  so  that  when  the  Hebrew 
text  was  read  in  the  synagogue,  it  was 
often  followed  by  an  exposition  in  Chaldee. 
It  is  probable  that  this  was  the  case  even 
in  the  time  of  Ezra,  since,  in  reading  the 
Law  to  the  people  in  the  temple,  he  ex¬ 
plained  it  to  make  it  understood  by  the 
people.  (Neh.  viii.  7-9.)  Though  the  cus¬ 
tom  of  making  these  explanations  was  a 
very  ancient  one  with  the  Jews,  they  had  no 
written  Targums  before  the  era  of  Onkelos 
and  Jonathan,  who  lived  about  the  time  of 
our  Saviour.  Onkelos  is  said  to  have  been 
the  friend  of  the  elder  Gamaliel ;  his  Targum 
is  the  most  esteemed  of  all,  and  copies  are  to 
be  found  in  which  it  is  inserted  verse  for 
verse  with  the  Hebrew;  it  is  short  and  sim¬ 
ple,  and  in  style  approaches  nearly  to  the 
purity  of  the  Chaldee  as  it  is  found  in  Ezra 
and  in  Daniel.  It  is  a  paraphrase  of  the 
Pentateuch  only.  There  are  two  other  Tar¬ 
gums  on  the  Pentateuch,  one  by  Jonathan 


Tar 


(  897  ) 


Tav 


ben  Uzziel,  and  the  Targum  Jerushalmi; 
but  they  are  both  recensions  of  that  by 
Onkelos.  Another  Jonathan  wrote  a  Tar¬ 
gum  on  the  greater  and  lesser  prophets, 
and  he  is  much  more  diffuse  than  Onkelos, 
running  often  into  an  allegorical  style. 
The  Targum  of  the  Rabbi  Joseph  the  Blind 
is  upon  the  Hagiographa  \q.  v.).  He  has 
written  on  the  Psalms,  Job,  the  Prophets, 
the  Canticles,  Ecclesiastes,  Ruth,  and  Es¬ 
ther;  his  style  is  a  corrupt  Chaldee,  with 
a  mixture  of  words  from  foreign  languages, 
and  therefore  his  Targum  is  the  least 
esteemed.  The  Targum  Jerushalmi  seems 
to  be  merely  a  fragment  of  some  ancient 
paraphrase  now  lost;  even  the  Pentateuch 
is  not  complete.  The  only  Targum  on 
Daniel  is  a  Persian  version,  supposed  to 
belong  to  the  twelfth  century.  These 
Targums  were  first  printed  at  the  close  of 
the  fifteenth  century.  They  were  published 
in  Buxtorf’s  Hebrew  Bible  at  Basel  in  1610. 
— Benham:  Diet,  of  Religion.  See  Pick: 
art.  “Targum,”  in  McClintock  and  Strong’s 
Cyclopeedia,  vol.  x.,  pp.  202-217. 

Tar'shish.  The  best  authorities  agree  that 
Tarshish  must  have  been  near  the  mouth 
of  the  Guadalquiver.  Some  think  that  in 
course  of  time  the  knowledge  of  the  real 
Tarshish  was  lost  among  the  Hebrews, 
and  that  it  came  to  be  a  term  designating 
all  distant  countries  in  the  west  and  south. 

Tar'sus,  “  the  chief  town  of  Cilicia,  ‘  no 
mean  city  ’  in  other  respects,  but  illustri¬ 
ous  to  all  time  as  the  birthplace  and  early 
residence  of  the  Apostle  Paul.  (Acts  ix.  11; 
xxi.  39;  xxii.  3.)  Even  in  the  flourishing 
period  of  Greek  history,  it  was  a  city  of 
some  considerable  consequence.  After 
Alexander’s  conquests  had  swept  this  way, 
and  the  Seleucid  kingdom  was  established 
at  Antioch,  Tarsus  usually  belonged  to 
that  kingdom,  though  for  a  time  it  was  un¬ 
der  the  Ptolemies.  In  the  civil  wars  of 
Rome  it  took  Caesar’s  side,  and  on  the  oc¬ 
casion  of  a  visit  from  him  had  its  name 
changed  to  Juliopolis.  Augustus  made  it 
a  1  free  city.’  It  was  renowned  as  a  place 
of  education  under  the  early  Roman  em¬ 
perors.  Strabo  compares  it  in  this  respect 
to  Athens  and  Alexandria.  Tarsus  also 
was  a  place  of  much  commerce.  It  was 
situated  in  a  wild  and  fertile  plain  on  the 
banks  of  the  Cydnus.  No  ruins  of  any 
importance  remain.” — Smith.  At  the  time 
of  the  council  of  Nice,  Tarsus  was  the  seat 
of  a  bishopric  and  during  the  period  of  the 
crusades  had  an  archiepiscopal  see.  The 
modern  town  is  called  Tersous.  In  the 
winter  it  sometimes  has  a  population  of 
30,000,  but  in  the  summer  it  is  reduced  to 
4,000  or  5,000  by  the  migration  of  the  peo¬ 


ple,  who  leave  the  country  on  account  of  the 
miasma  which  makes  it  very  unhealthy. 

Tar'tan  (2  Kings  xviii.  17;  Isa.  xx.  1), 
not  a  proper  name,  but  an  Assyrian  title, 
equivalent  to  that  of  commander-in-chief 
of  an  army. 

Tasmania,  an  island  one  hundred  and 
twenty  miles  south  of  Australia.  It  has  a 
delightful  climate,  and  is  a  popular  resort 
for  people  from  the  neighboring  colonies. 
The  population  is  not  far  from  one  hundred 
and  fifty  thousand,  composed  of  English, 
Irish  and  Scotch.  The  Episcopalians  are 
the  mostnurnerous  religious  body,  although 
all  the  different  denominations  are  well 
represented. 

Tate,  Nahum,  b.  in  Dublin,  1652;  d. 
Aug.  12,  1715,  at  Southwark,  London.  He 
was  educated  at  Trinity  College,  Dublin, 
went  to  London,  and  gained  considerable 
fame  as  a  poet,  receiving  the  appointment 
of  poet-laureate  in  1690.  He  is  best  known 
by  his  metrical  version  of  the  Psalms, 
which  he  prepared  in  conjunction  with 
Nicholas  Brady,  D.  D.,  chaplain  to  William 
and  Mary.  This  version  was  appended  to 
the  Prayer-Book,  and  came  into  general 
use,  taking  the  place  of  the  version  by 
Sternhold  and  Hopkins. 

Tatian,  a  Syrian  and  early  disciple  of 
Justin  Martyr.  His  great  learning  was 
first  used  in  the  service  of  Christianity, 
but  after  the  death  of  Justin  he  left  Rome 
and  returned  to  the  East,  where  he  opened 
a  school  in  Mesopotamia.  Here  he  became 
connected  with  the  Gnostics,  and  was  the 
leader  of  the  Encratites.  He  wrote  an 
apology  for  Christianity,  entitled  an  Ad¬ 
dress  to  the  Greeks ,  which  is  usually  printed 
with  Justin’s  works. 

Tauler  (tow'ler),  John,  a  prominent  rep¬ 
resentative  of  German  mysticism,  and  a 
great  preacher;  b.  at  Strassburg,  about 
1290;  d.  there,  June  16,  1361.  Very  little 
is  known  of  his  life.  After  studying  the¬ 
ology  at  Paris,  and  entering  the  Dominican 
order,  he  returned  to  his  native  city,  where 
he  preached  with  great  eloquence  and 
power.  The  first  collected  edition  of  his 
sermons  was  printed  at  Leipzig  in  1498, 
Eng.  trans.  by  Miss  Winkworth  (London, 

1857) ,  edited  bv  Dr.  Hitchcock  (New  York, 

1858) . 

Taverner,  Richard,  b.  at  Brisley,  Nor¬ 
folk,  1505;  d.  July  14,  1575.  He  was 
graduated  at  Oxford;  studied  law;  clerk  of 
the  signet  under  Cromwell;  licensed  to 
preach  by  Edward  VI.,  1552;  appointed 


Tay 


(898) 


Tay 


high  sheriff  of  Oxfordshire,  1569.  His 
fame  rests  upon  his  translation  of  the 
Bible,  commonly  called  Taverner  s  Bibte 
(London,  1539).  It  was  a  revision  of  Mat¬ 
thew’s  Bible. 

Taylor,  Dan.,  founder  of  New  Connec¬ 
tion  of  General  Baptists;  b.  at  North- 
owram,  Halifax,  York,  England,  Dec.  21, 
1738;  d.  in  London,  Dec.  2,  1816.  The 
son  of  a  miner,  he  early  showed  marked 
intellectual  gifts.  After  his  conversion  he 
first  joined  the  Wesleyans,  and  became  a 
“  local  preacher.”  After  acting  as  pastor 
for  a  time  of  a  small  congregation  made  up 
of  those  who,  like  himself,  had  withdra/wn 
from  the  Methodists,  he  accepted  Baptist 
views.  Finding  that  there  was  a  Unitarian 
drift  in  the  belief  of  some  of  those  who  be¬ 
longed  to  the  General  Baptists,  he,  togeth¬ 
er  with  the  Barton  Independent  Baptists, 
formed,  in  June,  1770,  the  New  Connection 
of  General  Baptists.  He  was  pastor  of 
Birchcliffe,  1763-83  ;  Halifax,  1683-85  ; 
Church  Street,  Whitechapel,  London,  1785- 
1S16.  He  wrote  much,  and  was  the  leading 
spirit  in  the  affairs  of  his  denomination. 
He  was  the  founder  of  its  college  (1797), 
and  editor  of  its  magazine.  Among  his 
published  works  are:  Fundamentals  of  Re¬ 
ligion  in  Faith  and  Practice  ;  Dissertations 
on  Singing  in  Public  Worship ;  Letters  on 
Andrew  Fuller  s  Schetne.  See  Underwood: 
Life  of  Rev.  Dan.  Tavlor  (1870). 

Taylor,  Isaac,  b.  at  Lavenham,  Suffolk, 
Aug.  1787;  d.  at  Stanford  Rivers,  Essex, 
June  28,  1865.  He  is  the  author  of  several 
works  that  still  retain  a  place  in  literature. 
Among  them  are:  The  Nattiral  History  of 
Enthusiasm;  The  Natural  History  of  Fanat¬ 
icism;  The  Physical  Theory  of  Another  Life; 
The  Restoration  of  Belief  ;  Spirit  of  Hebrew 
Poetry ,  and  Considerations  on  the  Penta¬ 
teuch. 

Taylor,  Jeremy,  “  b.  at  Cambridge,  Aug. 
15,  1613;  d.  at  Lisburn,  in  the  county  of 
Down,  Aug.  13,  1667;  an  eminent  divine, 
from  1660  to  his  death  bishop  of  Down  and 
Connor,  and  of  Dromore  in  Ireland.  He 
was  the  son  of  a  Cambridge  barber,  and 
entered  Caius  College  as  a  sizar.  His  elo¬ 
quence  as  a  preacher  procured  for  him  the 
patronage  of  Archbishop  Laud,  whose 
chaplain  he  became,  and  afterward  he  was 
appointed  chaplain  to  the  king  (Charles  I.). 
In  1638  he  was  instituted  to  the  rectory  of 
Uppingham,  in  Rutlandshire,  where  he 
resided  for  some  years,  and  where,  at  the 
command  of  the  king, he  wrote  his  Defence  of 
Episcopacy;  but  the  breaking  out  of  the  civil 
wars  caused  him  many  vicissitudes  of  for¬ 
tune,  and  ultimately  he  retired  into  Wales, 


where  he  attempted  to  gain  a  subsistence 
as  a  schoolmaster.  After  a  while  he  was 
interdicted  from  teaching,  and  he  seems  to 
have  been  more  than  once  imprisoned;  but 
his  sufferings  for  conscience’  sake  had  at 
least  the  effect  of  giving  him  some  idea  of 
those  principles  of  toleration  which  he 
probably  would  not  have  learned  in  more 
favorable  circumstances  (and  certainly  not 
at  the  feet  of  Archbishop  Laud),  and  in 
1647  he  published  his  great  work:  A  Dis¬ 
course  of  the  Liberty  of  Prophesying  ( i.  e. ,  of 
preaching),  showing  the  Unreasonabletiess  of 
Prescribing  to  Other  Aden's  Faith ,  and  the 
Iniquity  of  Persecuting  Different  Opinions. 
Three  years  afterward  he  published  The 
Rule  and  Exercises  of  Holy  Living,  and  a 
year  later  The  Rule  and  Exercises  of  Holy 
Dying.  About  this  time  he  married  (as  a 
second  wife)  a  natural  daughter  of  Charles 
I.,  who  owned  an  estate  in  Carmarthen¬ 
shire;  and  he  also  became  chaplain  to  the 
Earl  of  Carbery,  the  serious  and  ultimately 
fatal  illness  of  whose  Countess  led  to  the 
preparation  and  publication  of  the  work 
last  mentioned.  In  1653  he  published  The 
Great  Exemplar;  or,  The  Life  and  Death  of 
the  Holy  Jesus,  a  work  that  became  deserv¬ 
edly  popular;  and  in  1657  he  became  the 
minister  of  a  small  number  of  Episcopa¬ 
lians  who  met  for  worship  in  London.  His 
career  in  the  metropolis  was  not,  however, 
unattended  with  difficulty;  for  in  1658  we 
find  him  a  prisoner  in  the  Tower,  to  which 
he  had  been  committed  in  consequence  of 
his  bookseller  having  prefixed  to  a  Collec¬ 
tion  of  Offices  which  he  published  a  print 
of  Christ  in  an  attitude  of  prayer,  a  mode 
of  representation  which  had  then  recently 
been  declared  illegal.  His  friend,  John 
Evelyn,  procured  his  release  from  this  im¬ 
prisonment;  and  in  the  following  year  he 
emigrated  to  the  north  of  Ireland,  where, 
on  the  restoration  of  Charles  II.,  he  was 
appointed  to  the  bishopric,  first  of  Down 
and  Connor,  and  shortly  afterward  of  Dro¬ 
more  also,  which  he  held  till  his  death. 
He  was  buried  in  the  choir  of  the  Cathe¬ 
dral  of  Dromore.  His  Works  (which  are 
chiefly  remarkable  for  their  learning,  and 
for  the  gorgeousness  of  their  eloquence) 
were  first  published  in  a  collected  form  by 
Reginald  (afterwards  bishop)  Heber,  in 
1822,  with  a  copious  life  of  the  author.” — 
Cassell:  Cyclopaedia. 

Taylor,  Nathaniel  William,  D.  D.,  a 
distinguished  Congregational  preacher  and 
theologian;  b.  at  New  Milford,  Conn., 
June  23,  1786;  d.  at  New  Haven,  March 
10,  1858.  After  his  graduation  from  Yale 
College  in  1S07,  he  studied  theology  with 
President  Dwight,  and  became  pastor  of 
the  First  Church  in  New  Haven  in  1S11. 


Tay 


(  899  ) 


Tea 


In  1822  he  was  elected  professor  of  dog¬ 
matic  theology  in  the  theological  depart¬ 
ment  of  Yale  College,  in  which  office  he 
continued  until  his  death.  He  was  an  able 
and  eloquent  preacher,  and  the  author  and 
defender  of  an  elaborate  system  of  theol¬ 
ogy,  that  was  popularly  termed  “The  New 
Haven  Theology.”  It  was  one  of  the  most 
influential  of  the  types  of  the  so-called 
“  New  School  Divinity.” 

“  Among  the  points  of  doctrine  upon 
which  he  insisted  are  the  following:  (1) 
The  elective  preference,  in  which  charac¬ 
ter,  good  or  evil,  consists,  though  begin¬ 
ning  in  an  act  of  choice,  is  a  permanent 
voluntary  state,  ‘  a  ruling  purpose.’  (2) 
Natural  ability  involves  a  continued  ‘power 
of  contrary  choice.’  There  is  previous 
‘  certainty,  with  power  to  the  contrary,’  in 
regard  to  moral  choices.  (3)  *  Nature,’  in 
the  phrase,  ‘  we  are  sinful  by  nature,’  in¬ 
cludes  both  the  subjective  native  condition 
and  the  outward  circumstances  of  human 
life,  which,  as  joint  factors,  give  the  cer¬ 
tainty,  but  not  the  necessity,  of  sin  from 
the  beginning  of  moral  agency.  (4)  Regen¬ 
eration  is  the  change  of  the  predominant 
elective  preference  from  love  *  to  the 
world  ’  to  love  to  God.  It  is  effected  by 
influences  of  the  Holy  Spirit,  which  give 
the  certainty,  but  not  the  necessity  of  the 
effect.  (5)  The  involuntary  desire  to  hap¬ 
piness,  or  ‘  self-love,’  is  the  subjective  an¬ 
tecedent  of  all  choices,  whether  good  or 
evil.  The  excellence  of  virtue  is  its  ten¬ 
dency  to  produce  the  greatest  happiness  of 
the  universe.  (6)  Election  is  founded  in 
benevolence,  which,  guided  by  wisdom,  so 
dispenses  grace  as  to  insure  the  best  re¬ 
sults.  (7)  Sin  is  not  the  ‘  necessary  means 
of  the  greatest  good,’  since  it  is  avoidable 
by  the  creature,  and  is  not  so  good  as  holi¬ 
ness  in  its  stead,  but  may  not  be  prevent¬ 
ive  by  the  act  of  God  in  the  best  system.” 
— George  P.  Fisher ,  D.  D.  Several  vol¬ 
umes  of  Dr.  Taylor’s  writings  have  been 
published  since  his  death:  Practical  Ser¬ 
mons  (N.  Y. ,  1858);  Lectures  on  Moral  Gov- 
ernment  (1859),  2  vols. ;  Essays ,  Lectures, 
etc.,  on  Select  Topics  of  Revealed  Theology 

(i859)- 

Taylor,  William,  D.  D.  (Mount  Union 
College,  O.),  bishop  of  the  Methodist  Epis¬ 
copal  Church;  b.  at  Rockbridge  County, 
Va. ,  May  2,  1821.  In  the  itinerant  ministry , 
1842-49;  missionary  in  California,  1849-56; 
engaged  in  evangelistic  work  in  the  Eastern 
States  and  Canada  until  1862,  when  he 
visited  Australia  and  thence  went  to  Africa 
and  India.  At  Bombay  he  founded,  in 
1872,  an  independent,  self-supporting  mis¬ 
sion,  from  which  originated  the  South  India 
Conference.  In  1878  he  visited  Chili  and 


Peru  Elected  bishop  in  1884,  having 
charge  of  missionary  work  on  the  west 
coast  of  Africa.  He  is  the  author  of:  Seven 
Years'  Street  Preaching  in  San  Francisco 
(N.  Y.,  1856);  California  Life  Illustrated 
(1858);  The  RIodel  Preacher  (i860);  Four 
Years'  Campaign  in  India  (1878);  Ten  Years 
of  Self-Supporting  Missions  in  India  (1882); 
Pauline  Methods  of  Missionary  Work. 

Taylor,  William  Mackergo,  D.  D. 
(Yale  University,  New  Haven,  Conn.,  and 
Amherst  College,  Mass.,  both  in  1872), 
LL.  D.  (College  of  New  Jersey,  Princeton, 
1883),  Congregationalist;  b.  at  Kilmarnock, 
Scotland,  Oct.  23,  1829;  was  graduated  at 
the  University  of  Glasgow,  1849,  anc^  at  the 
United  Presbyterian  Theological  Seminary, 
Edinburgh,  1852;  became  pastor  (United 
Presbyterian)  at  Kilmaurs,  Scotland,  1853; 
of  Derby-road  Church,  Liverpool,  Eng., 
1855;  and  of  the  Broadway  Tabernacle 
Church  (Congregationalist),  New  York  City, 
1872.  Among  his  published  works  are:  Life 
Truths  (sermons)  (Liverpool,  1862);  Pray¬ 
er  and  Business  (N.  Y .,  1873);  David,  King 
of  Israel  (1875);  Elijah,  the  Prophet  (1876); 
The  Ministry  of  the  Word  (Lyman  Beecher 
Lectures  in  Yale  Seminary)  (1876);  Songs 
in  the  Night  (1877);  Peter  the  Apostle  (1877); 
The  Gospel  Miracles  in  their  Relation  to  Christ 
and  Christianity  (Princeton  Lectures,  1880); 
Paul,  the  Missionary  (1882);  Jesus  at  the 
Well  (1884);  John  Knox:  A  Biography 
(1885);  Joseph,  the  Prime  Minister  (1886). 

“  Teaching  of  the  Twelve  Apostles  ;  or, 
The  Teaching  of  the  Lord  by  the  Twelve 
Apostles  to  the  Gentiles  ” — for  the  work 
has  a  double  title — is  the  name  of  part 
of  a  Greek  MS.,  containing,  also,  other 
Christian  writings,  discovered  in  the  year 
1877  by  Philotheus  Bryennios,  Metropoli¬ 
tan  of  Nicomedia,  in  the  Library  of  the  Most 
Holy  Sepulchre,  belonging  to  the  patriarch¬ 
ate  of  Jerusalem.  This  volume  is  dated 
1056.  Bryennios  edited  and  published  the 
Teaching  of  the  'Twelve  Apostles  in  1883. 

It  has  been  supposed,  with  much  prob¬ 
ability,  that  the  writer  or  compiler  of  this 
work — who  is  quite  unknown  —  lived  in 
Egypt,  and  from  internal  evidence  a  date 
must  be  assigned  to  the  original,  of  which 
this  MS.  is  a  copy,  not  later  than  the  first 
quarter  of  the  second  century  (80-110  A.D.). 
It  may  thus  possibly  be  the  oldest  Chris¬ 
tian  writing  after  the  books  of  the  New 
Testament  —  perhaps  even  earlier  than 
some  of  them.  The  subject-matter  of  this 
short  treatise  is  the  simplest  of  practical 
teaching,  such  as  may  well  have  been  cur¬ 
rent  in  similar  forms;  and  being  taught 
orally  and  then  committed  to  memory  by 
those  who  had  to  teach  others,  was  written 


Ted  (  900  )  Ten 


down  by  some  teacher  in  the  form  which 
we  have  in  the  Teaching.  The  work  con¬ 
tains  moral  precepts,  some  rules  as  to 
prayer,  fasting,  baptism,  and  the  Eucha¬ 
rist,  and  the  teachers  of  the  Church,  and 
ends  with  a  solemn  reference  to  the  coming 
of  the  Lord  and  the  resurrection. 

There  is  no  sign  of  any  canon  of  the  New 
Testament;  only  the  “  Gospel  ”  or  the 
“  Commandment  of  the  Lord  ”  is  referred 
to,  most  often  according  to  St.  Matthew, 
sometimes  St.  Luke,  seldom  quite  word  for 
word;  sometimes  there  is  a  text  agreeing 
with  neither.  There  are  no  clear  references 
to  the  writings  of  St.  Paul,  nor  any  signs 
of  the  influence  of  some  special  points  of 
his  teaching.  The  mention  of  the  Twelve 
Apostles  in  the  second  title  points  to  a 
time  when,  as  in  the  body  of  the  writing, 
the  title  Apostle  was  not  confined  to  those 
subsequently  called  “  the  Twelve.” 

One  of  the  precepts  for  Sunday  will  give 
an  idea  of  the  style  of  the  Teaching:  “  And 
on  the  Day  of  the  Lord  come  together  and 
break  bread,  and  give  thanks  after  confess¬ 
ing  your  transgressions, that  your  sacrifice 
may  be  pure.” — Benham:  Diet,  of  Relig¬ 
ion.  For  full  literature  on  the  subject,  see 
Schaff:  The  Oldest  Church  Manual ,  called 
the  Teaching  of  the  Twelve  Apostles  (New 
York,  1885;  2d  ed.,  1886). 

Te  Deum  ( Te  Deum  Laudamus).  This 
celebrated  hymn  is  a  translation  in  part, 
probably  by  Ambrose,  of  an  older  Greek 
hymn. 

Teleology  (from  the  Gr.  telos,  an  end),  is 
the  doctrine  of  ends,  or  the  reasoning  con¬ 
cerning  the  divine  purpose  of  all  the 
created  universe,  and  is  applied  to  the  ar¬ 
gument  from  design  in  proof  of  the  exist¬ 
ence  of  God.  Aristotle  was  the  first  to 
bring  the  word  into  philosophical  discus¬ 
sion. 

Temple  “was  the  name  given  to  the 
whole  sacred  precincts  of  Mount  Moriah, 
including  the  ‘  fane  ’  erected  by  Solomon 
on  the  summit,  the  various  ‘courts’  of  Is¬ 
raelites  and  women,  each  on  their  separate 
platforms  below  it,  and  the  great  area, 

‘  court  of  the  Gentiles,’  at  the  foot  of  this 
pyramid  of  ‘  courts  ’  and  steps.  The  ‘  fane  ’ 
was  a  permanent  copy  of  the  temporary 
tabernacle,  so  far  as  its  ground-plan  was 
concerned,  having  its  ‘Holy  of  Holies’ 
(through  whose  floor  projected  for  a  few 
inches  the  time-honored  apex  of  Mount 
Moriah),  its  ‘  Holy  Place,’  in  which,  how¬ 
ever,  there  were  ten  tables  of  shewbread 
and  ten  golden  candlesticks  (five  of  each  on 
each  side),  and  the  great  brazen  ‘  laver  ’ 
standing  on  twelve  brazen  oxen,  with  their 


faces  outwards.  It  occupied  only  one-third 
of  the  uppermost  platform,  the  rest  being 
the  ‘court  of  burnt-offering,’  in  which  was 
the  great  altar.  Below  the  first  series  of 
steps  (extending  round  three  sides)  was 
the  ‘  court  of  Israel;’  below  the  next  flight, 
the  ‘  court  of  women;’  and  at  the  base  of 
the  succeeding  flight  of  steps  was  a  trel- 
lised  fence,  on  which  were  ‘notices’  in 
various  languages,  warning  none  but  the 
circumcised  to  pass  within  the  sacred  en¬ 
closures.  Then  came  the  great  area, 

‘  court  of  the  Gentiles,’  extending  600  feet 
each  way,  but  nearly  doubled  in  its  extent 
by  Herod  the  Great.  This  area  was  reach¬ 
ed  by  a  succession  of  terraces  or  steps,  cut 
in  the  face  of  the  mountain  on  its  eastern 
and  southern  sides.”  —  “Oxford”  Bible 
Helps.  Cyrus  permitted  the  Jews  to  return 
to  their  country  in  the  year  536  b.  c.  ,  and 
rebuild  the  temple.  This  was  completed 
516  b.  c.  Herod  began  the  building  of  a 
new  temple,  20  or  21  B.  c. ,  which  was  de¬ 
stroyed  by  the  Romans  in  the  year  70.  See 
Jerusalem,  pp.  471-72. 

Templars.  See  Military  Orders. 

Temporal  Power.  See  Church  and 
State. 

Ten  Commandments,  The,  the  usual 
title  of  the  writings  contained  on  the  two 
tables  of  stone  given  on  Mount  Sinai. 
“  The  number  ten  symbolizes  the  compre¬ 
hensiveness  and  completeness  of  this  moral 
law.  The  first  table,  with  five  command¬ 
ments,  enjoins  the  duties  to  God;  the  sec¬ 
ond,  with  five  commandments,  the  duties 
to  our  neighbor.  All  these  duties  are 
comprehended  and  summed  up  in  this: 
Thou  shalt  love  God  supremely,  and  thy 
neighbor  as  thyself.  Love  is  the  fulfill¬ 
ment  of  the  whole  law.  (Matt.  xxii.  37,  38; 
Rom.  xiii.  9;  Gal.  v.  14;  James  ii.  8.)” — 
Schaff:  Bible  Diet. 

Tennent,  Gilbert,  b.  in  County  Armagh, 
Ireland,  April  5,  1703;  d.  in  Philadelphia, 
July  23,  1764;  he  was  the  son  of  William 
Tennent,  who  came  to  Pennsylvania  from 
Ireland  in  1718,  and  after  a  time  opened  an 
institution  of  learning  known  as  “  Log  Col¬ 
lege,”  in  which  three  of  his  sons  and  other 
youth,  who  became  distinguished  in  the 
Presbyterian  Church,  were  educated. 
After  acting  as  a  tutor  in  “  Log  College  ” 
for  a  year,  he  was  ordained  pastor  in  New 
Brunswick,  in  1727.  He  was  a  great  ad¬ 
mirer  of  Whitefield,  and  in  connection  with 
his  pastoral  duties  he  made  many  evangelis¬ 
tic  tours  which  were  attended  with  remark¬ 
able  success.  He  founded  and  became  pas¬ 
tor  of  the  Second  Presbyterian  Church  in 


Ten 


(  901  ) 


Ter 


Philadelphia,  in  *743,  with  which  he  re¬ 
mained  connected  until  his  death.  He  vis¬ 
ited  Great  Britain  in  1753,  and  raised  some 
fifteen  hundred  pounds  for  the  College  of 
New  Jersey.  In  his  later  years  he  did 
much  to  heal  the  division  that  had  distract¬ 
ed  the  Presbyterian  Church  in  connection 
with  the  earlier  evangelistic  labors  of 
Whitefield,  himself,  and  others.  He  pub¬ 
lished  a  volume  of  sermons,  also  various 
pamphlets. 

Tennent,  William,  D.  D.,  brother  of 
Gilbert;  b.  in  County  Armagh,  Ireland, 
June  3,  1705;  d.  at  Freehold,  N.  J.,  March 
8,  1777.  He  studied  under  his  father  in 
Log  College,  and  theology  with  his  brother 
Gilbert  at  New  Brunswick;  ordained  pastor 
of  the  Presbyterian  Church  at  Freehold,  in 
1733,  where  he  remained  until  his  death. 
While  preparing  for  examination  for  li¬ 
censure  he  fell  ill.  His  friends  thought  he 
was  dead,  and  only  the  protest  of  his  phy¬ 
sician,  who  noticed  a  slight  tremor  under 
the  left  arm,  saved  him  from  burial.  He 
lay  in  this  condition  for  three  days,  when 
vitality  became  perceptible.  It  was  a  year 
before  he  regained  his  health,  and  for  a 
long  time  his  memory  and  past  knowledge 
seemed  entirely  lost.  After  awhile  he  felt 
a  sudden  shock  in  his  head,  and  gradually 
recovered  his  memory.  He  then  recall¬ 
ed  the  circumstances  connected  with  the 
three  days  in  which  he  lay  in  a  trance. 
During  the  time  he  was,  as  he  believed,  in 
heaven  and  heard  “  unutterable  things.” 
“  For  three  years,”  after  the  recovery  of 
his  health,  he  said,  “  the  sense  of  divine 
things  continued  so  great,  and  everything 
appeared  so  completely  vain,  when  com¬ 
pared  with  heaven,  that  could  I  have  had 
all  the  world  for  stooping  down  for  it,  I 
believe  I  should  not  have  thought  of  doing 
it.”  Mr.  Tennent  was  in  many  respects  a 
remarkable  man,  and  his  labors  as  a 
pastor  and  preacher  were  abundantly  pros¬ 
pered.  See  Sprague:  Annals ,  vol.  iii. ; 
Gillett:  History  Presbyterian  Church,  vol.  i. 

Ter'aphim,  a  word  designating  small 
statues  or  images  which  were  thought  to 
possess  certain  magical  virtue.  They 
were  objects  of  worship  and  consulted  as 
oracles.  (Ezek.  xxi.  26;  Zech.  x.  2.)  The 
Israelites  derived  their  use  from  the  Ara¬ 
maeans.  They  were  set  up  in  houses  as 
household  gods,  or  worn  as  personal 
charms.  On  every  revival  of  true  piety  in 
Israel  the  teraphim  were  discarded  with 
other  idols.  (2  Kings  xxiii.  24.) 

Tenths.  See  Tithes. 

Terminism,  a  doctrine  which  occasioned 


a  controversy  at  Leipzig  in  the  seventeenth 
century,  the  chief  movers  in  which  were 
Reichenberg,  who  upheld  the  doctrine,  and 
Ittig,  who  denied  it.  It  is  the  belief  that 
there  is  a  terminus  in  each  man’s  life, 
which  only  occurs  once,  after  which  he  is 
no  longer  capable  of  receiving  grace  or  par¬ 
don  for  his  sins. 

Terry,  Milton  Spenser,  S.  T.  D.  (Wes¬ 
leyan  University,  Middletown,  Conn., 
1879),  Methodist;  b.  at  Coeymans,  N.  Y., 
Feb.  22,  1840;  was  graduated  at  Yale  The¬ 
ological  Seminary,  1862;  was  pastor,  1863— 
84;  and  since  professor  of  Old  Testament 
exegesis  in  Garrett  Biblical  Institution, 
Evanston,  Ill.  He  is  the  author  of  a  com¬ 
mentary  on  Joshua  to  Samuel  (1873);  and 
on  Kings  to  Esther  (1875);  Biblical  Herme¬ 
neutics  (1883). 

Tersteegen,  Gerhard,  a  well-known 
German  hymn-writer  and  pietist;  b.  at 
Meurs,  in  Rhenish  Prussia,  Nov.  25,  1697; 
d.  at  Mtilheim,  in  Westphalia,  April  3, 
1769.  He  was  apprenticed  to  a  merchant 
in  Mtilheim,  but  at  the  age  of  sixteen  re¬ 
ceived  religious  impressions  that  awakened 
so  strong  a  desire  for  private  meditation 
that  he  learned  the  trade  of  a  ribbon-maker. 
In  time  he  began  to  preach  and  write,  al¬ 
though,  through  his  entire  life,  he  suffered 
from  pain  and  illness.  His  evangelistic 
labors  were  attended  with  great  success, 
and  he  translated  the  works  of  Madame 
Guyon  and  other  French  mystics,  and  pub¬ 
lished  several  original  works.  He  wrote 
many  hymns,  some  of  which  were  trans¬ 
lated  by  Wesley.  See  his  Life ,  by  Kerlin 
(1853)  and  Stursberg  (1869). 

Tertiaries,  a  name  given  to  those  who 
observed  the  third  rule  of  St.  Francis. 
They  led  a  religious  life,  according  to  def¬ 
inite  regulations,  but  were  not  obliged  to 
live  in  monasteries.  They  represented  in 
the  world  the  interests  of  the  order  with 
which  they  were  connected.  In  this  way 
the  Emperor  Charles  IV.,  King  Louis  IX. 
of  France,  Queen  Blanche  of  Castile,  and 
others  were  members  of  the  Franciscan 
Order. 

Tertullian  (ter-tul'-i-an),  Quintus  Sep- 
timius  Florens,  was  the  first  of  the  eccle¬ 
siastical  writers  who  wrote  in  Latin,  and  is 
therefore  called  by  Milman  “  the  father  of 
Latin  Christianity.”  He  lived  at  the  end 
of  the  second  and  the  beginning  of  the 
third  centuries,  under  the  Emperors  Seve- 
rus  and  Caracalla.  The  son  of  a  centurion, 
he  was  born  at  Carthage,  and  brought  up 
in  the  religion  of  his  heathen  parents,  but 
was  afterwards  converted  to  Christianity, 


Tes 


(  902  ) 


Tha 


and  became  a  priest  at  Carthage  or  Rome. 
It  is  known  that  he  was  married,  from  the 
fact  that  he  addressed  certain  books  to  his 
wife;  and  it  is  hence  inferred  that  the  cel¬ 
ibacy  of  the  clergy  was  not  yet  customary. 
In  middle  age  he  joined  the  sect  of  Mon- 
tanus,  the  asceticism  and  rigorous  disci¬ 
pline  of  the  Montanists  being  probably 
peculiarly  attractive  to  a  man  of  his  aus¬ 
tere  character  and  vehement  temper.  Of 
his  after-life  nothing  certain  is  known,  but 
it  is  said  that  he  lived  to  a  venerable  age. 

Tertullian  was  a  voluminous  author. 
His  style  is  harsh,  but  vigorous  and  pow¬ 
erful.  He  seems  to  have  been  educated 
for  the  law  (though  he  is  not  to  be  con¬ 
founded  with  a  namesake  who  was  a  juris¬ 
consult  about  this  time),  and  the  effect  of 
his  training  is  apparent  in  his  works.  He 
treats  Christianity,  it  has  been  said,  as  a 
client  for  whose  defence  he  is  retained,  and 
does  not  scruple  to  make  use  of  any  argu¬ 
ment.  Some  of  his  chief  works  are: 

(1)  His  Apology ,  addressed  to  the  gov¬ 
ernors  of  Proconsular  Africa,  under  Seve- 
rus.  It  contains  a  complaint  that  the  mere 
name  of  Christian  was  made  a  test  by 
judges;  that  Christians  were  not  allowed 
to  state  their  opinions;  that  they  were  fre¬ 
quently  confounded  with  the  Jews;  and 
that  ignorance  and  prejudice  were  the 
cause  of  the  feeling  against  them.  It  also 
shows  that  Christians  could  not  be  sus¬ 
pected  of  disaffection,  as  they  never  at¬ 
tempted  to  avenge  their  wrongs,  but  offer¬ 
ed  supplications  for  the  emperors,  and 
readily  paid  their  taxes. 

(2)  On  the  Prescription  of  Heretics. — Pre¬ 
scription  is  a  legal  term,  signifying  the 
exception  taken  by  a  man  when  an  attempt 
was  made  to  dispossess  him  of  his  proper¬ 
ty,  that  the  case  should  not  be  heard,  on 
the  ground  that  he  has  been  in  undisturbed 
possession  for  a  number  of  years.  Tertul- 
lian’s  book  is  an  application  of  this  princi¬ 
ple,  maintaining  that  it  is  unnecessary  to 
argue  with  heretics  on  the  merits  of  the 
case,  for  they  are  excluded  from  a  hearing 
on  account  of  their  novelty. 

(3)  Five  books  against  the  heresy  of  Mar  cion. 

(4)  On  Baptism ,  showing  the  necessity 
of  the  sacrament,  and  refuting  the  opinion 
that  faith  alone  is  sufficient  for  salvation. 

Tertullian  also  wrote  on  Penitence,  on 
Patience,  on  Martyrdom,  on  the  Soul;  be¬ 
sides  books  against  Praxeas  and  Valentinus, 
and  numerous  other  works.  The  work  on 
the  Trinity,  sometimes  ascribed  to  him,  is 
not  now  considered  genuine. — Benham: 
Diet,  of  Religion. 

Test  and  Corporation  Acts,  “  the  name 
given  to  certain  acts  which  were  passed  in 
the  reign  of  Charles  II. ,  by  which  all  mem¬ 


bers  of  corporations,  and  afterward  all 
holders  of  other  public  offices,  were  compell¬ 
ed  (in  addition  to  taking  the  oaths  of  alle¬ 
giance  and  supremacy,  etc.)  to  declare  their 
adhesion  to  the  Church  of  England  by  re¬ 
ceiving  the  Communion  of  the  Lord’s  Sup¬ 
per  in  connection  with  that  Church  at  least 
once  every  year.  These  acts  were  to  a 
large  extent  evaded,  an  act  of  Indemnity 
being  passed  every  year  in  favor  of  those 
who  from  conscientious  motives  had  failed 
to  comply  with  the  terms  of  the  Acts. 
They  were  repealed  in  1828.  —  Cassell  : 
Cyclopcedia. 

Te'trarch,  properly  the  sovereign  or 
governor  of  the  fourth  part  of  a  country. 
(Matt.  xiv.  1.)  In  the  Scriptures  the  name 
is  applied  to  any  one  who  governed  a 
province  of  the  Roman  empire.  The  te- 
trarch  had  the  title  of  king.  (Matt.  xiv.  9.) 

Tetzel  (tet’ sel),  John,  b.  at  Leipzig  be¬ 
tween  1450  and  1460;  d.  there  in  July,  1519. 
He  entered  the  Dominican  order  in  1489, 
and  in  1502  was  commissioned  by  the  pope 
to  preach  the  jubilee  indulgence.  His  life 
was  shamefully  corrupt,  and  he  carried  on 
the  business  of  selling  indulgences  with 
such  impudence  that  he  offered  absolution 
for  every  sort  of  crime,  not  excepting  mur¬ 
der,  adultery,  and  perjury.  Luther  preach¬ 
ed  openly  against  him,  and  when  the  great 
reformer  nailed  his  theses  on  the  church- 
door  in  Wittenberg,  Tetzel  attempted  to 
answer  them.  His  answers  were  burned 
in  derision  by  the  students  in  the  market¬ 
place,  and  the  authorities  at  Rome  soon 
found  it  politic  to  disavow  the  notorious 
vender  of  indulgences.  Tetzel  retired  to  a 
Dominican  convent  in  Leipzig,  where  he 
died,  shortly  after,  of  the  plague. 

Textus  Receptus.  See  Bible,  p.  no. 

Thacher,  Peter.  D.  D. ,  Congregational¬ 
ism  b.  at  Milton,  Mass.,  March  21,  1752;  d. 
in  Savannah,  Ga. ,  Dec.  16,  1S02;  was  grad¬ 
uated  at  Harvard,  1769;  ordained  minister 
at  Malden,  Mass.,  1770;  from  1785  till  his 
death,  pastor  of  the  Brattle  Street  Church 
in  Boston.  He  was  a  member  of  the  Pro¬ 
vincial  Congress,  a  delegate  to  the  State 
Constitutional  Convention  of  1780,  and 
served  frequently  as  chaplain  of  the  State 
Legislature.  He  was  a  man  of  eloquent 
utterance,  and  was  called  “  the  silver- 
tongued  Thacher.”  He  was  connected 
with  many  literary  and  charitable  institu¬ 
tions,  and  published  many  works,  among 
them:  Observations  upon  the  Present  State  of 
the  Clergy  of  New  England ,  with  Strictures 
upon  the  Power  of  Dismissing  Them,  Usurp¬ 
ed  by  Some  Churches  (Boston,  1783). 


Tha 


(  903  ) 


The 


Thaddae'us.  See  Judas. 

Theatines,  a  religious  order  of  regular 
priests,  founded  in  1524  by  Cajetan  of 
Thiene,  bishop  of  Chieti,  afterward  Pope 
Paul  IV.  The  members  owned  no  property, 
and  devoted  themselves  to  the  care  of  the 
sick  and  criminals,  and  preaching  against 
heretics.  The  order  flourished  in  Italy,  es¬ 
pecially  at  Naples,  and  spread  into  Ger¬ 
many,  Spain  and  Poland,  but  not  to  a  great 
extent. 

Theism.  Theists  are  those  who  believe 
in  the  existence  of  God,  as  distinguished 
from  atheists,  but  the  name  includes  va¬ 
rious  degrees  and  phases  of  that  belief. 
Theism  is  really  the  same  as  deism  (the 
former  coming  from  the  Greek,  the  latter 
from  the  Latin,  word  for  God),  and  was 
first  used  by  some  writers  in  the  seven¬ 
teenth  century  instead  of  it.  Deism — the 
chief  form  of  anti-Christian  thought  in  the 
last  century — was  a  theory  which  implied 
the  existence  of  a  Personal  God  as  a  con¬ 
clusion  of  the  natural  reason,  but  denied 
the  need  for,  and  the  possibility  of,  any 
revelation  besides  the  work  of  Nature. 
God  had  made  the  world  once  for  all,  and 
interfered  no  further  in  its  concerns.  This 
name  fell  into  discredit,  and  similar  opin¬ 
ions  are  now  held  under  the  term  theism. 
But  as  infidelity  has,  in  the  present  day, 
become  more  open  in  its  opposition  to  God, 
theists  have  come  to  be  ranged  on  the 
side  of  Belief,  and  the  term  now  includes 
not  only  those  holding  the  old  deistic  opin¬ 
ions,  but  all  who  believe  in  a  Personal  God 
who  is  possessed  of  power,  wisdom,  and 
goodness;  all,  in  short,  who  confess  the 
God  of  Abraham.  Indeed,  Jews,  Chris¬ 
tians  and  Mohammedans — as  against  athe¬ 
ists  of  all  kinds,  as  well  materialists  as 
pantheists — are  properly  called  theists. — 
Benham:  Did.  of  Religion.  See  Deists; 
God. 

Theoc'racy  ( the  rule  of  God)  is  a  word 
used  to  designate  that  constitution  of  a 
state  in  which  the  Almighty  is  regarded  as 
the  sole  sovereign.  It  was  first  applied  by 
Josephus  to  the  peculiar  state  organiza¬ 
tion  of  the  Jews. 

Theod'icy  denotes  a  vindication  of  the 
Deity,  in  respect  to  the  government  and 
organization  of  the  world. 

Theodore  of  Mopsuestia,  “  a  well-known 
writer  of  the  Syrian  Church,  and  especial¬ 
ly  notable  in  connection  with  the  contro¬ 
versy  of  ‘  The  Three  Chapters,’  was  born 
of  a  wealthy  and  distinguished  family  at 
Antioch,  in  the  first  half  of  the  fourth  cen¬ 


tury.  He  was  the  school-fellow  and  friend 
of  St.  John  Chrysostom,  and  his  fellow- 
pupil  under  the  philosopher  and  rhetorician, 
Libanius;  and  he  was  induced  by  the  ear¬ 
nest  exhortation  of  Chrysostom,  to  join 
with  him  in  embracing  the  monastic  life. 
His  theological  and  scriptural  studies  were 
made  under  Flavian  of  Antioch,  and  Dio¬ 
dorus  of  Tarsus;  and  having  received 
priest’s  orders,  he  resided  for  a  time  at 
Antioch,  where  his  learning  and  eloquence 
won  the  highest  applause,  and  afterward 
at  Tarsus,  under  his  old  teacher,  Diodorus. 
About  the  year  390,  or  a  little  later,  he  was 
chosen  bishop  of  Mopsuestia  in  Cilicia. 
In  394  he  preached  in  the  presence  of  the 
Emperor  Theodosius  at  Constantinople,  on 
occasion  of  a  synod  held  in  that  city.  Of 
his  further  history  little  is  known;  but  his 
literary  activity  must  have  been  prodig¬ 
ious,  if  we  can  judge  by  the  contemporary 
accounts,  and  by  the  number  of  the  works 
which  are  ascribed  to  him,  but  of  which 
only  fragments  now  remain.  The  most 
important  of  these  consisted  of  commen¬ 
taries  on  almost  all  the  books  of  Scripture, 
and  various  polemical  writings.  A  sup¬ 
posed  tendency  to  Pelagian  and  Nestorian 
errors  was  observable  in  Theodore,  and 
was,  in  part,  the  occasion  of  the  long  con¬ 
troversy  of  the  three  chapters.  This  con¬ 
troversy,  however,  did  not  arise  till  long 
after  the  death  of  Theodore,  which  took 
place  about  427.  Considerable  fragments 
of  Theodore’s  commentaries  have  been 
published  by  Cardinal  Mai  in  his  Spicilegium 
Romanian ,  and  some  of  his  works  still 
exist  in  Syriac;  but  by  far  the  greater  pro¬ 
portion  has  been  lost.” — Chambers:  Cyclo- 
pcedia. 

Theology  ( Theos ,  God,  and  logos ,  doc¬ 
trine),  the  doctrine  which  God  has  given 
concerning  himself,  the  science  which 
treats  of  the  existence  and  character  of 
God,  and  the  relations  in  which  we  stand 
to  him.  The  word  “  theology  "  was  in  use 
among  the  heathen,  who  applied  it  to  the 
works  of  those  who  speculated  on  the 
nature  and  worship  of  the  gods,  and  there¬ 
fore  Hesiod  and  Plato  were  both  regarded 
as  theologians.  Eusebius  and  Varro  (as 
quoted  by  Augustine  in  his  De  Civitate) 
distinguished  the  heathen  theology  into 
three  sorts:  the  fabulous  (that  of  the  poet), 
the  natural  (that  taught  in  the  philosoph¬ 
ical  schools,  and  the  political  (that  of  the 
priests  and  common  people).  The  two 
former  were  open  to  the  will  of  the  profess¬ 
ors  to  alter  as  they  pleased,  but  the  last 
was  settled  by  authority,  and  could  not  be 
altered  without  national  consent.  The 
Roman  Law  was  very  strict  on  this  point 
(Cic. :  De  Legibus).  The  State  theology  of 


The 


(  904  ) 


The 


the  heathen  consisted  in  the  solemn  ser¬ 
vice  of  the  gods,  and  in  attendance  on  the 
oracles  and  divinations. 

The  word  theology  is  not  used  in  the 
Bible.  Its  nearest  equivalent  is  found  in 
such  phrases  as  “  the  mysteries  of  God,” 
“  the  form  of  sound  words,”  “  sound  doc¬ 
trine.”  (1  Cor.  ii.  7;  2  Tim.  i.  13;  Tit.  i.  1, 
9. )  We  have  also  in  Scripture  the  words 
from  which  the  term  is  compounded ;  e.  g. , 
ta  login  ton  Theou ,  “  the  oracles  of  God.” 
(See  Mark  vii.  13;  Rom.  iii.  2;  Heb.  v. 
12;  1  Pet.  iv.  10,  in  the  original.)  But  the 
Christian  fathers  applied  the  term  especial¬ 
ly  to  the  doctrine  concerning  our  Lord;  and 
St.  John,  who  wrote  so  much  concerning 
him  as  “  the  Word  of  God,”  is  called  “  the 
Divine  ”  Theologos.  But  the  word  was 
used  in  a  wide  as  well  as  restricted  mean¬ 
ing,  and  covered  the  whole  subject  of  re¬ 
vealed  truth. 

The  source  of  theology  is  regarded  as 
twofold,  natural  and  siipernatural.  The 
one  is  that  which  is  revealed  to  man  by  the 
light  of  nature,  i.  e.,  by  the  voice  of  God 
in  each  man’s  conscience,  and  the  teachings 
of  the  creation.  St.  John  distinctly  claims 
a  place  for  such  theology  when  he  speaks 
of  “  the  true  Light  which  lighteth  j^everv 
man  that  cometh  into  the  world.”  (John  i. 
9.)  Supernatural  theology  is  that  which 
comes  by  special  revelation,  embracing 
what  we  have  learned  from  natural  theol¬ 
ogy,  but  stating  it  more  definitely,  and 
establishing  it  by  additional  evidence, 
making  known  what  could  not  have  been 
known  in  any  other  manner.  Thus  the 
two  do  not  conflict.  Each  has  its  own 
province.  Reason,  recognizing  its  own  in¬ 
ability  to  explain  all  the  facts  and  myster¬ 
ies  of  life  and  of  the  universe,  does  not 
proudly  seek  to  be  so  independent  of  all 
knowledge  as  to  refuse  any  revelation  of 
himself  which  the  Unseen  Creator  may 
choose  to  make,  and  supernatural  theology 
does  not  refuse  the  aid  of  reason  or  its 
claim  to  respect.  Any  doctrine  which 
could  be  shown  to  contradict  reason  would 
have  no  claim  on  man’s  obedience. 

Natural  theology  teaches  the  existence 
of  God,  and  leads  us  to  believe'  that  he 
governs  the  world;  that  it  is  in  accordance 
with  his  will  that  men  should  be  pious, 
just,  benevolent;  that  the  soul  is  immortal. 
Philosophers  do  not  agree  as  to  how  the 
knowledge  comes,  whether  from  ancient 
traditions  or  from  innate  ideas,  but  it  is 
the  admitted  fact  that  all  over  the  world 
God  “  left  not  himself  without  witness.” 
(See  Acts  xiv.  15;  xvii.  23;  Rom.  i.  19;  ii. 
14.)  And  thus  the  heathen  confessed  that 
they  were  the  offspring  of  God;  they 
taught  that  there  is  a  duty  incumbent  on 
men  to  be  pure,  chaste,  honest.  But  it  is 


also  manifest  from  the  facts  of  history  that 
natural  theology  was  altogether  inad¬ 
equate  to  meet  the  purposes  for  which 
such  knowledge  is  needed  (“  the  world  by 
wisdom  knew  not  God  ”),  though  it  con¬ 
fessed  his  existence,  and  felt  and  groped 
after  him.  And  in  the  moral  systems  which 
the  philosophers  taught,  not  only  some 
great  duties  were  omitted,  but  some  of 
their  virtues  proved  to  be  vices.  When 
Cicero  taught  that  the  true  reward  of 
virtue  is  praise,  and  Zeno  that  we  ought 
not  to  forgive  injuries,  and  the  cynics  that 
there  is  no  shame  in  lewdness,  and  Aristip¬ 
pus  that  theft  and  adultery  were  admissi¬ 
ble  if  the  pleasure  consequent  upon  them 
could  be  insured  without  after  evil — all 
this  teaching  tended  to  the  moral  degrada¬ 
tion  of  mankind.  Hence  heathenism  in¬ 
volved  a  general  depravity  of  manners, 
which  extended  not  to  the  lower  and  un¬ 
educated  classes  only,  but  to  the  better  in¬ 
formed,  and  even  to  the  religious  teachers 
themselves.  The  poetry  of  Horace  and 
Ovid,  beautiful  as  it  is,  gives  terrible  proof 
that  the  awful  picture  of  heathen  morals 
given  in  the  first  chapter  of  the  Romans  is 
not  overdrawn. 

Supernatural  theology  was  revealed  to 
men  “  by  divers  portions  and  in  divers 
manners.”  From  the  few  particulars  of 
the  ancient  world  which  Moses  gives  us, 
we  could  hardly  tell  whether  they  knew  of 
a  general  judgment  to  come.  There  was 
evidently  a  gradual  development,  an  evolu¬ 
tion,  an  increase  of  light  from  the  faint 
dawn  till  the  splendor  of  noonday  in  Christ. 

When  we  come  to  separate  the  science 
of  theology  into  different  provinces,  the 
following  divisions  will  perhaps  be  regard¬ 
ed  as  covering  the  field  :  There  is  the  the¬ 
ology  of  the  Evidences ,  the  grounds  on 
which  we  believe  that  our  religion  is  true. 
Such  evidences  are  partly  inward,  partly 
outward.  Men  believe  in  God  because  he 
speaks  to  them.  But  they  also  have  to 
weigh  the  evidences  on  which  the  Old  and 
New  Testaments  claim  to  be  regarded  as 
authoritative,  that  they  are  genuine  and 
authentic.  Then  theology  is  also  exegetic , 
i.  e.,  it  aims  to  interpret  and  explain  the 
Scriptures  ( exegesis ,  “  the  bringing  out  ”  of 
the  meaning).  If  Revelation  is  the  source 
of  theology,  it  is  plain  that  we  cannot 
overrate  the  importance  of  the  accurate 
knowledge  of  what  the  inspired  writers  said 
and  meant.  The  study  of  biblical  exege¬ 
sis,  or  hermeneutics,  as  it  is  sometimes 
called  (from  hermeneuo,  “to  interpret”), 
is  one  which  has  received  much  more  at¬ 
tention  of  late  years  than  it  formerly  did; 
and  this  is  one  of  the  happiest  signs  of  the 
time.  Dogmatic  theology  is  that  which 
gathers  up  and  exhibits  the  results  of  exe- 


The 


(  905  ) 


The 


getic  theology  by  stating  doctrines  in  a 
systematic  manner  and  showing  what  their 
proofs  are  and  whence  derived.  Polei?iic 
theology  (from  polemos,  “war”)  has  for 
its  province  to  refute,  cover,  or  defend  the 
doctrines  of  a  systematic  or  dogmatic  the¬ 
ology.  The  epithet  is  said  to  have  been 
first  given  by  Friedman  Beckmann,  a  the¬ 
ologian  of  Jena,  in  the  seventeenth  century. 
Many  hold  it  in  great  disrepute,  on  the 
ground  that  sophistical  arguments  and  un¬ 
hallowed  acts  have  been  used  in  its  service, 
and  that  the  odium  theologicu?n  generated  by 
religious  strife  has  been  an  emeny  to 
Christian  charity.  But  it  cannot  be  denied 
that  the  peace  of  the  Church  is  dearly 
bought  if  the  price  be  the  sacrifice  of  truth. 
It  behooves  us  to  cast  forth  from  our 
armory  every  weapon  which  God  does  not 
approve;  but  the  truth  must  not  be  left 
undefended  nor  error  unassailed.  The  es¬ 
tablishment  of  sound  principles  of  criticism 
will  be  the  surest  method  of  terminating 
theological  warfare.  Practical  theology 
has  its  way  prepared  by  all  the  depart¬ 
ments  of  theological  science  that  we  have 
named;  it  depends  on  them,  and  at  the 
same  time  is  the  crown  of  them  all.  It 
exhibits  the  precepts  of  religion  and  the 
motives  which  should  guide  us.  There  are 
those  who  declare  that  this  department 
of  theology  alone  is  of  importance — that  all 
else  is  mere  trifling.  Thus  Pope  writes: 

“For  modes  of  faith  let  senseless  bigots  fight. 

His  can’t  be  wrong  whose  life  is  in  the  right.” 

But  the  answer  to  this  is  that  the  mode  of 
faith  was  revealed  by  God  in  order  that 
men  might  be  guided  by  it  to  better  living, 
and  therefore  it  cannot  be  lightly  regarded. 
An  opposite  error  is  that  which  reserves 
all  its  admiration  for  the  mysteries  of  faith. 
Religion  is  barren  when  it  is  cherished 
merely  as  a  system  of  abstract  truth,  and 
it  is  weakness  and  inefficiency  itself  whep 
regarded  merely  as  a  system  of  injunctions 
and  prohibitions.  Though  it  is  a  system 
of  doctrines,  it  uniformly  contemplates 
practical  results,  while  the  rules  depend 
for  all  their  power  on  the  doctrines  upon 
which  they  are  based.  Casuistry  is  the 
part  of  practical  theology  which  applies  it¬ 
self  to  cases  of  conscience, decides  difficulties 
as  to  what  a  man  may  or  may  not  do  in  the 
way  of  duty. — Benham:  Did.  of  Religion. 

Theoph'any ,  another  name  for  the  Epiph¬ 
any.  See  Epiphany. 

Theophilanthropists,  the  name  of  a  re¬ 
ligious  society  founded  in  Paris  during  the 
French  Revolution.  It  developed  in  a  kind 
of  family  worship,  suggested  by  Chemin 
(author  of  a  pamphlet,  Manuel  des  Theo- 
philanthropes ,  published  in  1796),  who  with 


four  others,  in  1796,  gathered  their  fami¬ 
lies  for  prayer  and  conversation.  Others 
desired  to  meet  with  them,  and  their  first 
public  meeting  was  held  in  January,  1797. 
“  The  basis  of  the  whole  organization  was 
pure  deism.  God,  virtue,  and  the  immor¬ 
tality  of  the  soul,  formed  the  three  articles 
of  the  theophilanthropist  creed.”  The 
movement  for  a  time  met  with  great  suc¬ 
cess,  but  with  the  return  of  peace,  and  the 
reestablishment  of  services  by  the  Ro¬ 
man  Catholics,  they  began  to  decline,  and 
in  1802  Napoleon  I.  ordered  the  churches, 
that  had  been  used  by  them  at  the  instance 
of  the  Directory,  to  be  restored  to  the  Ro¬ 
man  Church,  and  after  this  time  they  disap¬ 
peared  as  a  body. 

Theoph'ilus,  bishop  of  Alexandria  (385 — 
412).  He  took  an  active  part  in  the  Ori- 
genistic  controversy.  Three  letters,  which 
he  wrote  in  opposition  to  Origen,  are  ex¬ 
tant  in  a  Latin  translation  by  Jerome. 

Theophilus,  bishop  of  Antioch  (176-186). 
He  was  an  able  writer.  The  only  one  of 
his  works  extant  is  his  Apology  of  Chris¬ 
tianity ,  addressed  to  a  learned  heathen 
friend,  Autolycus.  The  best  edition  is  by 
Otto  (Jena,  1861). 

Theoph'ylact,  a  learned  Greek  exegete, 
appointed  archbishop  of  Achrida,  in  Bul¬ 
garia,  1078;  d.  about  1107.  He  wrote 
commentaries  on  most  of  the  books  of  the 
Bible,  which  were  the  best  produced  at 
this  period  in  the  Latin  Church. 

Theopneus'ty.  See  Inspiration. 

Theos'ophy  (from  Theos,  God,  and  sophia, 
wisdom)  “  is  distinguished  from  mysti¬ 
cism,  speculative  theology, and  other  forms 
of  philosophy  and  theology,  to  which  it 
bears  a  certain  resemblance,  by  its  claims 
of  direct  divine  inspiration,  immediate  di¬ 
vine  revelation,  and  its  want,  more  or  less 
conspicuous,  of  dialectical  exposition.  It 
is  found  among  all  nations — Hindus,  Per¬ 
sians,  Arabs,  Greeks  (the  later  Neo-Plato¬ 
nism),  and  Jews  (Cabala) — and  presents 
itself  variously  under  the  form  of  magic 
(Agrippa  of  Nettesheim,  Paracelsus),  or 
vision  (Swedenborg,  Saint  Martin),  or  rapt 
contemplation  (Jacob  Boehme,  Oettinger).” 
— Schaff- Herzog:  Ency. 

Therapeu'tae,  the  name  of  a  Jewish  sect, 
allied  to  the  Essenes  and  early  Christian 
monks,  described  in  a  work  once  attributed 
to  Philo,  entitled  On  a  Contei7iplative  Life. 
The  work  is  now  thought  to  be  a  forgery 
of  ascetic  origin,  and  the  sect  only  an  im¬ 
aginary  existence. 


The 


(  906  ) 


Thi 


Thessalonians,  Epistle  to  the.  See 
Paul. 

Thessaloni'ca,a  city  situated  at  the  north¬ 
east  corner  of  the  Thermaic  Gulf,  on  the 
Macedonian  shore.  Its  early  name  was 
Therma  ( hot  baths),  from  the  hot  springs 
near  by.  When  rebuilt  by  Cassander  (b.  c. 
315)  he  called  it  Thessalonica,  after  the 
name  of  his  wife,  the  sister  of  Alexander. 
It  became  a  populous  and  flourishing  city, 
and  after  its  capture  by  the  Romans  (168), 
was  made  one  of  the  capitals  of  the  four 
divisions  of  Macedonia.  When  Paul,  ac¬ 
companied  by  Silas  and  Timothy,  visited 
the  city  on  his  second  missionary  journey 
(51),  he  preached  three  Sundays  in  the 
synagogue,  and  a  church  composed  mostly 
of  Gentiles,  was  gathered  there.  Among  his 


still  the  most  important  town  in  European 
Turkey  next  after  Constantinople.  It  is 
beautifully  situated  on  a  hill  sloping  back 
from  the  gulf.  Many  of  the  mosques  were 
formerly  Christian  churches.  It  is  still 
the  seat  of  a  Greek  metropolitan,  and  con¬ 
tains  many  churches  and  schools  of  differ¬ 
ent  denominations.  Of  its  population  of 
some  80,000,  30,000  are  Jews  and  10,000 
Greeks.  Some  remains  of  its  ancient  grand¬ 
eur,  of  historical  interest,  still  exist. 

Theu'das  ( God-given ),  the  name  of  an 
insurgent  leader  mentioned  by  Gamaliel  in 
his  speech  before  the  Jewish  Council.  (Acts 
v.  35-39.)  He  is  not  the  Theudas  men¬ 
tioned  by  Josephus  (Ant.  xx.  5,  1),  since 
the  rebellion  referred  to  took  place  some 
years  after  Gamaliel’s  address.  The  prob- 


thessalonica. 


converts  were  Caius,  Aristarchus,  Secun- 
dus,  and  perhaps  Jason.  (Acts  xvii.  1— 1 3 ; 
xx.  4;  xxvii. ;  cf.  Phil.  iv.  16;  2  Tim.  iv. 
10.)  The  two  epistles  which  Paul  wrote 
to  the  Thessalonian  Church  are  the  earliest 
of  his  preserved  writings.  The  accuracy 
of  Luke  is  corroborated  by  the  reference 
which  he  makes  to  the  title,  “  politarchs,” 
of  the  chief  magistrates.  (Acts  xvii.  8.) 
“  This  term  occurs  in  no  other  writing; 
but  it  maybe  read  to  this  day  conspicuous¬ 
ly  on  an  arch  of  the  early  imperial  times, 
which  spans  the  main  street  of  the  city.” 
— How  son.  Thessalonica  was  an  impor¬ 
tant  centre  of  Christianity  for  several  cen¬ 
turies,  and  the  missionary  enterprises  were 
here  set  in  action  that  converted  the  Sla¬ 
vonians  and  Bulgarians.  It  is  now  a  Turk¬ 
ish  city  under  the  name  of  Saloniki ,  and  is 


abilities  are,  that  the  leader  here  mention¬ 
ed  was  Matthias,  a  prominent  Jewish 
teacher,  who  headed  a  band  in  the  time  of 
Herod,  and  destroyed  the  Roman  eagle 
placed  by  the  king  over  the  gate  of  the 
temple.  Matthias  in  Greek  is  equivalent 
to  “  Theudas.” 

Thirty-nine  Articles.  See  Articles  of 
Reljgion. 

Thirty  Years’  War,  a  great  religious  war 
that  raged  from  1618-48,  and  was  ended  by 
the  Peace  of  Westphalia.  The  cause  was 
nominally  religion,  but  in  reality  it  was  the 
ambition  of  the  house  of  Austria.  It  began 
in  Bohemia,  where  the  intolerance  of  the 
emperor  (Ferdinand  II.)  produced  a  revolt, 
and  the  old  animosities  of  the  Hussite  wars 


Tho 


(  907  ) 


Tho 


were  all  revived.  Their  cause  was  taken 
up  by  the  Protestant  princes,  and  soon  all 
Central  Europe  was  aflame.  The  war  di¬ 
vided  itself  into  three  distinct  periods.  In 
the  first,  Austria,  under  the  famous  Gen¬ 
eral  Wallenstein,  was  completely  victori¬ 
ous,  and  threatened  to  subdue  all  Germany. 
In  the  second,  owing  to  the  military  genius 
of  Gustavus  Adolphus,  king  of  Sweden, 
who  became  their  leader,  the  Protestants 
carried  all  before  them;  and  in  the  third, 
victory  was  more  uncertain  and  more 
equally  divided.  France  took  an  active 
part  on  the  Protestant  side,  under  Turenne 
and  Conde.  The  great  French  minister, 
Cardinal  Richelieu,  though  he  oppressed 
the  Protestants  in  France,  helped  those  of 
Germany,  in  pursuance  of  his  policy  of 
French  rivalry  of  German  greatness.  The 
chief  provisions  of  the  Peace  of  Westphalia 
(1648)  were: 

(1)  Austria  lost  Alsace,  which  became  a 
possession  of  France,  and  also  Lusace,  by 
which  she  had  bought  the  help  of  the  Elect¬ 
or  of  Saxony. 

(2)  Sweden  acquired  Bremen,  Verden, 
part  of  Pomerania,  Stettin,  Riigen,  and 
Weimar,  which  made  her  a  member  of  the 
German  Federation. 

(3)  Brandenburg  obtained  Magdeburg, 
Halberstadt,  Minden,  and  Camin. 

This  was,  therefore,  to  inflict  a  blow 
upon  Germany  which  she  had  to  wait  until 
the  present  generation  to  recover.  Not 
only  were  Alsace  and  other  territories  lost, 
but  the  right  of  France  to  the  Lotharingian 
bishoprics  was  conceded;  and  Switzerland 
and  the  United  Provinces,  which  had  prac¬ 
tically  ceased  for  some  time  to  belong  to 
the  empire,  were  formally  cut  off.  But 
the  mischief  to  Germany  was  far  greater 
than  loss  of  territory.  While  France  be¬ 
came  united  and  compact  as  she  pushed 
her  boundaries  to  the  Rhine,  Germany  was 
exhausted  and  prostrate  through  the  long 
struggle  for  which  she  had  formed  the  field. 
The  authority  of  the  empire  and  the  free¬ 
dom  of  the  people  seemed  to  have  perished 
together,  and  the  once  powerful  unity  was 
dissolved  into  a  mere  lax  confederation  of 
petty  despotisms  and  oligarchies.  The 
State  of  Brandenburg,  which,  as  we  have 
seen,  received  additions,  began  to  lay  the 
foundations  of  that  monarchy  which,  under 
the  name  of  Prussia,  became,  after  a  while, 
the  leading  State  in  the  Confederation,  and 
is  now  the  all-absorbing  power  of  the  Ger¬ 
man  Empire. — Benham:  Diet,  of  Religion. 

Tholuck,  Friedrich  August,  D.  D.,  an 
eminent  German  divine,  author,  and  preach¬ 
er;  b.  at  Breslau,  March  30,  1799;  d.  at 
Halle,  June  10,  1877.  Of  humble  parent¬ 
age,  through  the  assistance  of  friends  he 


was  enabled  to  pursue  a  university  course 
at  Berlin,  where  he  was  converted  from 
skepticism  through  the  influence  of  Nean- 
der  and  others.  Graduating  in  1821  as 
licentiate  of  theology  he  delivered  lectures 
as  privat-docent  until  1824,  when  he  was  ap¬ 
pointed  extraordinary  professor  of  Oriental 
literature.  In  1826  he  became  ordinary 
professor  of  theology  in  the  University  at 
Halle,  where  he  accomplished  a  life-work 
of  remarkable  influence  in  behalf  of  evan¬ 
gelical  faith.  He  was  a  gifted  and  versatile 
scholar,  and  a  preacher  of  rare  eloquence. 
His  relations  with  his  students  were  inti¬ 
mate,  and  he  took  peculiar  care  of  those 
who  were  struggling  with  adverse  circum¬ 
stances.  He  was  especially  attached  to 
many  of  the  American  students  who  studied 
under  him  at  Halle,  and  through  them  his 
life  has  had  a  marked  influence  upon  theo¬ 
logical  thought  in  this  country.  Some  of 
his  principal  works  are:  Sin  and  Redemp¬ 
tion',  or ,  the  True  Consecration  of  the  Skeptic 
(1825);  The  Credibility  of  the  Gospel  History 
(1837);  Hours  of  Christian  Devotion  (1840), 
2  vols.  He  prepared  Co7nmentaries  on  Ro¬ 
mans,  Gospel  of  John,  Hebrews,  and  the 
Psalms. 

Thomas,  one  of  the  twelve  apostles, 
known  also  by  the  Greek  equivalent,  Didy- 
mus,  meaning  twin.  He  was  probably  a 
Galilean.  (John  xxi.  2.)  There  are  many 
traditions  in  regard  to  his  history  after  the 
ascension.  Gregory  Nazianzen  speaks  of 
his  preaching  in  India  where,  according  to 
a  later  tradition,  he  suffered  death  at  the 
king’s  command,  by  being  pierced  with 
lances.  The  Christians  of  St.  Thomas 
( q .  v. )  show  his  grave  at  Meliapur,  India. 
The  Gospels  “  present  him  as  one  whom  a 
deep  earnestness  of  spirit  inclined  to  mel¬ 
ancholy,  and  a  desire  of  knowledge  made  a 
doubter.  He  is  the  representative,  among 
the  apostles,  of  the  critical  spirit.  By  the 
way  of  honest  doubt  and  questioning,  he 
arrived  at  an  imperturbable  and  joyous 
conviction  and  faith.” — Lange.  Two  apoc¬ 
ryphal  works  are  connected  with  his  name: 
The  Gospel  according  to  Thomas  and  The 
Acts  of  Thomas. 

Thomas  Aquinas.  See  Aquinas,  Thom¬ 
as. 

Thomas  A  Becket.  See  Becket. 

Thomas  A  Kempis.  See  Kempis. 

Thomas  Christians.  See  Christians  of 
St.  Thomas. 

Thomists,  the  followers  of  Thomas  Aqui¬ 
nas  (y.  v. ).  They  were  called  Thortiists,  in 


Tho 


(  908  ) 


Tho 


opposition  to  the  Scotists,  or  followers  of 
Duns  Scotus.  The  two  sects  were  at  va¬ 
riance  in  their  views  as  to  the  nature  of  the 
divine  cooperation  with  the  human  will, 
the  measure  of  divine  grace  that  is  neces¬ 
sary  to  salvation,  the  unity  of  form  in  man, 
or  personal  identity,  and  other  abstruse 
questions.  The  Thomists  followed  the 
doctrine  of  Augustine  as  to  grace,  and  dis¬ 
puted  the  Immaculate  Conception  of  the 
Virgin  Mary.  Most  of  the  Thomists  be¬ 
longed  to  the  Dominican  Order,  while  the 
Scotists  were  Franciscans. 

Thompson,  Charles  L. ,  D.  D.  (Mon¬ 
mouth  College,  Ill.,  1876),  Presbyterian; 
b.  at  Cooperstown,  Penn.,  Aug.  18,  1839; 
was  graduated  at  Carroll  College,  Wis., 
1858;  studied  theology  at  Princeton  Sem¬ 
inary,  1858-60;  was  graduated  at  McCor¬ 
mick  Theological  Seminary,  Chicago,  1861. 
He  has  held  the  following  pastorates: 
Janesville,  Wis.,  1862-67;  First  Church, 
Cincinnati,  O.,  1867-72;  Fifth  Church,  Chi¬ 
cago,  1872-77;  Third  Church,  Pittsburg, 
Penn.,  1877-81;  Second  Church,  Kansas 
City,  Mo. ,  1881-1888;  since  1888  of  Mad¬ 
ison  Avenue  Church,  New  York  City.  He 
was  the  Moderator  of  the  Centennial  Gen¬ 
eral  Assembly  of  the  Presbyterian  Church 
held  at  Philadelphia,  in  1888.  He  has  pub¬ 
lished:  Times  of  Refreshing:  A  History  of 
American  Revivals  from  1740  to  18 77. 

Thompson,  Joseph  P.,D.  D.,  LL.  D.,  b. 
in  Philadelphia,  Aug.  7,  1819;  d.  in  Berlin, 
Germany,  Sept.  20,  1879.  He  was  gradu¬ 
ated  at  Yale  College  in  1838;  studied  the¬ 
ology  at  New  Haven  and  Andover;  ordain¬ 
ed  pastor  of  the  Chapel  Street  Congrega¬ 
tional  Church,  New  Haven,  1840;  pastor 
of  Broadway  Tabernacle  Church  (Cong.), 
New  York  City,  1845-71.  During  his  long 
and  prominent  pastorate  in  New  York  he 
exerted  a  wide  influence  as  a  preacher, 
writer,  and  advocate  of  philanthropic  en¬ 
terprises.  He  was  one  of  the  founders 
and  editors  of  the  New  Englander ,  and  aid¬ 
ed  in  the  establishment  of  The  Independent , 
a  newspaper  with  which  he  was  connected 
editorially  for  fourteen  years.  He  was  a 
prolific  writer  of  books,  pamphlets,  and 
reviews.  Among  his  published  works  are: 
The  Theology  of  Christ  in  His  Own  Words 
(1870);  The  United  States  as  a  Nation 
(1877),  and  Church  and  State  in  the  United 
States  { 1873).  When  he  resigned  his  pas¬ 
torate  in  1871,  on  account  of  ill-health,  he 
went  to  Germany,  where  he  did  much  in 
defence  of  American  institutions,  both 
with  his  pen  and  voice.  Dr.  Thompson 
devoted  much  time  to  Oriental  studies, 
and  was  recognized  as  an  authority  in 
Egyptology. 


Thomson,  Edward,  D.  D.,  LL.  D.,  Meth¬ 
odist  Episcopal  bishop;  b.  at  Portsea,  Eng., 
Oct.  12,  1810;  d.  at  Wheeling,  W.  Va., 
March  22,  1870.  He  came  to  the  United 
States  in  1818,  and  made  his  home  in 
Wooster,  O.  He  was  graduated  in  medi¬ 
cine  at  the  University  of  Pennsylvania  in 
1829.  He  joined  the  Methodist  Church  in 
1831,  and  in  1833  was  admitted  into  the 
Annual  Conference.  He  was  principal  of 
the  Norwalk  (Ohio)  Seminary,  1838-43; 
editor  of  the  Ladies'  Repository ,  1844-46; 
president  of  the  Ohio  Wesleyan  University 
1846-60;  editor  of  the  New  York  Christian 
Advocate,  1860-64.  In  1864  he  was  elected 
bishop,  and  made  an  extended  episcopal 
tour  through  Egypt  and  the  East.  He 
published:  Moral  and  Religious  Essays;  Ev¬ 
idences  of  Revealed  Religion;  Our  Oriental 
Missions — India ,  China ,  and  Bulgaria,  2 
vols. 

Thorn,  The  Conference  of,  was  held  in 
1645  by  the  order  of  Ladislaus  IV.,  king 
of  Poland.  It  was  composed  of  distin¬ 
guished  representatives  of  the  Roman, 
Lutheran,  and  Reformed  Churches.  The 
design  was  to  bring  about  a  reconciliation, 
and  secure,  if  possible,  a  reunion  of  the 
various  bodies  of  Christendom.  The  con¬ 
ference  lasted  for  three  months  and,  while 
not  altogether  fruitless,  revealed  differ¬ 
ences  and  antagonisms  that  could  not  be 
overcome.  It  was  often  called  The  Chari¬ 
table  Co7iference. 

Thorndike,  Herbert,  d.  1672.  One  of 
the  most  learned  and  able  advocates  of  the 
Laudian  theology  in  the  seventeenth  cen¬ 
tury.  He  held  several  preferments,  among 
them  the  mastership  of  Sidney  College, 
Cambridge,  from  all  of  which  he  was 
ejected  in  the  Great  Revolution,  but  re¬ 
ceived  a  stall  at  Westminster  at  the  Res¬ 
toration.  He  took  part  in  the  Savoy  Con¬ 
ference,  and  gave  much  assistance  to 
Walton  in  his  Polyglot ,  being  a  very  accu¬ 
rate  Oriental  scholar.  Thorndike’s  works 
have  been  republished  in  the  Anglo-Catholic 
Library,  in  6  vols. ;  the  most  eminent  of 
them  is  the  Epilogus  to  the  Tragedy  of  the 
Church  of  England  (1659),  an  earnest  asser¬ 
tion  of  the  grace  of  the  sacraments. — Ben- 
ham:  Did.  of  Religion. 

Thornwell,  James  Henley,  D.  D.  ,LL.  D., 
an  eminent  divine  of  the  Presbyterian 
Church;  b.  in  Marlborough  District,  S.  C., 
Dec.  9,  1812;  d.  at  Charlotte,  N.  C.,  Aug. 
1,  1862;  was  graduated  at  South  Carolina 
College,  Columbia,  1831;  studied  theology 
at  Andover  and  Harvard;  ordained  pastor 
of  Presbyterian  Church,  Lancaster,  S.  C., 
1835;  professor  of  logic  and  belles-lettres 


Thr 


(  909  ) 


Thy 


in  South  Carolina  College,  1837;  pastor  of 
Presbyterian  Church  in  Columbia,  1839; 
recalled  to  the  college  in  1841,  with  which 
he  was  connected  during  the  following 
fifteen  years.  In  1855  he  was  transferred 
from  the  college  to  the  theological  semi¬ 
nary,  and  from  1858  was  professor  of  didac¬ 
tic  and  polemic  theology,  and  also  editor  of 
the  Southern  Quarterly  Review.  He  was  a 
recognized  leader  in  the  meetings  of  the 
General  Assembly  (Old  School  Branch)  of 
which  he  was  moderator  in  1847.  The  col¬ 
lected  writings  of  Dr.  Thornwell,  edited 
by  Rev.  James  B.  Adger,  Richmond,  1871- 
73,  are  contained  in  4  vols. :  (1)  Theological ; 
(2)  Theological  and  Ethical;  (3)  Theological 


which  Ibas  was  said  to  have  written  to  the 
Persian  Maris.  As  both  Theodoret  and 
Ibas  had  been  indorsed  by  the  Council  of 
Chalcedon  this  action  of  Justinian  implied  a 
censure  of  that  Council.  A  long  and  bitter 
controversy  grew  out  of  this  edict.  See 
Church  histories,  and  Hefele  :  Councils  of 
the  Church. 

Thugs,  an  organized  body  of  secret 
assassins  and  thieves  who  were  the  terror 
of  India  for  many  years.  They  were  the 
worshipers  of  the  bloody  goddess,  Kali. 
They  were  suppressed  during  the  ad¬ 
ministration  of  Lord  William  Bentinck 
(1828-35). 


THYATIRA,  ASIA  MINOR. 


and  Controversial;  (4)  Ecclesiastical.  See 
his  Life  and  Letters ,  by  B.  M.  Palmer, 
(Richmond,  1875). 

Three-Chapter  Controversy,  The,  grew 
out  of  the  Monophysite  Controversy. 
Through  the  influence  of  Theodorus  Asci- 
das,  bishop  of  Caesarea  in  Cappadocia,  the 
Emperor  Justinian  was  led  to  believe  that 
many  of  the  Monophysites  might  be  won 
to  the  Church  if  the  chief  representatives  of 
the  Nestorian  theology  were  rebuked.  He 
therefore  issued  an  edict  in  544,  condemning 
(1)  the  person  and  writings  of  Theodore  of 
Mopsuestia;  (2)  the  writings  of  Theodoret 
in  defence  of  Nestorius,  and  (3)  the  letter 


Thummim.  See  Urim  and  Thummim. 

Thurible,  Thuribulum,  a  vessel  in  which 
incense  is  burned.  It  is  usually  made  of 
gold  or  silver,  with  perforations  in  its  cover 
through  which  the  fumes  escape.  The 
censer  is  suspended  by  three  long  chains  by 
which  it  is  swung  backward  and  forward. 

Thyati'ra,  “a  city  on  the  Lycus,  founded 
by  Seleucus  Nicator,  lay  to  the  left  of  the 
road  from  Pergamos  to  Sardis,  on  the  very 
confines  of  Mysia  and  Ionia,  so  as  to  be 
sometimes  reckoned  within  the  one,  and 
sometimes  within  the  other.  Dyeing  ap¬ 
parently  formed  an  important  part  of  the 


Tia 


(  9io  ) 


Til 


industrial  activity  of  Thyatira,  as  it  did  of 
that  of  Colossae  and  Laodicea.  (Acts  xvi. 
14.)  The  principal  deity  of  the  city  was 
Apollo;  but  there  was  another  supersti¬ 
tion,  of  an  extremely  curious  nature,  which 
seems  to  have  been  brought  thither  by 
some  of  the  corrupted  Jews  of  the  dispersed 
tribes.  A  fane  stood  outside  the  walls, 
dedicated  to  Sambatha — the  name  of  the 
sibyl  who  is  sometimes  called  Chaldsean, 
sometimes  Jewish,  sometimes  Persian — in 
the  midst  of  an  enclosure  designated  ‘  the 
Chaldaean’s  Court.’  This  seems  to  lend 
an  illustration  to  the  obscure  passage  in 
Rev.  ii.  20,  21,  which  some  interpret  of  the 
wife  of  the  bishop.  Now,  there  is  evidence 
to  show  that  in  Thyatira  there  was  a  great 
amalgamation  of  races.  If  the  sibyl  Sam¬ 
batha  was  really  a  Jewess,  lending  her  aid 
to  the  amalgamation  of  different  religions, 
and  not  discountenanced  by  the  authorities 
of  the  Judaeo-Christian  Church  at  Thyatira, 
both  the  censure  and  its  qualification  be¬ 
come  easy  of  explanation.” — Smith:  Diet, 
of  the  Bible . 

Tiara,  a  kind  of  round  high  cap  worn  as 
a  crown  by  the  pope  on  solemn  occasions. 
It  is  encircled  with  three  golden  crowns  set 
with  jewels.  The  original  tiara  was  sim¬ 
ilar  to  that  of  an  ordinary  bishop,  but  John 
XIII.  (965) added  a  golden  crown;  Boniface 
VIII.  (1295)  the  second,  and  Benedict  XIII. 
(1335)  the  third. 

Tibe'rias,  the  modern  Ttibariya ,  situated 
on  the  western  bank  of  the  sea  of  Galilee. 
It  was  built  by  Herod  Antipas,  after  the 
fashion  of  the  Roman  cities,  with  palaces, 
theatres,  gymnasiums,  etc.  After  the  de¬ 
struction  of  Jerusalem  it  became  the  seat 
of  the  Sanhedrin,  and  for  many  centuries 
was  a  seat  of  Jewish  learning.  The  modern 
city  covers  only  a  small  part  of  the  space 
occupied  by  the  ancient  city.  It  has  a  pop¬ 
ulation  of  some  four  thousand,  about  one- 
half  of  whom  are  Jews  and  the  rest  Mo¬ 
hammedans  and  Christians.  The  city  is 
mentioned  but  once  in  the  New  Testament 
(John  vi.  23),  and  there  is  no  record  that 
Christ  ever  visited  it. 

Tide,  the  Saxon  word  for  hour,  time,  and 
sometimes  for  a  festival,  as  Eastertide, 
Whitsuntide,  etc. 

Tig'lath-Pile'ser,  the  second  Assyrian 
king  of  that  name,  who  reigned  B.  C.  745- 
727,  and  is  identical  with  Pul.  He  invaded 
Samaria  (2  Kings  xv.  29),  and,  later,  de¬ 
stroyed  Damascus  and  carried  many  away 
captive.  (1  Chron.  v.  26.)  After  the  cap¬ 
ture  of  Damascus  he  put  Rezin  to  death 
(2  Kings  xvi.  9),  and  it  was  here  that  Ahaz 


visited  him  and  became  his  vassal.  (2  Kings 
xvi.  10.) 

Tillotson,  John,  “  archbishop  of  Canter¬ 
bury,  was  the  son  of  a  clothier,  and  was 
b.  at  Sowerby,  in  Yorkshire,  in  1630.  His 
father,  Mr.  Robert  Tillotson,  was  a  zealous 
Puritan — a  circumstance  that  is  not  a  little 
curious,  when  we  consider  that  the  son 
ultimately  turned  out  the  most  catholic 
churchman  of  his  age.  Tillotson  studied 
at  Clare  Hall,  Cambridge,  where  he  took 
the  degree  of  B.  A.  in  1650,  and  of  M.  A.  in 
1654.  The  writings  of  Chillingworth  are 
said  to  have  exercised  a  powerful  influence 
on  his  mind  during  his  university  curricu¬ 
lum;  but  he  owed  not  less  to  his  friendly 
intercourse  with  Cudworth,  More,  Rust, 
Smith,  Wilkins,  and  other  eminent  schol¬ 
ars.  In  1656  he  became  private  tutor  in 
the  house  of  Edmund  Prideaux  of  Ford 
Abbey,  Devonshire,  attorney-general  under 
the  protector,  but  appears  to  have  return¬ 
ed  to  London  shortly  before  Cromwell’s 
death.  At  what  time  Tillotson  entered 
into  orders,  or  who  ordained  him,  is  not 
known;  but  he  was  a  preacher  in  1661, 
attached  apparently  to  the  Presbyterian 
party  in  the  Church  of  England,  for  at  the 
famous  Savoy  Conference  (q.  v.)  he  was 
present  on  the  Presbyterian  side;  but  he 
submitted  at  once  to  the  act  of  uniformity 
(1662);  and  in  December  of  that  year  was 
offered  the  church  of  St.  Mary,  Alderman- 
bury,  London,  of  which  Edmund  Calamy 
had  been  deprived,  but  declined  it.  In  1663 
he  was  appointed  to  the  rectory  of  Ked- 
dington,  in  Suffolk,  but  almost  immediate¬ 
ly  thereafter  was  chosen  preacher  at  Lin¬ 
coln’s  Inn,  where  his  mild,  evangelical,  but 
^//doctrinal  morality  was  at  first  little  rel¬ 
ished.  ‘  Since  Mr.  Tillotson  came,’  said 
the  benchers,  ‘  Jesus  Christ  has  not  been 
preached  among  us.’  However,  as  the 
graces  of  his  character  gradually  displayed 
themselves  his  popularity  increased,  espe¬ 
cially  when  it  was  found  that,  although  not 
a  Puritan,  he  was,  nevertheless,  averse  to 
atheism  and  popery.  In  1664  he  published 
a  sermon  on  ‘  The  Wisdom  of  being  Re¬ 
ligious;  ’  and  in  1666,  *  The  Rule  of  Faith,’ 
in  reply  to  a  work  by  an  English  clergy¬ 
man  named  Sargeant,  who  had  gone  over 
to  the  Church  of  Rome.  About  the  same 
period  he  took  the  degree  of  D.  D.,  and  in 
1670  was  made  a  prebend  of  Canterbury. 
Two  years  later  he  was  promoted  to  a 
deanery;  and  in  1680  published  a  some¬ 
what  notable  sermon,  entitled  ‘  The  Prot¬ 
estant  Religion  Vindicated  from  the  Charge 
of  Singularity  and  Novelty,’  in  which  he 
advanced  the  proposition,  untenable  by  a 
Protestant,  that  ‘  no  man  is  at  liberty  to 
affront  (i.  e.,  to  attack)  the  established  re- 


Tim 


(  9ii  ) 


Tit 


ligion  of  a  nation,  though  it  be  false.’  This 
proposition  he  subsequently,  on  reflection, 
abandoned.  Along  with  Burnet,  he  attend¬ 
ed  Lord  Russell  during  his  imprisonment 
for  complicity  in  the  Rye-house  plot;  and 
on  the  accession  of  William  III.,  rose  high 
into  favor.  In  1689  he  was  appointed  clerk 
of  the  closet  to  the  king,  and  in  April, 
1691,  was  raised  to  the  see  of  Canterbury, 
vacant  by  the  deposition  of  Sancroft  (q.  v. ), 
after  vainly  imploring  William  to  spare 
him  an  honor  which  he  foreboded  would 
bring  him  no  peace.  Nor  was  he  mistaken 
in  his  painful  presentiment.  The  nonjuring 
party  pursued  him  with  unrelenting  rage 
to  the  end  of  his  life;  but  their  animosity 
could  not  extract  one  murmur  of  complaint, 
or  one  vindictive  retaliation  from  the  meek, 
humane,  and  tolerant  primate.  He  did  not 
long  enjoy  his  dignity,  dying  of  palsy,  Nov. 
18,  1694,  at  the  age  of  65.  A  collected 
edition  of  his  Sermons  was  published  after 
his  death  by  his  chaplain,  Dr.  Barker,  and 
has  been  frequently  reprinted.  They  were 
translated  into  German  by  Mosheim,  and 
were  long  highly  popular  on  account  of 
their  clear,  solid  and  refined  thought,  their 
easy  eloquence,  and  their  humane  and 
moral  piety.” — Chambers:  Cyclopcedia. 

Tim'othy  ( honoring  God),  the  co- laborer 
and  pupil  of  Paul.  A  native  of  Derbe  or 
Lystra;  he  had  a  heathen  father  and  a  Jew¬ 
ish  mother.  Both  his  mother  and  grand¬ 
mother  were  distinguished  for  piety,  and 
early  educated  him  in  the  Scriptures.  (2 
Tim.  i.  5;  2  Tim.  iii.  15.)  Converted  in 
youth,  probably  during  Paul’s  visit  on  his 
first  missionary  journey,  when  the  apostle 
visited  Lystra  on  his  second  missionary 
tour  he  heard  such  reports  of  Timothy 
that  he  made  him  his  companion.  The  let¬ 
ters  of  Paul  reveal  the  tender  tie  of  affec¬ 
tion  that  bound  their  hearts  together. 
Probably  Timothy  was  thirty-four  or  thir¬ 
ty-five  when  left  in  charge  of  the  church 
at  Ephesus.  (1  Tim.  iv.  12.)  According 
to  tradition  Timothy  was  the  first  bishop 
of  Ephesus,  and  suffered  martyrdom  un¬ 
der  Domitian. 

Timothy,  Epistles  to.  See  Paul. 

Tindal,  Matthew,  a  distinguished  deist- 
ical  writer;  b.  in  Devonshire,  about  1657; 
d.  in  London,  Aug.  16,  1733.  A  graduate 
of  Oxford,  he  joined  the  Roman  Catholic 
Church,  but  soon  returned  to  the  Church 
of  England.  His  principal  work  was: 
Christianity  as  Old  as  the  Creation ;  or.  The 
Gospel  a  Re-publication  of  the  Law  of  Nat¬ 
ure  (1730).  It  treats  the  Scriptures  from 
the  standpoint  of  rationalism,  and  its  at¬ 
tacks  upon  the  Old  Testament  dispensation 


as  a  divine  revelation  called  forth  many 
replies.  It  is  said  that  the  Analogy  of  Bish¬ 
op  Butler  was  meant  especially  to  be  a 
reply  to  this  work.  Tindal’s  other  works 
are:  The  Rights  of  the  Christian  Church 
Asserted,  an  attack  upon  High-Church 
views  (1706),  and  several  pamphlets. 

Tischendorf,  Lobegott  Frederick  Con¬ 
stantine  von,  “a  very  eminent  biblical 
scholar,  was  born  at  Lengenfeld,  in  Sax¬ 
ony,  on  Jan.  18,  1815.  His  labors  in  search 
of  the  best  and  rarest  MSS.  in  reference 
to  the  Bible,  in  which  he  was  liberally  as¬ 
sisted  by  the  Saxon  and  Russian  govern¬ 
ments,  were  exceedingly  valuable.  Among 
the  most  important  of  his  numerous  excel¬ 
lent  works  are  the  editions  of  the  Sinaitic 
MS.  (1862,  1863,  1865);  the  Eighth  Critical 
Edition  of  the  New  Testament  (1864-72), 
and  the  Monumenta  Sacra  Inedita  (185  5 — 
70).  After  being  an  extraordinary  and  or¬ 
dinary  professor  at  Leipzig,  from  1845,  he 
became  professor  of  theology  and  of  bibli¬ 
cal  palaeography  in  1859,  a  chair  in  the  lat¬ 
ter  subject  having  been  instituted  for  him. 
He  was  created  a  count  of  the  Russian 
empire,  an  LL.  D.  of  Cambridge,  a  D.  C.  L. 
of  Oxford,  etc.  He  died  on  Dec.  1,  1874.” 
— Chambers:  Cyclopcedia. 

Tithes,  tenths  of  produce,  property,  or 
spoils,  dedicated  to  sacred  use.  “  The 
principal  tithal  rules  are  as  follows:  (1) 
The  tenth  part  of  the  fruits  of  the  earth 
and  cattle  were  given  to  the  Levites,  who 
received  it  as  a  compensation  for  their 
want  of  an  inheritance,  and  might  eat  it  at 
their  several  places  of  abode.  (Num.  xviii. 
21.)  (2)  The  Levites  must  give  one-tenth 

part  of  this  tithe  to  the  priests  (Num.  xviii. 
26);  this  latter  portion  after  the  exile  (Neh. 
x.  38),  and,  perhaps,  before  (2  Chron.  xxxi. 
12),  had  to  be  delivered  at  Jerusalem.  (3) 
A  second  tenth  was  eaten  at  the  tabernacle, 
at  a  joyous  feast  (Deut.  xiv.  22  sq.)\  the 
offerers,  if  they  were  ceremonially  clean, 
and  the  Levites,  joining  therein.  In  case 
the  distance  was  so  great  as  to  make  the 
transportation  of  the  tenth  part  inexpedi¬ 
ent,  it  might  be  converted  into  money,  and 
the  money  used  again  in  the  purchase  of 
the  necessary  vegetables  and  meat  for  the 
feast.  (Deut.  xiv.  25,  26.)  (4)  Every 

third  year  this  tithal  feast  was  celebrated 
by  the  people  at  their  homes  (Deut.  xxvi. 
12);  the  Levites,  stranger,  fatherless,  and 
widows  being  invited  thereto.  The  tithes 
were  considerably  neglected  after  the  exile 
(Neh.  xiii.  10;  Mai.  iii.  8,  10);  and,  at  the 
later  period  of  Roman  rule,  high-priests 
often  laid  violent  hands  on  the  priestly 
tithes.  (Joseph.:  Ant.  xx.  8,  8;  9,  2.)  The 
Pharisees,  on  the  other  hand,  insisted  upon 


Tit 


(  912  ) 


Tol 


the  tithal  rules  as  conditions  of  righteous¬ 
ness,  and  entered  upon  a  casuistical  and 
minute  application  of  them.  Our  Lord 
refers  to  their  particular  care  in  this  regard. 
(Matt,  xxiii.  23.)”  —  Leyrer.  Cf.  Schaff- 
Herzog:  Ency . ,  vol.  iii. ,  pp.  2365-66. 

Titular,  a  term  applied  to  a  person 
who  has  merely  a  title  to  a  benefice,  not 
having  yet  entered  on  its  privileges. 

Ti'tus,  the  “  fellow-helper”  of  Paul,  a 
Gentile  (Gal.  ii.  3),  was  probably  one  of 
Paul’s  converts  (Tit.  i.  4),  but  was  never 
circumcised.  (Gal.  ii.  3.)  Titus  was  the 
companion  of  Paul  in  many  of  his  mission¬ 
ary  journeys  (2  Cor.  viii.  6,  16,  23),  and 
was  with  him  in  his  second  Roman  im¬ 
prisonment.  (2  Tim.  iv.  10.)  According  to 
tradition  Titus  died  as  bishop  of  Crete. 

Tobit.  See  Apocrypha. 

Todd,  John,  D.  D.,  a  distinguished 
Congregational  minister  and  author;  b.  at 
Rutland,  Vt.,  Oct.  9,  1800;  d.  at  Pittsfield, 
Mass.,  Aug.  24,  1873.  He  was  graduated 
at  Yale  College,  1822,  and  Andover  Theo¬ 
logical  Seminary,  1826;  pastor  in  Groton, 
Mass.,  1827-33;  of  the  Edwards  Church, 
Northampton,  1833-36;  of  the  First  Con¬ 
gregational  Church,  Philadelphia,  1836-42; 
of  the  First  Church,  Pittsfield,  Mass., 
1842-70.  He  wrote  many  widely  circulated 
books.  Among  them  are:  Lectures  to  Chil¬ 
dren;  Student's  Manual ;  Index  Rerum; 
Future  Punishment  (1863)  ;  Hints  and 
Thoughts  for  Christians  (1867);  Woman's 
Rights  (1867);  The  Sunset -land,  or  the 
Great  Pacific  Slope  (1870).  See  John  Todd: 
The  Story  of  his  Life  told  mainly  by  Him¬ 
self  (New  York,  1876). 

Toledo,  Councils  of.  Toledo  is  a  fa¬ 
mous  old  city  in  Spain,  and  is  still  the  seat 
of  an  archbishopric.  Many  Church  synods 
were  held  there.  About  the  date  of  the 
first  council  there  is  much  difference  of 
opinion,  but  it  was  probably  called  about 
400  by  Patronus,  bishop  of  Toledo,  in  the 
pontificate  of  Anastasius,  to  pass  decrees 
against  the  Priscillianists.  Another  was 
called  for  the  same  purpose  in  447  by  Leo 
the  Great. 

That,  however,  known  as  the  Second 
Council  of  Toledo  was  held  in  531,  under 
the  presidency  of  the  Archbishop  Mon- 
tanus,  and  five  canons  were  passed  con¬ 
cerning  ecclesiastical  discipline,  which  had 
much  relaxed  under  the  Arian  princes. 

The  Third  Counci-1  of  Toledo  was  held 
after  the  conversion  of  the  Goths  from 
Arianism,  in  order  to  fortify  the  people  in 
their  creed,  and  bring  the  discipline  of  the 


Church  into  better  form.  It  was  held  in 
589,  under  Leander,  bishop  of  Seville: 
there  were  sixty-three  prelates  present, 
besides  five  proctors  for  those  who  were 
absent.  King  Reccared,  who  had  been 
converted  that  year,  ordered  a  fast  of  three 
days  to  be  kept  before  the  opening  of  the 
assembly;  three  -  and  -  twenty  important 
canons  were  passed  against  Arianism,  and 
the  same  number  on  matters  of  the  Church. 
The  second  canon  enjoined  repeating  the 
Creed  before  receiving  the  Communion, 
and  the  eleventh  regulated  Penance.  The 
synod  was  closed  with  an  eloquent  address 
by  Leander  on  the  conversion  of  the  Goths. 
Two  smaller  synods  were  held  in  597  to 
guard  the  sobriety  of  priests,  and  in  610  to 
settle  the  primacy  upon  the  see  of  Toledo. 

The  Fourth  Council  of  Toledo  was  held 
in  633,  under  the  presidency  of  St.  Isidore; 
it  discussed  both  discipline  and  doctrine, 
and  seventy-five  canons  were  made  re¬ 
garding  the  rights  of  the  king.  It  was  at¬ 
tended  by  seventy-two  bishops. 

The  Fifth  Council  was  convened  in  636 
under  Eugenius  of  Toledo;  twenty  bishops 
were  present,  and  nine  canons  were  pass¬ 
ed  confirming  the  decrees  of  the  last  as¬ 
sembly. 

The  Sixth  Council,  in  638,  met  to  secure 
the  orthodox  faith,  and  amongst  other 
things  a  canon  was  made  that  none  but 
Catholics  should  be  allowed  to  live  in 
Spain.  Sylva,  archbishop  of  Narbonne, 
was  president,  and  fifty-two  bishops  at¬ 
tended. 

The  Seventh  Council  was  held  in  646; 
the  eighth  in  653,  when  measures  were 
taken  against  Jews  and  heretics;  the  ninth, 
in  655;  the  tenth,  in  656;  the  eleventh,  in 
675,  settled  the  better  partition  of  the 
diocese,  and  denounced  the  licentiousness 
of  the  priests;  the  twelfth,  in  681,  consist¬ 
ed  of  thirty-five  prelates,  presided  over  by 
Julian,  archbishop  of  Toledo;  it  confirmed 
King  Erwig’s  title  to  the  throne,  and  gave 
a  check  to  the  Jews;  the  thirteenth,  in  683, 
made  thirteen  canons  against  those  who 
should  plot  against  or  despise  the  authority 
of  the  sovereign;  the  fourteenth,  in  684, 
was  against  the  Monothelites  and  Apolli- 
narians;  the  fifteenth,  in  688,  discussed  the 
substance  and  nature  of  Christ;  the  six¬ 
teenth,  in  693,  protested  against  idolatry 
and  the  licentiousness  of  priests;  the  seven¬ 
teenth,  in  694,  was  against  the  Jews.  The 
eighteenth,  and  last,  was  held  in  701;  its 
decrees  are  lost.  Other  Synods  of  Toledo 
are  mentioned,  down  to  1473,  but  none  of 
importance. — Benham:  Diet,  of  Religion. 

Toleration,  the  liberty  allowed,  in 
countries  which  have  an  established  relig¬ 
ion,  to  persons  holding  other  views  or 


Tol 


(  913  ) 


Tol 


opinions  to  teach  publicly  their  own  tenets, 
and  to  worship  in  the  mode  of  their  own 
choice,  or  not  at  all.  Such  liberty  is  so 
entirely  taken  for  granted  in  the  conditions 
under  which  we  live,  that  it  is  difficult  to 
realize  how  different  was  the  state  of  things 
in  former  times.  It  is  unfair  to  the  Church 
of  Rome  to  reckon  intolerance  as  her 
special  monopoly,  though  it  may  fairly  be 
claimed  for  the  Reformation  that  tolera¬ 
tion  only  became  possible  under  it.  It  was 
nc  cruelty  on  the  part  of  the  authorities  of 
the  Church  previously  which  led  them  to 
punish  with  fine,  imprisonment,  and  death 
those  who  challenged  the  received  doc¬ 
trines.  For  as  a  State  claims  to  itself  the 
right  to  imprison  thieves  and  hang  mur¬ 
derers,  so  it  was  believed  that  there  was  a 
like  duty  to  punish  those  who  depraved 
morals  and  ruined  the  souls  of  men.  A 
man  who  wilfully  poisons  a  soul  was  as 
sinful  as  he  who  wilfully  poisons  a  body. 
And  the  Church  of  Rome,  holding  itself  to 
be  infallible,  and  its  doctrines  to  be  neces¬ 
sary  to  salvation,  proclaimed  it  her  duty  to 
visit  with  the  heaviest  penalties  those  who 
fell  into  heresy  concerning  the  faith  de¬ 
livered  to  the  Church.  It  also  appears 
possible  that  the  mode  of  execution  by 
burning,  so  constantly  adopted,  had  in  it 
originally  some  idea  of  expiating,  by  burn¬ 
ing  on  earth,  sins  which  it  was  held  de¬ 
served  eternal  torment  of  the  same  kind  in 
a  most  literal  sense.  It  does  not,  there¬ 
fore,  surprise  us  that  some  of  the  gentlest 
of  men  were  uncompromising  “  persecu¬ 
tors;”  such  men  were  St.  Francis  de  Sales 
and  Sir  Thomas  More.  It  was  the  disbe¬ 
lief  with  which  men  came  to  regard  this 
claim  to  infallibility  which  led  them  to 
deny  the  right  of  any  man,  or  body  of  men, 
to  be  regarded  as  an  authority  over  con¬ 
sciences.  We  can  therefore  do  justice  to 
men  like  St.  Dominic,  and  some  of  the  pro¬ 
moters  of  the  Inquisition,  whilst  we  thank 
God  that  their  day  of  persecution  is  over. 

But  the  rejection  of  Roman  infallibility 
was  by  no  means  the  signal  for  general 
toleration.  When  Henry  VIII.  destroyed 
the  pope’s  authority  in  England  he  took  it 
to  himself,  continued  the  censorship  of 
books,  and  extended  it  over  not  only  the¬ 
ological  but  political  writings.  In  Queen 
Elizabeth’s  reign  the  right  of  printing  was 
confined  to  the  few  presses  in  London, 
Cambridge,  and  Oxford,  which  held  royal 
licenses,  and  in  1637  a  decree  of  the  Star 
Chamber  limited  the  number  of  printers  in 
the  whole  country  to  twenty,  and  of  type¬ 
founders  to  four,  and  the  work  of  these 
was  subject  to  the  strictest  supervision. 
The  danger  to  life  and  liberty  into  which  a 
dissenter  from  Roman  doctrine  ran  in  the 
days  of  Queen  Mary  was  transferred  to 


Roman  Catholics  themselves  under  Queen 
Elizabeth.  Not  only  so,  but  the  animosi¬ 
ties  which  divided  Protestant  from  Protes¬ 
tant  were  no  better.  Barnes,  a  Lutheran, 
who  himself  had  been  imprisoned  for  her¬ 
esy,  impeached  Lambert  for  heresy  con¬ 
cerning  the  sacrament  in  the  days  of  Henry 
VIII.,  and  procured  his  burning,  and  no 
sect  recognized  any  shadow  of  divergence 
from  its  own  standards.  While  the  Ro¬ 
manist  regarded  all  outside  his  dominion 
as  outcasts  from  grace,  the  Anglican  could 
only  extend  the  terms  of  salvation  to  those 
who  took  the  sacraments  from  the  apostol- 
ically  ordained  minister:  Lutherans  anath¬ 
ematized  those  who  denied  the  Real  Pres¬ 
ence,  Calvin  burned  the  Unitarian  Servetus, 
and  the  Unitarians  were  uncompromising 
against  those  who  denied  the  inspiration  of 
the  Scriptures.  When  the  Star  Chamber 
was  abolished  in  1640,  the  right  which  it 
had  exercised  was  claimed  by  the  Parlia¬ 
ment,  which  pursued  the  same  policy  by 
an  ordinance  for  the  regulation  of  printing. 
When  the  Westminster  Assembly  met  in 
1643,  the  Independents  proposed  that  all 
sects  should  be  tolerated,  but  the  Presby¬ 
terians  successfully  opposed  them,  and  the 
Westminster  Confession  (ch.  23)  asserts  the 
duty  of  the  magistrate  to  promote  the  true 
religion,  and  to  restrain  and  punish  hetero¬ 
doxy.  That  the  Independents  themselves 
had  not  learned  to  practice  the  principles 
of  religious  freedom  is  evident  from  the 
history  of  their  proceedings  in  New  Eng¬ 
land.  “  From  the  Reformation  to  the  Com¬ 
monwealth,”  says  Bishop  Heber,  “  there 
is  abundant  proof  that,  much  as  every  re¬ 
ligious  party  in  its  turn  had  suffered  from 
persecution,  and  loudly  and  bitterly  as  each 
had,  in  its  own  particular  instance,  com¬ 
plained  of  the  severities  exercised  against 
its  members,  no  party  had  yet  been  found 
to  perceive  the  great  wickedness  of  perse¬ 
cution  in  the  abstract,  or  the  moral  unfit¬ 
ness  of  temporal  punishment  as  an  engine 
of  religious  controversy.  Even  the  sects 
who  were  themselves  under  oppression 
exclaimed  against  their  rulers,  not  as  be¬ 
ing  persecutors  at  all,  but  as  persecuting 
those  who  professed  the  truth;  and  each 
sect,  as  it  obtained  the  power  to  wield  the 
secular  weapon,  esteemed  it  also  a  duty  as 
well  as  a  privilege  not  to  bear  the  sword 
in  vain.”  The  first  home  of  religious  lib¬ 
erty  was  Holland,  where  the. keen  discus¬ 
sions  that  went  on  opened  the  eyes  of 
religious  men  to  the  sacredness  of  the 
conscience.  But  the  greatest  apostle  of 
toleration  in  England  was  John  Milton, 
whose  Areopagitica:  A  Defence  of  the  Liber¬ 
ty  of  Unlicensed  Printing ,  published  in  No¬ 
vember,  1644,  is  perhaps  the  noblest 
pamphlet  in  our  language.  “  The  principle 


Tol 


(  9i4  ) 


Ton 


for  which  he  contended,”  writes  Professor 
Morley,  “  is  that  upon  which  all  healthy 
growth  and  national  prosperity,  in  its  true 
sense,  must  depend.  He  took  for  his 
model  an  oration  written  to  be  read,  which 
was  addressed  by  Isocrates  to  the  Areop¬ 
agus,  the  great  Council  of  Athens.  Isoc¬ 
rates  called  on  the  Parliament  of  Athens 
to  undo  acts  of  its  own;  Milton  was  mak¬ 
ing  a  like  call  on  the  Areopagus  of  Eng¬ 
land.”  (Preface  to  Famous  Pamphlets.')  The 
first,  however,  to  lay  down  unflinchingly 
this  great  principle  was  Roger  Williams 
(q.  v.)\  and  other  works  which  have  pro¬ 
moted  the  cause  of  the  slowly  learned  les¬ 
son  of  toleration  have  been  Bishop  Jeremy 
Taylor’s  Liberty  of  Prophesying ,  Barclay’s 
Apology  for  the  Quakers ,  Locke’s  Treatise 
on  Toleration ;  Sydney  Smith’s  Peter  Plym- 
leys  Letters ;  Dr.  Martineau’s  Rationale  of 
Religious  Enquiry,  and  John  Stuart  Mill’s 
Essay  on  Liberty.  The  result  may  be  sum¬ 
med  up  in  the  language  of  Mr.  Froude: 
“  An  enlarged  experience  of  one  another 
has  taught  believers  of  all  sects  that  their 
differences  need  not  be  pressed  into  mortal 
hatred;  and  we  have  been  led  forward  un¬ 
consciously  into  a  recognition  of  a  broader 
Christianity  than  as  yet  we  are  able  to  pro¬ 
fess.  in  the  respectful  acknowledgment  of 
excellence  wherever  excellence  is  found. 
Where  we  see  piety,  continence,  courage, 
self-forgetfulness,  there,  or  not  far  off,  we 
know  is  the  Spirit  of  the  Almighty  and,  as 
we  look  around  us  among  our  living  con¬ 
temporaries,  or  look  back  with  open  eyes 
into  the  history  of  the  past,  we  see  that 
God  is  no  respecter  of  ‘  denominations  * 
any  more  than  he  is  a  respecter  of  persons. 
His  highest  gifts  are  shed  abroad  with  an 
even  hand  among  the  sects  of  Christendom, 
and  petty  distinctions  of  opinion  melt  away 
and  become  invisible  in  the  fullness  of  a 
larger  truth.” — Benham:  Diet,  of  Religion. 

Toleration  Act,  “an  act  of  Parliament, 
passed  in  the  first  year  of  the  reign  of  Wil¬ 
liam  and  Mary  (1689),  by  which  the  free¬ 
dom  of  worship  was  granted  to  such  Dis¬ 
senters  from  the  Church  of  England  as 
should  make  a  declaration  against  transub- 
stantiation,  and  take  the  oaths  of  alle¬ 
giance  and  supremacy.  Its  benefits  were 
not  extended  to  Unitarians  nor  to  Roman 
Catholics,  nor  did  it  relieve  Dissenters 
from  the  Test  and  Corporation  Acts.  In 
1813  the  clause  in  the  act  which  excepted 
Unitarians  was  repealed;  and  subsequent 
legislation  has  given  full  religious  freedom 
to  Dissenters  of  all  kinds,  and  likewise  to 
Roman  Catholics.” — Cassell:  Cyclo.  See 
Test  and  Corporation  Acts. 

Tongues,  Gift  of.  “  The  promise  of 


our  Lord  to  his  disciples,  *  They  shall 
speak  with  new  tongues  ’  (Mark  xvi.  17), 
was  fulfilled  on  the  day  of  Pentecost,  when 
cloven  tongues  like  fire  sat  upon  the  dis¬ 
ciples,  and  ‘  every  man  heard  them  speak 
in  his  own  language.’  (Acts.  ii.  1-12.)  It 
is  usually  supposed  that  this  supernatural 
knowledge  of  languages  was  given  to  the 
disciples  for  their  work  as  evangelists;  but 
it  appears  from  the  narrative  that  the 
‘  tongues  ’  were  used  as  an  instrument,  not 
of  teaching,  but  of  praise,  and  those  who 
spoke  them  seemed  to  others  to  be  under 
the  influence  of  some  strong  excitement, 
‘  full  of  new  wine.’  Moreover,  the  Gift  of 
Tongues  is  definitely  asserted  to  be  a  ful¬ 
fillment  of  the  prediction  of  Joel  ii.  28;  and 
we  are  led,  therefore,  to  look  for  that 
which  answers  to  the  Gift  of  Tongues  in 
the  other  element  of  prophecy  which  is  in¬ 
cluded  in  the  Old  Testament  use  of  the 
word ;  and  this  is  found  in  the  ecstatic 
praise,  the  burst  of  song.  (1  Sam.  x.  5-13; 
xix.  20-24;  1  Chron.  xxv.  3.)  The  First 
Epistle  to  the  Corinthians  supplies  fuller 
data.  The  spiritual  gifts  are  classified  and 
compared,  arranged,  apparently ,  according 
to  their  worth.  The  facts  which  may  be 
gathered  are  briefly  these:  (1)  The  phe¬ 
nomena  of  the  Gift  of  Tongues  were  not 
confined  to  one  church  or  section  of  a 
church.  (2)  The  comparison  of  gifts,  in 
both  the  lists  given  by  St.  Paul  (1  Cor. 
xii.  8-10,  28-30),  places  that  of  tongues, 
and  the  interpretation  of  tongues,  lowest  in 
the  scale.  (3)  The  main  characteristic  of 
the  ‘  tongue  ’  is  that  it  is  unintelligible. 
The  man  ‘  speaks  mysteries,’  prays, 
blesses,  gives  thanks,  in  the  tongue  (1  Cor. 
xiv.  15,  16),  but  no  one  understands  him. 
(4)  The  ‘  tongues,’  however,  must  be  re¬ 
garded  as  real  languages.  The  ‘  divers 
kinds  of  tongues  ’  (1  Cor.  xii.  28),  the 
‘  tongues  of  men  ’  (1  Cor.  xiii.  1),  point  to 
differences  of  some  kind,  and  it  is  easier  to 
conceive  of  these  as  differences  of  language 
than  as  belonging  to  utterances  all  equally 
wild  and  inarticulate.  (5)  Connected  with 
the  ‘  tongues,’  there  was  the  corresponding 
power  of  interpretation.” — Smith:  Diet,  of 
the  Bible.  For  the  alleged  modern  revival 
of  the  gift  of  tongues  see  Catholic  Apos¬ 
tolic  Church. 

Tonsure.  From  an  early  date  it  was 
customary  for  the  priests  in  the  Roman 
and  Greek  Churches  to  shave  a  portion  of 
the  skull.  After  the  sixth  century  the 
fashion  was  adopted  by  monks.  The  ex¬ 
tent  of  the  tonsure  distinguishes  the  higher 
from  the  lower  clergy.  Most  of  the  men¬ 
dicant  and  cloistered  orders  permit  only  a 
narrow  strip  of  hair  to  grow  around  the 
head:  all  above  and  below  is  shaved.  The 


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tonsure  is  conferred  by  bishops,  cardinal 
priests,  and  abbots. 

Toplady,  Augustus  Montague,  b.  at 
Farnham,  Surrey,  Nov.  4,  1740;  d.  in  Lon¬ 
don,  Aug.  11,  1778.  He  was  ordained  in 
1762,  and  became  vicar  of  Broad  Hembury, 
Devonshire,  in  1768,  where  he  remained  till 
his  death.  At  the  age  of  nineteen  he  pub¬ 
lished  Poems  on  Sacred  Subjects',  but  his 
most  important  hymns  were  written  in 
later  years.  Among  them  was:  “  Rock  of 
Ages,  cleft  for  me,”  first  published  in  1776, 
in  the  Gospel  Magazine ,  of  which  he  was 
then  the  editor.  A  complete  edition  of  his 
verses  was  published  by  D.  Sedgwick,  in 
i860.  Toplady  was  a  Calvinistic  Metho¬ 
dist,  and  engaged  in  a  controversy  with 
John  Wesley,  in  which  very  bitter  words 
were  employed  on  both  sides. 

Torquemada,  Thomas  de,  an  infamous 
Inquisitor  of  the  Dominican  order;  b.  at 
Valladolid,  1420;  d.  at  Avila,  Sept.  16, 
1498.  He  founded  the  Inquisition  in  Spain, 
in  the  reign  of  Ferdinand  and  Isabella.  It 
is  said  that  9,000  victims  perished  at  the 
stake  by  his  command.  He  was  influential 
in  procuring  the  banishment  of  the  Jews 
from  Spain. 

Torrey,  Joseph,  D.  D.,  Congregational¬ 
ism  b.  at  Rowley,  Mass.,  Feb.  2,  1797;  d.  at 
Burlington,  Vt.,  Nov.  26,  1867;  was  grad¬ 
uated  at  Dartmouth  College,  1816,  and  at 
Andover  Theological  Seminary,  1819;  pas¬ 
tor  at  Royalton,  Vt. ,  1819-27;  professor  of 
Latin  and  Greek  in  the  University  of  Ver¬ 
mont,  1827-42.  He  was  professor  of  intel¬ 
lectual  and  moral  philosophy  from  1842 
until  his  death,  and  from  1863  to  1865  pres¬ 
ident  of  the  university.  The  literary  work 
by  which  he  is  best  known  is  a  translation 
of  Neander’s  General  History  of  the  Chris¬ 
tian  Religion  and  Church  (Boston,  12th  ed., 
1881),  5  vols. ,  with  index  and  copious  notes. 

Tractarian  Movement,  the  name  given  to 
the  religious  revival  which  commenced  in 
Oxford  in  1833.  Two  influences  were  at 
work  in  causing  it.  One  was  the  tendency 
to  rationalism,  brought  about  by  the  study 
of  German  theologians;  the  other  the  per¬ 
functory  way  in  which  the  clergy  per¬ 
formed  their  clerical  duties.  Pluralists 
abounded,  and  there  was  a  general  spirit 
of  money-getting  abroad  amongst  the  cler¬ 
gy.  The  rubrics  were  not  carried  out; 
there  was  no  daily  service,  except  in  the 
cathedrals;  the  Holy  Communion  was  ad¬ 
ministered  only  at  long  intervals,  and,  al¬ 
together,  church-life  was  at  a  very  low  ebb. 

The  Reform  Bill  of  1831,  with  its  polit¬ 
ical  liberalism,  had  made  a  deep  impres¬ 


sion,  especially  on  some  of  the  clergy  of 
Oxford,  and  roused  them  up  to  a  defence 
of  the  Established  Church.  The  leaders  of 
the  movement  were  two  celebrated  Fellows 
of  Oriel — John  Keble  and  John  Henry 
Newman,  with  whom  were  joined  Richard 
Hurrell  Froude,  Arthur  Philip  Perceval, 
Frederick  William  Faber,  William  Palmer, 
of  Magdalen  and  William  Palmer,  of  Wor¬ 
cester,  Edward  Bouverie  Pusey,  and  Isaac 
Williams.  To  these  must  be  added  one 
great  Cambridge  name,  that  of  Hugh  James 
Rose  ( q .  v. ). 

Keble,  by  the  publication  in  1827  of  the 
Christian  Year ,  had  exercised  an  immense 
influence.  His  was  a  singularly  beautiful 
personal  character,  and  to  him  the  Church 
of  England  was  the  only  possible  Church. 
Newman,  till  the  age  of  twenty-one,  had 
been  brought  up  under  Calvinistic  influ¬ 
ences.  Richard  Hurrell  Froude  was  a  man 
of  versatile  genius,  but  of  no  real  depth, 
very  impetuous,  the  “knight-errant”  of 
his  party,  and  he  undoubtedly  led  Newman 
toward  Rome.  These  three  men  had,  be¬ 
tween  1828  and  1833,  been  gradually  ap¬ 
proaching  toward  a  definite  plan  of  action. 
On  July  14,  1833,  Keble  preached  an  assize 
sermon,  entitled  “  National  Apostasy,” 
which  so  moved  Newman  that  a  meeting 
was  at  once  agreed  on,  at  which  the  method 
of  action  should  be  decided.  This  meeting 
took  place  at  Hadleigh,  where  Hugh  James 
Rose  was  the  rector,  and  at  which  all  those 
named  above  were  present  except  Faber, 
Pusey ,  and  Williams.  They  had  previously 
published  a  book  called  The  Church's 
Manual ,  in  which  they  had  prominently 
brought  forward  the  significance  of  the 
sacraments  and  the  importance  of  the 
priesthood;  this  manual  they  now  revised, 
and  as  a  means  for  further  teaching,  New¬ 
man  started  the  idea  of  Tracts  for  the 
Times,  which  were  to  be  backed  by  higher 
pulpit  teaching.  Newman  is  called  the 
tractarian  par  excellence.  Of  the  ninety 
which  were  published  in  the  course  of 
eight  years  he  wrote  twenty-eight.  In 
1835  Pusey,  who  at  first  had  held  aloof 
from  the  movement,  came  into  the  ranks 
with  his  tract  on  Baptism;  he  was  a  man 
of  higher  standing  than  the  rest,  being 
Hebrew  Professor,  a  D.  D.,and  a  canon  of 
Christ  Church.  His  accession  gave  the 
movement  name  and  force,  and  originated 
the  term  Puseyite,  which  was  so  long  the 
epithet  of  a  High-Churchman.  In  1838 
the  bishop  of  Oxford  animadverted  on  the 
Tracts,  but  he  did  not  oppose  their  publi¬ 
cation;  but  the  opposition  waxed  louder 
year  by  year,  especially  on  the  publication, 
in  1839,  by  Newman  and  Keble,  of  R.  H. 
Froude' s  Remains  (he  having  died  in  1836). 
This  book  contained  words  of  the  strongest 


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character  against  the  Reformation,  and 
opened  the  eyes  of  many  who  had  hitherto 
doubted  as  to  the  tendency  of  the  move¬ 
ment.  In  1841  came  the  celebrated  Tract 
go,  from  the  pen  of  Newman,  which  was 
said  to  teach  that  a  man  might  subscribe 
the  Thirty-nine  Articles,  even  when  he  held 
the  doctrines  of  the  Church  of  Rome.  This 
raised  a  tremendous  storm  in  Oxford. 
Four  tutors  published  a  protest  against  it, 
and  it  was  censured  by  the  Heads  of 
Houses.  This  was  the  last  of  the  Tracts. 
The  bishop  of  Ox.ford,  Dr.  Bagot,  wrote  to 
Newman  requesting  that  the  series  might 
cease,  and  Newman  immediately  yielded. 
Though  their  publication  made  so  much 
noise  at  the  time,  the  Tracts  are  now  but 
little  read,  and  those  who  do  read  them 
wonder  that  they  should  have  caused  so 
much  excitement.  The  name  “Tractarian” 
was  given  to  the  writers  by  Dr.  Christo¬ 
pher  Benson,  Master  of  the  Temple,  who 
was  one  of  their  strongest  opponents. 
Cardinal  Newman’s  Apologia,  written  in 
1864,  is  eminently  the  best  book  to  read  for 
the  history  of  the  movement. — Benham: 
Diet,  of  Religion. 

Transfiguration.  This  wonderful  episode 
in  the  earthly  life  of  Christ  is  recorded 
with  almost  exact  repetition  in  the  synop¬ 
tical  gospels  (Matt.  xvii.  1— 1 3 ;  Mark  ix. 
2-13;  Luke  ix.  28-36),  and  is  alluded  toby 
Peter.  (2  Peter  i.  16-18.)  “  The  design  of 
this  miraculous  event  was  manifold;  but 
chiefly  to  attest  in  the  most  solemn  and 
mysterious  manner  the  divinity  of  the 
Messiah’s  person  and  mission;  to  support 
the  faith  of  the  disciples  by  evidence  of  the 
existence  of  a  separate  state,  which  was 
furnished  by  the  appearance  and  conversa¬ 
tion  of  Moses  and  Elias;  and  as  showing, 
by  the  audible  declaration  of  the  Father,  a 
broad  distinction  between  this  prophet  and 
all  others:  ‘  This  is  my  beloved  Son,  hear 
ye  him.’  The  place  of  the  transfigura¬ 
tion  was  probably  the  southern  slope  of 
Hermon,  as  it  occurred  a  few  days  after 
the  confession  of  Peter  at  Caesarea- Phi¬ 
lippi,  which  lay  at  the  foot  of  Mount  Her¬ 
mon,  and  on  the  eve  of  Christ’s  last  jour¬ 
ney  to  Jerusalem.  Mount  Tabor,  the 
traditional  site,  does  not  answer  the  con¬ 
ditions.  The  summit  was  then  a  fortified 
and  occupied  camp.  The  time  of  the  event 
was  most  likely  the  night,  as  then  it  would 
be  better  seen;  besides,  the  disciples  were 
awakened  by  the  light.  Again,  it  was  the 
next  day  before  they  descended.  (Luke  ix. 
37.)  Peter,  James  and  John  were  the  sole 
spectators  ;  our  Lord,  Moses  and  Elijah 
the  actors.  It  was  partly  an  objective  ap¬ 
pearance,  partly  spiritual  vision.” — Schaff: 
Bible  Dictionary. 


Transubstantiation  (from  irons  and  sub¬ 
stantia,  a  change  of  one  substance  into 
another),  in  the  Roman  Catholic  Church, 
the  miraculous  conversion  of  the  bread  and 
wine  used  in  the  Eucharist  into  the  “  very 
body  and  blood  ”  of  Christ,  a  change  said 
to  be  wrought  by  the  act  of  consecration. 
“The  forerunnersof  the  Reformation  oppos¬ 
ed  this  doctrine,  especially  Wycliffe,  Huss 
and  Wessel.  The  Reformers  were  unan¬ 
imous  in  rejecting  transubstantiation  as  a 
fundamental  error,  contrary  to  Scripture, 
to  reason,  to  the  testimony  of  the  senses, 
to  the  very  nature  of  the  sacrament,  and 
leading  to  gross  superstition  and  the  ado¬ 
ration  of  the  host  (first  prescribed  by  Car¬ 
dinal  Guido  in  Cologne,  1203).  The  last 
was  denounced  as  downright  idolatry 
(though  it  follows  as  a  logical  consequence 
from  the  doctrine  that  the  very  body  and 
blood  of  our  Lord  are  literally  present  on 
the  altar).  There  was,  however,  a  serious 
difference  among  the  Reformers  in  the  ex¬ 
tent  of  opposition.  Luther,  from  consci¬ 
entious  conviction,  adhered  to  the  literal 
interpretation  of  the  words  of  the  institu¬ 
tion,  the  doctrine  of  the  corporeal  presence 
and  the  fruition  of  the  true  body  and  blood 
of  Christ  by  all  communicants  (though 
with  different  effect);  but  substituted  for 
transubstantiation  the  idea  of  co-existence 
of  body  and  blood  ‘  in,  with,  under  ’  bread 
and  wine  during  the  sacramental  transac¬ 
tion;  while  Zwingli  and  Calvin  gave  up  the 
literal  interpretation,  and  the  latter  sub¬ 
stituted  for  the  idea  of  a  corporeal  pres¬ 
ence  the  idea  of  a  spiritual  real  presence, 
and  for  manducation  by  the  mouth  and  the 
teeth,  a  spiritual  real  fruition  by  faith 
alone.” — Dr.  Philip  Schaff  in  Schaff-Her- 
zog:  Ency.,  vol.  iii. ,  p.  2387.  See  Lord’s 
Supper. 

Trappe,  La,  an  abbey  of  the  Cistercian 
Order,  founded  in  1140  by  Rotrou,  Count 
of  Perche.  As  in  many  other  such  abbeys, 
the  discipline  became  greatly  relaxed, 
but  it  was  reformed  by  the  Abbot  Ar- 
mand  Jean  le  Bouthillier  de  Ranc6.  He 
was  born  in  1626,  and  ordained  a  priest  in 
1651,  and  in  1662  he  determined  on  the  ref¬ 
ormation  of  his  abbey,  which  he  had  al¬ 
ready  held  in  commendam  for  twenty-five 
years,  it  being  in  those  days  no  uncommon 
thing  to  confer  these  posts  on  children  of 
tender  years.  Cardinal  Richelieu  had  given 
him  this  and  several  other  pieces  of  prefer¬ 
ment,  and,  having  also  succeeded  to  a  large 
fortune,  the  abbot  led  for  a  time  a  dissi¬ 
pated  life  in  Paris;  but  his  heart  being 
touched  by  the  loss  of  a  friend,  he  deter¬ 
mined  to  sell  everything  and  distribute  the 
money  to  the  poor,  and,  giving  up  all  other 
benefices,  he  retired  to  La  Trappe.  He  or- 


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Tre 


darned  that  his  monks  should  return  to  the 
“strict  observance”  of  the  Cistercians, 
and  in  1663  he  got  leave  from  the  king  to 
hold  the  abbey  as  a  regular  abbot.  Having 
entered  on  a  new  novitiate,  he  succeeded 
by  his  eloquence  and  example  in  persuad¬ 
ing  his  monks  to  consent  to  the  increased 
austerities,  which  forbade  them  to  take 
wine,  meat,  fish,  or  eggs,  and  to  cut  them¬ 
selves  off  completely  from  the  outer  world, 
and  devote  themselves  to  manual  labor. 
They  even  exceeded  the  strict  rules  of  the 
Cistercians;  they  rose  at  two  o’clock,  and 
went  to  rest  at  seven  in  the  winter  and  eight 
in  summer.  From  two  till  half-past  four 
they  spent  in  prayer  and  meditation,  and 
then  retired  to  their  cells  till  half-past  five, 
when  they  said  Prime.  At  seven  they  went 
to  labor,  either  out  or  in  doors;  at  half-past 
nine  was  said  Tierce,  followed  by  the  Mass, 
Sext,  and  None;  then  they  dined  on  vege¬ 
tables;  at  one  o’clock  returned  to  work  for 
another  two  hours,  and  then  retired  to 
their  cells  till  Vespers  at  four  o’clock;  this 
was  followed  by  a  meal  of  bread  and  water, 
and  spiritual  reading  till  six  o’clock,  when 
Compline  was  said;  at  seven  they  went  to 
their  cells  and  slept  on  pallets  of  straw. 
Absolute  silence  was  enjoined  at  all  times, 
and  they  had  to  make  their  wants  known 
by  signs.  Their  dress  was  a  long  gray 
cloak  with  wide  sleeves  and  a  black  cowl; 
they  wore  their  dress  by  night  as  well  as 
by  day.  Ranee  died  in  1700.  In  1790, 
when  other  monasteries  were  suppressed, 
the  Trappists  were  turned  out  of  France, 
and  took  refuge  in  Switzerland,  in  the 
monastery  of  Val  Sainte  in  Freiburg,  under 
Augustin  de  Lestrange;  but  this  was  de¬ 
stroyed  by  the  French  in  1798,  and  they 
wandered  about  till  the  Bourbon  restora¬ 
tion  in  1817,  when  they  recovered  La 
Trappe.and  Lestrange  established  branch¬ 
es  in  connection  with  it  in  Spain,  Italy, 
England,  Belgium,  and  Ireland. — Benham: 
Diet,  of  Religion.  As  early  as  1803  a  col¬ 
ony  of  Trappists  settled  near  Conewago, 
Penn.,  but  they  made  several  changes  of 
place,  and  finally  settled  at  Tracardie, 
N.  S.,  in  1813.  In  1848  Trappists  from 
Meillerage,  France,  founded  an  establish¬ 
ment  in  Kentucky,  and  another  has  been 
founded  at  Dubuque,  Iowa. 

Trappists.  See  Trappe,  La. 

Treggelles  ( tre-gelz '),  Samuel  Prideaux, 
LL.  D.,  an  eminent  New  Testament  critic 
and  editor;  b.  at  Wodehouse  Place,  Fal¬ 
mouth,  Jan.  30,  1813;  d.  at  Plymouth, 
April  24,  1875.  He  was  educated  in  the 
Falmouth  classical  school.  From  1828  to 
1834  he  was  employed  in  the  iron-works 
at  Neath  Abbey,  Glamorganshire,  and  yet 


at  the  age  of  twenty-five  he  formed  the  de¬ 
sign  of  preparing  a  critical  edition  of  the 
Greek  New  Testament.  In  the  prosecu¬ 
tion  of  his  work  he  visited  the  great  libra¬ 
ries  of  Europe,  and  collated  numerous 
manuscripts.  Besides  his  Greek  New  Testa¬ 
ment ,  published  1856-72,  he  edited  the 
Codex  Zacynthius  (1861),  and  the  Canon 
Muratorianus  (1868),  and  was  the  author 
of:  Remarks  on  the  Prophetic  Visions  of  the 
Book  of  Daniel  (1847);  On  the  Original 
Language  of  St.  Matthew’s  Gospel  (1850); 
The  Jansenists  (1851);  Account  of  the  Print¬ 
ed  Text  of  the  Greek  New  Testament,  with 
Remarks  on  its  Revision  on  Critical  Prin¬ 
ciples  (1854). 

Trench,  Richard  Chenevix,  D.  D., 
archbishop  of  Dublin;  b.  in  Dublin,  Ireland, 
Sept.  9, 1807;  d.  in  London,  March  28,1886. 
Educated  at  Trinity  College,  Cambridge, 
he  became  curate  of  Curdridge,  1835,  and 
Alverstoke,  1840;  rector  of  Itchinstoke, 
Hants,  1845;  dean  of  Westminster,  1856; 
archbishop  of  Dublin,  1864.  He  was  Hul- 
sean  lecturer  at  Cambridge,  1845-46,  and 
professor  of  divinity  in  King’s  College, 
London,  1847-58.  Archbishop  Trench’s 
works  occupy  no  inconsiderable  place  in 
English  literature.  His  best-known  theo¬ 
logical  works  are  his  Notes  on  the  Parables 
of  our  Lord,  and  Notes  on  the  Miracles  of 
our  Lord’  Lectures  on  Mediceval  Church 
History ;  Lessons  in  Proverbs ;  The  Sermon 
on  the  Mount  Lllustrated  from  St.  A  ugustine; 
St.  A  ugustine  as  an  Interpreter  of  Scripture ; 
Synonyms  of  the  New  Testament ;  and  The 
Epistles  to  the  Seven  Churches  of  Asia  Minor. 
Further,  Archbishop  Trench  was  an  ardent 
student  of  philology,  and  the  work  by 
which  he  is  best  known  in  literature  is  that 
entitled,  Gn  the  Study  of  Words. 

Trent,  Council  of,  the  nineteenth  or;  as 
some  authorities  reckon,  the  eighteenth  of 
the  oecumenical  councils  recognized  by 
the  Roman  Catholic  Church.  It  receives 
its  name  from  Trent  (  Tridentium ),  a  city  in 
the  southern  part  of  the  Tyrol,  where  it 
was  held  with  interruptions  from  Dec.  13, 
1545,  to  Dec.  4,  1563.  The  council  grew 
out  of  the  Reformation  and  was  desired  by 
many  in  both  parties.  The  Emperor, 
Charles  V.,  urged  it  zealously,  but  it  was 
again  and  again  postponed  by  the  policy  of 
the  papal  court.  In  the  final  result,  the 
Protestants  were  allowed  no  active  part  in 
its  action,  and  thepapal  delegates  controlled 
the  entire  management.  It  was  convened 
by  Pope  Paul  III.;  transferred  to  Bologna 
in  March,  1547,  on  account  of  the  plague; 
indefinitely  prorogued,  Sept.  17,  1549  ; 
brought  together  again  at  Trent,  May  1, 
1551,  by  Pope  Julius  III.  The  sittings 


Tre 


(  918  ) 


Tri 


were  again  suspended  by  the  victory  of  the 
Elector  Maurice  of  Saxony  over  the  Em¬ 
peror,  Charles  V.  The  council  again  as¬ 
sembled,  under  the  orders  of  Pius  IV.,  on 
Jan.  18,  1562,  and  continued  till  its  final 
adjournment  on  Dec.  4,  1563.  The  decrees 
and  canons  of  the  council  were  confirmed 
by  a  bull  of  Pius  IV.,  Jan.  26,  1564.  The 
object  of  the  council  was  to  condemn  the 
doctrines  and  principles  of  the  Reformation, 
and  to  define  the  position  of  the  Roman 
Church  on  all  disputed  points,  and  also  to 
effect  a  reformation  in  discipline  which  it 
was  generally  conceded  had  become  neces¬ 
sary.  The  council  abolished  some  eccle¬ 
siastical  abuses,  but  as  touching  doctrinal 
decisions  emphasized  the  peculiar  dogmas 
of  Rome  regarding  the  seven  sacraments; 
the  withdrawal  of  the  cup  from  the  laity, 
the  sacrifice  of  the  mass,  the  sacrament  of 
matrimony,  etc.  The  council  approved  the 
scholastic  doctrines  of  purgatory,  the  invo¬ 
cation  and  veneration  of  saints  and  their  rel¬ 
ics,  and  sacred  images,  also  on  the  selection 
offood,  fasts,  festival  days,  etc.  Thedecrees 
of  the  council  were  received  in  Italy,  Portu¬ 
gal,  Spain,  France,  the  Low  Countries, 
Poland,  and  the  Roman  Catholic  portion  of 
the  German  Empire.  Two  very  different 
histories  of  this  famous  council  have  been 
written.  One,  by  the  liberal  Fra  Paolo 
Sarpi,  of  Venice,  which  appeared  in  1619, 
and  the  other,  in  the  interest  of  the  papacy, 
by  Cardinal  Sforza  Pallavicino,  Rome, 
1656-57.  Among  Protestant  historians  of 
the  Council  of  Trent  are:  J.  A.  Buckley, 
London,  1852;  Bungener  (in  French;  Eng. 
trans.  by  D.  S.  Scott),  1855. 

Trespass  Offering.  See  Sacrifice. 

Treves,  Holy  Coat  of.  It  is  alleged 
that  the  seamless  coat  of  our  Blessed 
Saviour  is  preserved  in  the  city  of  Treves, 
it  having  been  given  to  this  place  by  the 
Empress  Helena.  The  earliest  mention  of 
it  is  in  the  Gesta  Trevirorum  in  the  twelfth 
century.  It  was  used  at  the  consecration 
of  Bishop  Bruno  in  1121,  and  translated 
from  the  choir  to  the  high  altar  of  the 
cathedral  in  1196.  In  1512,  and  several 
times  since,  it  has  been  exposed  for  the 
veneration  of  the  faithful;  the  last  time  was 
in  1844,  when  eleven  bishops  and  thousands 
of  people  flocked  to  Treves  on  the  occasion 
of  the  finding  of  an  ancient  ivory  belonging 
to  the  cathedral,  which  had  been  lost,  and 
which  is  supposed  to  confirm  its  authentic¬ 
ity.  Many  miracles  were  reported  to  have 
taken  place  at  this  time.  Examination  of 
the  garment,  however,  has  greatly  shaken 
the  faith  of  the  most  learned  of  the  Roman 
Catholics  in  its  genuineness,  which  is  now 
pronounced  not  a  matter  of  faith,  but  of 


“  pious  opinion.” — Benham:  Diet,  of  Re¬ 
ligion. 

Tribes  of  Israel.  The  children  of  Israel 
were  already  divided  in  Egypt  into  twelve 
tribes,  according  to  the  number  of  the  sons 
of  Jacob.  As  the  tribe  of  Joseph  divided 
itself  into  two  bodies,  politically  alike,  the 
number  of  tribes  was  really  thirteen,  but 
the  separation  of  the  tribe  of  Levi  from 
the  rest  restored  the  original  number,  as 
may  be  seen  from  the  order  of  the  camp  dur¬ 
ing  the  wandering  in  the  wilderness.  (Num. 
ii. ;  x.  13  seq.)  In  the  midst,  round  the 
tabernacle,  we  find  the  priests  and  the  three 
families  of  Levi,  and  then,  toward  the  re¬ 
gion  of  the  sky,  the  twelve  tribes  in  four 
triads,  each  led  by  a  prince.  The  triads 
are  formed  with  respect  to  the  maternal 
relationship:  (1)  Judah,  Issachar,  Zebulun; 
(2)  Reuben,  Simeon,  Gad;  (3)  Ephraim, 
Manasseh,  Benjamin;  (4)  Dan,  Asher, 
Naphtali.  Since  Levi  received  no  portion, 
the  number  “  twelve  ”  forms  the  basis  for 
the  division  of  the  country.  In  the  bless¬ 
ing  of  Jacob  (Gen.  xlix. ),  where  Levi  is 
mentioned  with  the  other  tribes,  Ephraim 
and  Manasseh  are  combined  under  the 
name  of  Joseph. 

The  tribes  were  again  divided  into  fa?n- 
ilies;  these,  again,  into  houses ;  then  came 
“  man  by  man.”  (Josh.  vii.  14,  17  seq.) 
At  the  head  of  the  tribes  stood  the  princes 
(Ex.  xxxiv.  31),  called  also  heads.  (Num. 
xxx.  1.)  Then  came  the  heads  of  the  fam¬ 
ilies  and  houses  of  the  fathers. 

(1)  Asher,  son  of  Jacob  by  Zilpah  (Gen. 
xxxv.  26),  had  four  sons  and  one  daughter. 
(Gen.  xlvi.  17.)  His  tribe,  when  numbered 
at  Sinai,  amounted  to  41,500  (Num.  i.  41), 
and  in  the  plains  of  Moab,  53,400.  (Num. 
xxvi.  44-47.)  In  the  time  of  David  it  fur¬ 
nished  40,000  soldiers  (1  Chron.  xii.  36), 
but  it  never  rose  to  any  importance.  Its 
territory  is  described  in  Josh.  xix.  24-31, 
but  it  did  not  expel  the  Canaanites  (Judg. 
i.  31,  32)  with  whom  it  mingled,  thus  estran¬ 
ging  itself  from  the  common  interest; 
hence  reproved  for  not  aiding  Barak.  (Judg. 
v.  17.) 

(2)  Benjamin ,  the  youngest  son  of  Jacob, 
by  Rachel.  (Gen.  xxxv.  18,  24.)  When 
his  tribe  was  numbered  it  counted,  the  first 
time,  35,400  (Num.  i.  37),  and  the  second 
time,  45,600.  (Num.  xxvi.  41.)  Though 
small,  yet  its  men  were  famous  for  using 
the  sling  (Judg.  xx.  16)  and  the  bow  in 
archery.  (1  Chron.  viii.  40;  xii.  2;  2 
Chron.  xiv.  S.)  Its  territory,  which  is 
described  in  Joshua  xviii.  11-28,  com¬ 
prised  twenty -six  cities,  among  which 
were  Jericho,  Bethel,  and  Jerusalem. 
Soon  after  Joshua’s  death  the  tribe  of  Ben¬ 
jamin,  whose  emblem,  according  to  Jacob’s 


Tri 


(  919  ) 


Tri 


blessing,  was  the  wolf  (Gen.  xlix.  27),  was 
involved  in  a  civil  war  with  the  other 
tribes,  which  almost  extinguished  it.  (Judg. 
xix. ;  xx.)  Shortly  afterward  it  furnished 
a  deliverer  of  the  country  in  the  person  of 
Ehud,  who  killed  Eglon,  the  king  of  the 
Moabites.  (Judg.  iii.  12  seq.)  This  tribe 
also  furnished  the  first  king,  Saul  (1  Sam. 

ix.  ;  x.),  whose  dynasty  (2  Sam.  ii. ),  as 
well  as  that  of  David  (1  Kings  xii.  21;  1 
Chron.  xxi.)  it  supported,  even  after  the 
division  of  the  kingdom.  (1  Kings  xii.  21; 
2  Chron.  xi.  1.)  After  the  exile,  together 
with  the  tribe  of  Judah  it  constituted  a 
main  part  of  the  Jewish  people.  (Ezra  i.  5; 
iv.  1;  x.  9.)  To  this  tribe,  also,  belonged 
Mordecai  and  Esther  (Esth.  ii.  5) — more 
especially,  Saul=Paul  the  apostle.  (Rom. 
xi.  1 ;  Phil.  iii.  5.) 

(3)  Dan ,  Jacob’s  son  by  Bilhah  (Gen. 
xxx.  6;  xxxv.  25),  had,  at  the  mustering  at 
Sinai  (Num.  i.  39),  62,700,  and  at  the 
second  (xxvi.  42,  43),  64,000  descendants. 
Though  originally  one  of  the  strongest 
tribes,  it  required  a  long  time  before  this 
tribe  could  take  possession  of  its  territory, 
which  is  described  in  Joshua  xix.  40  seq. 
Driven  to  the  hills  by  the  Amorites,  they 
were  helped  by  Ephraim  and  Judah.  (Judg. 
i.  34,  35.)  The  tribe  of  Dan  soon  became 
one  of  the  most  insignificant  among  the 
other  tribes,  though  its  boldness  is  charac¬ 
terized  by  the  taking  of  Laish.  (Judg. 
xviii.)  A  distinguished  Danite  was  Sam¬ 
son. 

(4)  Ephraim ,  son  of  Joseph  (Gen.  xii. 
52),  whom  Jacob  preferred  to  Manasseh. 
According  to  Gen.  xlviii.  5  Joseph  was  to 
receive  a  double  portion;  and  this  he  re¬ 
ceived  through  his  sons,  Ephraim  and 
Manasseh.  At  the  census  in  the  wilder¬ 
ness  the  tribe  numbered  40,500  (Num.  i. 
33),  and  at  the  second  census  only  32,500. 
(Num.  xxvi.  37.)  But  its  territory  was  in 
the  heart  of  Canaan  (Josh.  xvi.  5-9;  xvii. 
10,  15-19),  and  though  small  in  numbers, 
it  yet  played  an  important  part  in  the  his¬ 
tory  of  the  Jewish  nation.  It  produced 
Joshua;  quarreled  with  Gideon  and  Jeph- 
thah  (Judg.  viii.  1;  xii.);  revolted  from  the 
house  of  David  (1  Kings  xii.  25;  2  Chron. 

x.  16),  and  formed,  under  Jeroboam,  a 
kingdom  in  opposition  to  that  of  the  house 
of  David.  This  kingdom  is  often  marked, 
therefore,  as  that  of  Ephraim.  (Isa.  vii.  2 
seq.) 

(5)  Gad ,  son  of  Jacob  by  Zilpah,  and 
brother  of  Asher.  (Gen.  xxx.  9  seq.)  His 
descendants  (Gen.  xlvi.  16)  were  twice 
numbered.  (Num.  i.  14,  24, -25;  xxvi.  15- 
18.)  Having  much  cattle  (xxxii.  1),  the 
tribe  was  permitted  to  settle  east  of  the  Jor¬ 
dan,  but  it  assisted  the  other  tribes  to  con¬ 
quer  the  Canaanites.  (Num.  xxxii.  16-32; 


Josh.  i.  12-18;  xxii.  1-8.)  The  character 
of  the  tribe  is  described  by  Jacob  (Gen. 
xlix.  19),  and  among  David’s  heroes  the 
Gadites  distinguished  themselves.  (1 
Chron.  xii.  8.)  It  was  taken  captive  by 
Assyrians.  (1  Chron.  v.  26.) 

(6)  Issachar  (i.  e.,  rezvard),  Jacob’s  son 
by  Leah  (Gen.  xxx.  18),  had  many  de¬ 
scendants.  (Gen.  xlvi.  13;  1  Chron.  vii.  1.) 
At  the  first  census  they  counted  54,400 
(Num.  i.  28,  29),  and  at  the  second,  64,300. 
(Num.  xxvi.  25.)  In  David’s  time  the  tribe 
had  87,000  soldiers.  (1  Chron.  vii.  25.)  Its 
inheritance  is  described  in  Joshua  xix.  17— 
23:  it  assisted  Deborah  and  Barak  (Judg. 
v.  15),  supplied  the  country  with  a  judge 
in  the  person  of  Tola  (x.  1),  and  its  “  ex¬ 
perienced  men  ”  joined  David.  (1  Chron. 
xii.  39,  40.) 

(7)  Joseph.  See  Ephraim  and  Manasseh. 

(8)  Judah ,  Jacob’s  fourth  son  by  Leah. 
(Gen.  xxix.  35.)  For  his  character,  life, 
etc.,  comp.  Gen.  xxxviii. ;  xliii.  3;  xliv.  seq. 
The  future  prominent  position  among  his 
brethren  is  indicated  by  the  blessing  of 
Jacob.  (Gen.  xlix.  8-12;  comp.  1  Chron  v. 
2.)  The  tribe  of  Judah  developed  itself  in 
Egypt  out  of  Judah’s  descendants,  of 
whom  three  sons,  Shelah ,  Pharez  and  Zerah, 
together  with  Hezrott  and  Hamul ,  sons  of 
Pharez,  went  there.  (Gen.  xlvi.  12;  comp, 
chap,  xxxviii.)  Thus,  three  main  families 
of  the  tribe  and  two  side  lines  (Num.  xxvi. 
20  seq.)  developed  themselves.  In  Egypt 
the  tribe  increased  rapidly,  and  at  the  first 
mustering  it  numbered  already  74,600  adult 
males  (Num.  i.  26,  27),  and  at  the  second, 
76,500.  (Num.  xxvi.  22.)  On  account  of  the 
authority  of  the  ancestor,  the  tribe  of  Judah 
took  the  first  place  at  the  exodus,  as  the 
order  of  the  camp  shows.  (Num.  ii.)  In 
the  wilderness,  and  at  the  taking  of  Ca¬ 
naan  the  great  Caleb  stood  at  the  head  of 
this  tribe.  (Num.  xiii.  6;  xxxiv.  19.)  After 
Joshua’s  death  this  tribe  is  appointed  to 
attack  the  Canaanites.  (Judg.  i.)  The  ter¬ 
ritory  of  this  tribe  is  described  with  more 
minuteness  than  that  of  the  others,  and 
comprised:  (1)  the  “Mountain,”  the  “  hill- 
country  of  Judah,”  with  38,  or,  according 
to  the  Septuagint,  with  48  cities  (Josh.  xv. 
48-60)  ;  (2)  the  “  Wilderness ,”  the  district 
adjoining  the  Dead  Sea  (xv.  61  seq.);  (3) 
the  “South”  (xv.  21  seq.),  and  (4)  the 
“  Lowland”  (xv.  33  seq.).  To  this  tribe  be¬ 
longed  Othniel  (Judg.  iii.  9)  and  Ibzan  (xii. 
8  seq.);  it  made  David  king  (2  Sam.  ii.  4), 
and  adhered  to  his  house.  (1  Kings  xii.;  2 
Chron.  x. ;  xii.)  After  the  disruption  of 
the  kingdom,  it  formed,  together  with 
Benjamin,  the  southern  kingdom,  in  oppo¬ 
sition  to  the  northern  or  Ephraimitic  king¬ 
dom,  to  which  the  ten  tribes  belonged.  (1 
Kings  xi.  31.)  To  this  tribe  belong  proph- 


Tri 


(  920  ) 


Tri 


ets  like  Amos,  Isaiah  and  Micah;  perhaps, 
also, Obadiah, Joel,  Nahum, Zephaniah.Hab- 
akkuk  and  others.  Most  of  the  exiles  who 
returned  also  belonged  to  this  tribe;  and 
since  the  majority  of  those  who  constituted 
the  new  commonwealth  in  Palestine  be¬ 
longed  to  that  tribe,  the  name  “  Jew,”  for 
Hebrew  or  Israelite,  came  into  use.  This 
name  occurs  already  in  Jer.  xxxiv.  9,  but 
more  frequently  in  the  post-exile  books; 
also  in  the  New  Testament,  especially  in 
St.  John’s  Gospel.  The  highest  honor, 
however,  which  was  bestowed  on  this 
tribe  consists  in  the  fact  that  it  gave  the 
Messiah  to  the  world,  who,  as  “  the  Lion 
of  the  tribe  of  Judah”  (Rev.  v.  5),  has 
overcome  the  world  and  become  an  eternal 
ruler. 

(9)  Manasseh ,  eldest  son  of  Joseph, 
adopted  by  Jacob.  (Gen.  xli.  51;  xlvi.  20; 
jdviii.  5.)  At  the  beginning  this  tribe  was 
the  smallest — it  only  numbered  32,200 
(Num.  i.  34  sec/.);  but  itafterward  increased 
to  52,700.  (Num.  xxvi.  29.)  At  the  distri¬ 
bution  of  the  country,  one-half  of  the  tribe 
settled  east  of  the  Jordan,  while  the  other 
half  settled  on  the  west  side  (Num.  xxxii. 
33,  39,  42;  Josh.  xiii.  7,  29-31;  xvii.  1-11), 
but  the  tribe  did  not  drive  out  all  the  Ca- 
naanites.  (Judg.  i.  27.)  To  this  tribe  be¬ 
longed  Gideon,  but  it  is  doubtful  whether 
Jephthah  was  a  member  of  it. 

(10)  Naphtali ,  the  son  of  Jacob  by  Bil- 
hah.  (Gen.  xxx.  8;  xxxv.  25.)  His  de¬ 
scendants  numbered,  at  the  time  of  the  ex¬ 
odus,  53,400  (Num.  i.  43),  and  at  the  end  of 
the  wandering  through  the  desert,  only 
45,400.  (Num.  xxvi.  50.)  The  inheritance 
of  that  tribe  was  in  the  mountains  of  the 
northern  border  (Josh.  xix.  32-39),  and  the 
country  suffered  much  from  heathenish 
syncretism:  for  this  cause  this  district  was 
called  the  Galilee  of  the  nations,  or  merely 
Galilee  (Josh.  xx.  7;  xxi.  32;  Isa.  ix.  1), 
whence  the  name  Galilee,  which  was  after¬ 
ward  applied  to  a  larger  territory.  This 
tribe  produced  Barak,  who  fought  against 
the  Canaanites  and  Midianites.  (Judg.  iv. ; 
v.  18.) 

(11)  Reuben ,  Jacob’s  first-born  child,  the 
son  of  Leah  (Gen.  xxi.  32),  forfeits  his 
birthright  (xlix.  4)  for  his  transgression. 
(Gen.  xxxv.  22.)  His  descendants  amount, 
at  the  first  census  (Num.  i.  20,  21),  to 
46,500,  and  at  the  second  (xxvi.  7),  to 
43,730.  The  tribe  aids  in  conquering  Pal¬ 
estine  (Josh.  i.  12-18;  iv.  12;  xxii.  1-6), 
and  assists  in  building  the  altar  of  witness 
(xxii.  10-29),  but  it  soon  isolates  itself 
from  the  rest,  and  is  reproved  for  not  aid¬ 
ing  against  Sisera.  (Judg.  v.  15,  16.)  But 
it  fights  its  own  battles.  (1  Chron.  v.  10.) 
Its  geographical  position — from  the  Arnon 
to  Heshbon — was,  no  doubt,  the  cause  of 


its  isolation  from  the  common  interest  of 
Israel. 

(12)  Simeon ,  Jacob’s  second  son  by  Leah 
(Gen.  xxix.  33),  who,  with  Levi,  avenged 
Dinah’s  dishonor  (xxxiv.  25-30),  and  was 
accursed  with  Levi,  by  the  father.  (Gen. 
xlix.  5-7.)  At  the  first  mustering  the  de¬ 
scendants  numbered  59,300  (Num.  i.  22, 
23),  and  at  the  second  only  22,200.  (Num. 
xxvi.  14.)  At  the  taking  of  Canaan  this 
tribe  unites  with  that  of  Judah.  (Judg.  i.  3.) 
A  portion  of  the  tribe  afterward  emigrates 
to  Gedor.  (1  Chron.  iv.  28-43.) 

(13)  Zebulun,  Jacob’s  son  by  Leah  (Gen. 
xxx.  19,  20);  his  descendants  increased, 
during  the  wandering  through  the  wilder¬ 
ness,  from  57,400  to  60,500.  (Num.  i.  30, 
31;  xxvi.  26,  27.)  Its  territory  (Josh.  xix. 
10-16)  was  amid  the  picturesque  hills  and 
plains  of  Lower  Galilee,  having  Tabor  on 
the  east,  and  the  Great  Sea  at  the  base  of 
Carmel  on  the  west.  Although  in  com¬ 
mercial  relations  with  the  Gentiles,  the 
tribe  assisted  Barak  (Judg.  iv.  6,  10)  and 
Gideon  (vi.  35)  against  the  neighboring 
nations.  This  tribe  furnished  a  judge, 
Elon,  who  ruled  the  people  ten  years  (xii. 
11  sec/.),  and  aided  David  with  50,000 
soldiers.  (1  Chron.  xii.  23,  40.)  Although 
the  region  of  this  tribe,  like  the  later  Gal¬ 
ilee,  was  historically  and  theocratically 
very  insignificant,  yet  it  was  to  be  more 
honored  at  the  end  of  time,  according  to 
Isa.  ix.  1;  for,  indeed,  the  small  territory 
of  Zebulun,  uniting  with  it  the  western 
shore  of  the  Galilean  sea,  was  the  usual 
theatre  of  the  life  and  work  of  Jesus. 

Of  the  twelve  tribes,  only  two  seem  to 
have  returned  from  Babylon,  those  of  Ju¬ 
dah  and  Benjamin:  of  the  other  ten,  Jose¬ 
phus  (Ant.  xi.  5,  210)  states  that  up  to  his 
time  they  were  beyond  the  Euphrates  in 
great  numbers.  [Condensed  from  Oehler- 
Orelli’s  art.  in  Herzog’s  Real-Ency. ,  2d  ed., 
vol.  vii.,pp.  174-180,269  seq.]  p  pICK 

Tridentium.  See  Trent,  Council  of. 


Trine  Baptism  denotes  the  administra¬ 
tion  of  baptism  in  which  the  person  bap¬ 
tized  is  immersed  thrice  in  the  water,  or 
the  water  is  poured  upon  the  head  thrice, 
in  the  name  of  the  three  persons  of  the 
Holy  Trinity.  It  had  its  origin  probably 
in  apostolic  times. 

Trinitarians,  a  monastic  order,  founded 
in  1197,  for  the  purpose  of  ransoming 
Christians  who  were  taken  captive  by  the 
infidels.  The  order  took  its  name  from  the 
fact  that  all  its  churches  and  houses  were 
dedicated  to  the  Holy  Trinity.  The  order 
used  one-third  of  its  revenues  for  its  spe¬ 
cial  work. 


Tri 


(  92i  ) 


Tri 


Trinity,  The.  All  branches  of  the  Chris¬ 
tian  Church  teach  the  doctrine  of  the  di¬ 
vine  unity.  That  there  is  none  other  God 
but  one  is  the  most  unequivocal,  positive 
and  continuous  testimony  of  both  the  Old 
and  the  New  Testaments.  It  is  the  sub¬ 
stance  of  the  first  commandment,  and  the 
primordial  basis  of  all  true  religion  and 
morality.  (Exod.  xx.  3;  Deut.  vi.  4;  Psa. 
lxxxvi.  10;  Isa.  xliv.  6;  xlv.  6;  Mark  xii. 
29,  32;  John  xvii.  3;  1  Cor.  viii.  4-6;  1 
Tim.  ii.  5.)  Yet  most  clearly  and  unmis¬ 
takably  does  the  Gospel  recognize  distinc¬ 
tions  in  the  Godhead,  and  ascribe  divinity 
to  three,  the  Father,  the  Son,  and  the  Holy 
Ghost.  (Matt,  iii.  16,  17;  xxviii.  19;  2  Cor. 
xiii.  14;  John  xiv.  15-26;  xvi.  13,  15;  Eph. 
ii.  18.)  The  first  article,  therefore,  the 
fundamental  belief  of  the  Christian  system, 
holds  God  to  be  both  one  and  triune,  a 
truth  for  which  man  is  indebted  entirely  to 
revelation,  which  reason  acknowledges  to 
be  incomprehensible,  and  which,  depending 
on  its  own  resources,  it  is  wont  to  pro¬ 
nounce  absurd  and  impossible.  Taught 
from  the  Scriptures  the  doctrine  of  Eternal 
Love,  some  divines  have  held  that  the  dog¬ 
ma  of  the  Trinity  can  be  argued  from  this.  If 
God  from  eternity  is  love,  there  must  have 
been  from  eternity  an  object  upon  which 
that  love  could  flow  out;  an  object  person¬ 
ally  distinct  and  independent  of  him,  yet 
sustaining  such  relations  to  him  as  to  be 
worthy  of  the  infinite  fullness  of  divine 
love.  Of  this  no  object  could  be  worthy 
if  it  were  short  of  equality  with  God,  if  it 
were  not  itself  God. 

Again,  God  is  per  se  unconditioned,  ab¬ 
solute,  infinitely  removed  beyond  the  creat¬ 
ure;  yet  he  comes  into  relation  with  the 
finite,  as  creator  and  ruler,  and  the  only 
reconciliation  of  this  apparent  contradic¬ 
tion  lies  in  the  conception  of  an  organ  or 
medium  by  which  he  comes  into  relation 
and  revelation  to  the  creature,  an  entity 
which  sustains  the  innermost  essential  re¬ 
lation  to  the  divine  Being,  and  is  yet,  at  the 
same  time,  a  personally  distinct  and  self- 
subsistent  existence.  Thus,  while  there 
are  no  a  priori  grounds  for  this  mystery  of 
mysteries,  some  a  posteriori  confirmations 
or  illustrations  of  it  may  be  offered.  Its 
proper  and  only  source  is  revelation. 

It  must  not  be  premised,  however,  that 
the  Scriptures  in  direct  terms  present  this 
doctrine  in  the  form  in  which  it  has  come 
to  be  defined,  or  that  the  Christian  Church 
entered  upon  its  career  with  a  distinct  doc¬ 
trinal  formula  embracing  it.  They  furnish 
the  constituent  elements  of  the  dogma,  they 
set  forth  alike  the  unity  of  the  divine  Being, 
the  distinct  personality  and  the  true  and 
equal  divinity  of  the  Father,  the  Son  and 
the  Holy  Ghost,  and  the  relations  in  which 


they  stand  to  each  other,  to  the  Church 
and  to  the  world.  It  is  from  the  collation 
of  these  elements  and  the  consciousness  of 
the  Christian  Church  that  the  doctrine  of 
the  Trinity  became  satisfactorily  and  im¬ 
movably  established.  In  keeping  with  the 
law  of  development,  the  germs  of  it  are 
found  in  the  Old  Testament,  but  it  is  only 
by  the  light  thrown  back  from  the  gospel 
that  they  are  so  recognized.  They  may 
have  served  to  prepare  devout  minds  for 
its  clear  and  full  disclosure  in  the  New 
Testament.  (Gen.  i.  1-3;  Num.  vi.  23-26; 
Psa.  ii.  7;  xxxiii.  6;  li.  11;  cx.  i. ;  Isa.  vi.  3; 
xlviii.  16.)  The  most.strikingrepresentations 
of  a  threefold  hypostatic  distinction  in  God 
meet  us  at  the  baptism  of  Christ,  in  the 
baptismal  formula  (Matt,  xxviii.  19),  and 
in  the  apostolic  benediction.  (2  Cor.  xiii. 
14.)  In  John  xiv.  Jesus  speaks  to  the  Father 
and  of  the  Father,  and  promises  to  send 
his  Spirit  upon  the  disciples.  In  r  Cor. 
xii.  Paul  mentions  a  diversity  of  gifts,  but 
the  same  spirit,  diversity  of  administra¬ 
tion,  but  the  same  Lord,  and  diversity  of 
operations,  but  the  same  God.  In  Eph. 
iv.  he  says  there  is  one  Spirit,  one  Lord, 
one  God  and  Father  of  all;  while  in  1  Pet. 
i.  2  another  apostle  distinguishes  between 
the  foreknowledge  of  God  the  Father,  the 
sanctification  of  the  Spirit,  and  the  obedi¬ 
ence  of  Jesus  Christ. 

The  form  under  which  the  specific  script¬ 
ural  demonstration  of  the  dogma  has  been 
commonly  exhibited  is  the  proof  of  the 
personality  and  the  divinity  of  each  con¬ 
stituent  of  the  Trinity.  Peculiar  evidences 
of  deity  ascribed  to  any  being  prove  the 
essential  deity  of  that  being.  Among  these 
evidences  are  embraced  titles,  perfections, 
operations  and  worship;  and  as  the  Script¬ 
ures  in  a  number  of  texts  apply  to  the  Son 
and  to  the  Holy  Ghost  the  same  titles,  the 
same  perfections,  the  same  operations  and 
the  same  worship  which  they  ascribe  to 
the  Father,  the  coequal  divinity  of  the 
Three  cannot  be  denied  by  any  who  accept 
the  Bible  as  the  infallible,  authoritative, 
and  final  source  of  truth. 

Whatever  the  measure  of  clearness  in 
Scriptural  teaching,  the  deity  of  her  Lord 
was  from  the  first  the  assured  and  common 
faith  of  the  Church.  “  To  him,”  says 
Pliny,  “  they  sang  their  praises  as  to  God,” 
and  the  whole  organism  of  the  Church, 
her  festivals,  sacraments,  cultus,  martyr¬ 
doms,  and  the  utterances  of  her  first  teach¬ 
ers,  attest  irrefutably  this  faith.  To  claim 
this  as  the  result  of  exegetical  deductions 
is,  however,  unhistorical.  It  was  the  ex¬ 
pression  of  an  immediate,  conscious  faith. 
As  this  became  clearer,  and  unfolded 
itself  through  the  study  of  the  word,  con¬ 
troversy  with  error  and  the  speculative 


Tri 


(  922  ) 


Tri 


activity  of  the  Christian  mind,  confusion 
and  misapprehension  were  gradually  re¬ 
moved,  and  clear  definitions  were  necessa¬ 
rily  called  for,  and  the  astounding  paradox 
of  believing  in  one  God,  and  yet  offering 
to  another  the  honor  which  belongs  to  the 
infinite  Father,  grew  into  a  fixed  doc¬ 
trinal  formula.  The  original  faith  of  the 
heart  developed  into  an  unalterable  dogma 
of  theological  science. 

Significantly,  it  was  the  first  doctrinal 
task  of  the  Church  to  reconcile  the  divinity 
of  her  Lord  with  the  unity  of  the  Godhead. 
Not  for  a  moment  could  she  surrender 
either  truth,  or  suffer  any  infringement  of 
it,  the  former  being  the  centre  of  her  life, 
the  latter  a  treasure  deposited  with  God’s 
people  for  ages.  The  problem  taxed  the 
utmost  resources  of  Greek  metaphysics, 
and  a  century  of  controversy  elapsed  be¬ 
fore  a  final  solution  was  attained. 

The  struggle  after  a  suitable  expression 
for  the  incomprehensible  mystery  develop¬ 
ed,  and  finally  destroyed,  two  serious  er¬ 
rors.  To  save  the  absolute  unity  of  God, 
it  was  proposed  to  confine  the  idea  of  the 
absolute,  the  preeminent  prerogative  of 
deity  to  the  Father,  and  to  condition  the 
coming  forth  of  the  Son,  or  the  Logos,  into 
a  distinct  hypostatic  form  of  existence  by 
the  limits  of  time  or  the  interests  of  the 
finite.  This  came  into  conflict  with  the 
consciousness  of  the  Church,  which  had 
always  associated  Christ  with  the  Father 
as  the  object  of  faith  and  worship,  and 
which  could  not  consent  thus  to  sever  him 
from  the  essence  of  the  Father,  or  agree  to 
any  theory  of  subordination.  In  the  same 
interest  it  was  attempted  to  show,  on  the 
other  hand,  that  the  unity  of  essence  ad¬ 
mits  of  no  hypostatic  distinctions,  but  un¬ 
folds  itself  in  three  different  forms  or  man¬ 
ifestations.  God  comes  forth  from  the 
absolute  state  in  one  period  as  Father,  in 
another  as  Son,  in  another  as  Holy  Ghost. 
This  sacrifices  the  self-subsistence  of  the 
historic  Christ,  making  him  in  every  re¬ 
spect  identical  with  the  Father. 

Each  view  held  half  the  truth  :  one, 
Christ’s  distinction  from  the  Father;  the 
other,  his  unity  of  essence  with  the  Father, 
but  the  former  surrendered  his  proper  di¬ 
vinity,  the  latter  his  proper  personality; 
the  former  making  the  world’s  Redeemer 
less  than  God;  the  latter,  while  coming 
much  nearer  to  the  Church’s  consciousness, 
obliterated  the  personal  distinction  between 
the  Son  and  the  Father,  turned  the  econ¬ 
omy  of  redemption  into  a  scenic  exhibition, 
and  lost,  in  the  idea  of  abstract  unity,  the 
whole  compass  of  Christological  truth. 

The  idea,  first  developed  by  Origen,  of 
the  eternal  generation  of  the  Son,  namely, 
that  it  inheres  eternally  in  the  nature  of 


God  to  pour  forth  his  fullness  in  a  subject 
that  is  the  absolute  image  of  himself,  that 
the  Son  is  an  immanent  Self-importation, 
was  a  great  advance  in  the  construction  of 
the  dogma.  Three  cardinal  points  were 
now  established:  sameness  of  essence, 
personal  distinction,  eternal  generation. 
What  was  yet  wanting  was  an  approxi¬ 
mately  adequate  expression  combining 
these  points.  The  predicate  ho??ioousios  was 
adopted  by  the  Council  of  Nice  as  embrac¬ 
ing  both  the  idea  of  unity  and  that  of  dis¬ 
tinction,  and  the  whole  Christian  Church 
has  ever  since  united  in  declaring  its  faith 
in  “  the  Only  Son  of  God,  Begotten  of  his 
Father  before  all  worlds,  God  of  God,  Light 
of  Light,  Very  God  of  very  God,  Begotten, 
not  made,  Being  of  one  substance  with  the 
Father.” 

The  same  premises  which  resulted  in 
this  settlement  of  the  relation  of  the  Son 
to  the  Father  eventually  and  of  necessity 
brought  about  a  similar  conclusion  con¬ 
cerning  the  Holy  Ghost;  the  Symbol  of  the 
Church  being  expanded  at  the  Council  of 
Constantinople,  a.  d.  381,  by  the  addition 
to  the  third  article:  “  the  Lord  and  Giver 
of  Life,  who  proceedeth  from  the  Father, 
who  with  the  Father  and  Son  together  is 
worshipped  and  glorified,”  the  Church 
thus  affirming  the  absolute  divinity  alike 
of  the  Father,  the  Son,  and  the  Holy  Ghost, 
ascribing  to  each  the  attributes  and  perfec¬ 
tions  of  deity,  while  always,  on  the  other 
hand,  maintaining  that  there  is  one  God 
only,  that  the  divinity  of  the  Father,  of  the 
Son,  and  of  the  Holy  Ghost  is  an  absolute 
unit.  It  cannot  be  claimed  that  all  difficul¬ 
ties  were  surmounted.  Long  struggles 
ensued,  even  after  the  Church  had,  in  suc¬ 
cessive  Councils,  defined  the  doctrine ;  but 
the  formulation  in  the  Athanasian  Creed  of 
the  Catholic  Faith,  “  That  we  worship  one 
God  in  Trinity , and  Trinity  in  Unity,  neither 
confounding  the  Persons,  nor  dividing  the 
substance,”  presents  this  mystery  in  such 
a  way  that,  as  Hagenbach  says,  “all 
further  endeavors  of  human  ingenuity  to 
solve  its  apparent  contradictions  in  a  dia¬ 
lectic  way  must  break  against  this  bulwark 
of  faith,  as  the  waves  break  upon  an  in¬ 
flexible  rock.” 

Misapprehensions  have  arisen,  not  only 
from  the  transcendent  range  of  the  subject, 
and  the  poverty  of  human  language,  but 
also  from  the  failure  to  observe  the  specific 
terms  which  differentiate  the  constituent 
parts  of  the  doctrine.  Unity,  for  instance, 
is  affirmed  of  the  nature  of  God.  He  is 
one  in  essence.  Trinity  relates  to  the 
mode  of  existence,  the  distinctions  which 
subsist  in  the  divine  essence;  Unity  and 
Trinity  are  not  predicated  of  the  same 
thing  and  do  not  therefore  contradict  each 


Tri 


.  923  ) 


Tro 


other.  The  Godhead  is  one  and  three,  not 
in  the  same  sense,  but  in  different  senses. 
By  Person,  again,  a  term  which  may  easily 
mislead,  is  meant  the  peculiarity  or  prop¬ 
erty  by  which  each  is  not  the  other,  nor  a 
part  or  quality  of  another,  but  a  subject 
subsisting  of  itself.  Unlike  the  essence 
which  is  common  and  communicable,  the 
personal  subsistence  cannot  be  communi¬ 
cated  from  the  one  to# another.  Each  “  per¬ 
son  ”  possesses  its  own  ultimate  form  of 
subsistence.  The  Father  differs  from  the 
Son,  the  Holy  Ghost  differs  from  both. 
The  Father  is  unbegotten,  the  Son  is  be¬ 
gotten,  the  Holy  Ghost  proceeds  from  the 
Father  and  (according  to  the  Western 
Church)  from  the  Son.  Yet  neither  is 
God  without  the  other;  neither  works  in- 


are:  Dorner:  The  Person  of  Christ ;  Bull: 
Defence  of  the  Nicene  Creed;  Waterland: 
The  Trinity;  Shedd:  History  of  Christian 
Doctrine;  Hodge:  Systematic  Theology. 

E.  J.  Wolf. 

Trinity  Sunday,  the  first  Sunday  after 
Pentecost  (Whitsunday),  celebrated  in 
honor  of  the  Holy  Trinity.  In  the  Greek 
Church  the  Monday  in  Whitsun-week  is  set 
apart  for  the  same  purpose.  The  observ¬ 
ance  of  the  festival  appears  to  have  come 
into  universal  use  in  the  Western  Church 
in  the  time  of  Pope  John  XXII.  (1334). 

Tritheism  denotes  that  conception  of  the 
doctrine  of  the  Trinity  which  gives  such 
prominence  to  the  triad  of  persons  as  to 


TROAS. 


dependency  of  the  otherj  the  Three  are 
One. 

The  importance  of  this  dogma  cannot  be 
overstated.  It  underlies  the  whole  system 
of  Christian  truth.  It  determines  the 
economy  of  grace.  It  is  “  the  point,”  says 
Meyer,  “  on  which  all  Christian  ideas  and 
interests  unite;  at  once  the  beginning  and 
the  end  of  all  insight  into  Christianity.” 
Every  sect  or  system  that  has  denied  to 
the  Son  and  to  the  Holy  Ghost  equal  rank 
and  honor  with  the  Father  has  made  ship¬ 
wreck  of  the  faith.  Arians,  Socinians, 
Unitarians,  Rationalists,  whatever  may 
have  been  their  original  purpose,  have 
each  by  turns  subverted  every  fundamen¬ 
tal  truth  of  the  Gospel.  Those  who  have 
no  Trinity  have  no  Saviour.  Among 
standard  English  treatises  on  the  Trinity 


minimize  or  lose  sight  of  the  unity.  The 
name  of  tritheists  was  given  a  party  in 
Alexandria  which  made  a  very  sharp  dis¬ 
tinction  between  the  three  divine  persons. 
During  the  reign  of  Justin  II.  (565-578), 
they  held  a  disputation  at  Constantinople 
with  the  orthodox  Patriarch  John.  The 
later  history  of  the  sect  is  unknown.  Ros¬ 
celin,  the  fatherof  nominalism,  was  accused 
of  tritheism  by  Anselm.  He  retracted 
after  his  views  had  been  condemned  by  the 
Synod  of  Soissons  (1093). 

Tro'as,  a  city  of  Lesser  Mysia  in  Asia 
Minor,  on  the  sea-coast,  six  miles  south  of 
the  entrance  to  the  Hellespont.  It  was 
founded  by  Alexander  the  Great.  A  Ro¬ 
man  colony  was  placed  there  during  the 
reign  of  Augustus,  and  it  became  a  place 


Tru 


(  924  ) 


Tub 


of  great  commercial  importance.  Paul 
visited  Troas  twice,  and  perhaps  three 
times.  (Acts  xvi.  8—1 1 ;  xx.  5,  6;  2  Cor.  ii. 
12,  13;  2  Tim.  iv.  13.)  Troas  is  now  a 
heap  of  ruins.  The  walls  can  still  be  traced 
for  several  miles.  There  are  the  remains 
of  a  gymnasium,  413  feet  long  and  224  feet 
wide,  which  Prof.  A.  H.  Sayce  describes 
(1880)  as  “a  vast  ruin  whose  desolation 
was  only  equalled  by  the  solitude  of  the 
forest  in  the  midst  of  which  it  stood.” 
The  place  is  now  known  as  Eski  Stamboul, 
or  “  Old  Constantinople.” 

Truce  of  God,  an  arrangement  during  the 
Middle  Ages  by  which,  in  time  of  war,  hos¬ 
tilities  ceased  during  all  the  important 
church  festivals,  and  from  Thursday  even¬ 
ing  to  Sunday  evening  each  week.  This 
plan  was  recommended  by  the  Councils  of 
Orleans  (1016)  and  Limoges  (1031),  and  en¬ 
forced  by  the  bishop  of  Aquitaine  (1030). 
The  second  (1139)  and  third  (1179)  Lateran 
Councils  adopted  it. 

True  Reformed  Dutch  Church.  See 

Reformed  Dutch  Church. 

Trumbull,  Henry  Clay,  D.  D.  (Lafay¬ 
ette  College,  Easton,  Penn.,  1881;  Uni¬ 
versity  of  the  City  of  New  York,  1882), 
Congregationalist;  b.  at  Stonington,  Conn. , 
June  8,  1830;  education  chiefly  private;  re¬ 
ceived  honorary  M.  A.  from  Yale  College, 
1866;  became  State  missionary  of  the 
American  Sunday-School  Union  for  Con¬ 
necticut,  1858-62;  chaplain  in  the  Union 
army,  1862-65;  missionary  secretary  for 
New  England  of  American  Sunday-School 
Union,  1865-71;  normal  secretary  of  the 
same  Society,  1871-75;  editor  of  the  Sun¬ 
day-School  Times ,  Philadelphia,  since  1875. 
Among  his  published  works  are:  The 
Knightly  Soldier  (1S65);  Childhood  Con¬ 
version  (1868);  The  Model  Superintendent : 
Sketch  of  the  Life,  Character ,  and  Methods 
of  Work  of  Henry  P.  Haven  (1880); 
Kadesh  Barnea  (1884);  Teachers  and 
Teaching  (1885).  The  Blood  Covenant 
(1885);  The  Sunday-School:  Its  Origin,  Mis¬ 
sion,  Methods ,  and  Auxiliaries  (1888).  (The 
Lyman  Beecher  Lectures  in  Yale  Divinity 
School  for  1888.) 

Tiibingen,  a  small  town  on  the  Neckar, 
eighteen  miles  from  Stuttgart,  has  been  for 
400  years  the  chief  nursing  place  of  the 
scholars  of  Wlirtemberg.  Not  only  poets 
(Wieland,  Uhland,  etc.),  but  philosophers 
(Schelling  and  Hegel),  Protestant  theolo¬ 
gians  (as  CEcolampadius,  Osiander,  Pfaff, 
Otinger,  Storr,  Baur,  Dorner),  and  Roman 
Catholics  (Mohler,  Hefele,  etc.)  were  all 
graduates  of  Tubingen.  This  University, 


though  the  character  of  the  country  is 
deeply  religious,  has  produced  some  of 
the  most  learned  opponents  of  Christianity 
— Paulus  the  deist,  Baur  the  pantheist,  and 
Strauss,  the  author  of  the  Life  of  fesus. 
The  theological  students,  though  they  are 
tinctured  more  or  less  with  Hegelian  pan¬ 
theism,  cherish  with  grateful  reverence  the 
memory  of  such  men  as  Bengel,  who  firmly 
taught  Gospel  doctrine  during  the  infidel 
apostasy  of  the  eighteenth  century,  and 
they  crowd  the  churches.  The  Tubingen 
theologians  of  the  last  century  were  mark¬ 
ed  by  mysticism.  They  had  a  special  taste 
for  speculations  on  apocalyptic  and  mille- 
narian  topics.  Thus  Gottlieb  Storr,  their 
principal  representative  in  his  time  (b.  1746; 
d.  1805),  occupied  a  position  analogous  to 
that  of  the  eighteenth-century  Methodists 
in  England:  he  asserted  the  authority  of 
the  Scriptures  against  the  rationalism  of 
Kant,  and  laid  especial  emphasis  on  the 
evidential  value  of  the  miracles. 

But  a  darker  side  of  the  university  life 
of  Tubingen  is  seen  in  the  prevalence  of 
the  Hegelian  philosophy.  The  founder  of 
the  new  school  was  F.  C.  Baur  (b.  I7g2;d. 
i860),  whose  critical  investigations  in  the 
New  Testament  led  him  to  the  opinion  that 
the  pastoral  Epistles  were  the  production 
of  the  second  century,  that  some  of  St. 
Paul’s  Epistles  are  not  genuine,  and  that 
a  great  gulf  separated  St.  Paul  from  the 
other  apostles.  In  fact,  this  may  be  re¬ 
garded  as  the  special  tenet  of  the  later 
Tubingen  school.  Peter  and  John  were 
Jewish  in  their  views,  only  distinguished 
from  their  brethren  by  their  faith  that 
Christ  was  the  promised  Messiah.  Paul 
maintained  a  doctrine  that  the  crucifixion 
made  Christ  the  Savior  of  the  world,  and 
elaborated  a  theory  of  justification  which 
to  them  was  strange,  and  of  religious 
freedom  which  to  them  was  abhorrent. 
For  the  sake  of  peace  they  were  for  a  while 
silent,  but  the  animosity  broke  out  in  the 
Apocalypse,  which  referred  to  St.  Paul  and 
his  teachings  when  denouncing  the  Nico- 
laitans.  The  Gospel  of  St.  John,  Baur 
pronounced  not  genuine.  But  as  he  grew 
older  he  modified  his  views  greatly,  and 
his  Christianity  of  the  First  Three  Centuries 
(1853),  though  it  hardly  rises  above  Uni- 
tarianism,  is  a  more  conservative  work 
than  his  previous  writings.  He  asserts  the 
pure  morality  of  Christianity,  while  he 
denies  its  miracles.  The  tendency  of  mod¬ 
ern  criticism  in  the  Tubingen  school  has 
been  to  reverse  all  this.  The  judgment 
concerning  St.  John  and  the  synoptic  Gos¬ 
pels  has  been  to  recognize  their  historic 
truth; and  the  manifest  untenableness  of  the 
theories  of  Strauss,  who  was  Baur’s  schol¬ 
ar,  has  driven  the  scholars  to  a  closer  ap- 


Tub 


(  925  ) 


Tyl 


proximation  to  the  ancient  faith  of  Chris¬ 
tendom. —  Benham:  Diet,  of  Religion.  See 
G.  P.  Fishier:  Supernatural  Origin  of 
Christianity  (N.  Y.,  1877);  Schaff:  Church 
History  (1882),  vol.  i.,  pp.  205-217. 

TUbingen  School.  See  above. 

Tulloch,  John,  D.  D. ,  a  prominent  divine 
of  the  Church  of  Scotland;  b.  near  Tibber- 
muir,  Perthshire,  June  1,  1823;  d.  at  Tor¬ 
quay,  Eng.,  Feb.  13,  1885.  He  was  edu¬ 
cated  at  St.  Andrew’s  and  at  Edinburgh; 
became  parish  minister  at  Dundee,  1845, 
and  at  Keltins,  Forfarshire,  1849;  principal 
and  professor  of  divinity,  St.  Andrew’s 
University,  1854  ;  and  senior  principal, 
i860.  He  was  the  author  of  several  valu¬ 
able  theological  works,  the  principal  being: 
Rational  Theology  and  Christian  Philosophy 
(1872),  2  vols. ;  The  Christian  Doctrine  of 
Sin  (1877);  Modern  Theories  in  Philosophy 
and  Religion  (1884);  Movements  of  Religious 
Thought  in  Britain  during  the  Ninetee7ith 
Century  (1885). 

Tunkers.  See  Dunkers. 

Turkey.  The  Ottoman  Turks  who  laid 
the  foundations  of  the  Turkish  Empire 
were  Mohammedans,  and  carried  on  their 
wars  in  the  name  of  the  prophet.  After 
the  conquest  of  Egypt  by  Sultan  Selim,  he 
held  as  captive  at  Constantinople  the 
last  of  the  caliphs  of  the  family  of  Koreish 
until  he  ceded  to  him  his  rights  as  caliph. 
Since  that  time  the  claim  of  the  Ottoman 
sultans  as  successors  to  the  Prophet  has 
been  generally  recognized.  The  constitu¬ 
tion  of  the  country  has  been  and  still  con¬ 
tinues  strictly  Mohammedan,  and  as  the 
Koran  declares  that  any  Mohammedan 
denying  his  faith  shall  be  put  to  death,  it 
will  at  once  appear  how  difficult  it  is  to  se¬ 
cure  religious  liberty  in  Turkey,  or  gain 
converts  among  the  Mohammedans.  The 
attitude  of  foreign  governments,  especially 
of  England,  has  secured  partial  relief  and 
security.  The  work  of  Protestant  mission¬ 
ary  societies  has  been  confined  for  the  most 
part  to  the  Jews  and  the  Oriental  Chris¬ 
tians.  The  American  Board  of  Commis¬ 
sioners  for  Foreign  Missions  was  the  first 
society  from  this  country  to  undertake 
missionary  work  in  Turkey  (1819).  The 
board  has  now  four  distinct  missions  in  that 
empire — the  European,  Western,  Central, 
and  Eastern  Turkey.  In  1890  they  had  in 
that  country  169  male  and  female  mission¬ 
aries,  and  supported,  wholly  or  in  part,  768 
native  pastors,  teachers,  etc.  The  mission 
in  Syria  was  transferred  to  the  Presbyte¬ 
rian  Church  in  1870.  The  United  Presby¬ 
terian  Church  has  a  flourishing  mission  in 


Egypt.  (See  art.  Egypt,  p.  285.)  The 
Methodist  Church,  the  Reformed  Presby¬ 
terian,  the  Disciples,  and  the  Society  of 
Friends  have  also  established  missions 
within  the  bounds  of  the  Turkish  Empire. 
Robert  College  at  Constantinople  and  the 
Syrian  Protestant  College  at  Beyrout  are 
independent,  endowed  institutions.  The 
Roman  Catholic  Church  has  a  large  num¬ 
ber  of  missionaries  in  the  empire,  native 
and  foreign,  of  both  sexes,  estimated  at  not 
less  than  ten  thousand.  They  have  con¬ 
verted  many  of  the  Jacobites,  control  the 
Maronites  in  Syria,  and  have  made  some 
progress  among  the  Greeks  and  Copts,  but 
they  have  made  no  converts  among  the 
Mohammedans. 

Turner,  Samuel  Hulbeart,  D.  D.,  b.  in 
Philadelphia,  Jan.  23,  1790;  d.  in  New 
York  City,  Dec.  21,  1861.  After  graduat¬ 
ing  from  the  University  of  Pennsylvania, 
in  1807,  he  took  orders  in  the  Episcopal 
Church  and  officiated  as  rector  of  church¬ 
es  in  Chestertown,  Md.,  New  York,  and 
Brooklyn.  In  1818  he  became  professor 
of  historic  theology  in  the  General  Theo¬ 
logical  Seminary,  New  York,  and  from  1821 
till  his  death,  professor  of  biblical  learning. 
He  wrote  valuable  commentaries  on  He¬ 
brews ,  Ro?nans ,  Ephesians ,  and  Galatians. 
Among  other  works  are:  Co?npanion  to  the 
Book  of  Genesis;  Teachings  of  the  Master ; 
Spiritual  Thifigs  compared  with  Spiritual; 
or ,  Gospels  and  Acts  Illustrated  by  Parallel 
References.  See  his  Autobiography  (1862). 

Twisse,  William,  D.  D.,  first  moderator 
of  the  Westminster  Assembly  of  Divines; 
b.  near  Newbury,  Berkshire,  Eng.,  1575; 
d.  in  London,  July  20,  1646.  He  was  edu¬ 
cated  at  Oxford,  and  became  vicar  of  New¬ 
bury,  where  he  remained  until  the  opening 
of  the  Civil  War.  He  was  a  high  Calvinist, 
and  distinguished  himself  by  his  writings 
against  the  Arminians.  See  Opera  (Am¬ 
sterdam,  1652),  3  vols. 

Tyler,  Bennet,  D.  D. ;  b.  in  Middlebury, 
Conn.,  July  10,  1783;  d.  at  East  Windsor, 
Conn.,  May  14,  1858.  He  was  graduated 
from  Yale  College  in  1804,  and  ordained 
pastor  of  the  Congregational  Church  in 
South  Britain,  Conn.,  in  1808.  He  was 
elected  president  of  Dartmouth  College  in 
1822;  succeeded  Dr.  Payson  as  pastor  of 
the  Second  Congregational  Church,  Port¬ 
land,  Me.,  in  1828.  He  took  a  prominent 
position  in  opposition  to  the  views  of  Dr. 
Taylor  of  New  Haven — a  college  classmate 
— and  when  the  controversy  led  to  the 
founding  of  a  theological  seminary  at  East 
Windsor  (now  removed  to  Hartford)  he  was 
appointed  the  first  president  and  professor 


Tyn 


(  926  ) 


Tyn 


of  theology  in  1834.  He  resigned  on  ac¬ 
count  of  failing  health  in  1857.  He  pub¬ 
lished:  History  of  the  New  Haven  Theology ; 
Memoir  of  Asahel  Netlleton;  Review  of 
“  Day  on  the  Will ;  ”  1'reatise  on  the  Suffer¬ 
ings  of  Christ ;  Letters  to  Dr.  H.  Bus  line  ll  on 
Christian  Nurture. 

Tyndale,  William,  translator  of  the  Bible, 
was  born  at  a  small  village  in  Gloucester¬ 
shire,  about  1484;  died,  1536.  Most  writers 
say  that  the  name  of  the  village  was  Slym- 
bridge,  but  there  is  a  certain  amount  of 
uncertainty  about  all  the  facts  of  his  early 
days.  The  exact  date  of  his  entrance  at 
Oxford  is  also  unknown,  but  recent  re¬ 
searches  have  discovered  that  he  took  his 
degree  in  1512.  A  few  years  later  he  went 
to  Cambridge,  his  zeal  for  studying  the 
Bible  probably  inducing  him  to  go  and  con¬ 
sult  Erasmus,  then  at  the  height  of  his 
fame.  In  1521  he  became  tutor  to  a  gentle¬ 
man  named  Welch,  who  lived  in  Gloucester¬ 
shire,  and  it  was  there  that  he  finally  re¬ 
solved  to  undertake  the  task  of  translating 
the  Bible  into  English.  He  was  much  dis¬ 
satisfied  with  the  teaching  and  general  be¬ 
havior  of  the  clergy  in  the  neighborhood 
of  Sir  John  Welch,  and  translated  a  pam¬ 
phlet  which  Erasmus  had  written  in  Latin, 
called  The  Manual  of  a  Christian  Soldier ; 
this  was  a  violent  protest  against  the  wicked 
lives  of  the  clergy,  and,  of  course,  brought 
down  a  storm  of  abuse  on  Tyndale’s  head; 
he  was,  however,  firmly  supported  by  his 
master  and  patron.  In  1523  he  went  to 
London  with  an  introduction  to  Tunstall, 
bishop  of  London,  expecting  to  have  extra 
facilities  for  carrying  out  the  work  to  which 
he  was  resolved  to  devote  himself.  He 
found  that,  so  far  from  that  being  the  case, 
it  was  impossible  to  do  the  work  there,  so 
many  impediments  being  thrown  in  his 
way.  In  the  following  year,  therefore,  he 
went  to  Hamburg,  from  thence  to  Witten¬ 
berg,  where  he  became  acquainted  with 
Luther,  and  there  he  translated  the  New 
Testament  into  English.  He  used  fey  text¬ 
books  Erasmus’s  Greek  Testament,  the 
Vulgate,  and  the  German  translation  by 
Luther.  It  was  printed  at  Cologne,  and  it 
was  decided  that  the  first  edition  should 
consist  of  3,000  copies.  An  enemy  to  the 
Reformation,  named  Cochloeus.  tried  to 
prevent  its  being  printed  at  all;  but,  failing 
in  this,  he  sent  word  to  Henry  VIII.  and 
Cardinal  Wolsey  to  advise  that  all  the  ports 
should  be  strictly  watched,  in  order  that 
its  admission  into  England  should  be  pre¬ 
vented.  It  arrived  in  England  about  the 
middle  of  the  year  1526,  and  immediately 
an  assembly  of  the  bishops  was  called  to¬ 
gether,  and  they  unanimously  denounced 
it.  The  bishop  of  London  went  so  far  as 


to  say  that  any  one  in  his  diocese  found  to 
be  possessing  a  copy  was  to  be  excommuni¬ 
cated.  Of  this  first  edition  a  portion  of  one 
copy  only,  so  far,  is  known  to  exist,  and 
that  is  in  the  British  Museum.  In  language, 
except  for  spelling,  it  is  astonishingly  like 
our  Authorized  Version  published  in  1611, 
which  we  still  have  in  use.  The  next  few 
years  of  his  life  were  devoted  to  writing 
pamphlets  on  the  doctrine  of  Justification 
by  Faith,  the  first  of  which  was  entitled  the 
Wicked  Mammon.  It  was  condemned  on 
all  sides,  Sir  Thomas  More  going  so  far  as 
to  call  it  “  a  very  treasury  and  well-spring 
of  wickedness;”  but  Tyndale  was  nothing 
daunted  by  this  unfavorable  reception,  and 
in  the  following  year  published  The  Obedi¬ 
ence  of  a  Christian  Man ,  next  to  his  trans¬ 
lation  the  most  important  work  of  his  life. 
He  now  began  to  translate  the  Old  Testa¬ 
ment,  and  published  the  Pentateuch  in 
1530,  of  which  there  is  one  perfect  copy 
extant  in  the  British  Museum;  and  in  the 
same  year  he  wrote  the  Practice  of  Prelates , 
in  which  he  again  fiercely  denounces  the 
customs  and  ways  of  the  Roman  Catholic 
priests.  All  this  time  he  was  still  living  in 
Germany,  chiefly  at  Marburg;  but  in  1534 
permission  was  given  to  print  the  Bible  in 
England,  and  Tyndale  intended  to  return 
home.  With  that  intention  he  went  to  Ant¬ 
werp;  but  his  enemies,  by  treachery,  took 
him  and  had  him  put  into  prison.  He  was 
kept  there  for  nearly  two  years,  in  spite  of 
all  the  efforts  made  in  England  and  on  the 
Continent;  and  at  last,  in  1536,  he  was 
burnt  to  death  at  Vilvorden,  near  Brussels, 
with  the  prayer  on  his  lips,  “  Lord,  open 
the  king  of  England’s  eyes.” — Benham: 
Diet,  of  Religion. 

Tyng,  Stephen  Higginson,  D.  D.,  an 
eminent  and  eloquent  Episcopal  clergy¬ 
man;  b.  at  Newburyport,  Mass.,  March  1, 
1800;  d.  at  Irvington-on-the-Hudson,  Sept. 
4,  1885.  After  graduating  at  Harvard 
College  in  1817,  he  was  in  business  for  a 
short  time.  After  studying  theology  he 
was  rector  at  Georgetown,  D.  C.,  1821-23; 
in  Queen  Anne  Parish,  Md.,  1823-29;  of 
St.  Paul’s,  Philadelphia,  1829-33;  of  the 
Church  of  the  Epiphany  in  the  same  city, 
1833-45;  of  St.  George’s,  New  York  City, 
1845-78,  when  he  retired  as  pastor  emeri¬ 
tus.  Dr.  Tyng  was  a  leader  in  the  Low- 
Church  party,  and  was  in  great  demand  as 
a  platform  speaker.  A  man  of  rare  ex¬ 
ecutive  gifts  and  pastoral  faithfulness,  his 
ministry  was  one  of  great  usefulness. 
Among  his  published  works  are:  Lectures 
on  the  Law  and  the  Gospel  (1832);  R/emoir 
of  Rev.  G.  T.  Bedell  (1835);  Christ  is  All 
(1852);  The  Rich  Kinsman;  or ,  the  History 
of  Ruth  (1855);  Forty  Years’  Experience  in 


Tyr 


(  927  ) 


Ull 


Sunday-Schools  (i860);  The  Office  and  Duty 
of  a  Christian  Pastor  (1884). 

Tyre,  an  ancient  and  famous  city  of 
Phoenicia  situated  on  the  coast  of  the 
Mediterranean,  about  twenty  miles  south 
of  Sidon.  Its  site  was  upon  what  was 
originally  an  island,  and  there  was  a  city 
called  “  Old  Tyre  ”  on  the  mainland.  The 
first  mention  of  Tyre  in  the  Scriptures 
is  found  in  Joshua  xix.  29.  It  was  one  of 
the  great  commercial  cities  of  antiquity  and 
its  king,  Hiram,  was  on  friendly  terms 
with  David  (2  Sam.  v.  1 1)  and  Solomon.  (1 
Kings  vii.  13-45.)  The  purchase  and  sale 
of  Hebrew  captives  as  slaves  by  the  Tyr¬ 
ians  changed  this  relation  to  hostility. 
(Joel  iii.  4-8;  Amos  i.  9,  10.)  The  power 
of  this  wealthy  city  steadily  increased,  and 
it  successfully  resisted  a  siege  by  Shal¬ 
maneser  in  721  b.  c. ,  and  in  585  b.  C.  by 
Nebuchadnezzar,  which  lasted  thirteen 
years.  When  Alexander  the  Great  entered 
Phoenicia  after  the  battle  of  Issus  (331) 
Sidon  submitted  to  his  rule,  but  Tyre  in 
its  pride  resisted,  and  after  a  siege  of  seven 
months  was  taken,  and  never  regained  its 
former  prosperity.  It  became  a  part  of  the 
Seleucidian  kingdom  of  Syria.  It  is  men¬ 
tioned  in  Matt.  xi.  21;  xv.  21;  Luke  vi.  17; 
x.  13,  and  a  Christian  Church  was  gather¬ 
ed  here,  with  whom  Paul  stayed  for  seven 
days.  (Acts  xxi.  3-7.)  During  the  Middle 
Ages  it  was  a  place  of  considerable  im¬ 
portance.  After  being  subject  to  the 
Romans  for  four  hundred  years,  it  came 
under  the  dominion  of  the  Saracens  in  the 
seventh  century.  Captured  by  the  Cru¬ 
saders  in  1124  it  was  regained  and  destroy¬ 
ed  by  the  Muslims  in  1291.  The  modern 
city  is  made  up  of  dilapidated  houses,  and 
has  a  population  of  about  5,000,  nearly  half 
of  whom  are  Mohammedans,  and  the  rest 
Christians  with  a  sprinkling  of  Jews.  Huge 
stones  and  fragments  of  marble  columns, 
the  ruins  of  ancient  Tyre,  are  found  along 
the  shore  and  partially  submerged.  Here, 
to-day,  fishermen  spread  their  nets.  A 
wonderful  fulfillment,  it  has  been  well  said, 
of  a  prophecy  uttered  twenty-four  hundred 
years  ago:  “  I  will  make  thee  like  the  top 
of  a  rock;  thou  shalt  be  a  place  to  spread 
nets  upon.”  (Ezek.  xxvi.  14.) 

u. 

Ubiquitarians  (from  Lat.  ubique,  every¬ 
where),  a  sect  of  Lutherans  which  rose 
and  spread  itself  in  Germany,  and  whose 
distinguishing  doctrine  was  that  the  body 
of  Jesus  Christ  is  everywhere,  or  in  every 
place.  Brentz,  one  of  the  early  Reformers, 
is  said  to  have  broached  this  error  in  1560; 
Andreas  and  Flacius  helped  to  spread  it. 


They  were  heartily  opposed  by  the  Uni¬ 
versities  of  Wittenberg  and  Leipzig.  Soon 
after,  a  controversy  began  in  the  Palatinate 
about  the  oral  manducation  of  the  body  of 
our  Lord  in  the  sacrament.  To  prevent 
the  ill  consequences  of  this  dispute  Fred¬ 
erick  III.  ordered  the  Heidelberg  Cate¬ 
chism  to  be  drawn  up.  (Heidelberg 
Catechism;  Ursinus.)  Afterwards,  at  the 
Conference  at  Maulbronn,  1564,  they 
argued  about  the  sense  of  the  words  used 
at  the  receiving  of  the  sacrament.  Luther 
and  Melanchthon  both  denied  that  they  held 
the  doctrine  of  ubiquity,  but  after  their 
death  the  disputes  were  renewed,  and  this 
hypothesis  was  dressed  up  in  a  specious 
and  plausible  form  by  Brentz,  Chemnitz, 
and  others,  who  maintained  the  communi¬ 
cation  of  the  properties  of  Christ’s  divinity 
to  his  human  nature.  In  1577,  at  the 
monastery  of  Bergen,  it  was  recognized  as 
a  Lutheran  doctrine  in  the  Formula  of 
Concord,  though  by  no  means  all  the 
Lutheran  divines  are  agreed  on  this  point. 
The  divines  of  Tubingen  in  the  seventeenth 
century  upheld  the  theory  in  opposition  to 
the  divines  of  Giessen. — Benham:  Did .  of 
Religion. 

Ubiquity.  See  Ubiquitarians. 

Ullmann  ( ool'rnan ),  Karl,  an  eminent 
German  evangelical  theologian;  b.  at 
Epfenbach,  near  Heidelberg,  March  15, 
1796;  d.  at  Carlsruhe,  Jan.  12,  1865.  He 
studied  in  the  Universities  of  Heidelberg 
and  Tubingen,  and  in  1817  was  ordained 
vicar  at  Kirchheim.  This  position  he  soon 
resigned,  and  entered  upon  a  course  of 
professional  preparation  at  Berlin.  Here, 
under  the  influence  especially  of  Neander, 
he  adopted  evangelical  views  of  theology. 
He  began  to  lecture  at  Heidelberg  in  1819, 
and  was  elected  professor  in  1821.  With 
Umbreit  he  founded  the  Theologische 
Studien  tend  Kritiken  (Theological  Studies 
and  Discussions)  which  became  the  leading 
organ  of  the  evangelical  school  of  theology. 
The  opening  article,  On  the  Sinlessness  of 
Jesus ,  from  the  pen  of  Ullmann,  was  en¬ 
larged  and  published  in  book  form,  and 
passed  through  many  editions.  In  1829  he 
was  called  to  Halle.  While  here  he  wrote 
his  principal  historical  work,  The  Reform¬ 
ers 'before  the  Refomnation  (Eng.  trans.,  2d 
ed.,  1866),  2  vols.  Returning  to  Heidel¬ 
berg  in  1836  he  accepted  the  position  of 
prelat  in  1853,  and  in  the  face  of  much  op¬ 
position  labored  earnestly  to  unite  the  dif¬ 
ferent  Protestant  parties  in  Baden  and  im¬ 
prove  the  general  status  of  the  Lutheran 
clergymen.  He  published  several  articles 
against  Strauss’s  Life  of  Christ.  See  his 
Life,  by  W,  Beyschlag  (Gotha,  1866). 


Ulp 


( 923 ) 


Uni 


Ulphilas,  “apostle  of  the  Goths”  (313- 
383),  belonged  to  a  family  in  Cappadocia, 
which  was  taken  captive  by  the  Goths,  and 
remained  among  them.  Ulphilas  received 
the  Gothic  name,  W ill jila  (Little  Wolf),  but 
was  educated  as  a  Christian,  and  destined 
for  the  Church.  The  Goths  were  heathen, 
but  through  the  earnest  labors  of  Ulphilas 
many  of  them  became  Christians.  He  was 
ordained  their  bishop  in  343,  probably  by 
an  Arian  bishop,  as  he  declared  that  he 
had  always  been  an  Arian  in  belief.  Per¬ 
secutions  led  him  to  obtain  permission  to 
immigrate  with  his  converts  to  Moesia,  in 
the  Roman  Empire.  Meanwhile  mission¬ 
ary  work  continued  among  the  Goths,  and 
after  Athanaric,  the  great  Gothic  chief, 
embraced  Christianity,  the  conversion  of 
the  whole  nation  was  completed.  They 
were  Arians,  and  while  efforts  were  made 
to  reconcile  them  with  the  orthodox  Greek 
Church,  they  proved  unavailing. 

Ulphilas  translated  the  Bible  into  the 
Gothic  language,  for  which  he  had  to  in¬ 
vent  a  new  alphabet.  Only  fragments  of 
this  translation  have  been  preserved.  The 
Codex  Argenteus,  so  called  because  written 
in  silver  letters,  was  discovered  in  the 
Benedictine  abbey  of  Werden  in  1597.  It 
is  preserved  in  the  library  of  Upsala. 
Seven  codices  in  all  have  been  discovered 
and  published.  See  Schaff:  Companion  to 
the  Greek  Testament  (N.  Y.,  1883,  pp.  160 
sqq.)\  C.  A.  A.  Scott:  Ulfilas ,  Apostle  of  the 
Goths  (London,  1885). 

Ulrich,  bishop  of  Augsburg,  the  son  of 
a  German  nobleman;  b.  at  Augsburg  in 
890;  d.  there,  July  4,  973.  He  became 
bishop  in  923,  and  discharged  his  duties 
with  great  vigor  and  ability.  His  wealth 
was  used  in  the  construction  of  churches 
and  religious  houses,  and  he  enforced  the 
rules  regarding  hours  of  worship  with 
great  rigor.  Insisting  upon  the  celibacy 
of  the  clergy,  he  held  them  to  the  strict 
observance  of  their  duties,  and  enforced 
peculiar  regard  of  relics.  He  was  canon¬ 
ized  by  Pope  John  XV.,  in  993. 

Ultramontane  (Latin  ultra  monies ,  be¬ 
yond  the  mountains,/,  e. ,  the  Alps),  the 
name  given  to  a  party  in  the  Roman  Cath¬ 
olic  Church  who  hold  that  the  pope  is 
superior  to  general  councils,  and  inde¬ 
pendent  of  their  decrees.  They  desire  to 
concentrate  all  ecclesiastical  power  in  his 
hands,  in  opposition  to  the  views  of  those 
who  desire  the  right  of  self-government 
by  national  churches.  See  Gallican 
Church. 

Umbreit  (oom'brit),  Friedrich  Wilhelm 
Karl,  b.  at  Sonneborn,  near  Gotha,  April 


11,  1795;  d.  at  Heidelberg,  April  26,  i860. 
He  studied  at  Gottingen,  where  he  became 
deeply  interested  in  Oriental  studies  under 
the  direction  of  Eichhorn.  He  accepted  a 
professorship  at  Heidelberg  in  1820,  and 
during  the  remainder  of  his  life  devoted 
himself  almost  exclusively  to  the  study  of 
the  Old  Testament,  and  prepared  several 
well-known  commentaries.  They  “are 
practical,  and  display  a  profound  sympathy 
with  the  life  of  the  Old  Testament.  What¬ 
ever  may  be  the  opinion  about  their  liter¬ 
ary  merits,  there  can  be  no  doubt  that  he 
opened  the  eyes  and  hearts  of  many  to  the 
beauties  and  religion  of  the  Old  Testa¬ 
ment.” — Kamphausen .  His  first  commen¬ 
tary  was  on  Ecclesiastes  (1818),  followed  by 
one  on  the  Song  of  Solomon  (1820);  Job 
(1824);  Proverbs  (1826);  the  prophetical 
books,  except  Jonah  and  Daniel  (1841-46); 
Romans  (1856).  From  1828  Umbreit  was 
coeditor  with  Ullmann  of  the  Theolog.  Stu- 
dien  und  Kritiken  (Theological  Studies  and 
Discussions). 

Unbelief.  See  Infidelity. 

Uncial  (from  uncia ,  the  twelfth  part  of 
anything)  and  Cursive  (/.  e. ,  in  running,  sc., 
hand)  Manuscripts.  The  former  are  written 
usually  in  large  capital  letters;  the  latter 
in  small  letters.  See  Bible,  p.  106. 

Uncleanness.  See  Purification. 

Unction.  See  Extreme  Unction. 

Unigenitus,  the  name  of  a  famous  bull 
issued  by  Clement  XI.  (Sept.  8,  1713),  in 
which  he  condemned  one  hundred  and  one 
propositions  drawn  from  the  works  of 
Quesnel  (q.  v.).  These  propositions  were 
taken  almost  literally  from  the  Bible  or  ac¬ 
cepted  authorities  of  the  Roman  Catholic 
Church.  See  Jansenism. 

Uniformity,  Acts  of.  Acts  which  se¬ 
cure  in  every  congregation  of  the  Church  of 
England  the  same  form  of  public  prayer, 
administration  of  sacraments,  and  other 
rites.  The  first  was  passed  in  1559,  which 
confirmed  the  Revised  Prayer  -  Book  of 
Edward  VI.,  and  inflicted  severe  penalties 
on  those  who  should  have  any  other  form 
used  in  church:  for  the  first  offence  they 
were  to  forfeit  their  goods;  for  the  second, 
to  be  imprisoned  a  year;  for  the  third,  life- 
imprisonment.  All  who  absented  them¬ 
selves  from  church  on  Sundays  and  Holy 
Days,  without  just  cause,  were  to  be  fined 
a  shilling. 

The  second  and  by  far  the  most  impor¬ 
tant  Act  of  Uniformity  was  passed  in  1662, 
by  which  all  ministers  were  required  to 


(  929  ) 


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# 


Uni 


give  their  assent  to  the  Book  of  Common 
Prayer,  and  to  read  the  Morning  and  Even¬ 
ing  Services  from  it,  on  pain  of  being  de¬ 
prived  of  their  benefices.  They  were  or¬ 
dered  to  make  a  declaration  that  it  was 
unlawful  on  any  pretext  to  bear  arms 
against  the  king  and  to  deny  the  binding 
force  of  the  Solemn  League  and  Covenant. 
Episcopal  Ordination  was  also  declared  to 
be  indispensable  to  the  retaining  of  a  bene¬ 
fice.  In  consequence  of  this  act  some 
2,000  clergy  resigned  their  livings.  This 
act  was  set  aside  by  the  Act  of  Toleration 
under  William  and  Mary.  —  Benham.  Did. 
of  Religion.  See  Toleration,  Act  of. 

Unitarian  Church,  The.  The  English 
word  “  Unitarian,”  and  the  Latin  word 
“  Unitarius,”  are  both  of  comparatively  re¬ 
cent  origin,  while  the  word  “  Trinitarius” 
is  as  old,  at  least,  as  the  fourth  century, 
implying  a  person  who  believes  in  the  doc¬ 
trine  of  the  Trinitas,  or  Trinity.  The  word 
“Unitarius”  has  not  been  found  earlier 
than  the  discussions  which  followed  the 
Diet  of  Thorda,  held  in  Hungary,  in  the 
year  1567.  This  was  one  of  the  politico- 
religious  conventions  of  the  time,  made 
necessary  by  the  existence  in  Hungary  of 
Roman  Catholics,  Calvinists,  Lutherans, 
and  Socinians.  Different  religious  parties 
had  in  turn  had  their  little  measure  of  suc¬ 
cess,  and  at  the  Diet  of  Thorda  an  edict 
of  toleration  was  drawn  up,  which  gave 
equal  rights  to  believers  of  every  commun¬ 
ion.  Exactly  as  the  word  “Federalist” 
might  be  applied  to  persons  who  believed 
in  a  federal  union,  the  words  “  Uniti  ”  or 
“  Unitarii  ”  were  applied  to  those  who  held 
bv  this  edict  of  toleration.  It  soon  proved 
that  neither  Catholics,  Calvinists,  nor  Lu¬ 
therans  had  any  permanent  love  for  unity, 
and  the  Socinians  alone,  of  the  four  parties, 
retained  the  name  “  Uniti,”  or  “  Unitarii,” 
which  had  been  given  to  the  body  of  tolera¬ 
tion.  They  were  known  in  Europe  as 
“  Unitarii,”  having  gained  this  name  by 
this  loyalty  which  we  now  consider  so  hon¬ 
orable.  As,  at  the  same  time,  they  were 
steadfast  in  refusing  an  assent  to  the  doc¬ 
trine  of  the  Trinity,  as  it  was  proclaimed 
in  most  Protestant  churches,  it  was  easy 
to  associate  their  belief  with  the  doctrine 
of  the  unity  of  God;  and,  in  popular  use, 
the  word  “  Unitarian,”  then  and  now,  was 
connected  with  persons  who  rejected  the 
scholastic  doctrine  of  the  Trinity.  It  seems 
necessary  to  say  this,  because  Trinitarian 
authors  have  often  claimed,  with  a  just 
and  natural  indignation,  that  they  also  are 
Unitarians,  because  they  believe  in  one 
God.  Thus,  Archdeacon  Hook,  of  Leeds, 
in  his  Church  Dictionary,  says  that  “  the 
word  is  a  title  which  certain  heretics,  who 


do  not  worship  the  true  God,  assume  most 
unfairly.” 

It  is  well  known  to  all  theologians  that 
the  Christian  Church  of  Palestine  was  Ebio- 
nite  in  its  Christology,  to  the  very  end  of 
its  separate  existence.  That  is,  it  regarded 
Jesus  Christ  as  a  man  in  the  same  sense 
in  which  John  and  Peter  and  James  were 
men,  and  knew  no  difference  between  his 
birth  and  the  birth  of  those  spoken  of  in 
Scripture  as  his  brethren.  When,  in  the 
Council  of  Nice,  the  great  discussions  be¬ 
tween  Arians  and  Athanasians  took  place 
(see  Arius;  Athanasius),  the  churches  of 
Palestine  were  unanimously  and  always 
found  in  support  of  the  Arian  rather  than 
the  Athanasian  view.  A  similar  antiquity, 
to  be  traced  in  written  theology,  is  claimed 
by  Unitarian  students  for  the  other  distinc¬ 
tive  views  which  they  are  most  active  in 
proclaiming.  Thus,  the  doctrine *of  free¬ 
will  was  proclaimed  by  Morgan,  whose 
name  in  Latin  is  Pelagius  ( q .  v.),  in  the 
discussions  of  which,  between  him  and 
Augustine, the  name  is  still  retained, though 
the  bigotry  of  the  triumphant  church  has 
detroyed  all  the  treatises  which  came  from 
Morgan’s  pen.  Indeed,  the  fundamental 
principle  on  which  the  Unitarian  Church 
stands,  is  the  doctrine  of  the  Holy  Spirit. 
Expressed  in  Scripture  language,  it  is  this: 
“  When  the  Comforter  shall  come,  he  shall 
guide  you  into  all  truth.”  The  Unitarian 
Church  accepts  all  such  statements  in  their 
fullest  range  and  extent.  It  believes  that 
the  Church  of  each  succeeding  century  is 
expected  to  do  greater  works  than  the  Mas¬ 
ter  did,  and  it  finds  in  history,  therefore, 
those  who  have  led  on  in  its  work  among 
heretics  of  every  time.  Many  of  these 
heretics  have  been  martyrs,  but  their  blood 
has  been  the  seed  of  the  Church  of  the  fu¬ 
ture,  and  their  word  has  gone  out  into  all 
the  earth. 

It  is,  indeed,  generally  acknowledged  by 
Christian  theologians  that,  wherever  else 
the  scholastic  doctrine  of  the  Trinity  is  to 
be  found,  it  is  not  scientifically  stated  in 
the  four  gospels.  Distinguished  Trinita¬ 
rian  divines  have  suggested  that  the  apos¬ 
tles  themselves  did  not  know  that  Jesus 
Christ  was  God  until  after  his  death,  and 
that  they  received  that  truth  only  at  the 
Day  of  Pentecost.  To  this  indifference  of 
the  evangelists  to  the  doctrine,  the  Unita¬ 
rian  Church  ascribes  the  fact  that,  whenever 
any  body  of  Christians  falls  back  upon  the 
New  Testament  for  its  dogmatic  statement, 
it  asserts  Arian  or  Unitarian  doctrine  re¬ 
garding  the  Saviour.  This  doctrine  admits 
of  a  wide  range  of  opinion  regarding  the 
nature  of  Christ  and  his  relation  to  God. 
But  it  does  not  admit  that  he  is  God  in 
the  sense  in  which  the  Holy  Spirit  is  God. 


Uni 


(  930  ) 


Uni 


It  may  admit  his  divinity,  but  it  denies  his 
deity. 

Indeed,  it  has  been  claimed  by  Unitari¬ 
ans  that,  if  the  Latin  language  had  admit¬ 
ted  the  distinction  which  the  Greek  pre¬ 
sents,  between  o  thcos,  the  God,  and  theos , 
a  god,  always  inferior,  and  representing 
simply  the  divinity  inherent  in  the  being 
spoken  of,  the  Trinitarian  doctrine  of  the 
modern  church  would  never  have  come 
into  existence. 

The  heretics  of  all  ages,  therefore,  have 
generally,  not  always,  been  Unitarians.  It 
was  clearly  the  political  interest  of  Con¬ 
stantine  to  ally  himself  with  the  Athanasian 
doctrine.  He  did  so  with  such  effect  that 
the  Trinitarian  view  prevailed,  though  with 
the  greatest  difficulty,  at  the  General  Coun¬ 
cil  of  Nicaea.  It  has  since  been  one  of  the 
central  doctrines  of  the  Church  of  Rome, 
and  of  *  the  churches  which  claim  close 
historic  connection  with  that  communion. 

So  soon  as  the  omnipotence  of  that 
church  was  challenged  in  Western  Europe, 
there  appeared  in  all  religious  communions 
men  who  proclaimed  that  Jesus  Christ  is 
the  son  of  God,  and  not  Very  God  of  Very 
God.  Persons  who  practically  hold  to  this 
belief  are  probably  found  in  all  commun¬ 
ions. 

The  principal  organizations  of  the  Uni¬ 
tarian  Church  in  modern  times  are  the 
Unitarian  Church  of  Hungary,  the  Uni¬ 
tarian  Church  of  England,  the  Unitarian 
Church  of  America,  and  the  Unitarian 
Church  of  France.  It  is  understood  that 
the  Protestant  communions  of  Switzerland 
and  the  Low  Countries  are  largely  in  sym¬ 
pathy  with  Unitarian  views,  but  the  name 
is  not  known  in  those  countries  as  the  dis¬ 
tinctive  title  of  a  church  organization. 

In  each  of  these  countries  the  history 
of  this  body  has  been  in  general  the  same. 
So  soon  as  the  critical  interpretation  of  the 
New  Testament  became  familiar  to  scholars, 
the  doctrines  known  as  the  doctrine  of  the 
Trinity,  of  foreordination,  of  total  deprav¬ 
ity,  and  of  the  vicarious  atonement,  began 
to  be  severely  attacked,  on  the  simple 
ground  that  they  are  not  the  doctrines  of 
the  four  gospels.  Without  entering  into 
that  controversy  here,  it  is  enough  to  say 
that  prominent  theologians  of  the  orthodox 
parties  have  admitted  that  the  New  Testa¬ 
ment  alone  did  not  give  its  support,  in 
scientific  statement  to  these  doctrines; 
that  they  lie  latent  there,  but  that  they 
must  be  developed  by  the  after-conscious¬ 
ness  of  the  church.  This  is,  for  instance, 
the  view  of  Cardinal  Newman.  Begin¬ 
ning  in  each  country  by  seeking  to  over¬ 
throw  the  five  great  doctrines  of  Augus- 
tinianism  or  Calvinism  by  Scripture  criti¬ 
cism,  the  Unitarian  Church  has  advanced 


by  a  progress  almost  the  same  in  each 
country  to  its  present  attitude.  This  may 
be  familiarly  stated  by  the  expression 
which  has  been  cited,  which  calls  it  “  the 
Church  of  the  Holy  Spirit.”  It  accepts 
literally  every  Scripture  phrase  which  calls 
men  the  children  of  God,  and  makes  a  dis¬ 
tinction  between  his  children  and  beings 
which  are  only  his  creatures.  It  accepts 
without  hesitation  the  statement  that  men 
may  be  “  partakers  of  the  divine  nature.” 
It  accepts  in  the  same  way  the  statement 
that  the  Church  will  do  greater  things  than 
the  Saviour  did.  If  Arius  denied  the 
divinity  of  men  and  women  generally,  in 
seeking  to  claim  that  divinity  for  one  son 
of  God  alone — the  Unitarian  Church  of  to¬ 
day  is  rather  Athanasian  than  Arian,'for 
it  holds,  as  a  happy  epigram  has  said,  to 
“  the  humanity  of  God,  and  the  divinity  of 
man.” 

The  Unitarian  Church  of  to-day,  there¬ 
fore,  permits  no  written  creed  enforced  by 
any  authority  upon  its  individual  mem¬ 
bers.  Each  man  and  woman  must  make 
his  creed  or  hers,  and  will.  This  church 
is  indifferent  to  the  common  demand  for 
uniformity  of  ritual  or  dogma.  It  is  all 
the  more  urgent  in  proclaiming  the  unity 
of  the  Holy  Spirit  as  the  bond  of  peace. 
Among  its  members  are  to  be  found  per¬ 
sons  who  would  give  to  Jesus  Christ  a 
position  of  higher  dignity,  more  complete¬ 
ly  separated  from  the  position  of  other 
sons  of  God  than  even  Arius  claimed  for 
him.  There  are,  on  the  other  hand,  per¬ 
sons  who  would  relegate  him  to  the  same 
relationship  with  God  as  King  David  held, 
— even  accepting  the  destructive  language 
of  the  recently  discovered  “  Catechism  of 
the  Twelve  Apostles.”  But  Unitarians  in 
general  are  indifferent  to  the  dogmatic 
views  even  of  their  own  companions  in 
their  own  church.  Absolute  believers  in 
the  doctrine  of  the  Holy  Spirit,  accepting 
the  strongest  statements  of  the  four  gos¬ 
pels  with  regard  to  his  presence  and 
authority,  the  Unitarian  Church  prizes 
most  highly  the  teacher  who  most  surely 
receives  his  instruction  at  first-hand.  Its 
business  is  to  proclaim  the  present  rule  of 
a  present  God.  The  immanent  presence 
of  God  is  the  theology  of  its  pulpit,  and 
the  duty  of  man,  as  the  son  of  God,  to  bear 
his  brother’s  burdens,  and  to  bring  in  the 
kingdom  of  God — this  constitutes  the  basis 
of  its  ethics. 

It  will  be  seen  that  it  is  wholly  impos¬ 
sible  for  such  a  Church  to  maintain  the 
methods  of  the  Roman  Catholic  Church,  or 
any  of  its  imitators,  in  the  establishment  of 
colleges,  in  the  organization  of  missions, 
in  any  other  system  of  propagandism  which 
can  be  compared  with  the  methods  of  an 


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(  931  ) 


Uni 


organized  army.  On  the  other  hand,  the 
Unitarian  Church  has  the  great  advantage 
that,  as  the  friend  of  the  freedom  of  abso¬ 
lute  thought,  it  has  the  encouragement  of 
all  other  friends  of  freedom.  It  is  in  the 
position  of  an  army  made  up  from  men  of 
various  services,  operating  in  a  country 
where  people  are  friendly  to  it,  as  compared 
with  an  army  of  close  discipline  and  one 
method  of  service,  operating  in  an  alien 
country  where  all  men  hate  it.  The  Uni¬ 
tarian  Church  is  not  dissatisfied  with  this 
position.  It  believes  that  it  sees  the  ad¬ 
vance  of  its  own  views  in  the  churches  of 
every  communion.  Its  theological  position 
is  that  of  the  Quakers;  in  believing  that 
“salvation  is  free”  it  is  atone  with  the 
Methodists;  in  the  independence  of  its  con¬ 
gregations  it  is  at  one  with  the  great  Bap¬ 
tist  body;  in  its  indifference  to  dogma  it 
has  the  sympathies  of  the  Episcopal 
Church;  and  in  requiring  man’s  strictest 
obedience  to  the  highest  law  that  he  can 
find,  it  is  still  at  one  with  the  severest  dic¬ 
tates  of  that  Puritanism  from  which,  in 
England  and  in  America,  it  was  born.  The 
familiar  statement  of  its  members  is  that  it 
must  be  judged  by  its  fruits  only,  and  that 
it  is  a  religion  of  character. 

In  England  the  Unitarian  Church  is  rep¬ 
resented  in  about  350  pulpits.  Its  working 
centre  is  the  British  and  Foreign  Unitarian 
Association,  established  in  1825.  It  main¬ 
tains  three  theological  schools  for  the 
training  of  its  ministers,  and  measures 
have  been  lately  taken  for  the  establishment 
of  a  Unitarian  college  in  Oxford.  In  1813 
the  penal  act  by  which  a  Unitarian  could 
be  tried  and  executed  for  his  belief  was  re¬ 
pealed,  and  in  other  regards  the  law  of 
England  toward  them  has  gradually  become 
more  humane.  In  France  they  make  nearly 
one-half  of  the  Protestant  body  recognized 
by  the  State,  and  in  a  series  of  annoying 
controversies,  which  have  lasted  for  fifty 
years,  the  Unitarian  churches  have  held 
their  own,  and  have,  perhaps,  advanced  in 
securing  equal  rights.  In  the  principal 
cantons  of  Switzerland  the  Unitarians  di¬ 
rect  the  religious  establishments;  but  this 
is  a  business  which  they  do  not  do  very 
well,  not  having,  as  has  been  said,  any 
felicity  in  the  use  of  the  mechanism  of 
church  organization. 

In  Hungary  the  Unitarian  Church  has 
existed  as  one  of  the  four  communions  rec¬ 
ognized  by  the  Government  since  1568. 
The  number  of  separate  churches  is  no. 
The  Church  maintains  a  college  at  Klausen- 
berg,  and  two  academies  to  prepare  pupils 
for  the  college. 

In  Holland  the  critical  writers  of  the  lib¬ 
eral  churches  have  founded  what  may  be 
called  a  school  of  criticism  in  the  presenta¬ 


tion  of  the  most  distinct  humanitarian  view 
of  the  work  of  Jesus  Christ. 

The  Unitarian  Church  in  America,  in 
its  present  organization,  springs  histor¬ 
ically  from  the  freedom  of  the  Congrega¬ 
tional  churches  of  New  England.  These 
churches,  formed  by  the  Puritans,  were 
anxious  to  escape  from  the  tyranny  which, 
as  they  supposed,  had  repressed  the 
Church  of  England  in  the  pathway  of  re¬ 
form.  The  religious  men  among  the  first 
emigrants  were  so  decided  in  their  relig¬ 
ious  views  that  each  of  them  knew  that  he 
could  not  make  a  creed  which  would  be 
assented  to  by  the  other  leaders  who  were 
nearest  to  him.  From  the  mere  force  of 
circumstances,  therefore,  though  they 
did  not  rise  to  the  level  of  a  broad  tol¬ 
eration,  they  were  obliged  to  form  their 
churches  without  what  we  call  creeds. 
They  also  determined  that  each  church 
should  be  independent  of  each  other 
church,  and  should  form  its  own  covenant, 
although  they  undoubtedly  supposed  that 
there  would  be  a  general  harmony  of  re¬ 
ligious  belief.  These  covenants,  there¬ 
fore,  always  left  very  great  freedom  to  the 
individual  worshiper.  Thus  the  covenant 
of  the  first  church  in  Boston:  the  members 
“  unite  into  one  congregation  or  church, 
under  the  Lord  Jesus  Christ  our  head,” 
.  .  .  .  “  binding  themselves  to  walk  in  all 
our  ways  according  to  the  rule  of  the  gos¬ 
pels.”  But  there  is  no  definition  of  opin¬ 
ion,  there  is  no  statement  of  belief,  no  ex¬ 
pression  as  to  the  person  of  Christ  or  the 
nature  of  God.  Formal  statements  of  be¬ 
lief  or  doctrine  did  not  come  into  New 
England  for  more  than  a  hundred  years, 
and  into  most  of  the  older  churches  of 
Massachusetts  they  have  never  come  to 
this  day.  This  freedom  of  the  individual 
to  form  his  own  statement  from  his  own 
reading  of  the  Scripture,  resulted,  in  Mas¬ 
sachusetts,  precisely  as  similar  freedom  has 
resulted  everywhere  where  it  has  been 
allowed.  That  is  to  say,  the  creed,  what¬ 
ever  it  was,  of  the  dogmatic  theologians  of 
one  day,  has  never  satisfied  the  theolo¬ 
gians  of  the  next  age;  and  unless  it  were 
obligatory  by  some  statute  difficult  to  re¬ 
peal,  it  has  been  abandoned  with  the  change 
of  times  and  opinions.  It  therefore  proved 
in  New  England,  before  the  middle  of  the 
last  century,  that  many  of  the  more  prom¬ 
inent  churches  were  served  by  ministers 
who  preached  pure  Arminianism,  and  re¬ 
fused  any  sort  of  assent  to  Calvin’s  and 
Augustine’s  doctrines  of  foreordination.  In 
harmony  with  this  freedom  as  to  the  nature 
of  man,  there  came  in  what  Whitefield  and 
other  Calvinists  thought  very  lax  views  as 
to  the  atonement  by  Christ.  Gradually, 
in  the  same  indifference  to  dogmatic  state- 


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ment,  there  appeared  a  tendency  to  speak 
of  Christ  as  the  Son  of  God,  and  not  as 
“  very  God  of  very  God.”  It  was,  of 
course,  readily  observed  that  this  was  a 
return  to  the  language  of  the  New  Testa¬ 
ment.  It  therefore  came  about  that,  at  the 
time  when  the  American  Revolution  was 
shattering  men’s  political  prejudices,  many 
preachers  were  charged  by  their  enemies 
with  holding  “  Socinian  ”  doctrines  with  re¬ 
gard  to  the  being  of  Christ;  and  thesecharges 
were  undoubtedly  true  in  many  instances. 

The  increase  of  the  number  of  persons 
in  Unitarian  churches  in  America  has  been 
rather  more  rapid  than  the  increase  of  the 
native  population.  But  the  Unitarians 
themselves  believe  that,  besides  this  visible 
increase  of  their  organizations,  the  doc¬ 
trine  of  the  Holy  Spirit,  which  is  their 
central  doctrine,  is  working  as  a  leaven  in 
all  churches,  and  that  less  and  less  defer¬ 
ence  is  paid  with  every  year  in  Catholic  or 
any  Protestant  communions,  to  any  doc¬ 
trines  which  involve  an  idolatry  of  the 
Bible,  or  a  deference  to  creeds  or  rituals 
which  rest  upon  human  authority. 

Under  such  auspices,  for  better  or  for 
worse,  the  Unitarian  Church  of  America 
is  now  represented  in  four  hundred  and 
fifty  pulpits.  It  maintains  a  divinity  school 
at  Meadville,  Pennsylvania,  and  the  au¬ 
thorities  of  Harvard  College,  at  Cambridge, 
Massachusetts,  give  it  a  fair  share  in  the 
teaching  of  theology  in  the  divinity  school 
of  the  college,  in  which  the  representatives 
of  four  communions  are  professors.  The 
State  universities  of  this  country  are  now 
compelled  to  appoint  Unitarians  as  pro¬ 
fessors  on  the  same  terms  on  which  they 
appoint  Christians  of  other  communions, 
and  this  can  be  said  to  be  the  custom  of 
one  or  two  more  of  the  principal  colleges 

of  the  country.  Edward  E.  Hale. 

Literature:  The  Works  of  Joseph  Priest¬ 
ley  (1817-32),  26  vols.,  and  of  William  E. 
Channing  (Boston,  1845),  6  vols. ;  The  Life 
of  W.  E.  Channing ,  by  W.  H.  Channing;  R. 
Wallace :  Anti-  Trinitarian  Biography  (Lon¬ 
don, 1850);  The  IAverfool  Controversy  (1838), 
conducted  by  Revs.  James  Martineau,  J.  H. 
Thom,  and  Henry  Giles;  George  E.  Ellis: 
Half  Century  of  Unitarian  Controversy  ( Bos¬ 
ton,  1851);  J. F. Clarke:  Orthodoxy:  Lts  Truths 
and  Errors  (Boston,  1870),  and  the  vol¬ 
umes  of  the  Christian  Exa7niner  (Boston). 
A  complete  bibliography  would  include 
very  many  writings  of  importance  inferior 
to  the  above.  Christianismi  Restitutio ,  by 
Servetus  ( ipsa  varitati  rarior  in  its  first 
edition;  second  edition,  Nuremberg,  1790); 
Racovian  Catechism;  Bibliotheca  Fratrum 
Polinarum  (Irenopolis,  1656)  [Irenopolis 
was  a  pretended  city,  the  publishers  of  the 


book  fearing  prosecution  on  account  of  its 
heresy.  It  contains  a  collection  of  the 
theological  work  of  the  Polish  Unitarians]; 
Emlyn:  Inquiry  into  the  Scriptural  Ac¬ 
count  of  Jesus  Christ;  Sparks’s  Essays  and 
Tracts  ( Boston,  1823;  Unitarian  arguments 
drawn  from  writers  of  all  communions). 

Unitas  Fratrum.  See  Moravians. 

United  Brethren  in  Christ,  a  body  of 
evangelical  Christians,  founded  by  Philip 
William  Otterbein.  This  great  evangelist 
and  able  organizer  was  b.  at  Dillenburg, 
Germany,  June  4,  1726.  He  received  a 
classical  education,  and  after  his  ordination 
became  pastor  of  a  German  Reformed 
Church  in  Dillenburg.  In  response  to  a 
call  for  missionaries  to  go  to  America, 
Otterbein  was  one  of  six  young  men  who 
responded.  In  1752  he  began  his  labors  as 
pastor  of  the  German  Reformed  Church  at 
Lancaster,  Penn.  It  was  here  that  he  pass¬ 
ed  through  a  spiritual  experience  which  he 
regarded  as  his  first  real  change  of  heart. 
From  this  time  the  whole  spirit  of  his  min¬ 
istry  and  its  methods  changed,  and  exten¬ 
sive  revivals  followed  his  preaching.  From 
Lancaster,  Mr.  Otterbein  went  to  Tulpe- 
hocken,  Penn.,  then  to  Frederick,  Md., 
York,  Penn.,  and  finally  to  Baltimore  City 
from  1774  till  the  time  of  his  death,  Nov. 
17,  1813.  At  Tulpehocken  he  inaugurated 
the  plan  of  holding  evening  praver-meet- 
ings  and  other  evangelistic  services.  This 
was  an  innovation  that  greatly  disturbed 
many  in  the  German  Church  who  had  little 
sympathy  with  earnest  and  vital  godliness, 
but  the  divine  favor  followed  the  labors  of 
his  servant,  which  were  extended  in  evan¬ 
gelistic  tours  far  and  near.  During  his 
pastorate  in  York,  Penn.  (1766),  Otterbein 
was  brought,  under  peculiar  circumstances, 
into  close  relations  with  Martin  Boehm  of 
the  Mennonite  Church,  who  had  passed 
through  a  spiritual  experience  very  similar 
to  his  own.  The  greeting  which  Otterbein 
had  given  Boehm,  after  hearing  him 
preach  for  the  first  time,  “We  are  breth¬ 
ren,”  gave  rise  to  the  name,  “  United 
Brethren  in  Christ.” 

From  this  time  on,  Otterbein  and  Boehm 
often  met  and  labored  together.  It  was 
not  their  purpose  to  organize  a  new  Church, 
but  to  labor  together  and  separately,  each 
within  the  pale  of  his  respective  denomina¬ 
tion.  They  hoped  in  this  way  to  awaken 
the  people  and  lead  them  into  the  experi¬ 
ence  of  a  new  life.  They  met  with  no  little 
opposition. 

During  the  nine  years  that  Otterbein 
spent  at  York,  he  and  Boehm  held  many 
services  together  and  separately  in  various 
parts  of  Pennsylvania,  Maryland,  and  Vir- 


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ginia.  Scores  of  souls  were  brought  into 
the  light;  some  of  whom  commenced  to 
exhort  and  preach.  A  few  ministers  in  the 
old  denominations  were  aroused,  and  united 
with  them  in  their  evangelistic  work.  But 
they  labored  under  great  disadvantages  be¬ 
cause  of  the  opposition,  both  by  the  clergy 
and  members  of  the  old  churches,  nearly 
all  of  whom  were  opposed  to  the  new  meas¬ 
ures  introduced  by  Otterbein  and  Boehm. 
Still  the  leaven  was  at  work,  and  could  not 
be  suppressed. 

In  1774  Mr.  Otterbein  removed  to  Balti¬ 
more,  Md.  “  Nearly  twenty  years  had 
passed  since  he  had  entered  into  the  light. 
During  all  these  years  he  had  labored  in¬ 
cessantly  in  public  and  private  to  promote 
in  the  church  a  revival  of  Bible  religion.” 
While  his  labors  had  not  accomplished  all 
he  desired,  they  were  far  from  being  a 
failure.  Scores  and  hundreds  of  seals  were 
added  to  his  ministry. 

Soon  after  Mr.  Otterbein’s  removal  to 
Baltimore  he  commenced  the  organization 
of  a  congregation  which  was  distinct  from, 
and  independent  of,  the  German  Reformed 
Church.  “  This  was  not  his  own  choice; 
there  was  a  combination  of  circumstances, 
over  which  he  seemed  not  to  have  control, 
that  forced  him  into  this  measure.”  There 
were  elements  of  spiritual  power  scattered 
through  Pennsylvania,  Maryland,  and  Vir¬ 
ginia,  which  could  not  be  brought  into 
harmony  with  the  formalism  of  the  old  de¬ 
nominations,  but  it  was  without  organiza¬ 
tion.  Otterbein  and  Boehm  saw  this,  but 
had  no  desire  to  organize  a  new  church. 

The  organization  of  the  United  Brethren 
Church  was  not  accomplished  in  a  day:  it 
took  months  and  years.  It  was  a  gradual 
development.  The  leaders  moved  forward 
only  as  they  were  compelled  by  the  force 
of  circumstances. 

Otterbein  was  a  German  Reformed,  and 
Boehm  a  Mennonite.  They  represented 
denominations  widely  different  in  polity. 
About  this  time  Mr.  Otterbein  formed  the 
acquaintance  of  Mr.  Asbury,  the  first 
bishop  of  the  Methodist  Episcopal  Church 
in  America.  They  became  very  intimate 
friends,  and,  by  special  request  of  Asbury, 
Otterbein  assisted  in  his  (Asbury’s)  ordina¬ 
tion  to  the  office  of  bishop.  This  friend¬ 
ship,  without  interruption,  continued 
through  many  years.  They  often  met  in 
council  over  the  condition  of  the  churches 
in  America.  Four  months  after  the  death 
of  Otterbein,  Asbury  preached  in  his  pul¬ 
pit.  Referring  to  the  occasion  in  his  jour¬ 
nal,  Mr.  Asbury  said:  “  By  request,  I  dis- 
coursed'on  the  character  of  the  angel  of  the 
church  of  Philadelphia,  in  allusion  to  Will¬ 
iam  Otterbein — the  holy,  the  great  Otter¬ 
bein.  Forty  years  have  I  known  the  re¬ 


tiring  modesty  of  this  man  of  God ;  towering 
majestic  above  his  fellows  in  learning, 
wisdom,  and  grace,  yet  seeking  to  be  known 
only  to  God  and  the  people  of  God.” 

Mr.  Otterbein’s  association  with  Bishop 
Asbury  no  doubt  had  considerable  in¬ 
fluence  over  his  mind  in  outlining  the 
polity  of  the  church,  of  which,  by  the 
providence  of  God  he  was  placed  at  the 
head.  Selecting  from  the  German  Reform¬ 
ed,  Mennonite,  and  Methodist  Episcopal 
Churches  such  items  of  polity  as  could  be 
made  to  harmonize,  Otterbein  and  his  co¬ 
adjutors  commenced  the  formation  of  a 
polity,  which,  in  several  respects,  differed 
from  any  other  in  America.  There  is  a 
fortunate  balancing  of  power  between  the 
laity  and  ministry,  so  that  neither  can  act 
independently  of  the  other.  It  has  some 
of  the  elements  of  the  Presbyterian  form, 
some  of  the  Congregational,  and  some  of 
the  Methodist  Episcopal,  thus  making  it,  in 
some  respects,  the  counterpart  of  the 
American  Republic.  But  for  the  Revolu¬ 
tionary  War  the  organization  of  the  church 
would  have  progressed  more  rapidly.  The 
ministers  cooperating  with  Otterbein  and 
Boehm  in  the  evangelistic  work  would 
meet  in  council  at  such  times  and  places 
as  they  could. 

The  first  conference  was  held  in  Balti¬ 
more  in  1789.  Seven  preachers  were 
present,  and  seven  absent.  At  this  con¬ 
ference  some  definite  action  was  taken, 
looking  toward  a  more  perfect  organiza¬ 
tion;  but  the  organization  was  not  com¬ 
pleted  until  the  conference  of  1800,  at 
which  time  Otterbein  and  Boehm  were 
formally  elected  bishops.  Up  to  this  time, 
by  common  consent,  without  any  formal 
vote,  Otterbein  acted  as  general  superin¬ 
tendent.  From  1800,  Otterbein  and  Boehm 
were  continued  in  the  office  of  bishop  un¬ 
til  their  death.  Boehm  died  in  1812,  and 
Otterbein  in  1813. 

When  the  denomination  was  first  organ¬ 
ized  most  of  the  members  spoke  the  Ger¬ 
man  language  exclusively,  but  at  the 
present  time  that  language  is  used  by  less 
than  four  per  cent,  of  the  congregations. 

The  United  Brethren  in  Christ  are 
Arminian  in  doctrine,  and  the  government 
of  the  church  is  vested  primarily  in  the 
General  Conference.  They  acknowledge 
but  one  order  in  the  ministry,  that  of  elder. 
There  are  bishops  and  presiding  elders, 
but  these  do  not  constitute  a  separate 
order.  The  bishops  are  elected  by  the 
General  Conference  for  a  term  of  four 
years,  and  the  presiding  elders  by  their 
respective  Conferences  annually.  There 
are  local  and  quarterly  conference  preach¬ 
ers,  who  have  no  regular  charge,  but 
preach  as  they  have  opportunity.  The 


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churches  are  supplied  with  pastors  on  the 
itinerant  plan.  The  first  Board  of  Mis¬ 
sions  was  organized  in  1853  for  home, 
frontier  and  foreign  work.  Its  foreign 
missions  are  in  West  Africa  and  Germany, 
and  have  been  very  successful. 

The  denomination  has  ten  colleges, 
several  academies-,  and  one  Theological 
Seminary  under  its  care.  The  publishing- 
house  of  the  church  is  located  at  Dayton, 
0.,and  represented  a  capital,  in  1889,  of 
$280,000.  The  general  statistics  of  the 
church  for  1889  show  a  membership  of 
210,517;  ministers,  2,050;  scholars  in  Sun¬ 
day-schools,  219,846;  and  32,026  teachers 
and  officers.  Value  of  church  property, 
$5,255,977- 

During  the  last  quadrennium  the  net 
increase  in  membership  was  a  little  over 
forty  thousand.  The  church  is  more  thor¬ 
oughly  organized  and  better  equipped  for 
aggressive  work  than  at  any  period  in  its 
history.  Educated  young  men  from  her 
colleges  and  seminaries  in  larger  numbers 
than  ever  before  are  entering  the  ministry. 
The  church  was  born  in  a  revival,  and  that 
spirit  has  continued  till  the  present  time. 

J.  Weaver. 

Literature:  Lawrence:  Histoy-y  of  The 
United  Brethren  in  Christ;  The  United 
Brethren  Year-Book.  A.  W.  Drury:  Life 
of  Rev.  Philip  William  Otterbein  (Dayton, 
1884). 

Universalism,  or  The  Universalists.  In 
the  nomenclature  of  theology — particular¬ 
ly  in  Germany — the  term  “  Universalism  ” 
has  been  applied  to  the  view  of  the  scope 
of  the  Gospel  taken  by  St.  Paul,  in  con¬ 
trast  to  the  narrower  view  which  confined 
its  benefits  to  a  race  or  class.  But  this 
article  deals  with  the  denomination  of 
Christians  found  mostly  in  the  United 
States,  and  known  as  Universalists,  whose 
distinguishing  doctrine  is  the  belief  that 
good  is  naturally  superior  to  evil,  and  that 
all  souls  shall  finally  attain  the  end  for 
which  they  are  created — salvation,  or  moral 
perfection. 

History. — As  a  religious  body  with  a  dis¬ 
tinctive  name,  the  Universalists  date  from 
the  missionary  labors  of  the  Rev.  John 
Murray,  a  disciple  of  James  Relly  of  Lon¬ 
don.  Mr.  Murray  came  to  America  in 
1770,  and  began  preaching  at  Good  Luck, 
N.  J.,  whence  he  extended  his  ministry 
into  New  York,  Pennsylvania,  Rhode 
Island,  and  finally  to  Massachusetts.  But 
the  characteristic  doctrine  of  the  Univer¬ 
salists  has  been  held  by  many  persons  in 
every  age  since  the  apostles.  A  scheme 
of  Universalism  was  advocated  among  the 
more  prominent  sects  of  the  Gnostics  as 
early  as  130  a,  D.  Of  the  Church  Fathers, 


Clement  of  Alexandria,  Origen,  Diodorus, 
and  Theodore  of  Mopsuestia  are  well 
known  to  have  held  and  taught  Universal¬ 
ism.  It  was  taught  in  the  greatest  of  the 
early  schools  of  Christian  theology  at 
Alexandria,  Antioch,  Caesarea  and  Edessa. 
In  the  Middle  Ages  Maximus,  Clement  of 
Ireland,  John  Scotus  Erigena,  Raynold, 
abbot  of  St.  Martin's  in  France,  with  many 
others  less  noted,  proclaimed  the  final  sal¬ 
vation  of  all  men.  A  portion  of  the  Albi- 
genses  (eleventh  century),  of  the  Lollards 
(fourteenth  century),  of  the  Mystics  (fif¬ 
teenth  century),  were  Universalists.  From 
the  Reformation  down,  both  the  doctrine 
and  its  advocates  appear  with  increasing 
frequency.  The  seventeenth  article  of  the 
Augsburg  Confession  (1536)  was  express¬ 
ly  framed  to  condemn  the  Universalism  of 
the  Anabaptists.  John  William  Petersen 
published  in  1710  three  folio  volumes  in 
defense  of  the  doctrine,  one  portion  of 
which,  entitled  The  Everlasting  Gospel,  had 
a  wide  circulation.  Numerous  other  works 
appeared  in  Germany,  England,  and  Amer¬ 
ica  during  the  latter  part  of  the  seventeenth 
and  the  whole  of  the  eighteenth  centuries, 
so  that  the  collection  of  what  remains  of 
them  forms  a  considerable  library,  now  in 
possession  of  the  Universalist  Historical 
Society. 

Dr.  George  De  Benneville,  of  French 
lineage,  and  a  Mystic,  preached  Universal¬ 
ism  in  Germantown  and  in  Oley,  Pa.,  as 
early  as  1742,  and  subsequently  for  many 
years;  but  it  was  with  the  preaching  of  the 
Rev.  John  Murray  that  the  gathering  of 
distinctively  Universalist  congregations 
and  the  organization  of  societies  began.  It 
was  discovered  that  persons  holding  the 
same  sentiments  were  to  be  found  in  many 
places;  some  of  whom  had  been  preachers 
in  Baptist,  Congregational,  Episcopalian, 
and  other  churches,  and  who.  as  opportu¬ 
nity  offered,  were  proclaiming  the  views  for 
which  they  had  been  dismissed  from  their 
former  connection.  But  during  all  the 
earlier  years  the  organized  advance  of 
Universalism  was  beset  with  many  hin¬ 
drances.  In  1803,  when  the  “  Profession  of 
Belief  ”  was  adopted,  and  a  plan  of  organ¬ 
ization  agreed  upon,  there  were  scarcely  a 
score  of  ministers  and  not  more  than  forty 
congregations  in  existence.  From  that 
period  the  growth  of  the  denomination  be¬ 
comes  more  regular  and  rapid.  A  princi¬ 
pal  cause  contributing  to  this  result  was 
the  appearance  among  the  advocates  of 
Universalism  of  Hosea  Ballou  (1771-1852), 
affectionately  called  “  Father  Ballou,”  a 
man  of  singular  originality  and  power,  and 
well  fitted  to  give  coherency  and  impetus 
to  a  new  religious  movement.  He  possess¬ 
ed  an  acute  and  logical  mind,  had  uncom- 


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mon  power  over  popular  assemblies,  and 
was  endowed  with  the  genius  of  leadership. 
Joined  with  these  qualities  was  a  homely 
wisdom,  frequently  breaking  forth  in  wit, 
and  an  apostolical  character,  all  of  which 
conspired  to  give  him  commanding  in¬ 
fluence  for  half  a  century.  It  was  not, 
however,  until  sixty  years  from  the  date 
of  its  first  organization  that  any  practical 
plan  for  associated  missionary  effort  and 
church  extension  was  devised.  In  1870 
the  persistent  endeavor  of  a  few  earnest 
and  sagacious  men  was  crowned  with  suc¬ 
cess  in  the  adoption  of  a  comprehensive 
and  uniform  system  of  organization  for 
parishes,  State  Conventions,  and  the  Gen¬ 
eral  Convention.  This  plan,  modeled  on 
that  of  our  political  system,  secured  at 
length  the  assent  of  the  whole  body,  and 
under  it  a  really  new  denomination  has 
come  into  existence. 

Statistics. — The  most  trustworthy  infor¬ 
mation  places  the  numerical  force  of  the 
Universalist  body  at  250,000.  Many  of 
these  are  not  gathered  into  parishes,  and 
so  are  not  reported  in  the  official  statistics. 
But  their  existence  is  well  established  from 
the  circulation  of  the  denominational  liter¬ 
ature  among  them,  and  from  the  recent 
canvass  of  cities  and  large  towns,  under¬ 
taken  by  committees  representing  all  the 
churches.  In  every  instance  this  canvass 
showed  that  there  are  nearly  as  many  Uni¬ 
versalist  families  not  heretofore  enrolled 
as  had  already  been  reported  by  the  sev¬ 
eral  parishes.  The  Annual  Register  for 
the  year  1889  reported  974  parishes,  732 
organized  churches,  815  church  edifices, 
700  ministers,  40,844  families,  and  42,952 
communicants,  and  $8,018,046  in  church 
property.  This  represents  a  gain  over  the 
previous  year  of  11  church  organizations 
and  4,172  communicants.  The  educational 
institutions  founded  and  maintained  by  the 
denomination,  are:  The  Clinton  Liberal 
Institute,  located  at  Fort  Plain,  N.  Y.  (1831); 
The  Westbrook  Seminary,  Deering,  Me. 
(1832);  The  Goddard  Seminary,  Barre,  Vt. 
(1863);  The  Dean  Academy,  Franklin, 
Mass.  (1865);  The  Green  Mountain  Perkins 
Institute,  So.  Woodstock,  Vt.  (1848);  Tufts 
College,  College  Hill,  Mass.  (1S52);  Lam- 
bard  University,  Galesburg,  Ill.  (1851); 
St.  Lawrence  University,  Canton,  N.  Y. 
(1856);  and  Buchtel  College,  Akron,  O. 
(1870).  Three  Divinity  Schools  have  been 
established  in  the  order  named:  Canton, 
Tufts  and  Lambard.  These  institutions 
have  properties  and  endowments  aggregat¬ 
ing  $10,000,000.  The  General  Convention 
holds  invested  funds  to  the  amount  of 
about  $200,000,  the  income  of  which  is  used 
to  educate  ministers,  and  to  carry  forward 
missions  at  points  not  provided  for  by  the 


State  Conventions.  The  New  York  Con¬ 
vention  holds  funds  amounting  to  over 
$100,000,  and  the  Massachusetts  Conven¬ 
tion  has  about  $50,000.  Other  State  Con¬ 
ventions  have  similar  funds  of  less 
amounts. 

Literature. — Hosea  Ballou’s  Treatise  on 
the  Atonement  (1821)  was  the  first  book  is¬ 
sued  under  the  auspices  of  the  Universal¬ 
ist  denomination  that  challenged  public 
attention.  As  before  noted,  there  had 
been  many  Universalist  books,  like  Sieg- 
volsk’s  Everlasting  Gospel ,  and  Elhanan 
Winchester’s  Dialogues  (1788).  But  the 
Treatise  and  other  writings  of  Mr.  Ballou 
first  gave  to  Universalism  the  character  of 
a  system  of  religious  doctrines.  The  Ex¬ 
positor ,  now  the  Universalist  Quarterly ,  was 
established  by  Mr.  Ballou  in  1830.  He 
also  founded  the  first  Universalist  paper, 
the  Evangelical  Magazine ,  in  1819,  of  which 
the  Christian  Leader ,  Boston,  is  the  succes¬ 
sor.  Some  idea  of  Mr.  Ballou’s  literary 
activity,  as  well  as  of  the  part  he  perform¬ 
ed  in  shaping  the  thought  and  life  of  the 
denomination,  may  be  obtained  from  the 
fact,  that  he  was  the  author  of  over  one 
hundred  volumes.  After  Mr.  Ballou, 
Thomas  Whitteman,  for  many  years  editor 
of  The  Trumpet,  and  author  of  a  number 
of  volumes,  the  most  widely  circulated  of 
which  was  the  Plain  Guide  to  Universalism, 
takes  rank  among  the  chief  propagators  of 
the  faith.  Hosea  Ballou  (2d),  D.  D.,  first 
President  of  Tufts  College,  was  a  pains¬ 
taking  scholar,  whose  Anciejit  History  of 
Universalistn  holds  its  place  among  the 
standard  works  of  the  Church.  I.  D.  Wil¬ 
liamson,  D.  D.,  exerted  great  influence 
through  his  books  for  a  generation,  but  his 
chief  work,  Rudiments  of  Theological  and 
Moral  Science,  failed  to  make  any  marked 
impression.  T.  Southwood  Smith’s  Lllus- 
trations  of  the  Divine  Government  sustains 
its  early  reputation.  Dr.  Thos.  B.  Thayer 
produced  a  number  of  books  of  permanent 
value.  His  Theology  of  Universalism  has 
passed  through  several  editions,  and  his 
Over  the  River,  a  volume  of  consolatory 
meditations,  has  been  widely  welcomed 
among  Christian  people  of  every  name. 
The  works  of  Dr.  Edwin  H.  Chapin,  the 
great  orator  of  the  denomination,  have  had 
an  extensive  popularity,  and  are  still  in 
demand.  Universalism  a  Practical  Power, 
by  the  late  Dr.  E.  G.  Brooks,  is  a  justly 
prized  volume.  Lucius  R.  Paige,  D.  D. ,  and 
Rev.  W.  E.  Manley,  D.  D.,  have  written 
elaborate  commentaries  of  the  New  and 
Old  Testaments,  respectively.  More  recent 
works  are:  A  ion,  A  ionios;  Bible  Proofs;  The 
Leaven  at  Work;  The  New  Covenant,  by  J. 
W.  Hanson,  D.  D.;  The  L.atest  Word  of 
Universalism ,  thirteen  essays  by  thirteen 


Uni 


(  936  ) 


Uni 


clergymen;  Essays  Doctrinal  and  Practical , 
by  fifteen  clergymen;  Probation  Examined , 
and  The  Bible  and  Modern  Thought ,  by  G. 
H.  Emerson,  D.  D.;  and  a  series  of  mono¬ 
graphs  on  God  the  Father ,  Christ  in  the 
Life ,  Revelation ,  Salvation ,  The  Birth  from 
Above ,  Retribution,  etc. ,  by  prominent  writ¬ 
ers  of  the  denomination.  A  work  of  great 
value,  the  fruit  of  long  industry  and  con¬ 
scientious  research,  is  Dr.  Richard  Eddy’s 
Universalism  in  America  (Boston,  1886),  2 
vols.  Endless  Punishment  in  the  Very 
Words  of  its  Authors  is  a  volume  of  im¬ 
portant  testimonies  gathered  by  the  Rev. 
Thos.  J.  Sawyer,  D.  D.,  Dean  of  Tufts 
Divinity  School.  All  the  above  works,  and 
about  one  hundred  more,  are  published  by 
the  Universalist  Publishing  House  (Boston 
and  Chicago),  an  incorporated  institution 
holding  property  to  the  value  of  over 
$200,000,  owned  by  the  denomination. 

Doctrines.  —  The  Profession  of  Belief 
adopted  by  representatives  of  Universalist 
parishes  in  1803,  and  re-adopted  on  the  oc¬ 
casion  of  the  completer  organization  of  the 
body  in  1870,  consists  of  three  articles,  as 
follows: 

Art.  I.  We  believe  that  the  Holy  Script¬ 
ures  of  the  Old  and  New  Testaments  con¬ 
tain  a  revelation  of  the  character  of  God, 
and  of  the  duty,  interest,  and  final  destina¬ 
tion  of  mankind. 

Art.  II.  We  believe  that  there  is  one  God, 
whose  nature  is  Love,  revealed  in  one  Lord 
Jesus  Christ,  by  one  Holy  Spirit  of  Grace, 
who  will  finally  restore  the  whole  family  of 
mankind  to  holiness  and  happiness. 

Art.  III.  We  believe  that  holiness  and 
true  happiness  are  inseparably  connected, 
and  that  believers  ought  to  be  careful  to 
maintain  order  and  practice  good  works; 
for  these  things  are  good  and  profitable 
unto  men. 

Though  there  is  unanimity  in  subscrib¬ 
ing  this  creed,  it  does  not  fully  satisfy 
many  influential  clergymen  in  the  denom¬ 
ination,  and  a  committee  on  revision  of 
the  Profession  has  been  regularly  appoint¬ 
ed  by  the  General  Convention  in  annual 
session  for  several  years.  Such  a  commit¬ 
tee  will  report  a  revised  creed  at  the  next 
session  in  1891.  It  is  with  the  Universal- 
ists,  however,  as  with  other  Christian  sects: 
their  historic  creed  is  neither  an  exact  nor 
complete  summary  of  their  distinctive  opin¬ 
ions.  Two  chief  postulates  underlie  the 
system  known  as  Universalism:  (1)  That 
truth  and  right  and  good  are  stronger  than 
their  opposites,  and  are  sure  finally  to  pre¬ 
vail.  (2)  That  the  end  for  which  man — each 
man  and  all  men — is  made,  is  to  become 
righteous,  wise,  and  good;  in  other  but 
equivalent  terms,  to  be  saved.  Standing 
on  the  reasonableness  and  truth  of  these 


propositions,  Universalism  goes  on  to 
say: 

(1)  Every  man  is  capable  of  salvation.  No 
human  being  has  been  found,  none  is  likely 
ever  to  be  found,  who  is  not  a  moral  per¬ 
son.  Every  such  person,  and  only  such  a 
person,  is  amenable  to  moral  discipline  and 
susceptible  to  moral  influence;  which  is 
another  way  of  saying  that  every  one  is 
capable  of  being  saved. 

(2)  God  loves  men  and  desires  their  sal¬ 
vation.  They  are  his  spiritual  children: 
they  all  belong  to  him.  And  he  desires  the 
salvation  of  the  bad.  The  good  do  not 
need  to  be  saved.  The  meaning  of  the 
Gospel  is  that  God  loves  men  and  will  have 
them  to  be  saved. 

(3)  Men  are  saved  when  they  acquire 
moral  likeness  to  God.  Man  is  a  spiritual 
child  of  God  by  nature:  he  is  capable  of 
becoming  a  child  of  God  in  character.  But 
he  cannot  be  depended  on  to  acquire  this 
likeness  without  divine  help.  Where  he 
is  not  postively  sinful  he  is  carnal,  worldly, 
unspiritual.  Christianity  is  perhaps  not 
the  only  means,  but  it  is  the  chief  means 
through  which  divine  help  is  extended  to 
man.  Christ  is  the  power  of  God  unto  sal¬ 
vation.  His  righteousness  is  not  substi¬ 
tuted  for  man’s;  but  by  his  aid  man  is  en¬ 
abled  to  have  righteousness  of  his  own. 

(4)  Since  man  was  made  to  be  righteous 
and  good,  his  happiness  or  peace  depends, 
and  will  always  depend,  on  his  attaining 
the  moral  character  for  which  these  terms 
stand.  However  long  the  period  of  indif¬ 
ference  or  insensibility,  it  is  certain  to  be 
succeeded  by  unrest,  and,  whenever  the 
man  “  comes  to  himself,”  by  a  conscious¬ 
ness  that  his  unhappiness  is  due  to  his 
alienation  from  his  Father.  Thus  the  nat¬ 
ure  of  man,  the  inevitable  fruit  of  sin,  and 
the  unchanging  moral  law,  conspire  with 
the  purpose  of  God  to  insure  the  salvation 
of  the  sinner.  If  it  is  permissible  to  assume 
that  the  constitution  of  the  human  soul 
will  remain  what  it  is,  and  that  sin  and 
righteousness  will  continue  to  yield  their 
respective  fruits,  and  that  God  will  never 
be  any  less  desirousof  having  men  attain  the 
end  for  which  he  created  them  than  he  was 
when  he  raised  up  his  Son,  Jesus,  and  sent 
him  to  bless  mankind  by  turning  every  one 
of  them  away  from  iniquity, theUniversalist 
conclusion  would  seem  to  be  valid  and  solid. 

If  it  should  be  said  that  we  cannot  know 
certainly  that  everyone  will  be  saved,  and 
cannot,  therefore,  with  propriety  say  more 
than  that  it  is  a  “hope,”  the  Universalist 
would  answer  that  this  is  a  contingency 
which  attaches  equally  to  all  the  great 
affirmations  of  religion — that  there  is  a  God, 
that  man  is  his  spiritual  child,  that  Jesus 
Christ  is  the  messenger  of  God,  that  duty 


Uph 


(  937  ) 


Uri 


is  imperative,  and  that  the  immortal  life  is 
a  reality.  If  the  logical  strain  would  break 
the  conclusion  that  all  men  are  to  be  saved, 
it  would  at  the  same  time  snap  the  certainty 
that  all  men  are  created  in  the  image  of 
God,  and  relegate  to  a  “  hope”  the  future 
life  and  blessedness  of  any  one.  All  that 
can  be  said  for  any  of  these  conclusions  is, 
that  they  acquire  so  high  a  degree  of  prob¬ 
ability  that  the  human  soul,  dealing  fairly 
with  the  facts  and  with  itself,  is  constrained 
to  accept  them.  Universalism  rests  with 
at  least  as  great  security  as  any  of  the  sys¬ 
tems  of  Christian  doctrine  on  the  triple 
support  of  Revelation,  of  Reason,  and  of 
the  observed  tendency  of  the  moral  crea¬ 
tion. 

J'endencies. — Two  tendencies  which  ap¬ 
pear  to  be  inharmonious,  if  not  antagonistic, 
are  noticeable  in  the  denomination  in  recent 
years,  (i)  There  is  a  marked  increase  in 
the  religious  life  of  the  churches.  This 
manifests  itself  in  special  religious  meet¬ 
ings;  in  accessions  of  communicants;  in 
larger  contributions  for  missionary  work, 
culminating  in  the  sending  out  of  Dr. 
George  L.  Perin  as  a  missionary  to  Japan, 
the  present  year,  and  the  raising  of  over 
$60,000  to  maintain  the  mission;  and  in  a 
more  spiritual  tone  pervading  the  preach¬ 
ing  and  literature  of  the  sect.  (2)  At  the 
same  time,  and  not  seldom  on  the  part  of 
the  same  persons,  may  be  observed  the 
growth  of  rationalistic  habits  of  thought 
among  certain  of  the  clergy.  The  symptoms 
are:  a  freer  handling  of  the  Bible,  a  disposi¬ 
tion  to  discard  or  to  make  light  of  miracles, 
and  eagerness  to  make  more  of  Science  and 
Literature, and  correspondingly  less  of  Rev¬ 
elation.  How  widely  this  temper  prevails 
can  only  be  estimated.  Hitherto,  the  Uni- 
versalist  Church  and  ministry,  while  exer¬ 
cising  a  large  liberty,  have  stood  firmly  on 
the  ground  of  the  historic  credibility  of  the 
New  Testament  records.  Perhaps  the  rela¬ 
tive  strength  of  the  historic  position  of  the 
denomination  is  fairly  shown  by  the  fact 
that  the  following  resolution  was  unani¬ 
mously  adopted,  by  a  rising  vote — a  few, 
however,  not  voting — at  the  session  of  the 
General  Convention  in  Lynn,  Mass.,  in 
October,  1889: 

“  Resolved ,  That  the  Universalist  Church 
of  America,  in  General  Convention  assem¬ 
bled,  reaffirms  the  position  which  it  has 
consistently  held  from  the  beginning,  to 
wit:  That  it  rests  on,  and  believes  in,  the 
historical  veracity  of  the  New  Testament 
records  of  the  life  and  words  and  works 
of  our  Lord  Jesus  Christ.” 

I.  M.  Atwood. 

Upham,  Thomas  Cogswell,  D.  D.,  Con¬ 
gregationalism  b.  at  Deerfield,  N.  H.,  Jan. 


30,  1799;  d.  in  New  York  City,  April  2, 
1872.  He  was  graduated  at  Dartmouth 
College,  1818,  and  at  Andover  Seminary, 
1821.  From  1825  to  1867  he  was  professor 
of  mental  and  moral  philosophy  in  Bow- 
doin  College.  He  was  a  prolific  writer. 
Among  his  works  are:  Elements  of  Mental 
Philosophy  (1839,  2  vols.,  abridged  ed., 
1864);  Outlines  of  Disordered  Mental  Ac¬ 
tion  (1S40);  Life  of  Madame  Guyon  (1847); 
Life  of  Faith  (1848);  Treatise  on  the  Will 
(1850);  Alethod  of  Praver  (1859);  The  Abso¬ 
lute  Religion  (1872). 

Ur  of  the  Chaldees,  the  land  of  Abra¬ 
ham’s  ancestors.  (Gen.  xi.  28,  31;  xv.  7; 
Neh.  ix.  7.)  It  is  thus  described  by  Schra¬ 
der:  “  In  the  extreme  south  of  Babylonian 
Chaldea,  west  of  the  Euphrates,  from  un¬ 
known  times  there  existed  a  very  famous 
seat  of  the  moon-goddess,  Sin.calledUru  up¬ 
on  the  Babylonian  cuneiform  inscriptions, 
to-day  represented  by  the  ruins  of  Mug- 
heir.  It  is  certainly  natural  to  identify 
this  Uru  with  the  Ur  of  Abraham’s  ances¬ 
try.  And  this  conjecture  is  supported  by 
considering  that  (1)  the  name  Abram,  in  the 
pronunciation  ‘  Aburamu,  ’is  Assyrian-Baby- 
lonian;  (2)  Ur,  whence  Abraham  emigrated, 
and  Haran,  where  he  rested,  were  alike 
seats  of  the  worship  of  Sin,  the  moon- 
goddess;  (3)  the  West  Semites  and  the  He¬ 
brews  also  had  the  same  religious  ideas 
and  traditions  as  the  Babylonians;  (4)  He¬ 
brew  poetry  in  its  parallelism  and  methods 
resembles  Babylonian  poetry.” 

Urban  is  the  name  of  eight  popes.  See 
Popes;  Papal  Power. 

Urim  and  Thummim  (lights  and  perfec¬ 
tions).  “  These  were  the  sacred  symbols 
(worn  upon  the  breastplate  of  the  high- 
priest,  ‘upon  his  heart’),  by  which  God 
gave  oracular  responses  for  the  guidance 
of  his  people  in  temporal  matters.  What 
they  were  is  unknown;  they  are  introduced 
in  Exodus  without  explanation,  as  if  famil¬ 
iar  to  the  Israelites  of  that  day.  Modern 
Egyptology  supplies  us  with  a  clue;  it 
tells  us  that  Egyptian  high-priests  in  every 
town,  who  were  also  its  chief  magistrates, 
wore  round  their  necks  a  jeweled  gem, 
bearing  on  one  side  the  image  of  Truth, 
and  on  the  other  sometimes  that  of  Justice, 
sometimes  that  of  Light.  When  the  ac¬ 
cused  was  acquitted  the  judge  held  out 
the  image  for  him  to  kiss.  In  the  final 
judgment  Osiris  wears  round  his  neck  the 
jeweled  Justice  and  Truth.  The  LXX. 
translates  Urim  and  Thummim  by  ‘  light 
and  truth.’  Some  scholars  suppose  that 
they  were  the  twelve  stones  of  the  breast¬ 
plate;  others  that  they  were  two  additional 


Urs 


(  938  ) 


Uss 


stones  concealed  in  its  fold.  Josephus  adds 
to  these  the  two  sardonyx  buttons  worn  on 
the  shoulders,  which,  he  says,  emitted 
luminous  rays  when  the  response  was  fa¬ 
vorable;  but  the  precise  mode  in  which  the 
oracles  were  given  is  lost  in  obscurity.” — 
“Oxford  ”  Bible  Helps. 

Ursi'nus,  Zacharias,  one  of  the  most 
eminent  divines  of  the  sixteenth  century; 
b.  at  Breslau  in  Silesia,  1534;  d.  at  Neu- 
stadt,  1583.  He  was  educated  at  Witten¬ 
berg,  and  here  made  the  acquaintance  of 
Melanchthon,  who  entertained  a  great 
friendship  for  him,  and  took  him  to  the 
Conference  at  Worms  in  1557,  from  whence 
he  went  to  Geneva,  and  thence  to  Paris, 
in  order  to  learn  the  French  language  and 
perfect  himself  in  Hebrew  under  the  fa¬ 
mous  Jean  Mercier.  On  his  return  to 
Breslau  he  wrote  Theses  de  Sacramentis  de 
Baptismo  et  de  Coend  Domini ,  in  which  he 
took  the  side  of  Calvin  and  Melanchthon, 
but  he  so  managed  the  subject  of  Coena 
Domini  that  the  leading  party  in  the  town 
accused  him  of  being  a  Sacramentarian. 
He  endeavored  to  justify  himself,  but,  not 
giving  satisfaction,  he  chose  rather  to  quit 
his  country  than  continue  a  quarrel,  and, 
his  friend  Melanchthon  being  now  dead,  he 
went  to  Zurich,  where  he  fraternized  with 
Peter  Martyr,  Bullinger,  etc.  In  1561  he 
was  invited  by  the  University  of  Heidel¬ 
berg  to  settle  there  in  their  “  Collegium 
Sapientise,”  and  they  made  him  their  pro¬ 
fessor  “  Locorum  Communium,”  a  chair 
which  he  held  till  1568.  In  1564  Ursinus, 
with  Olevianus,  drew  up  the  Palatinate  or 
Heidelberg  Catechism,  and  at  the  instance 
of  the  Elector,  Frederick  III.,  wrote  a  de¬ 
fence  of  it  against  the  attacks  of  Flacius 
Illyricus  and  other  rigid  Lutherans.  The 
Elector  was  accused  of  having  set  forth  a 
doctrine  concerning  the  Eucharist  which 
the  Augsburg  Confession  had  condemned, 
so  he  ordered  Ursinus  to  write  a  tract  ex¬ 
plaining  the  doctrine  of  the  sacraments. 
Ursinus  was  present  at  the  Conference  of 
Maulbronn,  where  he  argued  vigorously 
against  the  Ubiquitarians  (y.  v. ).  On  the 
death  of  Frederick  III.,  in  1577,  his  son 
and  successor,  Lewis,  would  allow  no  min¬ 
ister  to  live  in  the  Palatinate  who  was  not 
a  thorough  Lutheran,  so  Ursinus  had  to 
leave  Heidelberg  for  Neustadt,  where  he 
was  made  divinity  professor  in  the  Schola 
Illustris,  newly  founded  by  Prince  Casi- 
mir,  the  second  son  of  Frederick  III.  Here 
he  died  in  1583,  in  the  forty-ninth  year  of 
his  age. — Benham:  Diet,  of  Religion.  There 
is  an  English  translation  of  his  Su?n?ne  of 
Christian  Religion ,  published  in  New  York 
under  the  title  Commentary  on  the  Heidel¬ 
berg  Catechism.  See  also  Hundeshagen: 


Ursinus,  in  Lives  of  the  Leaders  of  our 
Church  Universal  (1879). 

Ur  sula,  a  Roman  Catholic  saint,  regard¬ 
ing  whom  two  legends  find  supporters. 
According  to  one,  she  was  the  only  daugh¬ 
ter  of  the  Christian  King  Deonotus,  or 
Diognetus,  of  Britain.  Sought  in  marriage 
by  the  heathen  prince  Holofornes,  she  put 
off  its  consummation  for  three  years,  and 
with  ten  near  friends  and  eleven  thousand 
other  virgins  started  on  a  pilgrimage.  They 
made  their  way  to  Rome,  and  on  their  re¬ 
turn  were  accompanied  by  Pope  Cyriacus. 
Not  far  from  Cologne  they  were  attacked 
by  a  party  of  Huns,  and  all  were  killed 
with  the  exception  of  Ursula,  who,  on  ac¬ 
count  of  her  beauty  was  spared  to  become 
the  wife  of  the  king,  but,  resisting,  she  was 
slain  by  an  arrow.  A  host  of  angels  then 
put  the  Huns  to  flight.  The  city  of  Cologne, 
in  gratitude  for  this  deliverance,  buried  the 
martyred  virgins  separately,  and  placed  a 
stone,  bearing  the  name  of  the  occupant, 
over  each  grave.  Subsequently  the  St. 
Ursula  Church  was  built  over  the  spot.  The 
fact  that  no  Pope  Cyriacus  lived  at  this 
period,  and  that  the  Huns  had  not  then 
appeared  in  Europe  led  many  in  the  Middle 
Ages  to  adopt  the  legend  given  by  Geoffrey 
of  Monmouth  in  his  Hist.  Regum.  Britan ., 
which  relates  that  Deonotus  sent  over 
seventy-one  thousand  virgins  to  Gaul  at 
the  demand  of  the  usurper  Maximus  (383 — 
388).  Driven  upon  islands  inhabited  by 
barbarians  they  were  slain  by  Huns  and 
Piets.  See  Mrs.  Jamieson:  Legend.  Art. 

Ursulines,  The,  an  order  founded  by 
Angela  Merici  (b.  March  21,  1470;  d.  Jan. 
27,  1540;  canonized  by  Pius  VII.,  1807)  in 
Brescia,  Nov.  25,  1535.  Its  vows  did  not 
bind  to  strict  conventual  rules,  and  it  had 
for  its  special  object  the  instruction  of  girls, 
and  the  care  of  the  poor  and  sick.  The 
rules  in  time  were  made  more  strict,  and 
convents  were  established  in  France  and 
Germany.  Many  members  of  this  order, 
however,  still  live  in  their  homes.  They 
wear  a  black  dress,  with  a  white  veil  and 
a  longer  black  veil.  There  are  Ursuline 
convents  in  this  country  at  Morrisania, 
New  York,  Cleveland,  Toledo,  etc. 

Ussher,  or  Usher,  James,  archbishop 
of  Armagh  and  primate  of  Ireland,  an  emi¬ 
nent  and  learned  divine;  b.  at  Dublin,  Jan. 
4,  1581;  d.  at  Ryegate,  Surrey,  March  21, 
1656.  From  1607  to  1620  he  was  professor 
of  divinity  in  the  University  of  Dublin; 
bishop  of  Meath,  1620-24,  and  from  1624 
archbishop  of  Armagh.  When  the  Irish 
rebellion  broke  out  in  1641  he  retired  to 
England,  where  he  was  made  bishop  of 


Usu 


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Vai 


Carlisle,  but  did  not  enter  upon  the  duties 
of  his  see,  owing  to  the  disturbed  condition 
of  affairs.  He  resided  for  the  most  part  at 
Oxford  and  in  Wales.  In  1647  he  was 
chosen  preacher  at  Lincoln’s  Inn,  London, 
a  position  which  he  held  until  about  a  year 
before  his  death.  Ussher  was  a  man  of  re¬ 
markable  gifts  of  mind  and  heart,  and  wrote 
numerous  works.  The  best  known  is  An- 
nales  Veteris  et  Novi  Testamenti  (1650-54). 
The  dates  from  this  work  are  given  in  our 
English  Bibles.  His  apologetic  and  histor¬ 
ical  writings  are  of  value,  especially  with 
reference  to  the  early  Church  of  Britain. 
An  incomplete  work,  Chronologia  Sacra, vizs 
published  after  his  death.  Ussher’s  com¬ 
plete  works,  to  which  his  Life  is  prefixed, 
were  edited  by  Elrington  (1847-62),  16  vols. 

Usury  originally  signified  the  taking  of 
any  interest  at  all.  The  Mosaic  law  did 
not  allow  a  Hebrew  to  take  interest  from  a 
Hebrew,  but  he  might  do  so  from  a  for¬ 
eigner.  (Deut.  xxiii.  20.)  The  New  Testa¬ 
ment  does  not  forbid  the  taking  of  interest, 
but  recommends  the  loaning  of  money 
gratuitously.  (Luke  vi.  34.)  The  taking  of 
interest  was  unanimously  condemned  by 
the  Fathers;  and  the  popes,  by  canon  law, 
forbade  the  clergy  and  afterward  members 
of  the  Church  from  doing  so.  The  penalty 
for  the  clergy  was  suspension,  and  for  the 
laity  excommunication.  Luther  condemned 
the  taking  of  interest;  Melanchthon  was  un¬ 
decided  in  regard  to  the  matter,  while  Cal¬ 
vin  took  the  position  that  is  now  universally 
accepted. 

U'traquists  (Lat.  utraquistce ,  from  utra- 
que ,  i.  e.,  specie ,  in  both  kinds),  “  a  name  at 
first  given  to  all  those  members  of  the 
Western  Church,  in  the  fourteenth  century, 
principally  followers  of  John  Huss,  who 
contended  for  the  administration  of  the  Eu¬ 
charist  to  the  laity  under  both  kinds;  but 
in  later  times  restricted  to  one  particular 
section  of  the  Hussites,  although  all  the 
members  of  that  sect  alike  claimed  this  as 
a  fundamental  principle  of  their  church  dis¬ 
cipline.  The  name  may  be  said  to  date 
from  1415,  when  the  followers  of  John 
Huss,  in  Prague  and  elsewhere  in  Bohe¬ 
mia,  adopted  ‘  The  communion  of  the  cup  ’ 
as  their  rallying  cry,  and  emblazoned  the 
cup  upon  their  standards,  as  the  distin¬ 
guishing  badge  of  the  association.  In  1417 
the  University  of  Prague,  by  a  formal  de¬ 
cision,  directed  that  all  the  laity  should 
communicate  in  both  kinds;  and  the  Coun¬ 
cil  of  Constance,  in  consequence,  prohibit¬ 
ed  students  from  any  longer  resorting  to 
Prague  for  the  purpose  of  study.  The 
Hussite  party,  on  the  contrary,  made  the 
demand  one  (the  second)of  the  four  points 


upon  which  they  insisted  as  the  condition 
of  their  submission  to  the  Church.  Their 
demands  were  rejected  by  the  Council  of 
Constance;  but  the  Council  of  Basel,  in 
1433,  acceded  to  the  demand  for  the  cup, 
under  the  condition  that,  whenever  com¬ 
munion  was  so  administered,  the  minister¬ 
ing  priest  should  accompany  the  ministra¬ 
tion  with  a  declaration  that  Christ  was 
contained  whole  and  entire  under  each 
species.  A  portion  of  the  Hussite  party 
was  content  with  the  explanation  of  this 
and  the  other  points  offered  by  the  council, 
but  the  more  violent  held  out.  The  former 
were  called  Utraquists,  and  continued  to 
be  so  designated.  During  the  Reformation 
troubles,  this  division  was  still  maintained. 
The  Utraquists  were  favorably  regarded 
by  the  imperial  party;  and  after  the  battle 
of  Mlihlberg,  in  1547,  they  alone  were 
formally  tolerated  in  Bohemia  and  Mora¬ 
via.  One  of  the  most  celebrated  leaders 
was  Jacobus  v.  Mies.  The  name  Utraquist 
is  still  applied  to  certain  districts  or  villages 
in  Bohemia  and  Moravia;  but  it  is  used  not 
in  reference  to  this  theological  controversy, 
but  merely  to  convey  that,  in  these  villages 
or  districts,  both  languages ,  Bohemian  and 
German  are  spoken.” — Chambers:  Cyclo- 
pcedia. 

Uzzi'ah  ( might  of  Jehovah),  the  tenth 
king  of  Judah,  son  and  successor  of  Ama- 
ziah.  In  2  Kings  (xiv.  21)  and  elsewhere 
he  is  called  Azariah.  He  came  to  the 
throne  at  sixteen  and  reigned  fifty-two 
years  (b.  c.  808-756).  The  prophets  Amos, 
Hosea,  Isaiah,  and  possibly  Joel  lived  in 
his  time.  His  piety  was  followed  by  great 
prosperity  and  many  victories.  Lifted 
up  by  pride  in  his  successes  he  finally  pre¬ 
sumed  to  take  the  priest’s  office  and  burn 
incense  on  the  altar.  Azariah  and  eighty 
other  priests  resisted  him,  and  he  was 
smitten  with  leprosy,  and  as  a  leper  lived 
and  died  in  a  house  separate  from  the  pal¬ 
ace.  (2  Kings  xv.  1-7;  2  Chron.  xxvi.) 

V. 

Vagantes,  a  name  given  in  canon  law  to 
clergy  who  were  ordained  without  having 
been  nominated  to  any  office.  Laws 
against  such  clerics  were  made  as  early  as 
the  fourth  and  fifth  centuries.  The  abuse 
was  continued  until  it  was  enacted  that  a 
bishop  should  support  all  whom  he  or¬ 
dained  without  an  office.  This  put  a  stop 
to  the  evil.  Ordination  without  office  is 
forbidden  in  the  English  Church. 

Valens,  Roman  emperor  from  March  2S, 
364  to  Aug.  9,  379.  His  name  is  conspic¬ 
uous  in  the  history  of  the  Church  as  the 


Val 


(  940  ) 


Vat 


last  upholder  of  Arianism  among  the  rul¬ 
ers  of  the  Eastern  Empire. 

Valentine,  St.,  a  Roman  presbyter  who 
was  very  active  in  his  efforts  in  behalf  of 
the  martyrs  during  the  persecution  under 
Claudius  II.,  and  was,  in  consequence,  ar¬ 
rested  and  beheaded  (Feb.  14,  270).  The 
habit  of  “  choosing  valentines  ”  is  probably 
associated  with  St.  Valentine’s  Day  by 
pure  accident,  as  the  custom  was  of  pagan 
origin. 

Valentinus,  St.  There  are  a  number  of 
saints  of  this  name,  but  the  most  impor¬ 
tant  was  the  reputed  bishop  of  Passau,  and 
one  of  the  first  Christian  missionaries  in 
southeastern  Germany  in  the  fifth  century. 

Valentinus  the  Gnostic.  See  Gnos¬ 
ticism. 

Valerian,  Roman  emperor,  253-259.  In 
the  early  part  of  his  reign  he  was  friendly 
to  the  Christians.  But  in  the  year  257 
there  was  a  sudden  change.  The  perse¬ 
cution  was  directed  principally  against  the 
bishops  and  leaders  of  the  Church.  The 
first  edict  was  comparatively  mild,  and  sim¬ 
ply  forbade  the  holding  of  meetings;  the 
second  ordered  those  who  disobeyed  to  be 
sent  as  slaves  to  work  in  the  mines;  and 
the  third  (258)  demanded  that  all  bishops, 
presbyters  and  deacons  should  be  put  to 
death.  Among  the  victims  of  this  edict 
were  Sixtus  of  Rome  and  Cyprian  of  Car¬ 
thage.  The  persecution  was  terminated  in 
260  by  the  defeat  of  Valerian  by  the  Per¬ 
sian  king  Sapores. 

Valentine,  Milton,  D.  D.  (Pennsylvania 
College,  Gettysburg,  Penn.,  1866),  Lu¬ 
theran  (General  Synod);  b.  near  Union- 
town,  Carroll  County,  Md.,  Jan.  1,  1825; 
was  graduated  at  Pennsylvania  College, 
1850;  in  the  pastorate  till  1866,  when  he 
became  professor  of  ecclesiastical  history 
and  church  polity  in  the  theological  sem¬ 
inary  of  the  Lutheran  Church,  Gettysburg, 
Penn.;  president  of  Pennsylvania  College, 
1868;  and  since  1884  president  and  profess¬ 
or  of  systematic  theology  in  Gettysburg 
Theological  Seminary.  He  edited  the  Lu¬ 
theran  Quarterly,  1881-75,  1880-86.  He  is 
the  author  of  Natural  Theology ,  or  Rational 
Theism  (1885),  and  numerous  pamphlets 
and  addresses. 

Vandals,  a  powerful  German  people  who, 
with  the  Goths,  overran  portions  of  Eu¬ 
rope  in  the  fifth  and  sixth  centuries.  They 
invaded  Spain  early  in  the  fifth  century, 
and  in  429  they  crossed  over  into  Africa, 
and  thence  invaded  Italy.  In  535  their 


kingdom  in  Africa  was  destroyed  by  the 
army  of  the  Emperor  Justinian,  but  “  the 
Vandal  dominion  had  lasted  long  enough 
to  annihilate  almost  every  trace  of  Roman 
civilization,  and  to  almost  destroy  com¬ 
pletely  the  Christian  Church  in  Africa.” 

Various  Readings  is  the  name  given  to 
the  differences  that  are  found  in  the  text  of 
the  various  manuscripts,  translations,  and 
patristic  quotations  from  the  Scriptures. 
These  variations  havearisen  from  the  care¬ 
less  reading  of  scribes,  and  in  copying. 
More  than  one  hundred  and  fifty  thousand 
of  these  variations  have  been  noted  in  the 
New  Testament  manuscripts,  but  in  the 
majority  of  cases  they  are  slight,  and  con¬ 
sist  in  differences  of  spelling,  the  order  of 
words,  etc.,  and  do  not  affect  doctrines. 
In  the  Old  Testament  manuscripts  the 
number  of  variations  is  quite  small,  not 
over  2,000.  The  reason  for  this  is  found  in 
the  fact  that  the  number  of  manuscripts  is 
small,  and  the  transcribing  was  done  by  an 
official  class  under  strict  regulations. 

Vatican,  Palace  of  the.  The  residence 
of  the  pope,  called  by  this  name,  is  the 
largest  palace  of  modern  Rome,  and  takes 
its  name  from  the  Vatican  Hill  upon  which 
it  stands.  It  is  an  irregular  group  of 
buildings,  containing  twenty-two  court¬ 
yards  and  an  immense  number  of  rooms, 
estimated  at  from  4,500  to  16,000,  and  built 
at  different  periods.  An  Etruscan  temple 
is  said  to  have  stood  on  the  site,  which 
gave  rise  to  the  name  Vatican,  from  vates, 
“  a  prophet.”  The  first  palace  of  the  Vat¬ 
ican  is  reported  to  have  been  built  by 
Symmachus  about  the  beginning  of  the 
sixth  century,  and  to  have  been  occupied 
by  Charlemagne  during  his  residence  in 
Rome;  it  was  rebuilt  and  enlarged  in  the 
twelfth  century.  It  was  first  used  as  the 
papal  residence  after  the  healing  of  the 
great  schism,  as  being  convenient  from  its 
nearness  to  the  Castle  of  St.  Angelo;  the 
two  buildings  were  connected  by  Pope 
John  XXIII.,  and  the  palace  was  enlarged 
and  beautified  from  time  to  time  by  his 
successors.  Nicholas  V.  (1447-1455)  began 
the  “  Tordi  Borgia,”  which  was  completed 
by  Alexander  VI.  (1492-1503);  the  Sistine 
Chapel  was  built  in  1473, and  the  Belvedere, 
formerly  a  garden-house,  in  1490.  The 
part  now  used  as  the  pope’s  residence  was 
finished  at  the  beginningof  the  seventeenth 
century.  The  Sistine  Chapel  is  adorned 
on  the  walls  and  ceiling  by  the  famous 
frescos  of  Michael  Angelo,  and  the  stanze 
and  loggie  are  ornamented  with  paintings 
by  Raphael.  The  Vatican  contains  other 
very  famous  paintings  by  Raphael,  Titian, 
Domenichino,  etc.,  but  they  are  few  in 


(  941  ) 


PALACE  OF  THE  VATICAN — RESIDENCE  OF  THE  POPE 


Vat 


(  942  ) 


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number.  The  Vatican  Library  is  the  finest 
in  the  world,  containing  nearly  25,000  MSS. 
and  about  50,000  volumes.  The  most 
valuable  of  the  MSS.  is  the  Codex  Vatica- 
nus,  which  reaches  back  to  the  fourth  cen¬ 
tury,  and  is  a  little  older  than  the  Codex 
Sinaiticus.  It  contains  the  LXX.  version 
of  the  Old  Testament  with  very  few  omis¬ 
sions,  and  all  the  New  Testament  as  far  as 
Hebrews  ix.  14. — Benham:  Diet,  of  Religion. 

Vatican  Council,  the  last  General  Coun¬ 
cil  of  the  Roman  Church.  It  was  con¬ 
vened  by  Pope  Pius  IX.  by  an  encyclical 
letter,  June  26,  1868,  to  discuss  papal  in¬ 
fallibility  and  to  condemn  rationalism  and 
liberalism.  The  council  was  opened  Dec. 
5,  1869.  There  were  719  members  present, 
the  numbers  afterwards  rising  to  764 — the 
largest  number  that  has  been  reached  since 
the  Second  Lateran  Council  of  1139.  “  All 

bishops  of  the  Churches  of  Oriental  rite 
not  in  communion  with  the  Apostolic  See,” 
and  all  “  Protestants  and  Non-Catholics” 
were  invited  to  attend,  in  order,  as  Cardi¬ 
nal  Manning  says,  that  they  might  be  refer¬ 
red  to  “experienced  men”  and  have  their 
difficulties  solved.  The  council  was  pro¬ 
rogued  on  Oct.  20,  1870,  in  consequence  of 
the  Franco-German  War,  and  is  not  yet 
completed,  as  it  may  be  reconvened  at  any 
time  by  the  pope. 

The  chief  work  which  has  been  com¬ 
pleted  consists  of  two  constitutions:  The 
first,  De  Fide  Catholica ;  or.  Decrees  on  the 
Dogmatic  Constitution  of  the  Catholic  Faith , 
contains  the  primary  truths  of  natural  re¬ 
ligion,  on  revelation,  faith,  and  the  relation 
between  faith  and  reason,  and  is  directed 
against  modern  pantheism,  atheism,  ma¬ 
terialism,  etc.  The  opening  clauses  hint 
that  Protestantism  is  responsible  for  mod¬ 
ern  infidelity,  which  was  strongly  denied 
by  Bishop  Strossmayer  from  the  Turkish 
frontier.  But  the  constitution  was  unani- 
mouslyaccepted  by  the  667  Fathers  present, 
and  confirmed  by  the  pope  at  the  third 
public  session  on  April  24,  1S70. 

The  second  constitution  was  far  more 
important,  being  De  Ecclesia  Christi;  or, 
Decrees  on  the  Dogmatic  Constitution  of  the 
Church  of  Christ,  which  discusses  the  ab¬ 
solutism  and  infallibility  of  the  Roman  see 
over  all  Christians.  Nothing  had  been 
said  openly  of  such  a  question  before  the 
council  began,  but  the  subject  was  men¬ 
tioned  at  the  end  of  1869.  In  1870  the  dis¬ 
cussion  was  objected  to  by  135  bishops, 
and  Dr.  Dollinger  and  others  outside  the 
council,  who  objected,  formed  themselves 
into  a  separate  body  of  resistance,  but  were 
excommunicated.  They  assumed  the  name 
of  Old  Catholics  ( q .  v.).  The  constitution 
was  laid  before  the  council  early  in  May, 


and  was  first  voted  upon  in  general  con¬ 
gregation  on  July  13,  when  451  Fathers 
agreed,  62  were  ready  to  accept  it  subject 
to  alterations,  88  refused,  and  70  did  not 
vote  at  all.  It  was  again  read  on  July  18, 
when  several  who  disapproved  absented 
themselves,  and  it  passed  with  only  two 
dissenting  votes,  and  was  confirmed  by 
papal  authority.  For  the  contents  of  this 
decree  see  Infallibility. — Benham:  Diet, 
of  Religion. 

Vaudois.  See  Waldenses. 

Vaughan,  Henry,  b.  at  Newton  St. 
Bridget,  in  South  Wales,  1621;  d.  there, 
April  23,  1695.  Educated  at  Oxford,  he 
studied  medicine  in  London,  and  practiced 
as  a  physician  in  his  native  place.  He 
wrote  in  prose:  The  Mount  of  Olives  (1652), 
and  Flores  Solitudinis  (1654)  but  he  is  re¬ 
membered  by  his  poems,  that  are  written 
in  the  style  of  Herbert.  H.  F.  Lyte,  in 
1847,  and  again  in  1858  published  an  edi¬ 
tion  of  some  of  Vaughan’s  poems,  with  a 
sketch  of  his  life,  that  is  well  known. 

Vaughan,  Robert,  D.  D.,  an  eminent 
English  Congregational  minister;  b.  in 
Wales,  1795;  d.  at  Torquay,  June  15,  1868. 
With  limited  advantages  in  early  life,  he 
prepared  for  the  ministry,  and  became  pas¬ 
tor  of  a  church  in  Worcester  in  1819.  He 
then  accepted  a  call  to  Kensington,  London. 
Having  become  very  proficient  in  historical 
studies,  he  was  made  professor  of  modern 
history  in  the  University  of  London.  As 
a  preacher,  teacher,  lecturer,  and  platform 
speaker  he  was  exceedingly  popular.  In 
1843  he  was  called  to  the  principalship  of 
Lancashire  College,  near  Manchester.  Here 
he  remained  until  1857,  when  he  took 
charge  of  a  small  parish  at  Uxbridge,  near 
London.  He  subsequently  removed  to  St. 
John’s  Wood,  and  in  1867  became  pastor  of 
a  newly  formed  Independent  congregation 
at  Torquay.  He  was  chairman  of  the  Con¬ 
gregational  Union  in  1846,  and  visited  the 
United  States  as  a  delegate  of  that  body  in 
1865.  Among  his  numerous  works,  the 
best  known  are:  his  Life  and  Opinions  of 
Wyclife ,  2  vols.  (1828)  ;  A  Monograph, 
7uith  some  Account  of  the  Wyclife  MSS. 
(1853);  A  History  of  England  under  the 
House  of  Stuart  (1840);  Revolutions  in  His¬ 
tory,  3  vols.  (1859-63). 

Vedas,  the  oldest  portion  of  the  sacred 
books  of  the  Hindoos.  See  Brahminism. 

Veil  is  the  translation  in  the  Authorized 
Version  of  several  Hebrew  words  which 
properly  mean  shawls  or  mantles.  (Gen. 
xxiv.  65;  Ruth  iii.  15;  Cant.  v.  7;  Isa.  iii. 


Vei 


(  943  ) 


Ves 


23.)  These  shawls  were  sometimes  drawn 
over  the  face,  but  they  were  not  designed 
for  this  purpose.  Veils  were  worn  only 
on  special  occasions  by  Hebrew  women. 
At  the  present  time  in  Bible  lands  women 
are  never  seen  in  public  without  a  veil; 
but  this  custom  dates  from  the  injunction 
of  the  Koran,  xxx.  55,  59. 

Veil,  Taking  the,  the  ceremony  by 
which  a  woman  is  received  into  a  nunnery. 
On  her  first  profession  the  novice  takes 
the  “  white  veil,”  and  if,  at  the  end  of  the 
year,  she  desires  to  become  a  nun,  she 
takes  the  “  black  veil,”  and  makes  her  ir¬ 
revocable  vows  of  chastity  and  obedience. 

Vellum,  a  parchment  made  of  sheep  and 
other  skins. 

Venerable  is  the  title  of  an  archdeacon 
of  the  Church  of  England. 

Venerable  Bede,  The.  See  Bede. 

Veni,  Creator  Spiritus,  an  ancient  hymn, 
that  for  a  long  time  was  supposed  to 
have  been  written  by  St.  Ambrose,  but 
more  recent  investigations  show  that  it  was 
probably  the  composition  of  Rabanus 
Maurus,  poet  to  Charlemagne.  From  the 
year  1000  it  has  formed  a  part  of  the  ser¬ 
vice  for  the  consecration  of  bishops  and 
priests.  See  Duffield:  The  Latin  Hymn 
Writers  and  their  Hymns  (N.  Y.,  1886). 

Venn,  Henry,  a  leader  in  the  Evangel¬ 
ical  movement  in  England  during  the  eight¬ 
eenth  century;  b.  at  Barnes,  in  Surrey, 
March  2,  1724;  d.  at  Yelling,  Huntingdon¬ 
shire,  June  24,  1797.  He  was  graduated 
at  Cambridge,  1745,  and  became  fellow  of 
Queen’s  College,  1749.  He  held  several 
curacies,  and  was  vicar  of  Huddersfield, 
and  afterward  of  Yelling.  His  ministry 
was  remarkably  effective  in  its  spiritual 
results,  and  he  entered  earnestly  into  evan¬ 
gelistic  labors  in  conjunction  with  White- 
field.  He  published  two  works:  The  Com¬ 
plete  Duty  of  Man  (1763),  and  Mistakes  in 
Religion  (1774);  also  a  collection  of  essays 
on  the  prophecy  of  Zachariah,  the  father  of 
John  the  Baptist.  See  John  Venn:  Life  and 
Letters  of  Henry  Venn  (1834,  7th  ed.,  1853). 

Verger,  supposed  to  be  derived  from  the 
Latin  word  virga ,  a  twig.  The  name  is 
given  to  the  officers  of  the  cathedral  who 
carry  the  mace,  or  verge,  before  the  cleri¬ 
cal  dignitaries. 

Veroni'ca,  according  to  the  common  leg  , 
end,  was  a  pious  woman  of  Jerusalem, who, 
when  Christ  was  on  the  way  to  be  crucified, 


took  off  the  cloth  wrapped  about  her  head, 
and  gave  it  to  him  that  he  might  wipe  the 
blood  and  sweat  from  his  face,  and  when 
he  returned  it  to  her  it  was  found  that  the 
impression  of  his  features  was  left  upon  it. 
The  Emperor  Tiberius  falling  sick,  and 
learning  that  wonderful  cures  had  been 
wrought  by  this  portrait,  he  sent  for  Vero¬ 
nica.  She  came  to  Rome,  and  as  soon  as 
the  emperor  touched  the  cloth  he  was  heal¬ 
ed.  Veronica  remained  in  Rome,  and  at 
her  death  bequeathed  the  relic  to  Clement, 
the  successor  of  Peter.  Both  Milan  and 
Jaen,  in  Spain,  claim  to  possess  the  genu¬ 
ine  head-cloth  of  Veronica. 

Ves'perale,  the  book  which  contains  the  • 
vesper  services. 

Vespers,  one  of  the  Canonical  Hours 
(Y  z'-)* 

Vestments.  There  have  been  two  theo¬ 
ries  as  to  the  origin  of  Christian  vestments: 
one  is  that  they  are  derived  from  those 
used  by  the  Jewish  priests;  the  other,  that 
they  have  their  origin  in  the  ordinary  dress 
worn  in  early  Christian  times.  The  first 
view  is  now  seldom  accepted.  Some  of  the 
chief  Jewish  garments  were  not  known  in 
the  Christian  Church.  Thus  no  distinctive 
head-dress  was  worn  for  the  first  thousand 
years,  and  the  girdle  was  not  known  till 
the  eighth  century.  On  the  other  hand, 
the  chasuble,  the  chief  Christian  vestment, 
was  unknown  among  the  Jews.  Also,  their 
garments  were  of  many  different  colors, 
while  in  the  primitive  Christian  Church 
white  only  was  worn.  The  second  view 
seems  much  more  tenable.  The  three 
vestments  mentioned  at  the  Fourth  Coun¬ 
cil  of  Toledo  (633)  seem  to  have  been  the 
alb,  the  planeta  or  plenaia ,  and  orarium  or 
stole:  the  first  of  which  is  the  tunic,  the 
under-garment  worn  by  the  Romans;  the 
second,  the  toga,  or  over- garment ;  and  the 
orarium  or  stole  was  a  garment  worn  by 
Roman  matrons.  From  these  garments  the 
ecclesiastical  vestments  of  the  Eastern  and 
Western  Churches  were  developed.  The 
chief  vestments  worn  in  the  Greek  Church 
are:  the  sticharion ,  so  called  from  its  black 
lines  ( stoichos ),  which  answers  to  the  Latin 
alb,  and  is  always  white;  the  phelanion , 
the  chief  garment  of  the  priest,  resembling 
a  chasuble,  which  is  of  various  colors;  and 
the  epigonation ,  a  square  pouch  or  satchel 
richly  embroidered.  The  bishops  instead 
of  the  phelanion  wear  the  saccos ,  a  garment 
with  sleeves,  resembling  the  dalmatic,  and 
the  '>”,ophorion  or  pallium ,  and  over  the 
saccos  the  mantia,  a  loose  blue  or  black 
garment  ornamented  with  stripes.  They 
wear  a  mitre  in  the  sanctuary,  a  panagia  or 


Ves 


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Vin 


pectoral  cross,  and  carry  the  paterissa  or 
pastoral  staff,  which  is  shorter  and  less 
ornamented  than  that  of  the  Western 
Church. 

The  chief  ornaments  of  the  Roman 
Church  are  the  alb ,  which  is  white,  made 
of  linen,  held  by  the  cingulum  or  belt, 
which  was  formerly  a  broad  sash,  but  now 
is  very  narrow;  the  chasuble  or  casula, 
which  formerly  resembled  the  Roman  toga. 
These  are  white  for  greater  and  red  for 
lesser  festivals,  and  black  for  Lent,  etc. 
Also  the  manipuleum ,  like  the  Greek  orari- 
um,  and  the  biretta.  The  bishops  wear 
the  mitre,  tiara,  and  pallium. 

These  garments  are  chiefly  worn  at  the 
celebration  of  the  mass,  so  at  the  Reforma¬ 
tion  they  were  all  discarded,  and  the  plain 
black  cassock  adopted. — Benham:  Diet,  of 
Religion. 

Vestry  is  the  name  of  the  room  attached 
to  Episcopal  churches  where  the  clergy 
robe,  and  where  the  articles  used  in  the 
service  are  kept.  As  the  meetings  for  busi¬ 
ness  are  usually  held  in  this  room  the 
name  has  come  also  to  mean  the  assembling 
together  of  the  minister  of  the  parish,  the 
church  wardens,  and  the  parishioners  for 
electing  church  wardens,  etc.  The  term 
“vestry”  is  also  employed  to  designate 
the  room  connected  with  non-Episcopal 
churches  where  the  meetings  for  prayer, 
and  other  social  and  business  gatherings 
are  held. 

Viaticum  (from  the  Latin  via ,  a  way). 
This  term,  which  in  classical  use  referred 
to  provision  for  a  journey,  was  early  ap¬ 
plied  to  the  Eucharist  when  given  to  dying 
persons,  “to  sustain  and  conduct  them 
safely  on  their  way  in  their  passage  through 
this  world  to  eternal  life.”  In  this  sense 
it  is  used  several  times  in  the  canons  of 
the  Nicene  Council. 

Vicar  literally  means  representative  or 
vicegerent  ( vicarius ).  In  England  the  name 
is  applied  to  parish  priests  of  a  particular 
standing.  If  the  priest  owns  all  the  tithes 
of  the  parish  he  is  called  the  rector;  if  he 
receives  a  part  only,  he  is  called  the  vicar. 
The  Roman  Church  styles  the  pope  the 
Vicar  of  Christ,  and  the  pope  has  his  vicars 
in  the  person  of  primates,  archbishops, 
and  bishops,  etc.,  and  these  in  turn  have 
their  vicar-generals,  and,  finally,  the  priests 
have  their  vicars  acting  in  their  place  when 
temporarily  or  perpetually  disabled. 

Vicarious  Atonement.  See  Atonement. 

Victor,  the  name  of  three  popes  and  two 
antipopes.  See  Popes. 


Vienne,  an  ancient  city  of  France  situated 
on  the  Gere,  near  its  union  with  the  Rhone; 
the  seat  of  several  councils.  The  first  was 
held  in  474,  the  last  in  1557.  The  most  im¬ 
portant  of  these  councils  was  opened  Oct. 
16,  1311,  and  closed  May  6,  1312.  It  ordered 
the  dissolution  of  the  order  of  the  Templars, 
and  passed  decrees  against  the  Fratricelles, 
the  Dolcinists,  Beghards,  etc. 

Vigilantius,  b.  in  the  latter  half  of  the 
fourth  century  at  Calagurris  in  southwest¬ 
ern  Gaul.  He  was  ordained  at  Barcelona 
in  395,  and  visited  St.  Jerome  at  Jerusalem, 
with  whom  he  soon  came  into  conflict  of 
opinion.  Vigilantius  condemned  image- 
worship,  monasticism,  and  celibacy.  St. 
Jerome  attacked  these  views  in  an  essay, 
Contra  Vigilantium. 

Vigils  originally  were  watches  ( vigilice ) 
kept  in  the  church  by  the  early  Christians 
during  the  night  preceding  a  great  fes¬ 
tival.  At  first  the  night  was  spent  in 
prayer  and  the  singing  of  hymns,  but  in 
time  scandals  arose  in  connection  with 
these  celebrations,  and  only  Easter  and 
Christmas  night  vigils  were  allowed.  The 
vigils  irr  connection  with  holy  days  were 
celebrated  in  the  daytime,  or  changed  into 
simple  fasts. 

Vincent,  St.,  a  native  of  Saragossa,  and 
one  of  the  most  celebrated  martyrs  of  the 
ancient  Church.  He  was  archdeacon  of 
the  church  of  Saragossa,  and  suffered  mar¬ 
tyrdom  during  the  persecution  of  Diocle¬ 
tian,  about  303. 

Vincent  of  Lerins,  St.,  a  native  of  Gaul 
of  noble  birth;  b.  near  the  close  of  the 
fourth  century;  d.  in  450.  After  some 
years  spent  in  the  army  he  retired  to  the 
monastery  of  Lerins,  where  he  remained 
the  rest  of  his  life.  In  434  he  completed 
his  famous  Corn-monitory  against  Heretics ,  in 
which  he  principally  attacks  the  Nestorians. 
He  gives  full  evidence  to  tradition  as  a 
necessary  complement  of  Scripture. 

Vincent  de  Paul,  St.,  was  b.  at  Pouy, 
in  Gascogne,  on  April  24,  1576.  He  was 
educated  by  the  Franciscans  at  Toulouse, 
and  ordained  priest  in  1600.  On  a  voyage 
which  he  made  from  Marseilles  to  Nar- 
bonne  he  was  captured  by  corsairs  and  sold 
at  Tunis.  He  belonged  successively  to 
three  masters,  the  last  of  whom,  a  Savoy¬ 
ard  renegade,  he  converted,  and  the  mas¬ 
ter  and  servant  escaped  together  and  land¬ 
ed  in  France  in  1607.  He  went  for  a  short 
time  to  Rome,  and  was  sent  thence  on  a 
mission  to  the  French  Court,  where  he  be¬ 
came  almoner  to  Queen  Marguerite  de  Val- 


Yin 


(  945  ) 


Yin 


ois.  He  did  not  remain  at  court  long,  but 
became  tutor  in  the  family  of  Count  Gondy. 
He  at  this  time  began  to  form  the  Confrerie 
de  Charite,  an  association  of  women  who 
nursed  the  sick  and  visited  the  poor.  In 
1619  he  became,  through  Count  Gondy, 
almoner-general  of  the  galleys,  and  he 
seems  to  have  had  wonderful  success  in 
softening  the  stony  hearts  of  the  repro¬ 
bates  with  whom  he  was  brought  into  con¬ 
tact.  It  is  said  that  he  once  offered  him¬ 
self,  and  was  accepted,  in  place  of  one  of 
the  convicts  who  would  have  left  his  fam¬ 
ily  in  the  utmost  poverty.  He  founded 
other  societies,  as  the  Society  of  St.  Bor- 
romeo, against  begging  in  Burgundy  (1623), 
and  a  congregation  called  Priests  of  the 
Mission,  which  was  confirmed  by  Pope 
Urban  VIII.,  in  1632,  under  the  name  of 
Lazarists  ( q .  v.).  The  members  of  the 
Confrerie  de  Charite  were  mostly  married, 
so  he  instituted  the  Order  of  Filles  de 
Charite,  the  members  of  which  were  not 
nuns,  but  after  their  novitiate  they  took 
vows  for  one  year.  This  congregation  soon 
spread  all  over  Europe.  St.  Vincent  died 
at  St.  Lazare,  Sept.  27,  1660,  was  beatified 
in  1727,  and  canonized  by  Clement  XII.  on 
July  19,  1737,  on  which  day  he  is  com¬ 
memorated.  He  was  not  learned,  but  his 
sermons,  though  very  simple,  were  affect¬ 
ing  and  impressive,  and  he  is  considered 
one  of  the  most  eminent  saints  of  the  mod¬ 
ern  Roman  Catholic  Church. — Benham: 
Did.  of  Religion. 

Vincent,  John  Heyl,  S.  T.  D.  (Ohio 
Wesleyan  University,  Delaware,  O.,  1870), 
LL.  D.  (Washington  and  Jefferson  College, 
Washington,  Penn.,  1885),  bishop  in  the 
Methodist  Episcopal  Church;  b.  at  Tusca¬ 
loosa,  Ala.,  Feb.  23,  1832.  Educated  in 
the  academies  at  Lewisburg  and  Milton, 
Penn.,  and  in  Newark  (N.  J.)  Wesleyan 
Institute,  he  entered  the  ministry  in  1852. 
In  1868  he  was  appointed  corresponding 
secretary  of  the  Sunday-School  Union  of 
the  M.  E.  Church,  New  York  City.  In  1874 
he  became  identified  with  the  development 
of  the  summer  schoolat  Chautauqua,  N.Y., 
and  since  1884  has  been  Chancellor  of 
Chautauqua  University.  He  was  elected 
bishop  in  1888.  Among  his  published 
works  are:  Sunday-school  Institutes  and 
Normal  Classes  (1866);  The  Chautauqua 
Movement  (1886);  The  Home  Book 
Better  Not  (1888). 

Vincent,  Marvin  Richardson,  D.  D. 
(Union  College,  Schenectady,  N.  Y. ,  1868), 
Presbyterian;  b.  at  Poughkeepsie,  N.  Y. , 
Sept.  11,  1834;  was  graduated  at  Colum¬ 
bia  College,  1854;  became  professor  of 
Latin  in  Troy  University,  N,  Y. ,  1858; 


pastor  of  First  Presbyterian  Church,  Troy, 
1863-73;  of  the  Church  of  the  Covenant, 
New  York  City,  1873-88;  since  1889  pro¬ 
fessor  in  the  Union  Theological  Seminary, 
New  York  City.  With  Dr.  Charlton  T. 
Lewis  he  translated  Bengel’s  Gnomon  of 
the  New  Testament  (1862).  He  is  the  au¬ 
thor  of:  Amusement  a  Force  in  Christian 
Training (1867);  The  T wo  Prodigals  (1876); 
Gates  into  the  Psalm-Country  (1878);  The 
Minister  s  Handbook  (1882);  In  the  Shadow 
of  the  Pyrenees  (1883);  God  arid  Bread  (ser¬ 
mons,  1884);  Word  Studies  in  the  New  Tes¬ 
tament  (1888-90),  3  vols. 

Vinet,  Alexandre  RoDOLPHE(b.  1797;  d. 
1847),  was  born  and  educated  at  Lausanne. 
He  was  ordained  a  minister  of  the  Swiss 
Protestant  Church  in  1819,  holding,  besides 
his  cure,  the  chair  of  professor  of  theol¬ 
ogy  at  the  University  of  Basel.  He  was 
obliged  to  resign  both  in  1840,  on  account 
of  being  unable  to  agree  with  the  union 
which  existed  between  the  Church  and  the 
State,  the  Church  being,  as  he  considered, 
completely  subservient  to  the  State.  At 
the  same  time  he  explained  most  fully  to 
his  friends  and  parishioners  that  by  this 
act  he  did  not  consider  himself  in  any  way 
severed  from  his  National  Church,  which 
he  held  to  be  perfectly  sound  in  doctrine, 
and  to  which  he  was  firmly  attached.  All 
this  time  he  seems  to  have  been  privately 
engaged  by  the  University  to  give  lessons 
in  French  literature,  of  which  he  was  par¬ 
ticularly  fond,  and  which  he  had  studied 
carefully  for  years.  In  1845  he  formed  art 
assembly  of  all  those  who,  like  himself, 
had  seceded  from  the  National  Church, 
under  the  name  of  the  Constitution  of  the 
Free  Church  of  Vaud.  His  works  are 
partly  theological,  partly  historical — the 
latter  being  mostly  on  the  history  of  French 
language  and  literature.  A  great  many  of 
them  have  been  translated  into  English. 
His  theology  is  entirely  such  as  is  known 
by  the  word  “  Evangelical,”  insisting 
strongly  on  the  necessity  of  repentance  and 
salvation  by  faith.  His  basis  of  belief  is 
the  subjective — that  the  divine  origin  of 
Christianity  is  proved  by  its  fitness  to  meet 
the  deepest  needs  of  the  human  heart.  He 
denies  the  need  of  any  priestly  character 
in  the  minister,  who  is  simply  a  Christian 
commissioned  by  his  brother  Christians  to- 
carry  out  their  views,  but  possessing  only 
such  authority  as  his  study  and  practice 
give  him. — Benham:  Did.  of  Religion . 
Among  the  works  of  Vinet  that  have  been 
translated  into  English  are:  Christian  Phi¬ 
losophy  (1846);  Selected  Sermons  (1849);  Gos¬ 
pel  Studies  (1851);  Pastoral  Theology  (1851); 
Outlines  of  Philosophy  and  Literature  (1865); 
Outlines  of  Theology. \ 


Vin 


(  946  ) 


Vow 


Vinton,  Francis,  D.  D.,  b.  at  Provi¬ 
dence,  R.  I.,  Aug.  29,  1809;  d.  at  Brook¬ 
lyn,  L.  I.,  Sept.  29,  1872.  He  was  gradu¬ 
ated  at  West  Point,  1830;  admitted  to  the 
bar  at  Portsmouth,  N.  H.,  1830;  resigned 
from  the  army  in  1S36,  and  studied  for  the 
ministry;  assistant  minister  of  Trinity 
Church,  New  York  City,  1855-69.  In  1869 
he  accepted  the  chair  of  ecclesiastical  law 
and  polity  in  the  General  Theological 
Seminary,  New  York  City.  He  published: 
Lectures  on  the  Evidences  of  Christianity 
(New  York,  1865);  and  Manual  Com?7ientary 
on  the  General  Canon  Law  of  the  Protestant 
Episcopal  Church  in  the  United  States  (1870). 

Vishnu.  See  Brahminism. 

Visitants,  or  Nuns  of  the  Visitation,  a 
religious  order  founded  in  1610  at  Annency , 
by  St.  Francis  of  Sales  and  Madame  de 
Chantel.  The  ascetic  exercises  were  mild, 
so  that  ladies  who  were  not  in  strong  health 
might  join  the  association,  and  they  wore 
no  distinctive  dress.  The  visitation  of  the 
poor  and  sick  was  the  special  work  of  the 
order.  In  1618  a  change  was  made,  by 
which  seclusion  was  enforced  upon  the 
members, and  they  thendevoted  themselves 
more  especially  to  the  education  and  in¬ 
struction  of  young  girls. 

Vitringa,  Campegius,  b.  at  Leeuwarden, 
May  16,  1659;  d.  at  Franeker,  March  31, 
1722.  He  was  professor  in  the  University 
at  Leyden  from  1681  till  his  death — first  of 
the  Oriental  languages,  then  (1683)  of  theol¬ 
ogy,  and  finally  of  church  history  (1693). 
His  fame  rests  upon  a  Connnentary  on 
Lsaiah ,  of  which  it  has  been  said  that  it  is 
“  distinguished  as  much  by  astounding 
learning,  penetration,  and  sober  sense,  as 
by  elegance  of  style  and  practical  warmth.” 
Besides  this  Com?nentary ,  Vitringa  wrote 
an  important  work  on  the  Old  Synagogue. 

Voltaire,  Franco is-Marie  Arouet  de, 
b.  at  Chatenay,  near  Sceaux,  a  few  miles 
from  Paris,  Feb.  20,  1694;  d.  in  Paris,  May 
30,  1778;  “  a  brilliant  French  writer,  dis¬ 
tinguished  as  historian,  poet,  and  drama¬ 
tist,  but  also  noted  for  his  opposition  to  re¬ 
ceived  opinions,  both  in  regard  to  religion 
and  to  social  policy.  His  name  was  Arouet , 
but  he  early  assumed  that  of  Voltaire, 
which  is  believed  by  Carlyle  to  be  an  ana¬ 
gram  of  Arouet  l.  j.  ( le  jeune).  He  was  in¬ 
tended  by  his  father  for  the  bar,  but  soon 
abandoned  the  study  of  law  for  literature, 
in  which,  however,  he  made  such  use  of 
his  faculty  of  satire  that  he  was  twice  com¬ 
mitted  to  the  Bastille.  In  1726,  having 
been  ordered  to  quit  the  country,  he  re¬ 
paired  to  England,  where  he  remained 


(living  a  part  of  the  time  in  Maiden  Lane, 
Covent  Garden,  London, and  during  another 
part  at  Wandsworth)  for  about  two  years, 
and  where  several  of  his  dramas  were  pro¬ 
duced  or  published.  Afterwards  he  re¬ 
turned  to  France,  where,  at  Rouen,  he  pub¬ 
lished  his  History  of  Charles  XII.  of  Swe¬ 
den,  and  his  Philosophical  Letters ,  the  latter 
abounding  in  indecent  sarcasms  against 
religion,  which  led  to  the  book  being  public¬ 
ly  burned  in  Paris,  and  to  a  warrant  being 
issued  for  the  apprehension  of  the  author. 
Under  these  circumstances  he  again  medi¬ 
tated  flight,  not  only  from  Paris,  but  from 
France;  but  he  was  received  by  Madame 
du  Chatelet,  in  her  Castle  of  Cirey,  on  the 
borders  of  Champagne  and  Lorraine,  and 
there  he  spent  about  fifteen  years.  During 
these  years,  however,  he  frequently  visited 
Paris,  Brussels,  and  Berlin,  where  Frede¬ 
rick  the  Great  had  contracted  a  friendship 
for  him.  In  this  period  he  produced  his 
Discourses  on  Man ,  his  Age  of  Louis  XIV. , 
and  his  Essay  on  the  Morals  and  Spirit  of 
Nations,  as  well  as  his  licentious  poem. 
The  Alaid  of  Orle'ans.  Subsequently  he 
lived  in  Paris  for  a  time,  where  the  posi¬ 
tion  of  Historiographer- Royal  was  given  to 
him;  but  from  1750  to  1753  he  resided  at 
Berlin  and  at  Potsdam,  quitting  Prussia 
finally  in  consequence  of  a  quarrel  with 
Frederick.  Thenceforth  he  resided  chiefly 
at  Ferney  (a  village  of  France,  on  the  bor¬ 
ders  of  Switzerland,  about  five  miles  from 
Geneva),  where  he  wrote  largely  for  the 
Encyclopedie.  His  house  at  Ferney  is  still 
shown.  His  death  took  place  during  a 
visit  to  Paris.  He  was  buried  first  in  the 
Abbey  of  Scellieres,  in  Champagne,  but 
thirteen  years  afterwards  his  body  was  re¬ 
moved  by  the  Revolutionists  to  the  Pan¬ 
theon.” — Cassell:  Cyclopcedia.  See  James 
Parton:  Life  of  Voltaire  (1881),  2  vols. 

Voluntary,  the  name  given  the  music 
played  at  the  beginning  or  end  of  divine 
service,  and  occasionally  in  other  parts  of 
the  service;  it  is  so  called  because  the 
music  played  is  usually  extemporaneous 
or  voluntary. 

Vows.  A  vow  is  a  special  promise  made 
to  God,  binding  the  maker  to  do  or  forego 
something  for  the  promotion  of  God’s  glory. 
Vows  took  a  prominent  part  in  Judaism,  as 
they  have  also  done  in  the  religious  observ¬ 
ances  of  all  races.  Vows  are  common  in 
the  Roman  Catholic  Church,  which  holds 
that  to  be  valid  they  must  be  of  free  and 
deliberate  choice,  and  therefore  must  be 
made  by  persons  capable  by  age  of  con¬ 
tracting  the  obligation.  As  they  are  al¬ 
ways  made  to  God,  and  are  acts  of  divine 
worship,  it  follows  that  to  vow  to  a  saint 


Vul 


(  947  ) 


Wah 


means  vowing  to  do  something  to  God’s 
worship  in  honor  of  a  saint.  Thus  to  vow 
a  church  to  St.  Agatha  would  mean  a 
church  for  God’s  worship,  where  the  purity 
of  St.  Agatha  should  be  specially  com¬ 
memorated.  The  Reformers  held  that,  as 
it  is  the  duty  of  man  to  devote  himself 
wholly,  his  life  and  his  goods,  to  God, 
vows  as  a  religious  observance  were  un¬ 
necessary;  but,  with  the  Roman  Catholic,  to 
take  a  vow  is  considered  to  be  a  great  merit, 
as  works  of  supererogation  are.  The 
merit  conferred  is  said  to  be  threefold:  it 
elevates  the  acts  performed  under  the  vow 
to  the  rank  of  sacrifice,  and  raises  a  good 
action  to  the  level  of  divine  worship;  it  of¬ 
fers  not  only  the  action  but  the  faculty 
from  which  it  proceeds,  so  that  the  whole 
spirit  is  elevated  thereby;  and  it  strength¬ 
ens  the  will  to  the  perfection  of  virtue. 
There  are  two  sorts  of  religious  vows  in 
the  Roman  Church:  simple  and  solemn. 
Simple  vows  are  those  taken  in  all  religious 
orders  when  the  period  of  noviceship  has 
elapsed.  They  are  held  for  three  years, 
and  then,  if  the  superior  allows  it,  solemn 
vows  are  taken.  The  chief  difference  be¬ 
tween  them  is  that  in  solemn  vows  of 
chastity,  marriages  contracted  afterwards 
are  null  and  void,  while  a  simple  vow  of 
chastity  makes  it  unlawful  to  marry,  but, 
except  in  the  Jesuit  Society,  does  not  in¬ 
validate  a  marriage  if  subsequently  con¬ 
tracted.  Solemn  and  certain  simple  vows, 
as  those  of  chastity  and  of  greater  pilgrim¬ 
age,  can  only  be  dispensed  by  the  pope,  or 
by  a  superior  specially  delegated  for  the 
purpose;  but  most  of  the  simple  vows  can 
be  dispensed  by  the  bishops. — Benham: 
Did.  of  Religion. 

Vulgate,  the  name  given  Jerome’s  ver¬ 
sion  of  the  Scriptures.  See  Bible,  p.  105. 

w. 

Wace,  Henry,  D.  D.  (Oxford,  1882; 
Edinburgh,  1882),  Church  of  England;  b. 
in  London,  Dec.  10,  1836;  was  educated  at 
*  Oxford;  ordained  priest,  1862;  was  curate 
of  St.  Luke’s,  London,  1861-63,  and  of  St. 
James’s,  1863-69;  lecturer  of  Grosvenor 
Chapel,  1870-72;  chaplain  of  Lincoln’s  Inn, 
1872-80;  professor  of  ecclesiastical  history 
in  King’s  College,  1875-83;  Bampton  Lect¬ 
urer  at  Oxford,  1819,  and  select  preacher, 
1880-82;  since  1880  preacher  at  Lincoln’s 
Inn;  since  1881  prebendary  in  St.  Paul’s 
Cathedral;  since  1883  chaplain  to  the  arch¬ 
bishop  of  Canterbury,  and  principal  of 
King’s  College;  and  since  1884  honorary 
chaplain  in  ordinary  to  the  queen.  Among 
his  published  works  are:  The  Foundations 
of  Faith  (Bampton  Lectures,  1880);  The 


Gospel  and  its  Witnesses:  So?ne  of  the  Chief 
Facts  in  the  Life  of  our  Lord  (1883);  The 
Student' s  Manual  of  the  Evidences  of  Chris¬ 
tianity  (1886).  With  Dr.  William  Smith  he 
edited  A  Dictionary  of  Christian  Biography 
(1880-86),  4  vols. ;  and,  alone,  The  Bible 
(Speaker’s)  Conunentary  on  the  Apocrypha 
(1886),  2  vols. 

Waddell,  James,  D.  D.,  an  eloquent 
Presbyterian  preacher;  b.  at  Newry,  Ire¬ 
land,  July,  1739;  d.  at  Hopewell,  Louisa 
Co.,  Va. ,  Sept.  17,  1805.  He  was  educated 
at  Dr.  Finley’s  academy,  at  Nottingham, 
Penn.,  and  entered  the  ministry  of  the 
Presbyterian  Church  in  1761.  He  was 
blind  for  the  last  twenty  years  of  his  life. 
The  reputation  that  he  won  for  eloquence 
comes  to  us  from  contemporary  testimony, 
as  all  his  manuscripts  were  burned  at  his 
request.  See  description  given  of  his 
preaching  in  Wirt’s  British  Spy ;  Sprague’s 
Annals ,  iii.  255. 

Wadding,  Luke,  Roman  Catholic;  b.  at 
Waterford,  Ireland,  Oct.  16,  1588;  d.  at 
Rome,  Nov.  18,  1657.  He  entered  the 
Franciscan  order  in  1605,  and  in  1625  found¬ 
ed,  at  Rome,  the  College  of  St.  Isidore  for 
Irish  students  of  that  order.  His  fame 
rests  up_on  his  great  history  of  the  Fran¬ 
ciscans,  which  he  brought  down  to  1540. 

Wafer,  the  name  given  to  the  thin  circular 
portions  of  unleavened  bread  used  in  the 
Roman  Church  in  the  celebration  of  the 
Eucharist.  They  are  prepared  by  the 
priests,  and  are  frequently  stamped  with 
sacred  emblems,  such  as  the  figure  of  the 
cross,  the  lamb,  the  initials  I.  H.  S.,  and 
other  symbols.  They  are  made  of  differ¬ 
ent  sizes,  the  smallest  about  an  inch  in  di¬ 
ameter,  for  the  communion  of  the  people; 
another,  much  larger,  for  the  celebration 
of  the  mass;  and  a  third,  still  larger,  to  be 
placed  in  the  monstrance,  for  the  service 
of  benediction  or  exposition.  The  use 
of  the  wafer  does  not  probably  date  earlier 
than  the  eleventh  century.  Previous  to 
this  ordinary  bread  was  used. 

Wahabees,  a  name  given  to  the  repre¬ 
sentatives  in  a  reform  movement  which 
arose  within  Mohammedanism  in  the  mid¬ 
dle  of  the  last  century.  They  accepted  the 
Koran,  but  condemned  the  worship  of 
Mohammed  as  idolatrous.  The  leader  of 
the  movement  was  Mohammed-ben-Abd- 
el-Wahab,  of  the  tribe  of  Nedshi  in  Yemen. 
In  1802  they  occupied  Mecca,  and  com¬ 
pelled  the  Turkish  pilgrims  to  pay  a  tribute 
before  they  were  allowed  to  enter  the  city. 
They  invaded  Syria,  but  were  defeated  in 
1812  by  Mehemet  Ali,  who  sent  an  army 


Wai 


(948) 


Wal 


into  Arabia,  and  in  1818  his  son,  Ibrahim 
Pasha,  captured  Abdallah,  the  leader  of 
the  Wahabees,  and  sent  him  to  Constanti¬ 
nople  to  be  executed.  Their  political  pow¬ 
er  is  now  mostly  confined  to  their  tribe  in 
Yemen. 

Wainwright,  Jonathan  Mayhew,  D.  D. , 
b.  in  Liverpool,  Eng.,  Feb.  24,  1792; 

d.  in  New  York  City,  Sept.  21,  1854.  He 
came  to  this  country,  1803,  and  was  grad¬ 
uated  at  Harvard  College,  1812;  became 
rector  of  Christ  Church,  Hartford,  Conn., 
1816;  assistant  minister  of  Trinity  Church, 
New  York,  1819;  rector  of  Grace  Church, 
1821;  of  Trinity  Church,  Boston,  1834;  in 
charge  of  St.  John’s  Chapel,  Trinity  parish, 
New  York,  1837.  He  was  elected  provi¬ 
sional  bishop  of  New  York  in  1852.  He 
wrote  several  books  of  travel  and  con¬ 
troversy.  See  his  Life ,  by  J.  N.  Norton 
(New  York,  1858). 

Waldenses,  a  remarkable  Christian  sect 
dwelling  in  some  of  the  Swiss  valleys, 
principally  in  those  of  the  Pellice  (or  Lu- 
serna)  and  the  Germanasca,  in  the  Western 
Alps.  A  large  amount  of  information  re¬ 
specting  them  is  found  in  some  old  MSS. 
in  the  possession  of  the  University  of  Cam¬ 
bridge,  and  a  very  valuable  account  is 
given  in  Histoire  Litte'raire  des  Vattdois  du 
Piemont,  d’ apres  les  Manuscrits  Originaux , 
par  Edouard  Montet  (1886).  They  owe 
their  origin  and  name  to  Peter  Waldus 
(Waldo,  Vaud),  a  rich  citizen  of  Lyons. 
About  1170  Waldo,  from  reading  the  Bible 
and  some  passages  from  the  Fathers  of  the 
Church,  which  he  caused  to  be  translated 
into  his  native  tongue,  determined  to  im¬ 
itate  the  mode  of  life  of  the  apostles  and 
primitive  Christians,  gave  his  goods  to  the 
poor,  and  by  his  preaching  collected  nu¬ 
merous  followers,  chiefly  from  the  class  of 
artisans  who,  from  the  place  of  their  birth, 
were  called  “  Lyonists sometimes  “  Poor 
men  of  Lyons,”  on  account  of  their  volun¬ 
tary  poverty;  or  “  Sabotati,”  on  account 
of  their  wooden  shoes  or  sandals  (sabots); 
or  “  Humiliatists,”  on  account  of  their  hu¬ 
mility.  They  have  often  been  confounded 
with  the  Cathari  or  Albigenses,  but  M. 
Montet  has  proved  conclusively  that  they 
had  no  connection  with  them;  they  even 
spoke  of  the  Albigenses  as  “daemones.” 
In  their  contempt  for  the  degenerate  clergy 
and  their  opposition  to  the  Roman  priest¬ 
hood,  the  Waldenses  resembled  other  sects 
of  the  Middle  Ages;  but  as  early  as  1184, 
by  which  time  they  had  spread  over  South¬ 
ern  France  and  North  Italy,  they  were  ex¬ 
communicated  by  the  pope,  though  the 
reason  is  not  clear.  They  were  distinguish¬ 
ed  from  “heretics”  generally,  and  seem 


to  have  held  the  doctrines  of  the  Church, 
going  to  Catholic  sources  for  literature  and 
to  the  priests  for  the  sacraments.  Prob¬ 
ably  the  objection  to  them  was  that  they 
were  preachers;  the  same  objection  which 
was  afterward  made  to  the  mendicant  fri¬ 
ars.  But  once  driven  from  the  Catholic  pale, 
they  made  the  Bible  alone  the  rule  of  their 
faith,  and,  rejecting  whatever  was  not 
founded  on  it,  or  conformable  to  apostolic 
teaching,  they  gave  the  first  impulse  to  a 
reform  of  the  Christian  Church.  They,  or 
at  least  the  Italian  branch  of  them,  began 
to  preach  that  a  bad  priest  cannot  validly 
administer  the  sacraments,  and  to  reject 
confession.  As  the  French  Waldenses 
were  stamped  out  by  persecution,  the  Ital¬ 
ians  assumed  the  lead.  The  body  thus  sep¬ 
arated  from  the  Church  held  their  way 
until  the  war  broke  out  against  the  Albi¬ 
genses,  by  which  time  they  had  spread  and 
established  themselves  in  the  South  of 
•  France,  under  the  protection  of  the  Counts 
of  Toulouse  and  Foix.  At  that  time  (1209— 
1230)  many  Waldenses  fled  to  Aragon, 
Savoy  and  Piedmont.  Spain  would  not 
tolerate  them  at  all.  In  Languedoc  they 
were  able  to  maintain  themselves  till  1330; 
in  Provence,  under  severe  oppression,  till 
1545,  when  the  Parliament  at  Aix  caused 
them  to  be  exterminated  in  the  most  cruel 
manner;  still  longer  in  Dauphiny;  and  not 
till  the  war  of  the  Cevennes  were  the  last 
Waldenses  expelled  from  France.  In  the 
middle  of  the  fourteenth  century^single  con¬ 
gregations  of  this  sect  went  to  Calabria  and 
Apulia,  where  they  were  soon  suppressed; 
others  to  Bohemia,  where  they  were  call¬ 
ed  “  Grubenheimer,”  because  they  used 
to  hide  themselves  in  caverns.  These  soon 
became  amalgamated  with  the  Hussites, 
though,  as  they  were  not  so  advanced  in  view 
as  the  Taborites,  there  was  a  good  deal  of 
delay.  From  them  the  Bohemian  Brethren 
derived  the  consecration  of  their  bishops. 
They  found  a  safe  retreat,  fortified  by  nat¬ 
ure,  in  the  valleys  of  Western  Piedmont, 
where  they  founded  a  distinct  Church, 
which  has  remained  till  the  present  day  ■* 
the  main  centre  of  their  sect.  A  corre¬ 
spondence  which  two  of  their  pastors,  Mo¬ 
rel  and  Masson,  had  with  CEcolampadius 
in  1530,  is  preserved  in  the  library  of 
Trinity  College,  Dublin,  from  which  it 
appears  that  among  the  Waldenses  there 
were  sisterhoods  bound  by  vows  of  cel¬ 
ibacy;  that  the  preachers  received  confes¬ 
sions,  but  resorted  to  the  Catholic  priest¬ 
hood  for  the  sacraments.  But  now  they 
resolved  to  abolish  confession,  two  sacra¬ 
ments  only  were  acknowledged ,  and  the  doc¬ 
trine  of  predestination  was  asserted.  Their 
doctrines  rest  entirely  on  the  Gospels, 
which,  with  some  catechisms,  they  have 


Wal 


(  949  ) 


Wal 


in  their  old  dialect,  a  mixture  of  French 
and  Italian.  In  this  language  their  wor¬ 
ship  was  performed  till  1630,  when  their 
old  “  barbes  ”  or  teachers  became  extinct. 
They  then  had  recourse  to  Geneva  to  sup¬ 
ply  the  vacancies,  and  ever  since  the 
French  language  has  been  used  in  their 
services,  and  teachers  are  sent  from  the 
Calvinistic  colleges.  The  constitution  of 
their  congregations,  which  are  chiefly  em¬ 
ployed  in  the  cultivation  of  vineyards,  and 
the  breeding  of  cattle,  is  republican.  Each 
congregation  is  governed  by  a  council, 
consisting  of  the  elders  and  deacons  under 
the  presidency  of  the  pastor,  which  main¬ 
tains  the  strictest  discipline.  The  congre¬ 
gations  are  all  united  at  the  yearly  synod. 
From  their  origin  the  Waldenses  have 
been  distinguished  for  their  pure  morals 
and  industry,  and  have  always  been  re¬ 
garded  as  good  subjects.  After  they  had 
joined  the  Calvinists,  in  the  sixteenth  cen¬ 
tury,  they  were  again  exposed  to  the 
storm  which  was  intended  to  sweep  away 
the  Reformation,  the  doctrines  of  which 
they  had  held  practically  for  nearly  three 
hundred  years.  This  was  the  cause  of 
their  being  expelled  from  France.  Those 
who  had  settled  in  the  duchy  of  Saluzzo 
were  totally  exterminated  by  1633;  and 
those  in  the  other  valleys,  having  received 
from  the  Court  of  Turin,  in  1654,  new 
assurances  of  religious  freedom,  were 
treacherously  attacked,  in  1655,  by  monks 
and  soldiers,  and  shamefully  treated.  By 
the  aid  of  other  Protestant  Powers  they 
procured  a  new  though  limited  promise 
of  freedom  by  the  Treaty  of  Pignerol, 
signed  Aug.  18,  1655,  but  the  persecution, 
again  brought  about  by  French  influence, 
obliged  thousands  to  take  refuge  in  Prot¬ 
estant  countries:  in  London  they  joined 
the  French  Huguenots;  in  the  Nether¬ 
lands,  the  Walloons;  in  Berlin,  the  French, 
while  nearly  2,600  went  to  Switerland. 
They  now  enjoy  religious  freedom  and  all 
civil  rights  in  Lucerne,  St.  Martin,  and 
Perusa,  where  they  number  over  20,000, 
while  there  are  about  1,600  settled  in  Wiir- 
temberg. 

M.  Montet  has  given  a  very  thorough 
’account  of  Waldensian  literature,  dividing 
it  into  three  periods:  (1)  The  Catholic 
period,  during  which  the  dogmas  and  prac¬ 
tices  of  the  Church  were  accepted.  The 
writings  of  this  period  are  taken  from  the 
Fathers  and  the  Liturgies.  The  pope  dur¬ 
ing  this  period  is  never  attacked,  the  sev¬ 
en  sacraments  and  transubstantiation  are 
assumed,  and  ascetic  views  are  strongly 
maintained.  (2)  The  Hussite  period.  Now 
the  pope  is  fiercely  attacked,  the  sacra¬ 
ments  are  invalid  by  reason  of  the  wicked¬ 
ness  of  the  priests,  and  there  is  a  strong 


leaning  towards  the  Universal  Priesthood. 
(3)  The  Calvinistic.  Unhappily,  this  last 
period  has  been  marked  by  a  wholesale  fal¬ 
sification  of  documents,  by  forgery  and  by 
mutilation,  with  the  object  of  showing  that 
the  Waldensian  is  a  Christian  body  which 
had  descended  from  apostolic  times,  pre¬ 
serving  their  faith  through  the  ages  in 
primitive  form.  This  fiction  M.  Montet  has 
altogether  destroyed,  though,  as  he  ac¬ 
knowledges,  the  late  Mr.  Henry  Bradshaw 
had  already  discovered  and  exposed  the 
real  character  of  some  of  the  documents 
adduced.  Much  kindness  has  been  ex¬ 
pended  on  the  Waldenses  by  English, 
Scotch,  and  American  sympathizers,  and 
every  year,  in  the  first  week  of  September, 
delegates  from  these  countries  attend  the 
Synod.  A  short  time  since,  the  Waldensian 
inhabitants  of  Dormiltrouse  in  Dauphine 
were  transported  by  mistaken  kindness  to 
Algeria,  the  result  of  which  was  that  their 
bones  were  scattered,  not  on  Alpine  moun¬ 
tains,  but  on  scorching  African  plains.  The 
services  are  the  very  plainest  and  barest 
type  of  Genevan  Protestantism;  the  min¬ 
ister  taking  the  whole  service,  and  the  peo¬ 
ple  taking  no  share  except  the  occasional 
singing  of  a  hymn. — Benham:  Did.  of  Re¬ 
ligion.  See  Maitland :  Fads  and  Documents 
of  the  Waldenses  (London,  1862);  E.  Comba: 
Waldenses  before  the  Refor?nation  (N.  Y., 
1880). 

Waldo,  Peter.  See  Waldenses. 

Walloon  Church.  See  Holland. 

Walpurgis,  or  Walpurga,  St.,  a  native 
of  England,  who  spent  her  life  in  Germany 
assisting  her  brother,  St.  Willibald,  and  her 
uncle,  St.  Boniface,  in  their  missionary  la¬ 
bors.  She  became  abbess  of  a  convent  at 
Heidenheim  in  Franconia,  and  died  about 
777.  Many  traditions  are  linked  with  her 
name. 

Walton,  Brian,  Church  of  England;  b.  at 
Seymour,  Yorkshire,  1600;  d.  in  London, 
Nov.  29,1661.  He  was  graduated  at  Cam¬ 
bridge,  1623,  and  became  rector  of  St.  Mar¬ 
tin’s  Orgar,  London,  in  1626.  When  the 
Puritans  came  into  power  he  was  ejected 
from  all  his  appointments,  and  retired  to 
Oxford,  where  he  gathered  the  materials 
for  his  famous  Polyglot  Bible.  Nine 
languages  are  used  in  the  course  of  this 
work.  At  the  Restoration  he  was  made 
chaplain  to  Charles  II.,  and  in  1661,  a  few 
months  before  his  death,  was  consecrat¬ 
ed  bishop  of  Chester.  He  published  an 
Introduction  to  Oriental  Literature  (1655). 
See  his  Life ,  by  Todd  (London,  1821), 
2  vols. 


Wan 


(  950  ) 


War 


Wandering  in  the  Wilderness.  See  Wil¬ 
derness  of  the  Wandering. 

Wandering  Jew.  See  Jew,  Wandering. 

Warburton,  William, bishop  of  Glouces¬ 
ter,  was  born  at  Newark-upon-Trent,  in 
1698;  died  at  Gloucester,  1779.  He  was 
the  son  of  an  attorney,  and  his  father,  wish¬ 
ing  to  train  him  in  the  same  profession,  ap¬ 
prenticed  him,  in  1714,  to  an  attorney  at 
East  Markham.  He  was  there  five  years, 
and  then  gained  admittance  to  one  of  the 
courts  at  Westminster;  but,  having  by  this 
time  come  to  the  conclusion  that  his  talents 
were  not  suited  to  the  law,  he  gave  it  up, 
and  in  1723  took  deacon’s  orders.  Two 
years  later  he  published  his  first  literary 
work,  entitled  Miscellaneous  Translations , 
in  Prose  and  Verse,  from  Ro7tian  Authors, 
with  a  dedication  to  Sir  Robert  Sutton, 
who,  in  return,  presented  him,  on  his  be¬ 
ing  admitted  to  priest’s  orders  in  1726,  with 
a  small  living.  In  1727  he  began  to  dis¬ 
tinguish  himself  as  an  original  author  by 
his  Inquiries  into  ihe  Causes  of  Prodigies  and 
Miracles,  which  he  dedicated  to  Sir  Robert 
Sutton.  His  patron  gave  him  the  living 
of  Brant  Broughton,  in  Lincolnshire,  and 
by  his  interest  at  Cambridge  caused  War- 
burton’s  name  to  be  placed  on  the  list  of 
the  King’s  Masters  of  Arts,  a  favor  which 
proved  of  great  service  in  his  after-career, 
supplying  to  some  extent  the  position  he 
would  have  lost  by  not  having  received  a 
university  education.  In  1736  appeared 
his  Alliance  between  Church  and  State;  or, 
The  Necessity  and  Equity  of  an  Established 
Religion  and  a  Test  Lazo,  demonstrated  fro?n 
the  essence  and  end  of  civil  society  upon  the 
fundamental  principles  of  the  law  of  nature 
and  nations,  which  passed  through  four 
editions  during  the  life  of  the  author, 
though  it  is  said  to  have  given  satisfaction 
neither  to  the  upholders  of  the  Church  nor 
to  those  who  advocated  religious  liberty. 
The  first  volume  of  his  chief  work  was 
published  in  1738,  under  the  title  of  the 
Divine  Legation  of  Moses  Demonstrated  on 
the  Principles  of  a  Religious  Deist,  from  the 
Omission  of  the  Doctrine  of  a  Future  State 
of  Rewards  and  Punishments  in  the  Jewish 
Dispensation.  This  brought  a  storm  of 
abuse  upon  his  head  from  all  Church  par¬ 
ties;  but,  nothing  daunted,  Warburton  re¬ 
mained  firm  in  his  opinions,  and  published 
a  Vindication  of  them.  In  1740  he  wrote  a 
defence  of  Pope’s  Essay  on  Man  in  a  lead¬ 
ing  journal  called  Works  of  the  Learned, 
which  so  enchanted  Pope  that  he  bequeath¬ 
ed  Warburton  half  his  library  and  the  copy¬ 
right  of  such  of  his  works  already  printed 
as  were  not  otherwise  disposed  of.  In 
1746  he  became  preacher  at  Lincoln’s  Inn, 


and  in  the  following  year  appeared  as  an 
editor  of  Shakespeare.  His  name  was  by 
this  time  famous,  and  his  rise  in  the  clerical 
profession  was  rapid.  He  became  preb¬ 
endary  of  Gloucester  in  1753,  king’s 
chaplain  in  1754,  prebendary  of  Durham 
the  same  year,  dean  of  Bristol  in  1757,  and 
bishop  of  Gloucester  in  1759.  He  died  at 
Gloucester  in  1779,  an(l  was  buried  in  the 
cathedral.  After  his  death  his  works  were 
collected  and  published  in  six  volumes,  by 
his  friend,  Bishop  Hurd,  and  a  biographical 
memoir,  forming  a  seventh  volume,  ap¬ 
peared  some  years  later.  Doctor  Johnson, 
in  his  Life  of  Pope,  thus  describes  Warbur¬ 
ton:  “  He  was  a  man  of  vigorous  faculties, 
a  mind  fervid  and  vehement,  supplied  by 
incessant  and  unlimited  inquiry,  with  won¬ 
derful  extent  and  variety  of  knowledge, 
Avhich  yet  had  not  oppressed  his  imagina¬ 
tion,  nor  clouded  his  perspicuity.  To 
every  work  he  brought  a  memory  full 
fraught,  together  with  a  fancy  fertile  of 
original  combinations,  and  at  once  exerted 
the  powers  of  the  scholar,  the  reasoner, 
and  the  wit.  But  his  knowledge  was  too 
multifarious  to  be  always  exact,  and  his 
pursuits  were  too  eager  to  be  always  cau¬ 
tious.  His  abilities  gave  him  a  haughty 
consequence  which  he  disdained  to  correct 
and  modify;  and  his  impatience  of  opposi¬ 
tion  disposed  him  to  treat  his  adversaries 
with  such  contemptuous  superiority  as 
made  his  readers  commonly  his  enemies, 
and  excited  against  the’advocate  some  who 
favored  the  cause.” 

Warburton  Lectures. — This  lecture¬ 
ship,  the  object  of  which  is  “to  prove  the 
truth  of  revealed  religion  in  general,  and 
of  the  Christian  in  particular,  from  the 
completion  of  those  prophecies  in  the  Old 
and  New  Testaments  which  relate  to  the 
Christian  Church,  especially  to  the  apos- 
tacy  of  papal  Rome,”  was  established  in 
1768  by  Bishop  Warburton.  —  Benham  : 
Did.  of  Religion. 

Wardlaw,  Ralph,  D.  D.,  “the  most  cel- 
brated  preacher  and  theologian  in  the  roll 
of  Scotch  Independents,  was  a  seceder  by 
extraction,  and  studied  in  connection  with, 
the  Associate  Secession  Church.  Before 
he  had  completed  his  curriculum,  however, 
he  had  convinced  himself  that  congrega¬ 
tional  independency  was  the  scriptural  sys¬ 
tem  of  church  government.  In  1800  he 
began  to  preach,  and  after  some  time  set¬ 
tled  in  Glasgow  as  pastor  of  an  Independ¬ 
ent  church.  In  1811  he  was  appointed  pro¬ 
fessor  of  theology  to  the  Congregational 
body  in  Scotland,  in  conjunction  with  the 
Rev.  Greville  Ewing;  an  office  he  retained, 
along  with  his  pastorate,  to  the  period  of 
his  death,  which  happened  on  Dec.  17, 


War 


(  95i  ) 


Wat 


1853.  Wardlaw’s  life  was  a  very  laborious 
and  earnest  one.  Besides  discharging 
faithfully  and  ably  the  duties  of  the  pulpit 
and  the  professor’s  chair,  he  was  a  volu- 
minousauthor,  often  involved  intheological 
controversy,  and  a  prominent  actor  in  the 
public  religious  and  philanthropical  move¬ 
ments  of  the  day.  His  intellect  was  acute, 
his  understanding  sound,  and  his  style  re¬ 
markable  for  its  perspicacity,  vigor,  and 
grace.  The  most  important  of  Wardlavv’s 
works  are:  Discourses  on  the  Socinian  Con¬ 
troversy  (1813);  Lectures  on  Ecclesiastes ,  2 
vols.  (1821);  Essays  on  Assurance  of  Faith, 
and  on  the  Extent  of  the  Atonement  and  Uni¬ 
versal  Pardon  (1830);  Discourses  on  the 
Sabbath  (1832);  Christian  Ethics  (1833); 
Discourses  on  the  Nature  and  Extent  of  the 
Atonement  of  Christ  (1843);  The  Life  of  Jo¬ 
seph  and  the  Last  Years  of  Jacob  (1845); 
Congregational  Lndependency  (1848);  On 
Miracles  (1852).  See  Life  and  Correspond¬ 
ence  of  Ralph  Wardlaw,  by  Dr.  Alexander 
(1856). — Chambers:  Cyclopcedia. 

Ware,  Henry,  D.  D.,  b.  at  Sherburne, 
Mass.,  April  1,  1764;  d.  at  Cambridge, 
Mass.,  July  12,  1845;  was  graduated  at 
Harvard  College  in  1785;  pastor  of  the 
First  Church,  Hingham,  Mass.,  1787-1805; 
Hollis  professor  of  divinity  in  Harvard, 
1805-40,  when  he  resigned  on  account  of 
the  loss  of  his  sight.  His  election  as  pro¬ 
fessor  led  to  what  may  be  regarded  as  the 
commencement  of  the  Unitarian  contro¬ 
versy  that  was  waged,  especially  in  eastern 
Massachusetts,  for  many  years.  Dr.  Ware 
wrote  (1820):  Letters  to  Trinitarians  and  Cal¬ 
vinists,  in  reply  to  Dr.  Leonard  Woods’s 
Letters  to  Unitarians ;  also  An  Lnquiry  into 
the  Foundation ,  Evidences ,  and  Truths  of 
Religion  (Cambridge,  1842),  2  vols.  See 
Sprague:  Annals  op  the  American  Ptilpit, 
viii.  199. 

Ware,  Henry,  Jun.,  D.  D.,  b.  at  Hing¬ 
ham,  Mass.,  April  21,  1794;  d.  at  Framing¬ 
ham,  Mass.,  Sept.  22,  1843.  He  was  grad¬ 
uated  at  Harvard,  1812;  pastor  of  the 
Second  Church  in  Boston,  1817-30;  Park- 
man  professor  of  pulpit  eloquence  at  the 
divinity  school  at  Cambridge,  1830-42. 
He  was  one  of  the  editors  of  the  Christian 
Disciple,  afterward  the  Christian  Examiner , 
the  first  Unitarian  newspaper.  He  pub¬ 
lished:  Hints  on  Extemporaneous  Preaching 
(1824);  On  the  Formation  of  the  Christian 
Character  (1831).  He  wrote  some  hymns 
of  merit.  See  Metnoir,  by  his  brother 

(1845). 

Washburn,  Edward  Abiel,  D.  D.,  a 
distinguished  clergyman  of  the  Protestant 
Episcopal  Church;  b.  in  Boston,  Mass., 


April  16,  1819;  d.  in  New  York,  Feb.  2, 
1881.  He  was  graduated  from  Harvard 
College  in  1838,  and  studied  theology  at 
Andover  and  New  Haven.  From  1845  to 
1851  he  was  rector  of  St.  Paul’s,  Newbury- 
port.  After  two  years  of  travel  in  Europe 
and  the  East  he  became  rector  of  St.  John’s, 
Hartford;  in  1862  he  accepted  the  charge 
of  St.  Mark’s,  Philadelphia,  and  in  1865  was 
called  to  Calvary  Church,  New  York, 
where  he  remained  until  his  death.  Dr. 
Washburn  was  a  recognized  leader  in  his 
church,  eminent  as  a  scholar  and  writer, 
and  a  preacher  of  great  intellectual  force 
and  power.  His  writings  are  mostly  con¬ 
fined  to  review  articles.  He  published  one 
volume,  The  Social  Law  of  God;  and  two 
volumes  of  selected  sermons  and  lectures 
have  been  published  since  his  death. 

Watch-Night,  The,  is  the  name  given  to 
the  service  held  by  Methodists  on  the  last 
night  of  the  old  year,  and  the  beginning  of 
the  new.  The  custom  of  holding  night 
meetings  started  in  Bristol,  Eng.,  but  was 
brought  into  general  use  by  Wesley.  They 
were  at  first  held  frequently,  but  are  now 
restricted  to  the  one  evening  mentioned. 

Water,  Holy.  See  Holy  Water. 

Water  of  Jealousy.  See  Jealousy. 

Watson,  Richard,  bishop  of  Llandaff; 
b.  at  Heversham,  Westmoreland,  Aug., 
1737;  d.  at  Calgarth  Park,  Westmoreland, 
July  4,  1816.  He  was  graduated  at  Cam¬ 
bridge  University,  where  he  was  appointed 
teacher  of  chemistry  in  1764,  and  regius 
professor  of  divinity,  1771.  He  became 
rector  of  Somersham,  1771;  prebendary  of 
Ely,  1774;  bishop  of  Llandaff,  1782.  He 
is  remembered  by  his  works:  Apology  for 
Christianity  (1776),  addressed  to  Gibbon; 
Apology  for  the  Bible  (1796),  addressed  to 
Thomas  Paine,  and  Collection  of  Theological 
Tracts  (1785),  6  vols.  See  his  autobi¬ 
ography,  Ancedotes  of  the  Life  of  Richard 
Watson,  published  by  his  son  (1817),  2 
vols. 

Watson,  Richard,  D.  D.,  an  eminent 
Wesleyan  Methodist  theologian;  b.  at  Bar¬ 
ton  -  upon  -  Humber,  Lincolnshire,  Eng., 
Feb.  22,  1781;  d.  in  London,  Jan.  8,  1833. 
With  limited  early  educational  advantages' 
he  began  to  preach  when  but  fifteen.  Ac¬ 
cused  unjustly  of  Arianism,  he  joined  the 
Methodist  New  Connection,  1801,  but  re¬ 
turned  to  the  Wesleyans  in  1812,  and  be¬ 
came  actively  interested  in  the  organization 
of  their  foreign  missionary  society,  of 
which  he  was  one  of  the  secretaries  from 
1816  to  1830.  He  was  active  in  the  anti- 


Wat 


(  952  ) 


Wee 


slavery  movement.  He  published:  A  De¬ 
fense  of  the  Wesleyan  Methodist  Missions  in 
the  West  Indies  (1817);  Conversations  for  the 
Young  (1830);  Life  of  John  Wesley  (1831); 
Biblical  and  Theological  Dictionary  (1832); 
7'heological  Institutes  (1823-24).  (This  has 
long  been  one  of  the  most  popular  compen- 
diums  of  Arminian  theology.)  Watson’s 
Life ,  by  Rev.  T.  Jackson,  is  in  the 
first  volume  of  the  collected  edition  of 
his  Works  (1834-37,  13  vols. ;  7th  ed., 

1857-58). 

Watts,  Isaac,  a  famous  English  hymn- 
writer;  b.  at  Southampton,  July  17,  1674; 
d.  at  Abney  Park,  Nov.  25,  1748.  The  son 
of  a  Nonconformist  schoolmaster,  he  was 
educated  at  Newington,  near  London,  and 
after  pursuing  a  course  of  theological 
study  he  became  assistant  minister  to  the 
Independent  Church  of  Mark  Lane,  Lon¬ 
don,  1698,  and  pastor  in  1702.  The  con¬ 
nection  was  not  severed  until  his  death,  al¬ 
though  ill-health  compelled  him  to  retire 
from  active  service  as  early  as  1712.  Dur¬ 
ing  this  year  he  was  invited  by  Sir  Thomas 
Abney  to  spend  a  week  at  Abney  Park, 
near  London,  but  remained  for  thirty-six 
years  a  welcome  guest  in  this  family.  He 
was  never  married.  His  poetical  gifts  de¬ 
veloped  at  an  early  age,  but  his  first  volume 
( Horce  Lyricce')  was  not  published  till  1706. 
In  the  following  year  his  Hymns  and  Spirit¬ 
ual  Songs  appeared,  and  in  1719  he  publish¬ 
ed  The  Psalms  of  David  Imitated  in  the 
Language  of  the  New  Testament.  His  well- 
known  Divine  and  Moral  Songs  for  the  Use 
of  Children  was  published  in  1720.  His 
hymns  and  psalms  at  once  became  very 
popular,  and  effected  a  remarkable  change 
in  the  service  of  song  in  the  churches. 
Watts  wrote  also  upon  logic,  astronomy, 
and  other  subjects.  He  was  an  able 
preacher,  and  three  volumes  of  his  dis¬ 
courses  were  published.  His  remains  were 
interred  in  the  cemetery  of  Abney  Park, 
but  he  has  a  monument  in  Westminster 
Abbey,  a  statue  at  Southampton  (1861), 
and  a  memorial  hall  there  (1875).  His 
Works  were  published  in  London,  1812, 
-9  vols. 

Wayland,  Francis,  D.  D.,  LL.  D.,  an 
eminent  Baptist  divine  and  educator;  b.  in 
iNew  York  City,  March  11,  1796;  d.  at 
Providence,  R.  I.,  Sept.  30,  1865.  He  was 
graduated  at  Union  College  in  1813,  and 
studied  medicine,  but  soon  after  entering 
upon  its  practice  was  converted,  and  united 
with  the  Baptist  Church  in  1816.  In  1816 
and  1817  he  studied  at  Andover  Theolog¬ 
ical  Seminary,  and  was  tutor  in  Union  Col¬ 
lege,  1817-21  ;  pastor  of  First  Baptist 
Church  in  Boston,  1821-26;  professor  in 


Union  College,  1826;  president  of  Brown 
University,  1827-55.  In  this  position  he 
won  a  reputation  as  one  of  the  most  re¬ 
markable  educators  and  preachers  of  his 
time.  His  published  works  include:  Dis¬ 
courses  (1832);  Elements  of  Moral  Science 
(1835);  Elements  of  Political  Economy  (1837); 
University  Sermons  (1850);  Elements  of  In¬ 
tellectual  Philosophy  (1854);  Letters  on  the 
Ministry  (1863). 

Weaver,  Jonathan,  D.  D.  (Otterbein 
University,  Westerville,  O.,  1873),  bishop 
of  the  United  Brethren  in  Christ;  b.  in 
Carroll  County,  O.,  Feb.  23,  1824.  Was 
educated  in  common  schools  and  at  Ha- 
gerston  Academy,  O. ;  he  entered  the  min¬ 
istry  at  the  age  of  twenty-one;  was  pastor, 
1847-52;  presiding  elder,  1852-57;  general 
agent  for  Otterbein  University,  1857-65; 
bishop  since  1865  by  successive  reelections; 
now  in  Ohio  diocese.  He  is  the  author  of: 
Discourses  on  the  Resurrection  (1871);  Di¬ 
vine  Providence  (1873);  Universal  Restora¬ 
tion  not  Sustained  by  the  Word  of  God 
(1878). 

Week.  “  There  can  be  no  doubt  about 
the  great  antiquity  of  measuring  time  by  a 
period  of  seven  days.  (Gen.  viii.  10;  xxix. 
27.)  The  origin  of  this  division  of  time 
is  a  matter  which  has  given  birth  to  much 
speculation.  Its  antiquity  is  so  great,  its 
observance  so  wide-spread,  and  it  occupies 
so  important  a  place  in  sacred  things,  that 
it  must  probably  be  thrown  back  as  far  as 
the  creation  of  man.  The  week  and  the 
Sabbath  are  thus  as  old  as  man  himself.  In 
Exodus,  the  week  comes  into  very  distinct 
manifestation.  Two  of  the  great  feasts — 
the  Passover  and  the  Feast  of  Tabernacles 
— are  prolonged  for  seven  days  after  that 
of  their  initiation.  (Ex.  xii.  15-20,  etc.) 
The  division  by  seven  was  expanded  so  as 
to  make  the  seventh  month  and  the  seventh 
year  sabbatical.  In  the  New  Testament, 
we  of  course  find  such  clear  recognition 
of,  and  familiarity  with,  the  week  as  needs 
scarcely  be  dwelt  upon.  The  Christian 
Church,  from  the  very  first,  was  familiar 
with  the  week.  St.  Paul’s  language  (1 
Cor.  xvi.  2)  shows  this.  We  cannot  con¬ 
clude  from  it  that  such  a  division  of  time 
was  observed  by  the  inhabitants  of  Corinth 
generally;  for  they  to  whom  he  was  writ¬ 
ing,  though  doubtless  the  majority  of  them 
were  Gentiles,  yet  knew  the  Lord’s  day, 
and,  most  probably,  the  Jewish  Sabbath. 
But  though  we  can  infer  no  more  than  this 
from  the  place  in  question,  it  is  clear  that, 
if  not  by  this  time,  yet  very  soon  after, 
the  whole  Roman  world  had  adopted  the 
hebdomadal  division.” — Smith:  Diet,  of 
the  Bible. 


Wei 


(  953  ) 


Wes 


Weights  and  Measures  Among  the  He¬ 
brews. 


i.  The  Longer  Scripture  Measures. 


Cubit . 

Eng.  miles. 

paces. 

0 

feet. 

1.824 

Stadium  or  furlong . 

145 

4.6 

Sabbath-day ’s  journey . . . 

132 

4 

Eastern  mile . 

4°3 

I 

Parasang . 

*53 

3 

Day’s  journey . 

172 

4 

2.  Shorter  Measures  of  Length. 


Eng.  feet,  inches. 


Digit.  <  •  •  < . .  o  0.9x2 

Palm .  o  3.648 

Span .  o  10.944 

Cubit .  1  9.888 

Fathom .  7  3-552 

Ezekiel’s  reed .  10  11.328 

Arabian  pole .  14  7.104 

Schoenus,  or  measuring  line .  145  1.104 


3.  Jewish  Weights. 


Troy  weight. 
lbs.  oz.  dwt.  gr. 

Gerah..... .  o  o  o  12 

Beka .  0050 

Shekel .  o  o  10  o 

Maneh .  2600 

Talent. .  125  000 


4.  Jewish  Liquid  Measures. 

gall,  pints. 


Caph .  o  0.625 

Fog .  o  0.833 

Cab  .  o  3.333 

Hin .  1  2 

Seah .  2  4 

Bath,  or  ephah .  7  4 

Corus,  chomer,  or  homer .  75  o 


The  sextarius,  rendered  a  pot  (Mark  vii.  4),  was  a 
Roman  measure  of  liquids,  equal  to  about  a  pint  and  a 
half  (English). 

The  metretes ,  rendered  Jirkin  (John  ii.  6),  is  supposed 
to  be  equal  to  the  Hebrew  bath. 


5.  Jewish  Dry  Measures. 


Gachal . . 

Cab . 

Omer,  or  gomer. ........ 

Seah . . 

Ephah . 

Letech . 

Corus,  chomer,  or  homer. 


English  Corn  Measure. 


pecks. 

gall. 

pints. 

0 

0 

0  14x6 

O 

O 

2.8333 

.  O 

0 

5-i 

.  I 

0 

I 

•  3 

0 

3 

.  l6 

O 

O 

32 

0 

0 

The  choenix,  rendered  a  measure  (Rev.  vi.  6),  was  a 
Grecian  measure  of  capacity,  about  a  pint  and  a  half. 


Welsh  Calvinistic  Methodist  Church, 
The.  See  Calvinistic  Methodists,  p. 
596- 

Welsh  Presbyterian  Church,  the  name 
by  which  the  Calvinistic  Methodists  (see  p. 
596)  are  known  in  the  United  States.  The 
first  church  was  organized  in  this  country 
at  Peny-caerau,  Remsen,  Oneida  County, 
N.  Y.,  in  1826.  The  denomination  is 
strongest  in  the  States  of  New  York, 
Pennsylvania,  Ohio,  Wisconsin  and  Minne¬ 
sota,  and  its  synods  bear  the  names  of  these 
States.  Doctrinally  the  Welsh  Calvinists 
in  the  United  States  are  in  accord  with 
their  brethren  in  Great  Britain,  but  in  pol¬ 
ity  they  are,  in  some  respects,  more  nearly 


assimilated  to  the  Presbyterian  form  of 
government.  Their  General  Assembly, 
formed  in  1870,  meets  triennially.  In 
1890  they  reported  186  churches,  99  minis¬ 
ters,  and  10,652  communicants.  See  W. 
Rowlands:  The  Welsh  Calvinistic  Metho¬ 
dists  (Rome,  N.  Y.,  1854). 

Wesley,  Charles,  the  youngest  of  the 
nineteen  children  of  Samuel  Wesley,  was 
b.  at  Epworth,  Lincolnshire,  Dec.  29,  1708; 
d.  in  London,  March  29,  1788.  He  was 
educated  at  Westminster  school  and  Christ 
Church  College,  Oxford,  1876,  where,  with 
his  brother  John,  and  one  or  two  others, 
he  received  the  nickname  of  £<  Methodist,” 
because  of  the  earnest  and  systematic 
methods  carried  out  in  a  devotional  gather¬ 
ing  for  religious  improvement  which  they 
held.  He  was  ordained  in  1735,  and  with 
his  brother  John  came  to  Georgia  (1735-36). 
In  1738  (May  21)  “  he  experienced  the  wit¬ 
ness  of  adoption,”  and  from  this  time  en¬ 
gaged  with  his  brother  in  the  evangelistic 
labors  that  laid  the  foundations  of  Method¬ 
ism.  Two  of  his  eight  children  became 
eminent  as  musicians.  “  It  was  Charles 
Wesley  who  sang  the  doctrines  of  the 
Methodists  into  the  hearts  of  believers, 
and  his  evangelical  fervor  is  such  that  he 
has  made  all  Christendom  his  parish  in  a 
grander  sense  even  than  his  administrative 
brother  John.”  The  Poetical  Works  of 
John  and  Charles  Wesley ,  as  reprinted  by 
the  Wesleyan  Conference,  1868-72,  fill 
thirteen  volumes  of  nearly  six  thousand 
pages.  See  his  Life,  by  Jackson,  2  vols. 
(1841). 

Wesley,  John,  the  second  son  of  Sam¬ 
uel  and  Susannah  Wesley;  b.  at  Epworth 
in  Lincolnshire,  June  28,  1703.  At  six 
years  of  age  he  nearly  lost  his  life 
through  the  burning  of  the  parsonage 
house,  set  on  fire,  according  to  his  own  ac¬ 
count,  by  some  of  the  ill-conditioned  par¬ 
ishioners  who  resented  his  father’s  plain 
speech.  The  memory  was  always  potent 
in  the  child’s  imagination,  who  frequently 
refers  to  it  in  his  writings.  He  was  deep¬ 
ly  religious  from  the  beginning,  and  at 
eight  years  of  age  became  a  communicant. 
He  was  sent  to  Charterhouse,  to  which 
school,  though  he  suffered  a  good  deal  from 
bullying,  he  was  always  affectionately  at¬ 
tached,  and  used  to  visit  it  yearly  to  the 
end  of  his  life.  The  big  boys  used  to  eat 
his  meat,  and  he  was  often  reduced  to  a  bit 
of  bread  for  his  day’s  meal;  but  he  was 
hardy,  and  obeyed  his  father’s  strict  com¬ 
mand  to  run  round  the  Charterhouse  Gar¬ 
dens  three  times  every  morning.  From 
the  Charterhouse  he  went  to  Christ  Church, 
Oxford,  and  in  due  time  took  his  B.  A. 


Wes 


(  954  ) 


Wes 


He  soon  became  conspicuous  as  a  scholar 
in  the  learned  languages,  but  also  for  the 
religious  earnestness  of  his  life.  He  put 
away  all  acquaintances  that  he  found  inju¬ 
rious  to  his  soul’s  health,  new  modelled 
his  life  so  as  to  regulate  his  time,  his  stud¬ 
ies,  his  expenses,  and  chose  all  his  com¬ 
panions  from  among  those  that  he  thought 
likely  to  help  his  efficiency  in  the  ministry, 
for  which  he  was  now  zealously  preparing. 
In  1725  he  was  ordained  by  Potter,  then 
bishop  of  Oxford,  and  officiated  for  a  while 
as  his  father’s  curate.  But  in  1726  he  was 
elected  a  Fellow  of  Lincoln  College  (taking 
his  A.  M.  degree  the  same  year),  and  be¬ 
came  resident  at  Oxford  as  Greek  Lecturer, 
and  Moderator  of  the  Passes.  He  wrote 
a  form  of  prayer  for  his  pupils,  showing 
how  desirous  he  was  that  they  should  be 
good  as  well  as  learned.  His  impressions 
deepened,  and  he  joined  an  association 
which  had  been  formed  by  his  brother 
Charles,  then  an  undergraduate  of  Christ 
Church,  along  with  James  Hervey,  White- 
field,  Morgan,  and  others.  They  met  to 
read  divinity  on  Sunday  evenings,  and  the 
classics  on  other  days.  And  they  also  ar¬ 
ranged  to  visit  the  prisoners  in  the  castle, 
and  the  sick  poor  of  the  town.  Then  it 
came  to  Greek  Testament  readings  very 
frequently  on  the  week  evenings  instead 
of  the  classics.  “  We  were  now,”  he  says, 
“  about  fifteen  in  number,  all  of  one  heart 
and  of  one  mind.”  How  the  name  of  Meth¬ 
odists  came  to  be  applied  to  this  little  band 
has  already  been  told  (Methodists);  but 
in  truth  this  little  Oxford  society,  never 
exceeding  thirty  in  number,  had  nothing  in 
common  with  the  Methodism  which  after¬ 
wards  arose,  save  religious  earnestness. 
It  was  of  a  most  pronounced  High-Church 
character,  had  no  organization  or  bond  of 
union,  and  hence  its  members  became  scat¬ 
tered  in  different  directions.  Whitefield 
bent  in  one  direction  and  Wesley  in  an¬ 
other;  Clayton  remained  High-Church  to 
the  end;  James  Hervey  became  a  fervid 
Evangelical  Churchman;  Gambold,  a  Mora¬ 
vian  bishop;  Ingham,  a  Dissenter.  While 
thus  the  name,  once  given  to  Wesley’s 
friends  remained,  the  Methodists  he  found¬ 
ed  must  not  be  confused,  as  they  so  often 
have  been,  with  that  Oxford  company  of 
which  he  was  also  the  leading  spirit. 

One  of  his  intimate  friends  at  this  time 
was  Law,  whose  Serious  Call  had  been  one 
of  the  books  which  had  most  strongly  im¬ 
pressed  him.  Twice  or  thrice  in  the  year 
John  and  Charles  Wesley  had  visited  him, 
travelling  for  sixty  miles  on  foot  in  order  to 
save  the  more  money  for  the  poor.  One  day 
Law  said  to  John,  “  You  would  have  a  phil¬ 
osophic  religion,  but  there  can  be  no  such 
thing.  Religion  is  the  most  plain,  simple 


thing  in  the  world.  It  is  only — we  love 
him  because  he  first  loved  us.”  This  re¬ 
mark  he  never  afterward  forgot.  Another 
time  Law  saw  him  much  depressed,  and  in¬ 
quired  the  reason.  “  It  is  because  I  see  so 
little  fruit  of  my  labors,”  was  the  answer. 
“  My  dear  friend,”  said  Law,  “  you  reverse 
matters  from  their  proper  order.  You  are 
to  follow  the  divine  light,  wherever  it  leads 
you,  in  all  your  conduct.  It  is  God  alone 
that  gives  the  blessing.  I  pray  you,  always 
mind  your  own  work,  and  go  on  with 
cheerfulness,  and  God  will  take  care  of  his.” 

Wesley’s  father  wished  his  son  to  suc¬ 
ceed  him  at  Epworth,  but  he  was  so  wedded 
to  a  college  life  and  to  the  advantages  he 
enjoyed  of  his  retirement  and  his  chosen 
companions,  that  he  could  not  be  persuaded 
to  consent.  His  father  died  in  1735.  He 
had  desired  John  to  present  to  Queen  Caro¬ 
line  a  book  he  had  just  finished,  and  he 
went  to  London  for  that  purpose.  There 
he  was  strongly  solicited  by  Dr.  Burton, 
one  of  the  trustees  for  the  new  colony  at 
Georgia,  to  go  there  and  preach  to  the  In¬ 
dians.  He  refused  at  first,  but  afterward 
consented;  and  on  Oct.  14,  1735,  he  sailed 
from  Gravesend  with  his  brother  Charles 
and  two  other  friends.  They  arrived  at  the 
Savannah  in  the  February  following,  and 
preached  to  the  people  whom  they  found 
on  landing,  who  were  the  more  rejoiced, 
that  means  of  grace  had  been  scarce  with 
them.  Not  finding  any  open  door  for  the 
prosecution  of  work  among  the  Indians, 
the  two  brothers  labored  incessantly  where 
they  landed.  “  The  inconveniences  and 
dangers, ’’says  one  of  Wesley’s  biographers, 
“  which  he  embraced  that  he  might  preach 
the  Gospel  and  do  good  of  every  kind  to  all 
that  would  receive  it  at  his  hands;  the  ex¬ 
posing  of  himself  to  every  change  of  season 
and  inclemency  of  weather  in  the  prosecu¬ 
tion  of  his  work,  were  conditions  which  few 
but  himself  could  have  submitted  to.  He 
frequently  slept  on  the  ground  as  he  jour¬ 
neyed  through  the  woods,  covered  with  the 
nightly  dews,  and  with  his  clothes  and  his 
hair  frozen,  in  the  morning,  to  the  earth. 
He  would  wade  through  swamps  and  swim 
through  rivers,  and  then  travel  till  his 
clothes  were  dry.  His  health  in  the  mean¬ 
time,  strange  as  it  may  seem,  was  uninter¬ 
rupted.” 

On  his  return  to  England  (1737)  Wes¬ 
ley  became  conscious  of  a  great  change  in 
his  religious  feelings,  which  may  be  told 
in  his  own  words:  “  It  is  upward  of  two 
years  since  I  left  my  native  country,  in 
order  to  teach  the  Georgian  Indians  the 
nature  of  Christianity,  but  what  have  I 
learned,  myself,  in  the  meantime?  Why, 
what  I  least  of  all  suspected,  that  I,  who 
went  to  America  to  convert  others,  was 


Wes 


(  955  ) 


Wes 


never  converted  myself . All  this 

time  that  I  was  at  Savannah  I  was  beating 
the  air.  Being  ignorant  of  the  righteous¬ 
ness  of  Christ,  which  by  a  living  faith  in 
him  bringeth  salvation  to  everyone  that 
believeth,  I  sought  to  establish  my  own 
righteousness,  and  so  labored  in  the  fire 
all  my  days.” 

He  arrived  in  England,  Feb.  i,  1738,  and 
found  that  Whitefield  had  sailed  for  Amer¬ 
ica  the  day  before,  on  purpose  to  assist 
him.  It  is  characteristic  of  him  that  on  his 
journey  from  Deal  to  London  he  preached 
and  read  prayers  at  several  places.  He 
was  still  under  concern  from  a  sense  of  sin 
and  a  want  of  assurance  of  forgiveness, 
but  he  says  that  the  light  came  to  him 
through  the  conversation  of  Peter  Bohler, 
a  Moravian,  whom  he  renewed  acquaint¬ 
ance  with  on  his  arrival.  As  he  attended 
the  afternoon  services  at  St.  Paul’s,  he 
heard  the  130th  Psalm  sung  as  an  anthem, 
and  the  same  evening  he  attended  a  relig¬ 
ious  meeting  in  Aldersgate  Street,  where 
one  was  reading  Luther’s  Preface  to  the 
Epistle  to  the  Romans.  And  he  says:  “I 
felt  my  heart  strangely  warmed.  I  felt  I 
did  trust  in  Christ  alone  for  salvation,  and 
an  assurance  was  given  me  that  he  had 
taken  away  my  sins,  even  mine.”  This 
event  he  regarded  as  his  conversion.  Dur¬ 
ing  his  absence  the  religious  movement 
which  began  to  be  known  by  the  name  of 
Methodism,  had  made  great  progress  in 
London,  Bristol  and  other  parts  of  the 
South  of  England,  under  the  impulse  of 
the  enthusiastic  preaching  of  Whitefield. 
With  this  enthusiasm  Wesley  now  found 
himself  in  full  accord,  and  under  its  influ¬ 
ence  he  determined,  three  weeks  after  his 
“  conversion,”  to  retire  for  a  short  time  to 
Germany.  He  hoped,  he  said,  that  the  con¬ 
versing  with  those  holy  men  (the  Mora¬ 
vians),  who  were  themselves  living  wit¬ 
nesses  of  the  power  of  faith,  and  yet  able 
to  bear  with  those  who  were  weak,  would 
be  a  means,  under  God,  of  establishing  his 
soul.  Accordingly,  in  June,  1738,  he  cross¬ 
ed  to  Rotterdam  and  went  on  to  Herrnhut, 
the  Moravian  settlement  in  Upper  Lusa- 
tia,  where  Count  Zinzendorf  introduced  him 
to  the  Prince  Royal  of  Prussia,  afterwards 
Frederick  the  Great.  On  his  return  to 
England,  in  September,  he  heard  that 
Whitefield  had  returned  from  Georgia,  and 
they  once  more  became  intimately  asso¬ 
ciated.  From  this  time  the  history  of 
Wesley  becomes  merged  in  that  of  Meth¬ 
odism,  and  we  refer  the  reader  to  the 
article  on  that  subject.  (Methodists.)  It 
only  remains  to  note  the  main  dates  of  the 
rest  of  his  biography.  He  began  his  open- 
air  preaching  early  in  1739,  and  the  same 
year  gave  his  sanction  to  lay-preaching,  to 


the  disgust  of  his  High-Church  brother, 
Samuel.  In  1740  he  broke  with  the  Mo¬ 
ravians,  on  what  he  regarded  as  doctrinal 
points,  and 'from  that  time  the  two  parties 
were  in  undisguised,  and  even  bitter,  hos¬ 
tility.  Before  the  year  was  ended  he  had 
also  broken  with  Whitefield,  the  result  of 
which  was  a  division  of  the  new  religion¬ 
ists  into  two  permanently  distinct  bodies, 
though  after  a  while  the  two  men  them¬ 
selves  renewed  their  personal  friendship. 

From  that  time  his  whole  life  was  spent 
in  hard  labor  for  the  consolidation  of  his 
new  society.  He  rode  forty,  fifty,  even 
sixty  miles  a  day,  reading  as  he  rode,  and 
preaching  sometimes  five  times  a  day.  Tow¬ 
ard  the  end  of  his  life  he  exchanged  horse¬ 
back  for  a  chaise,  and  not  the  severest 
weather  ever  hindered  him.  His  journals 
are  filled  with  graphic  accounts  of  his 
preachings.  We  extract  his  account  of  his 
visit  to  his  native  Epworth:  “  Sunday. 
June  6,  1742.  A  little  before  the  services 
began  I  went  to  Mr.  Rowley,  the  curate, 
and  offered  to  assist  him,  either  by  preach¬ 
ing  or  reading  prayers.  But  he  did  not 
choose  to  accept  of  my  assistance.  The 
church  was  exceedingly  full  in  the  after¬ 
noon,  a  rumor  being  spread  that  I  was  to 
preach.  After  sermon,  John  Taylor  stood 
in  the  churchyard  and  gave  notice,  as  the 
people  were  coming  out :  ‘  Mr.  Wesley, 
not  being  permitted  to  preach  in  the  church, 
designs  to  preach  here  at  six  o’clock.’  Ac¬ 
cordingly,  by  six  o’clock  I  came,  and  found 
such  a  congregation  as  I  believe  Epworth 
never  saw  before.  I  stood  near  the  east 
end  of  the  church,  upon  my  father’s  tomb¬ 
stone  and  said:  ‘The  kingdom  of  God  is 
not  meat  and  drink,  but  righteousness  and 
peace  and  joy  in  the  Holy  Ghost.’  Friday, 
the  nth,  I  preached  again  at  Epworth,  on 
Ezekiel’s  vision  of  the  resurrection  of  the 
dry  bones.  And  great  indeed  was  the 
shaking  among  them;  lamentation  and 
great  mourning  were  heard;  God  bowing 
their  hearts  so  that,  on  every  side,  as  with 
one  accord,  they  lifted  up  their  voice  and 
wept  aloud.  Saturday,  the  12th,  I  preach¬ 
ed  on  the  righteousness  of  the  Law  and  the 
righteousness  of  Faith.  While  I  was  speak¬ 
ing,  several  dropped  down  as  dead,  and 
among  the  rest  such  a  cry  was  heard  of 
sinners  groaning  for  the  righteousness  of 
faith  as  almos|  drowned  my  voice.  But 
many  of  these  soon  lifted  up  their  heads 
with  joy,  and  broke  out  into  thanksgiving, 
being  assured  they  now  had  the  desire  of 
their  souls,  the  forgiveness  of  their  sins.” 

In  1750  Wesley  married  Mrs.  Vizelle,  a 
widow  with  four  children,  having  not  long 
before  written  a  tract  recommending  celi¬ 
bacy.  The  marriage  was  a  most  unhappy 
one.  He  had  stipulated  that  he  was  not 


Wes 


(  956  ) 


Wes 


to  preach  or  to  travel  less,  but  his  wife  be¬ 
came  dissatisfied  at  his  continual  absences, 
and  was  even  jealous.  He  had  a  high 
opinion  of  marital  authority,  and  wrote  to 
her  to  know  him,  and  know  herself:  “Sus¬ 
pect  me  no  more,  asperse  me  no  more, 
provoke  me  no  more.  Do  not  any  longer 
contend  for  the  mastery;  be  content  to  be 
a  private,  insignificant  person,  known  and 
loved  by  God  and  me,”  etc.  In  conse¬ 
quence  she  several  times  left  him,  and  was 
induced  to  come  back.  But  at  length  he 
besought  her  no  more.  “  Non  earn  reliqui , 
non  di?nisi,  non  revocabof  he  wrote  (“  I  did 
not  desert  her,  I  did  not  dismiss  her,  I  will 
not  recall  her”).  She  died  ten  years  later, 
in  1771. 

Wesley  himself  lived  twenty  years  lon¬ 
ger,  keeping  up  his  indefatigable  labors  till 
the  last.  The  amazing  amount  of  work  he 
got  through  could  only  be  accomplished 
by  the  most  rigid  economy  of  time,  and 
resolution  in  the  use  of  it,  under  a  strain 
that  would  have  broken  most  men  down; 
but  his  health  only  failed  about  three  years 
before  his  death.  In  spite  of  this  he  still 
rose  at  four  o’clock  in  the  morning,  and 
preached  and  traveled  as  usual  until  the 
Wednesday  before  his  death,  when  he 
preached  for  the  last  time  at  Leatherhead, 
in  Surrey.  On  Friday  symptoms  appeared 
which  left  little  doubt  as  to  the  end,  and 
the  next  four  days  were  mainly  occupied 
by  him  in  praising  God.  He  died  about 
ten  o’clock  on  the  morning  of  Tuesday, 
March  2,  1791,  in  the  eighty-eighth  year 
of  his  age,  and  after  lying  in  state  in  his 
ministerial  robes  at  his  chapel  in  City 
Road,  was  interred  there  on  March  9. — 
Benham:  Did.  of  Religion.  See  Life  of 
Wesley,  by  Southey  (1820),  2  vols.  (N.  Y., 
1847),  and  Luke  Tyerman,  3  vols.  (London, 
1870);  Abel  Stevens:  History  of  Methodism, 
3  vols.  (1859-62). 

Wesley,  Samuel,  Sr.,  the  father  of  John 
and  Charles  Wesley;  b.  at  Winterbourne- 
Whitechurch,  in  Dorset,  November,  1662; 
d.  at  Epworth,  April  22,  1735.  His  early 
life  was  spent  among  the  dissenters,  but 
he  connected  himself  with  the  Church  of 
England  in  1683,  and  was  graduated  at  Ex¬ 
eter  College,  Oxford,  in  1688.  After  filling 
several  preferments  Queen  Mary  gave 
him  the  living  of  Epworth  in  Lincolnshire 
(1696),  in  recognition  of  hi!  dedication  to 
her  of  his  Life  of  Christ:  An  Heroic  Poem 
(1693).  He  had  a  family  of  nineteen  chil¬ 
dren,  nine  of  whom  died  in  infancy.  He 
was  a  versatile  writer,  both  in  prose  and 
verse,  and  by  the  use  of  his  pen  eked  out 
his  salary, which  was  scarcely  large  enough 
to  support  his  family.  One  of  his  hymns, 
“  Behold  the  Saviour  of  mankind,”  written 


in  1709,  has  been  extensively  used.  See 
Tyerman:  Life  and  Times  of  the  Rev.  Sam¬ 
uel  Wesley  (London,  i860). 

Wesley,  Samuel,  Jr.,  elder  brother  of 
John  and  Charles;  b.  in  London,  Feb.  io, 
1690;  d.  at  Tiverton,  Nov.  6,  1739.  Edu¬ 
cated  at  Westminster  and  Oxford,  he  be¬ 
came  head  usher  at  Westminster  School, 
1712,  and  head-master  of  the  Free  School 
at  Tiverton,  1732.  He  was  a  man  of  abil¬ 
ity  and  strong  in  his  attachment  to  the 
Church  of  England.  He  did  not  sympa¬ 
thize  with  the  “  new  faith  ”  of  his  brothers. 
His  Poe?ns  on  Several  Occasions  (1736),  re¬ 
printed  with  additions  and  his  Life  (1862), 
have  received  high  praise  from  competent 
critics. 

Wesley,  Susannah,  the  mother  of  the 
Wesleys;  b.  in  London,  Jan.  20,  1669;  d. 
there,  July  23,  1742.  Her  father,  Samuel 
Annesley,  LL.  D.,  was  an  eminent  Non¬ 
conformist  divine,  but  in  her  thirteenth 
year  she  united  with  the  Church  of  Eng¬ 
land.  In  1689  she  married  Samuel  Wesley 
( q .  v.).  The  story  of  her  home  life,  the 
training  of  her  children,  and  the  beauty 
and  devotion  of  her  Christian  character 
reveal  her  as  a  remarkable  woman.  See 
J.  Kirk:  The  Mother  of  the  Wesleys  (1872). 

West,  Stephen,  D.  D.,  b.  in  Tolland, 
Conn.,  Nov.  2,  1725;  d.  at  Stockbridge,* 
Mass.,  May  15,  1819.  He  was  graduated 
at  Yale  College,  1755,  and  became  military 
chaplain  at  Hoosac  Fort  in  1757.  The  fol¬ 
lowing  year  he  was  invited  to  succeed  Jon¬ 
athan  Edwards  in  the  Indian  Mission  at 
Stockbridge,  Mass.  For  sixteen  years  he 
preached  every  Sabbath  forenoon  to  the 
Indians  with  the  aid  of  an  interpreter,  and 
in  the  afternoon  to  the  English.  From 
1775  he  confined  his  labors  to  the  English. 
During  the  early  part  of  his  pastorate  at 
Stockbridge  he  passed  through  a  religious 
experience  that  had  a  marked  effect  upon 
his  life  and  labors.  At  first  dissatisfied 
with  the  theological  views  of  his  prede¬ 
cessor,  he  afterward  accepted  them  with 
great  satisfaction.  He  was  an  able  scholar 
and  teacher,  and  after  the  custom  of  the 
times  he  trained  many  young  men  in  their 
theological  studies,  some  of  whom  became 
eminent  divines.  His  most  important  pub¬ 
lications  were:  An  Essay  on  Moral  Agency 
(1772);  Essay  on  the  Scripture  Doctrine  of 
the  Atonement  (1785);  The  Life  of  Rev. 
Samuel  Hopkins ,  D.  D.  (1806). 

Westcott,  Brooke  Foss,  D.  D. ,  D.  C.  L. , 
bishop  of  Durham;  b.  near  Birmingham, 
Jan.  12,  1825.  He  was  educated  at  Trin¬ 
ity  College,  Cambridge, and  ordained,  1851; 


Wes 


Wes 


v  957  )' 


assistant  master  at  Harrow  School,  1S52- 
69;  rector  of  Somersham  with  Pidley  and 
Colne,  Hunts,  1870-82;  regius  professor 
of  divinity,  Cambridge,  1870-89;  canon  of 
Westminster,  1884-89;  bishop  of  Durham, 
1890.  He  wasamemberof  the  New  Testa¬ 
ment  Revision  Company  (1870-81).  He  is 
the  author  of:  Introduction  to  the  Study  of  the 
Gospels  (i860,  6th  ed.,  1882);  The  Bible  in 
the  Church  (1864,  gth  ed.,  1885);  The  Gos¬ 
pel  of  the  Resurrection  (1866,  5th  ed.,  1884); 
The  Revelation  of  the  Risen  Lord  (1882); 
The  Historic  Faith  (1883);  conjointly  with 
Dr.  Hort  edited  The  Hew  Testament  in  the 
Original  Greek  (1881;  2  vols.  with  text 
alone,  1885);  Epistles  of  St.  John ,  Greek 


Text ,  Notes ,  and  Essays  (1883);  Revelation 
of  the  Father:  Titles  of  the  Lord  (1884),  etc. 

Westminster  Abbey.  “  The  early  his¬ 
tory  of  Westminster  is  that  of  the  abbey, 
still  the  most  interesting  of  its  public 
buildings.  In  early  times,  that  part  of 
Westminster  which  adjoins  the  Thames  was 
surrounded  by  a  branch  of  the  river,  so  as 
to  form  an  island  called  Thorney  Island, 
from  its  being  covered  with  brushwood. 
Here,  on  the  site  of  the  present  abbey, 
Sebert,  king  of  the  East-Saxons,  is  said,  in 
the  seventh  century,  to  have  built  a  church. 
It  is  supposed  to  have  been  replaced  by  an 
abbey  called  Westminster,  to  distinguish  it 


WESTMINSTER  ABBEY 


Wes 


(  958  ) 


Wes 


from  the  cathedral  church  of  St.  Paul’s, 
called,  originally,  Eastminster.  The  first 
edifice  erected  on  the  site,  of  which  we  have 
any  certain  account,  was  one  built  of  stone 
by  Edward  the  Confessor  in  1065.  The 
Pyx  house,  a  low  apartment,  no  ft.  long 
by  30  ft.  wide,  vaulted  and  divided  by  a 
certain  range  of  eight  plain  pillars  with 
simple  capitals,  is  nearly  all  that  remains  of 
it.  The  principal  parts  of  the  existing 
abbey  were  built  by  Henry  III.  In  1820 
he  erected  a  chapel  dedicated  to  the  Virgin, 
and  a  quarter  of  a  century  later  he  took 
down  the  old  abbey  of  the  Confessor,  and 
erected  the  existing  choir  and  transepts, 
and  the  Chapel  of  Edward  the  Confessor. 
The  remainder  of  the  building  was  com¬ 
pleted  under  the  abbots,  the  western  parts 
of  the  nave  and  aisles  having  been  erected 
between  1340  and  1483.  The  W.  front  and 
its  great  window  were  the  work  of  Richard 
III.  and  Henry  VII.  The  latter  pulled 
down  the  Chapel  to  the  Virgin,  erected  by 
Henry  III.  at  the  E.  end  of  the  church,  and 
the  chapel  known  as  Henry  Vll.’s  Chapel. 
This  completed  the  interior  of  the  abbey  as 
it  now  stands;  the  only  important  addition 
made  since  then  having  been  the  upper 
parts  of  the  two  western  towers,  which 
were  the  work  of  Sir  Christopher  Wren. 
The  whole  building  forms  across.  Its  ex¬ 
treme  length,  including  Henry  Vll.’s 
Chapel,  is  511  ft.;  its  width  across  the  tran¬ 
septs  is  203  feet.  The  width  of  the  nave 
and  aisles  is  79  ft. ;  of  the  choir,  38  ft. ;  and 
of  Henry  Vll.’s  Chapel,  70  ft.  The  height 
of  the  roof  is  102  ft.,  a  loftiness  unusual  in 
English  churches.  It  is  the  interior  of  the 
abbey  which  has  at  all  times  excited  the 
most  enthusiastic  admiration.  The  harmony 
of  its  proportions,  and  the  ‘  dim  religious 
light  ’  of  the  lofty  and  long-drawn  aisles, 
leave  on  the  mind  impressions  of  grandeur 
and  solemnity  which  churches  of  greater 
size  fail  to  produce.  The  abbey  was  at  one 
time  the  bury-ing-place  of  the  English  kings, 
and  it  has  become  a  national  honor  to  be 
interred  within  its  walls.  It  is  crowded 
with  tombs  and  monuments.  The  chapel 
of  Edward  the  Confessor,  at  the  E.  end  of 
the  choir,  contains  his  shrine  erected  by 
Henry  III.,  the  altar-tombs  of  Edward  I., 
Henry  III.,  Henry  V.,  and  Edward  III. 
The  canopy  of  that  last  mentioned  deserves 
special  notice.  It  is  considered  to  be  one 
of  the  greatest  works  in  wood  extant,  a-nd 
equal  to  anything  in  the  best  age  of  mediae¬ 
val  art.  Against  the  altar-screen  in  this 
part  of  the  church  stand  the  two  coronation 
chairs.  One,  the  king’s  chair, incloses  the 
stone  brought  by  Edward  I.  from  Scone, 
on  which  the  Scotch  kings  were  crowned. 
The  other,  the  consort’s  chair,  was  con¬ 
structed  for  the  coronation  of  Mary,  wife 


of  William  III.  Both  are  still  used  for 
coronations.  Most  of  the  English  kings, 
from  the  time  of  Henry  VII.,  down  to 
that  of  George  III.,  were  buried  in  Henry 
Vll.’s  Chapel,  and  there,  accordingly,  are 
the  tombs  of  Queen  Elizabeth  and  Mary 
Queen  of  Scots.  The  most  remarkable 
monuments  in  other  parts  of  the  church 
are  those  in  the  E.  aisle  of  the  south¬ 
ern  transept,  known  as  ‘  Poets’  Corner,’ 
where  many  of  the  most  eminent  British 
poets  have  been  buried.  There  monu¬ 
ments  are  erected  to  Chaucer,  Beaumont, 
Drayton,  Cowley,  Dryden,  Milton,  Gray, 
Prior,  Shakespeare,  Thomson,  Gay,  Gold¬ 
smith,  Addison,  and  Ben  Jonson.  In  the 
N.  transept  are  the  monuments  of  Pitt,  Fox, 
Chatham,  Canning, and  Wilberforce.  Else¬ 
where  are  the  monuments  of  the  great  en¬ 
gineers  and  inventors — Telford,  Watt,  and 
Stephenson.” — Chambers:  Cyclopcedia.  See 
Dean  Stanley:  Memorials  of  Westminster 
Abbey  (London,  1867,  5th  ed.,  1882). 

Westminster  Assembly  (1643-52),  the 
most  important  synod  ever  held  in  the  Re¬ 
formed  churches.  It  was  called  together 
by  the  famous  Long  Parliament,  to  form, 
on  a  Calvinistic  and  Puritan  basis,  a  creed 
and  system  of  church  polity  and  worship 
for  England,  Scotland,  and  Ireland.  All 
of  the  members  were  appointed  by  Parlia¬ 
ment,  and  consisted  of  one  hundred  and 
twenty-one  English  clergymen,  five  Scotch 
commissioners,  and  thirty  lay  assessors, 
ten  of  whom  were  peers,  and  twenty  com¬ 
moners.  The  body  only  had  advisory 
power,  and  its  decisions  were  subject  to 
the  ratification  of  Parliament.  The  as¬ 
sembly  was  opened  July  1,  1643,  in  West¬ 
minster  Abbey,  when  Dr.  William  Twisse 
preached  a  sermon  before  the  two  Houses 
of  Parliament.  The  meetings  were  first 
held  in  the  Chapel  of  Henry  VII. ,  and  after¬ 
ward  in  the  Jerusalem  Chamber.  Except 
on  Saturday  and  Sunday  daily  sessions 
were  held  from  9  till  2,  and  once  a  month 
it  met  with  Parliament  in  a  service  of  pub¬ 
lic  humiliation  and  prayer.  An  attempt 
was  made  to  revise  the  Thirty-nine  Articles, 
but  this  was  not  found  feasible,  and  a  new 
confession  of  faith  was  prepared,  together 
with  a  directory  of  polity  and  worship. 
(See  following  article).  After  completing 
this  work  (1648)  the  assembly  became  an 
executive  body,  and  soon  lost  its  impor¬ 
tance.  The  last  session  was  held  March  25, 
1652.  The  assembly  never  received  the 
recognition  of  the  bishops,  and  it  was  pro¬ 
hibited  by  the  king.  While  it  failed  in  its 
purpose  as  far  as  England  and  Ireland  were 
concerned,  and  episcopacy,  with  the  resto¬ 
ration  of  the  Stuart  dynasty,  was  'soon 
dominant,  its  doctrinal  and  disciplinary 


Wes 


(  959  ) 


Wha 


standards  have  been  accepted  by  the  Pres¬ 
byterian  Churches  of  Scotland  and  Amer¬ 
ica.  The  official  manuscript  records  of  the 
Westminster  Assembly,  from  1643  to  1652, 
were  long  supposed  to  have  perished  in 
the  London  fire  of  1666,  but  a  few  years 
since  they  were  discovered  in  Dr.  Will¬ 
iams’s  library,  London,  and  have  since  been 
partly  edited  (Edinburgh,  1874).  See 
Mitchell:  The  Westminster  A  ssembly :  Its  His¬ 
tory  and  Standards  (London,  1883);  Schaff: 
Creeds  of  Christendotn ,  vol.  i.,  pp.  725-811. 

Westminster  Standards.  These  related  to 
doctrine,  discipline,  and  worship,  and  were 
ratified  by  the  Long  Parliament,  as  report¬ 
ed  by  the  Westminster  Assembly  of  Di¬ 
vines,  with  few  changes.  They  were  set 
aside  in  England  after  the  restoration  of 
the  Stuarts,  but  retained  in  Scotland  and 
in  the  Presbyterian  churches  of  America. 
The  doctrinal  standards,  with  some  modi¬ 
fications,  were  also  accepted  by  the  Inde¬ 
pendents,  or  Congregationalists.in  England 
and  New  England.  The  Doctrinal  Stand¬ 
ards  were:  (1)  The  Westminster  Confession 
of  Faith. — Its  original  title  was,  The  Hum¬ 
ble  Advice  of  the  Assembly  of  Divines,  now , 
by  Authority  of  Parliament,  sitting  at  West¬ 
minster,  concerning  the  Confession  of  Faith, 
with  the  Quotations  and  Texts  of  Scripture 
annexed.  Presented  by  them  lately  to  both 
Houses  of  Parliament.  This  work  was 
completed,  Dec.  4,  1646,  and  ratified,  with  a 
few  changes,  by  the  Long  Parliament,  in 
1648,  under  the  title  Articles  of  Religion. 
It  had  been  adopted  the  year  previous 
without  change  by  the  Church  of  Scotland, 
and  in  this  form  it  still  continues  to  be 
printed  in  Great  Britain. 

The  American  Presbyterian  Churches 
adopted  the  Westminster  Confession  with¬ 
out  alteration  until  after  the  Revolutionary 
War,  when  it  became  necessary  to  change 
the  articles  on  church  polity  to  adapt  them 
to  the  voluntary  system  brought  about  by 
the  separation  of  Church  and  State.  (See 
Schaff’s  Creeds,  vol.  i.,  806  sqq.)  For  doc¬ 
trinal  changes  made  in  the  Cumberland 
Presbyterian  Church  see  the  article  (Cum¬ 
berland  Presbyterian  Church).  (2) 
Westminster  Catechisms. — There  are  two  of 
these.  The  larger  Catechism  was  for 
ministers,  and  to  be  explained  by  them  from 
the  pulpit;  the  shorter  Catechism  was  for 
the  instruction  of  children.  (See  Cate¬ 
chism.) 

The  Directory  of  Public  Worship  was 
prepared  during  1644,  sanctioned  by  Par¬ 
liament,  Jan.  3,  1645,  and  approved  by  the 
Scotch  Assembly  and  Parliament  in  Feb., 
1645.  It  was  intended  to  take  the  place  of 
the  Book  of  Common  Prayer. 

The  Directory  for  Church  Government 


sets  forth  the  principles  of  Presbyterian 
church  polity.-  See  Presbyterianism. 

Westphalia,  The  Peace  of,  was  signed 
Oct.  14,  1648,  and  brought  to  a  close  the 
Thirty  Years’  War.  One  part  of  the  con¬ 
gress,  consisting  of  deputies  of  the  emper¬ 
or,  and  of  Sweden,  and  princes  of  the  em¬ 
pire,  sat  at  Osnabruck,  a  city  of  Westphalia, 
and  completed  its  work,  Aug.  8,  1648;  the 
other  part,  consisting  of  deputies  of  the 
emperor,  and  of  France  and  other  foreign 
powers,  sat  at  Munster,  and  finished  its 
work,  Sept.  17,  and  it  was  here  that  the 
peace  was  signed.  It  confirmed  the  Peace 
of  Augsburg,  and  settled  the  relations  be¬ 
tween  the  Protestants  and  Roman  Catholics 
within  the  boundaries  of  the  German  Em¬ 
pire.  By  its  provisions  full  equality  was 
established  between  the  Lutheran  and  Re¬ 
formed  Churches. 

Wetstein,  Johann  Jakob,  b.  in  Basel, 
March  5,  1693;  d.  in  Amsterdam,  March 
22,  1754.  In  1720  he  became  assistant  to 
his  father,  who  was  pastor  of  St.  Leonard’s 
Church  in  Basel.  In  this  relation  he  still 
continued  the  study  of  the  various  manu¬ 
scripts  of  the  New  Testament,  in  which  he 
very  early  took  a  deep  interest.  In  con¬ 
nection  with  a  discussion  regarding  the 
value  and  age  of  Codex  E,  which  he  did 
not  rate  as  high  as  Bengel  and  two  Basel 
professors  who  were  then  collating  the 
codices  in  the  Basel  Library,  an  unhappy 
personal  feud  was  engendered.  He  was 
accused  of  Arian  and  Socinian  views  for 
changes  which  he  made  in  the  textus  recep- 
tus,  found  guilty,  and  deposed  May  13, 
1730.  The  way  opened  to  a  professorship 
in  the  Remonstrants’  College,  at  Amster¬ 
dam,  where  he  afterward  made  his  home. 
His  fame  rests  upon  his  edition  of  the 
Greek  New  Testament  (1751-52),  2  vols. 
He  collated  more  manuscripts  than  any  of 
his  predecessors,  and  introduced  the  pres¬ 
ent  mode  of  designating  uncial  manuscripts 
by  Roman  capitals,  and  cursive  by  Arabic 
figures. 

Whately,  Richard,  D.  D.,  archbishop 
of  Dublin;  b.  in  London,  Feb.  1,  1787;  d. 
in  Dublin,  Oct.  8,  1863.  He  was  graduated 
at  Oxford,  1808,  and  elected  fellow  of  Oriel 
College,  1811.  While  here  he  published 
his  first  work,  Historic  Doubts  Relative  to 
Napoleon  Bonaparte  (1819).  By  a  very 
acute  handling  of  unquestioned  facts  rela¬ 
tive  to  Napoleon,  he  pretended  to  doubt 
his  very  existence,  and  in  this  way  showed 
the  absurdity  of  Hume’s  argument  against 
the  credibility  of  miracles  in  spite  of  any 
evidence.  In  1822  he  was  Bampton  Lect¬ 
urer,  and  took,  for  his  subject,  On  the  Use 


Whi 


(  960  ) 


Whi 


and  Abuse  of  Party  Feeling  in  Religion.  In 
1825  he  was  elected  principal  of  St.  Alban’s 
Hail,  Oxford,  and  in  1830  professor  of 
political  economy.  In  1825  he  published 
his  essays  On  Some  Peculiarities  of  the 
Christian  Religion ,  and  in  1828  a  series  On 
Some  Difficulties  in  the  Writings  of  St. 
Paul.  In  this  work  he  attempted  to  prove 
that  the  doctrines  of  election,  justification, 
etc.,  as  generally  accepted,  were  not  pre¬ 
sented  in  accord  with  the  views  of  St.  Paul. 
In  1830  appeared  another  series  of  essays, 
The  Errors  of  Romanism  traced  to  their 
Origin  in  Human  Nature.  His  position  as 
a  liberal  thinker  and  theologian  was  such 
that  his  appointment  to  the  archbishopric 
of  Dublin,  in  1831,  was  a  great  surprise. 
In  this  position,  however,  he  won  the  con¬ 
fidence  of  both  Protestants  and  Roman 
Catholics  by  his  fearless  independence  and 
impartiality.  Whately  earnestly  opposed 
the  Tractarian  movement,  and  denied  apos¬ 
tolic  succession  and  the  authority  of  the 
Church.  His  Elemejits  of  Rhetoric  (1828) 
have  been  widely  used,  and  also  his  edition 
of  Bacon’s  Essays  (1856),  with  annotations. 
See  his  Life  and  Correspondence ,  by  his 
daughter,  Miss  E.  J.  Whately  (1866,  2 
vols.,  popular  edition,  1868,  1  vol. ). 

Whichcote,  Benjamin,  one  of  the  most 
prominent  of  the  ‘  ‘  Cambridge  Platonists ;  ” 
b.  at  Stoke  in  Shropshire,  March  11,  1609; 
d.  in  1683.  He  was  educated  at  Emmanuel 
College,  Cambridge,  of  which  he  became  a 
fellow,  and  was  appointed  one  of  the  Uni¬ 
versity  preachers.  In  1644  he  was  made  pro¬ 
vost  of  King’s  College.  He  was  a  leader  of 
thought  in  the  University,  but  at  the  Res¬ 
toration  was  removed  by  order  of  the  king, 
not  so  much  because  of  his  Puritanism  as 
the  fact  that  he  had  been  appointed  under 
the  Commonwealth.  In  1662  he  was  pre¬ 
sented  with  St.  Ann’s,  Blackfriars,  London, 
where  he  remained  till  1666,  when  the 
church  was  burned  in  the  great  fire  of  that 
year.  Two  years  later  he  became  rector 
of  St.  Lawrence  Jewry,  which  he  held  till 
his  death.  He  was  not  a  prolific  writer, 
but  exerted  a  remarkable  influence  by  his 
sermons  and  speeches.  Four  volumes  of 
Discourses ,  a  series  of  Moral  and  Religious 
Aphorisms,  and  his  Correspondence  comprise 
his  published  works. 

Whiston,  William,  a  prominent  defend¬ 
er  of  Arianism  in  England;  b.  at  Norton,  in 
Leicestershire,  Dec.  9,  1667;  d.  in  London, 
Aug.  22,  1752.  He  was  graduated  at  Cam¬ 
bridge,  and  after  his  ordination  was  chap¬ 
lain  of  the  bishop  of  Norwich.  In  1698  he 
became  vicar  of  Lowestoft,  Suffolk,  and  in 
1703  was  appointed  successor  of  Sir  Isaac 
Newton  as  professor  of  mathematics  at 


Cambridge.  Having  avowed  himself  an 
Arian,  he  was  expelled  from  his  professor¬ 
ship  in  1710,  and  his  writings  were  con¬ 
demned  as  heretical.  The  rest  of  his  life 
was  spent  in  London.  His  chief  works 
were:  Theory  of  the  Earth  (1755),  contain¬ 
ing  some  peculiar  notions  regarding  the  Del¬ 
uge;  Primitive  Christianity  Restored  (1711— 
12),  2  vols.;  several  scientific  works,  and  a 
translation  of  Josephus  (1736),  which  has 
passed  through  many  editions.  SeehisAA’- 
moirs.  Written  by  Himself  ( 1 749-50),  3  vols. 

White  Brethren,  hermits  who  appeared 
in  the  Alps,  in  Northern  Italy,  in  the  four¬ 
teenth  century.  From  their  dress  of  white 
linen,  which  covered  all  the  face  except  the 
eyes,  and  reached  to  their  feet,  they  were 
called  “  White  Brethren,”  “  Albati,”  or 
“  Bianchi.”  Under  the  leadership  of  a 
priest,  who  called  himself  the  prophet 
Elias,  they  descended  to  the  Italian  plains 
in  1399,  and  urged  the  people  to  follow 
them  in  a  crusade  to  regain  the  Holy  Land 
from  the  Turks.  They  are  said  to  have 
gathered  an  army  of  forty  thousand  per¬ 
sons,  and  were  marching  from  city  to  city 
when  Pope  Boniface,  fearing  their  strength, 
sent  a  company  of  soldiers,  who  met  the 
pilgrims  at  Viterbo  and  dispersed  them. 
Their  leader  was  put  to  death  as  a  heretic 
at  Rome. 

White,  Henry  Kirke,  b.  at  Nottingham, 
March  21,  1785.  While  an  apprentice  in  a 
lawyer’s  office  he  gained  sufficient  education 
to  enter  St.  John’s  College,  Cambridge, 
1804.  It  was  his  purpose  to  prepare  for 
the  ministry,  but  his  plans  were  premature¬ 
ly  cut  short  by  death  from  consumption, 
Oct.  19,1806.  In  1802  he  published  a  little 
volume  of  poems,  which  attracted  the  at¬ 
tention  of  Southey,  some  of  which  have 
found  a  place  in  collections  of  hymns. 
His  Remains  were  published  in  2  vols.,  by 
Southey  (1806). 

White,  William,  D.  D.,  often  called 
the  “Father”  of  the  American  Episcopal 
Church;  b.  in  Philadelphia,  March  24, 
1747;  d.  there,  July  17,  1836.  He  was 
graduated  at  the  College  of  Philadelphia 
in  1765,  and  after  studying  theology  sailed 
for  England  in  1770  to  receive  orders.  In 
1772  he  returned  to  Philadelphia,  and  en¬ 
tered  upon  the  duties  of  assistant  minister 
of  Christ  Church  and  St.  Peter’s.  At  the 
breaking  out  of  the  Revolutionary  War  he 
earnestly  espoused  the  cause  of  the  colo¬ 
nies,  and  was  chosen  chaplain  to  the  Con¬ 
tinental  Congress  in  September,  1777.  In 
1779  he  became  rector  of  Christ  Church, 
Philadelphia.  When  the  independence  of 
the  United  States  was  recognized,  his 


Whi 


(  96i  ) 


Whi 


counsel  had  great  influence  in  the  organi¬ 
zation  of  the  Church.  Elected  bishop  of 
Pennsylvania,  Sept.  14,  1786,  he  sailed 
for  England,  where  he  received  consecra¬ 
tion  in  Lambeth  Palace,  Feb.  4,  1787. 
For  nearly  half  a  century  he  stood  at  the 
head  of  the  American  Episcopal  Church. 
His  principal  published  work  is  his  Memoirs 
of  the  Protestant  Episcopal  Church  (1830, 
third  ed. ,  with  an  introduction  and  notes  by 
B.  F.  De  Costa,  D.  D.,  1880). 

Whitefield,  George,  a  great  evangelist; 
b.  at  Gloucester,  Eng.,  Dec.  27,  1714;  d.  in 
Newburyport,  Mass.,  Sept.  30,  1770.  The 
son  of  an  innkeeper,  the  influences  about 
him  in  early  life  were  not  helpful.  Through 
the  care  of  his  mother  attention  was  given 
to  his  education,  and  when  a  lad  of  twelve 
years  he  was  placed  in  the  grammar-school 
at  Gloucester,  where  his  ability  as  a  speaker 
was  noticed.  Before  entering  the  University 
at  Oxford  his  mind  had  received  deep  re¬ 
ligious  impressions,  and  at  Oxford  he  met 
the  Wesleys,  and  joined  the  famous  “  Holy 
Club.”  He  was  the  first  among  its  mem¬ 
bers  to  profess  conversion.  He  was  or¬ 
dained  in  1736,  and  very  soon  became 
widely  known  as  an  eloquent  pulpit  orator. 
In  1738  he  spent  several  months  in  Georgia, 
at  the  invitation  of  the  Wesleys,  but  re¬ 
turned  to  England  the  following  year.  His 
relations  with  the  Oxford  Methodists,  and 
the  emphasis  which  he  placed  upon  the 
doctrine  of  the  “  new  birth,”  closed  many 
churches  against  him,  but  he  preached 
wherever  he  found  an  open  door,  and  labor¬ 
ed  among  the  Moravians  and  other  relig¬ 
ious  societies  in  London.  In  1739,  con¬ 
nection  with  the  Wesleys  and  Oxford 
Methodists,  he  began  to  preach  to  congre¬ 
gations  gathered  in  the  open  air.  Great 
multitudes  flocked  to  hear  him.  He  visited 
Wales  and  Scotland,  and  traveled  through 
every  part  of  England.  His  arraignment 
of  the  clergy  as  “  blind  guides  ”  stirred  up 
a  fierce  controversy.  Coming  to  America 
the  Episcopal  churches  were  generally 
closed  against  him,  but  other  churches 
gave  him  a  welcome.  He  preached  in  the 
leading  places  along  the  seaboard,  on  his 
way  to  Georgia,  to  vast  congregations. 
Visiting  New  England,  a  great  awakening 
followed  his  labors.  He  crossed  the  ocean 
no  less  than  seven  times,  and  both  in 
America  and  Great  Britain  he  continued 
his  evangelistic  tours  with  unremitting 
zeal.  Holding  to  Calvinistic  views  he 
came  into  a  sharp  conflict  of  opinion  with 
John  Wesley,  but  this  did  not  sever  their 
relations  of  friendship.  The  name  of 
vVhitefield  still  stands  as  a  synonym  for  the 
most  marvelous  exhibitions  of  pulpit  elo¬ 
quence.  His  collected  works,  with  Metnoir 


by  Dr.  Gillies,  were  published  in  London 
(1771-72),  in  7  vols.  See  his  Life,  by  Tyer- 
man  (London,  1876),  in  2  vols. 

Whitgift,  John,  D.  D.,  archbishop  of 
Canterbury;  b.  at  Great  Grimsby,  Lincoln¬ 
shire,  about  1530;  d.  at  Lambeth,  Feb.  29, 
1604.  He  was  educated  at  Cambridge 
University;  ordained  priest,  1560;  became 
Lady  Margaret  professor  of  divinity,  1563; 
regius  professor  of  divinity,  1567;  prebend¬ 
ary  of  Ely,  1568;  dean  of  Lincoln,  1568; 
bishop  of  Worcester,  1577;  and  in  1583  was 
made  archbishop  of  Canterbury.  He  kept 
in  retirement  during  Mary’s  reign,  but  at 
the  accession  of  Elizabeth  he  became  an 
active  defender  of  the  Church  of  England, 
and  opposed  and  persecuted  the  Puritans. 
He  engaged  in  a  controversy  with  Thomas 
Cartwright  (<7.  v. ),  and  insisted  that  the 
clergy  should  subscribe  to  articles  which 
he  knew  the  Puritan  ministers  would  not 
sign;  and  when  they  refused  suspended 
hundreds  of  them,  and  treated  many  with 
great  cruelty.  The  fact  that  he  was  liberal 
in  his  expenditures  for  the  Church,  and 
very  earnest  in  his  labors  cannot  excuse 
his  measures  of  severity  and  intolerance 
against  the  Puritan  party.  His  Works 
were  published  by  the  Parker  Society 
(Cambridge,  1851-54),  3  vols.  See  Neale: 
History  of  the  Puritans ;  Hook:  Lives  of  the 
Archbishops  of  Canterbury. 

Whitsunday,  the  common  English  name 
for  the  Feast  of  Pentecost,  celebrating  the 
gift  of  the  Spirit  and  the  foundation  of  the 
Christian  Church  on  earth.  The  deriva¬ 
tion  of  the  word  has  been  the  subject  of 
much  dispute.  Three  solutions  have  been 
offered,  but  there  is  a  certain  amount  of 
doubt  about  each  of  them.  The  most  com¬ 
mon  is  that  the  word  was  originally  spelt 
“White  Sunday,”  and  was  so  called  because 
in  the  early  Church  the  catechumens  were 
baptized  on  that  day,  and  that  their  white 
garments  gave  name  to  the  festival.  But 
when  it  is  noticed  that  the  Prayer-Book 
speaks  of  Whitsun  Week,  Whitsun  Mon¬ 
day,  and  not  Whit  Monday,  this  deriva¬ 
tion  hardly  holds  good.  Others  derive 
it  from  the  German  Pfingsten — “  Pente¬ 
cost,”  and  say  that  though  some  of  the 
links  in  the  chain  are  missing,  the  word, 
through  various  changes,  has  come  to 
Whitsunday.  The  other  solution  is  sug¬ 
gested  by  an  old  poem,  probably  written 
-  about  the  fourteenth  century,  in  which  the 
writer  evidently  takes  for  granted  that 
Whit  is  a  corruption  of  Wit  or  Wisdom — 

“  This  day  Whitsonday  is  cald, 

For  wisdom  and  witsevene  fald 
Was  goven  to  the  Apostles  as  the  day.” 

— Benham:  Diet,  of  Religion. 


Wic 


(  962  ) 


Wic 


Wichern,  Johann  Hf.inrich,  D.  D.,  the 
founder  of  the  Inner  Mission  ( q.  v.)\  b.  at 
Hamburg,  April  21,  1808;  d.  there,  April 
7,  1881.  He  studied  theology  at  Gottingen 
and  Berlin,  and  on  his  return  home  inter¬ 
ested  himself  in  mission  work  among  the 
children  in  the  worst  section  of  the  city  of 
Hamburg.  From  these  labors  developed 
an  institution  which  he  called  the  “Rough 
House  ”  ( Das  Rauhe  Haus ),  opened  Nov. 
1,  1833,  at  Horn,  a  suburb  of  Hamburg. 
It  was  a  house  of  correction  for  juvenile 
offenders,  where  the  inmates  received  care¬ 
ful  instruction  and  were  taught  various 
trades.  Similar  institutions  sprang  up 
elsewhere,  and  in  1845  a  “  Brotherhood” 
was  started  to  train  teachers  and  helpers  in 
this  line  of  service.  In  1844  Wichern  be¬ 
gan  the  publication  of  his  Fliegende  Blatter 

Flying  Leaves  ”),  which  aroused  great 
interest  in  behalf  of  the  wretched  and  suf¬ 
fering  classes,  and  resulted  in  the  founding 
of  the  Inner  Mission  (q.  v.).  Wichern  was 
commissioned  by  the  Prussian  Govern¬ 
ment,  in  1851,  to  visit  all  the  penal  and  re¬ 
formatory  institutions  of  the  kingdom  and 
suggest  improvements.  In  1858  he  found¬ 
ed  the  Evangelische  Johannisstift  at  Berlin, 
on  the  plan  of  the  Rauhe  Haus.  Honors 
came  to  him  from  Church  and  State,  and 
his  influence  in  behalf  of  philanthropic  ser¬ 
vice  was  both  powerful  and  remarkable. 

Wiclif,"  John,  was  born  in  Yorkshire, 
which  was  so  largely  the  cradle  of  the  Pil¬ 
grim  movement,  and  whose  sturdy  sons 
have  won  the  title  of  the  Yankees  of  Eng¬ 
land.  The  date  of  his  birth  was  about  1320. 
This  preceded,  by  long  centuries,  the  Pil¬ 
grim  emigration,  so  he  belongs  to  America 
as  fully  as  to  the  mother-country. 

He  appears  to  have  found  his  way  to 
Oxford  at  about  1335.  Here  a  noble  spirit 
like  his  would  catch  the  inspiration  of  the 
great  names  that  were  the  heirlooms  of  the 
University,  such  as  Grosseteste  and  Roger 
Bacon.  Here,  too,  he  would  find  books, 
not  cheap  and  plenty — for  a  Bible  then  cost 
^3,  the  equivalent  of  two  hundred  and 
forty  days’  wages,  or  three  yoke  of  oxen 
— but  there  were  some  books  owned  by 
the  colleges,  and  others  let  for  hire.  He 
would  also  be  stimulated  by  thousands  of 
other  eager  youth. 

Of  his  next  twenty-five  years,  history  has 
made  little  note,  but  in  those  years  he  ap¬ 
plied  himself  to  the  learning  of  the  age, 
that  is,  the  trivium  and  the  quadrivium,  the 
noble  castle  “  Seven  times  encompassed 
with  lofty  walls.”  His  attainments  were 

*  The  name  is  found  spelled  in  twenty-eight  different 
ways.  The  spelling  adopted  in  this  article  is  that  of 
Prof.  Lechler,  whose  biography  of  him  is  the  standard 
one. 


so  preeminent  that  he  became,  to  quote 
one  of  his  enemies,  “as  a  philosopher, 
second  to  none,  and  as  a  scholar,  incom¬ 
parable.”  During  these  years,  too,  no 
doubt,  he  gained  his  astonishing  familiar¬ 
ity  with  the  Bible,  and  his  supreme  love 
and  loyalty  to  its  teaching.  So  that  long 
period  of  obscurity  was  most  fruitful  in 
making  him  the  man  he  was  to  be. 

In  1361  we  find  him  Master  of  Balliol 
College,  in  Oxford.  He  had  now  entered 
his  beneficent  career  as  a  teacher,  and  it  is 
significant  that  his  popular  title  was  the 
“  Evangelical  Doctor.” 

All  his  rare  stores  of  logic  and  of  learn¬ 
ing  were  made  tributary  to  the  explanation 
and  enforcement  of  “God’s  law;”  and  no 
period  of  his  life  was  probably  more  use¬ 
ful  than  this  quiet  one,  when  from  his 
professor’s  chair  he  molded  so  many  choice 
young  minds.  He  was  at  the  same  time 
village  priest  or  pastor.  Underneath  his 
scholar’s  peaceful  garb  there'  beat  a  sol¬ 
dier’s  heart  of  fire  and  persistence,  and  his 
times  soon  afforded  the  opportunity  for 
these  qualities  to  be  shown  in  the  patriot¬ 
ic  defence  of  his  country  against  Rome. 
In  1366  he  denounced  the  pope’s  claim 
to  tribute  so  effectively  that  the  demand 
was  never  repeated;  and  in  1374  he  went 
to  the  splendid  city  of  Bruges,  as  ambas¬ 
sador,  to  remonstrate  against  the  assign¬ 
ment  of  English  Church  livings  by  the 
papal  see  to  its  favorites,  whose  sole  con¬ 
nection  with  their  charges  would  often  be 
the  gold  that  they  extorted. 

Wiclif’s  life-work  was  now  rapidly  devel¬ 
oping.  He  soon  saw  that  the  English 
hierarchy  had  many  of  the  traits  that  made 
Rome  intolerable,  and  in  1377,  and  again 
in  1378,  he  was  summoned  before  church 
tribunals  to  answer  for  his  attacks,  but  in 
each  case  powerful  friends  protected  him. 
By  1381  we  find  him  assailing  the  whole 
body  of  ecclesiastics  and  religious  orders 
for  their  corruptions,  and  striking  at  the 
root  of  sacerdotal  pretensions,  by  denying 
the  doctrine  of  transubstantiation. 

This  last  assault  carried  him  far  beyond 
his  age,  to  the  position  taken  by  Luther  a 
hundred  and  fifty  years  later;  in  conse¬ 
quence,  his  nation,  that  had  delighted  to 
support  his  previous  demands  for  reform, 
held  its  breath  at  his  audacity,  and  his 
great  defender,  John  of  Gaunt,  commanded 
him  to  hold  his  peace;  and  even  his  belov¬ 
ed  university  silenced  her  most  illustrious 
son  in  the  midst  of  one  of  his  lectures,  so 
he  quietly  went  down  from  his  chair  with 
the  simple  word:  “  Nevertheless,  I  think 
the  truth  will  conquer.” 

Although  his  voice  was  no  more  heard 
in  Oxford,  his  activity  and  power  were 
vastly  increased.  He  wrought  with  the 


Wic 


(  963  ) 


Wil 


"builder’s  trowel,  no  less  than  with  the  war¬ 
rior’s  sword,  and  in  his  last  years  his  con¬ 
structive  labors  were  most  conspicuous. 
These  may  be  divided  into  three  classes: 
The  first  and  chief  was  the  translation  of  the 
whole  Bible  into  the  language  of  the  peo¬ 
ple.  He  is  the  father  of  our  English  Bible, 
and  it  is  remarkable  to  see  at  how  many 
points  its  latest  revision  returns  to  the  first 
translation.  It  shows  what  a  welcome  that 
translation  had,  that  in  1850  one  hundred 
and  seventy  manuscript  copies  of  all,  or  a 
part,  were  found,  that  had  survived  the 
long  and  bitter  war  upon  it  in  the  fifteenth 
century.  His  second  constructive  agency 
was  his  “  poor  priests,”  or  itinerant  preach¬ 
ers,  whom  he  taught  and  sent  forth  every¬ 
where,  and  who  leavened  England  with 
“Christ’s  law.”  A  third  agency  of  great 
power  was  his  English  writings.  In  his 
old  age  he  turned  from  scholastic  Latin  to 
the  new  tongue  that  was  appearing  in  Eng¬ 
land,  and  became —though  this  was  but  in¬ 
cidental  to  his  great  purpose — the  “  found¬ 
er  of  English  prose  writing.” 

Infirmities  thickened  upon  him,  and  mar¬ 
tyrdom  continually  threatened  him,  but  his 
activity  as  translator,  author,  and  director 
of  his  itinerants  in  these  last  years  is  in¬ 
credible.  The  number  of  his  works  “  baffles 
calculation.”  It  is  a  beautiful  fact  also, 
that  while  directing  this  great  evangelical 
movement,  he  was, at  the  same  time,ahum- 
ble,  faithful  parish  priest  in  the  little  vil¬ 
lage  of  Lutterworth — the  original,  it  is 
thought,  of  Chaucer’s  “  poure  persoune 
(parson)  of  a  town.” 

‘  *  But  Christe’s  lore,  and  his  apostles  twelve. 

He  taught,  and  first  he  follow’d  it  himselve.’* 

While  he  was  hearing  mass*  in  his  church, 
Dec.  28,  1384,  he  received  a  final  stroke  of 
paralysis,  and  was  taken  out  by  a  little 
door,  in  a  chair  that  is  still  preserved  in 
the  chancel.  Three  days  later  he  died. 

His  influence  lived  on  in  court  and  cot¬ 
tage.  His  Bible  appears  to  have  been  the 
companion  of  the  queen,  jgood  Anne  of 
Bohemia,  and  the  writer  has  seen,  in  the 
British  Museum,  a  copy  of  his  Bible,  with 
illuminated  borders,  which  bears  the  arms 
of  the  Duke  of  Gloucester,  uncle  to  the 
king;onthe  contrary,  the  rudeness  of  many 
a  transcription  shows  it  to  have  been  in¬ 
tended  for  humble  hands.  In  spite  of  per¬ 
secution,  the  movement  he  had  set  in  opera¬ 
tion  continued  to  “  work  underground”  in 
England,  until  it  burst  out  in  the  Reforma¬ 
tion  of  the  sixteenth  century.  Courtiers 
and  students  carried  his  writings  over  to 
Queen  Anne’ s  native  country,  and  they 
there  found  even  heartier  acceptance  than 

*  He  could  do  this  consistently  with  his  hostility  to 
transubstantiation,  for  the  service  is  older  than  the  doc¬ 
trine. 


at  home.  John  Huss  caught  his  spirit,  re¬ 
peated  his  teachings,  and  died  for  his  faith. 
The  influence  of  his  character  and  writ¬ 
ings,  and,  above  all,  his  English  Bible, 
knows  no  limit  of  time  or  country.  Al¬ 
ready  the  quaint  old  prophecy,  uttered  up¬ 
on  the  burning  of  his  bones,  and  the  cast¬ 
ing  of  his  ashes  into  the  Avon  in  1428,  at 
the  order  of  Rome,  has  come  to  pass — 

“  The  Avon  to  the  Severn  runs, 

The  Severn  to  the  sea, 

And  Wiclif’s  dust  shall  spread  abroad 
Wide  as  the  waters  be.” 

Selected  Authorities ,  all  in  English. — R. 
Vaughan’s  Introduction  to  Wycliffe's  Tracts 
and  Treatises — a  delightful  and  loving  tri¬ 
bute;  Lorimer’s  Translation  of  John  Wiclif 
and  his  English  Precursors — full,  recent  and 
accurate  (London  Religious  Tract  Society 
edition,  the  best);  J.  Loserth’s  Wiclif  ana 
Huss;  M.  Burrow’s  Wiclif  s  Place  in  His¬ 
tory;  F.  F.  Matthew’s  booklet,  entitled, 
Life  of  John  Wy cliff e — a  little  gem  ;  Ar¬ 
nold’s  and  Matthews'  editions  of  his  Eng¬ 
lish  writings ;  Forshalland  Maddin’s  edition 
of  his  Bible. 

Contemporary  Writers. — Chaucer,  Lang- 
land,  Froissart,  Maundeville. 

The  Roman  Catholic  view  of  Wiclif 
may  be  found  in  Lingard’s  England ,  and 
Alzog’s  Church  History. 

J.  L.  Ewell. 

Wil'berforce,  William,  “  b.  at  Hull, 
Aug.  24,  1759;  d.  in  London,  July  29,  1833; 
a  distinguished  philanthropist;  chiefly  cele¬ 
brated  for  his  efforts  for  the  extinction  of 
slavery.  He  was  the  son  of  a  Hull  mer¬ 
chant,  and  was  educated  at  St.  John’s  Col¬ 
lege,  Cambridge.  By  the  death  of  his  grand¬ 
father  and  of  an  uncle  he  became  the 
possessor  of  a  handsome  fortune,  and  he  en¬ 
tered  Parliament,  as  the  representative  of 
his  native  town,  when  he  had  scarcely 
completed  his  twenty-first  year.  In  1784 
he  became  member  for  the  county  of  York, 
and  he  held  this  position  till  1812,  when  he 
became  member  for  Bramber.  In  1789  he 
first  proposed  in  the  House  of  Commons 
the  abolition  of  the  slave  trade,  and,  with 
the  aid  of  Charles  James  Fox,  this  measure 
was  carried  in  1806.  He  afterward  devoted 
himself  to  an  agitation  for  the  extinction  of 
slavery,  and  this  measure  also  he  lived  to 
see  all  but  carried,  the  bill  being  finally 
passed  a  few  days  after  his  death.  In  1797 
he  published  a  Practical  View  of  Christian¬ 
ity ,  which  has  gone  through  innumerable 
editions;  and  all  through  life  he  gave  his 
warmest  sympathy  to  efforts  for  the  spread 
of  Christianity  at  home  and  abroad.  He 
was  buried  in  Westminster  Abbey,  where 
a  statue  is  erected  to  his  memory.  The 
Life  of  Wilberforce  was  written  by  his  sons, 


Wil 


(  04  ) 


Wil 


one  of  whom,  Samuel  Wilberforce  (b. 
1S05;  d.  July  19,  1873),  was  bishop  of  Ox¬ 
ford  from  1845,  and  bishop  of  Winchester 
from  1S69.” — Cassell:  Cyclopcedia. 

Wilderness,  this  term,  as  used  in  the 
Bible,  does  not  necessarily  mean  a  waste 
or  desert  land,  but  rather  portions  of  coun¬ 
try  under  cultivation,  and  affording  rich 
and  abundant  pasturage.  (Josh.  xv.  61;  Isa. 
xlii.  11.) 

Wilderness  of  the  Wandering.  The 
following  is  an  itinerary  of  the  journeyings 
of  the  Israelites  from  Egypt  to  their  settle¬ 
ment  in  Canaan: 

Rameses  (from)  near  Port  Said,  to  Succoth  (?). 
Southward. 

To  the  borders  of  the  Wilderness  of  Egypt. 
Southward. 

Pi-hahiroth  (to),  between  Migdol  (Suez)  and  the 
(Red)  Sea.  Eastzuard. 

Through  the  Red  Sea  to  the  “Wells  of 
Moses.” 

Etham  (Wilderness  of). 

Shur  (Wilderness  of).  Three  days  without  water. 
Marah.  Bitter  water  sweetened.  Southward. 

Elim.  Twelve  wells,  seventy  palm-trees.  Southward. 
Sin  (Wilderness  of).  Quails  and  manna  sent.  East¬ 
ward. 

Rephidim.  Water  from  the  rock  of  Horeb.  Eastward. 

Battle  of  Rephidim. 

Massah  and  Meribah. 

Altar  ofjehovah-nissi. 

Sinai,  in  the  third  month.  Northward. 

Sinai  (from),  through  the  Wilderness  of  Paran  or  Zin. 

STATIONS. 

Taberah  (“burning”).  Murmurings  at  fatigue;  pun¬ 
ishment  by  fire;  three  days'  journey. 
Kibroth-hattaavah  (“graves  of  lust  ”).  Murmurings 
for  flesh;  flock  of  quails,  and  plague. 

Council  of  seventy  elders. 

Hazeroth.  Sedition  of  Aaron  and  Miriam,  and  leprosy 
of  the  latter. 

Kadesh-barnea.  Twelve  spies  sent  to  Canaan. 

Ten  spies  destroyed;  forty  years’  wandering  de¬ 
clared;  defeat  of  the  Israelites. 

Rebellion  of  Korah,  Dathan,  and  Abiram. 

Rebellion  of  the  congregation  (14,700  die  of 
plague). 

Forty  Years’  Wanderings  in  the  Wilderness  of 
Zin. 

Kadesh-barnea  (return  to).  Water  from  rock  at  Mer¬ 
ibah;  the  sin  of  Moses  and  Aaron. 

Death  of  Miriam. 

Refusal  of  passage  through  Edom. 

Mount  Hor  (in  Moab).  Death  of  Aaron. 

Hormah  (“  utter  destruction  ”).  Defeat  of  Canaanites. 
Edom  (circuit  of  borders  of).  Crossing  Zared  (/?.), 
through  Moabites’  territory,  to  Amon  ( R .). 

Plague  of  fiery  serpents. 

Free  passage  refused  by  Sihon;  his  defeat. 

Edrei.  Similar  refusal  by  Og,  king  of  Bashan;  his  de¬ 
feat. 

These  two  victories  gave  to  Israel  possession  of 
the  whole  country  E.  of  Jordan,  from  the  River 
Arnon  (which  falls  into  the  Dead  Sea)  to  Mount 
Hermon. 

Shittim.  Alliance  of  Moabites,  Ammonites,  and  Mid- 
ianites,  under  Balak,  against  Israel.  Balaam’s 
fruitless  attempt  to  curse  Israel.  Fornication 
of  Israel,  and  defection  to  worship  of  Baal. 
24,000  slain  by  a  plague.  Zeal  of  Phinehas. 
Defeat  of  Midian;  Balaam  slain. 


Moab  (plains  of).  Review  of  Israelite  army,  625,030 
males  above  twenty  years  old  (b.  c.  1451).  Book 
of  the  Wars  of  the  Lord. 

Repetition  and  confirmation  of  the  Law  by 
Moses,  to  the  new  generation  of  Israel.  Moses' 
view  of  Canaan  from  Pisgah.  His  death. 
Jordan  (crossing  the). 

Gilgal  (encampment  at).  Circumcision. 

Jericho  (fall  of).  March  on  Ai. 

Ai  (its  capture).  Achan’s  sin. 

Shechem.  The  whole  congregation  (half  on  Mount 
Ebal,  half  on  Mount  Gerizim)  swear  to  the 
Covenant,  in  presence  of  the  ark.  The  Law 
written  on  twelve  stones  on  Ebal;  the  cursings 
read  from  the  same  mountain,  and  the  bless¬ 
ings  from  Gerizim. 

Gilgal  (return  to).  Treaty  with  the  Gibeonites. 
Gibeon  (march  to  relief  of). 

Beth-horon.  Defeat  of  Adoni-zedek  and  four  other 
kings. 

Conquest  of  Southern  Canaan. 

Merom.  Defeat  of  Northern  Canaanite  confederacy. 
Shiloh.  Settlement  of  the  twelve  tribes  in  their  pos¬ 
sessions. 

See  E.  H.  Palmer:  Desert  of  the  Exodus ; 
Geikie:  Hours  -with  the  Bible. 

Will,  that  faculty  of  the  soul  by  which 
it  chooses  or  refuses  anything  which  is 
offered  to  it.  It  is  therefore  distinct  from 
the  understanding.  “  I  see  and  approve 
the  better  things,”  said  the  heathen  moral¬ 
ist,  “  and  I  follow  the  worse.”  Herein  he 
confessed  that  his  will  was  not  in  accord 
with  his  intellectual  faculties.  Nor  is  the 
will  synonymous  with  the  desires  and  ap¬ 
petites.  These  may  be  spontaneous  and 
either  good  or  bad,  but  other  motives  act¬ 
ing  on  the  will  may  lead  it  to  resist  them. 
That  the  will  is  free  is  implied  in  the  very 
term,  “for  if  a  man  acts  in  any  given 
manner  because  he  is  forced,  it  is  no  longer 
an  action  of  the  will.”  The  will,  indeed, 
is  finite,  because  man  himself  is  a  finite 
being,  but  within  the  extent  of  its  capacity 
it  is,  and  must  be,  able  to  choose.  We 
may  put  it  broadly  thus:  According  to  the 
Roman  Catholic  view,  man  lost  control  of 
his  will  by  sin,  and  recovers  it  by  super¬ 
natural  grace  conveyed  in  the  sacraments. 
The  Reformers  of  the  sixteenth  century, 
following  Augustine,  held  that,  since  the 
Fall,  man  is  totally  depraved,  and  can  do 
no  spiritual  good  save  through  the  special 
grace  of  God,  given  according  to  God’s 
sovereign  will. 

The  tendency  of  modern  materialistic 
philosophy  is  towards  what  is  called  De¬ 
terminism  (q.  v.)y  the  belief  that  the  will 
depends,  like  the  physical  constitution,  up¬ 
on  a  chain  of  causes,  so  that  all  future 
volition  might  be  predicted  by  any  one 
who  knew  all  the  present  facts.  But  this 
is,  in  fact,  to  blot  out  the  soul  from  exist¬ 
ence,  and  repeat  the  sinful  cry  which  the 
prophets  denounced,  “  We  are  delivered  to 
do  these  abominations.”  In  opposition  to 
it  is  the  Christian  belief  that  we  are  placed 
in  the  world  by  the  Creator  for  the  very 


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purpose  of  fighting  against  the  sin  which 
doth  most  easily  beset  us,  and  of  being 
conquerors  by  his  grace.  Another  form  of 
determinism  is  very  different,  that  of  Jon¬ 
athan  Edwards,  who  dwells  upon  the 
power  of  habits  to  enfeeble  and  even  des¬ 
troy  the  will.  This  is  the  determinism  of 
character.  But  neither  does  this  fix  the 
destiny  of  a  human  soul.  The  grace  of 
God  is  offered  to  apostates  and  reprobates, 
for  the  very  purpose  of  restoring  the  en¬ 
feebled  and  powerless  will.  The  same 
voice  which  cried  to  the  paralytic,  “  Rise, 
take  up  thy  bed  and  walk,”  is  saying  to  us, 
when  we  are  bound  and  enslaved  by  sin, 
“Arise  and  be  free;  shake  thyself  from  the 
dust.”  The  work  of  the  Holy  Ghost,  and 
the  grace  of  Christian  ordinances  are  per¬ 
petual  miracles,  a  continual  work  of  res¬ 
toration  to  those  who  believe,  and  have 
faith  to  be  healed. — Benham:  Did.  of  Re¬ 
ligion. 

Williams,  John,  D.  D.,  LL.  D.,  Episco¬ 
palian,  bishop  of  Connecticut;  b.  at  Deer¬ 
field,  Mass.,  Aug.  30,  1817;  was  graduated 
at  Trinity  College,  Hartford,  Conn.,  1835; 
tutor  in  the  college,  1837-40;  assistant  in 
Christ  Church,  Middletown,  Conn.,  1841- 
42;  rector  of  St.  George’s,  Schenectady, 
N.  Y.,  1842-48;  president  of  Trinity  Col¬ 
lege,  1S48-53;  assistant  bishop  of  Connect¬ 
icut,  1851-65;  bishop  since  1865.  He  is 
the  author  of:  Ancient  Hymns  of  Holy 
Church  (1845);  Thoughts  on  the  Gospel  Mir¬ 
acles  (1848);  The  English  Reformation  ( Pad- 
dock  Lectures,  1881);  The  World’s  Witness 
to  Jesus  Christ  (Bedell  Lectures,  1882). 

Williams,  Roger,  the  founder  of  the  col¬ 
ony  of  Rhode  Island.  There  is  a  singular 
lack  of  definite  information  regarding  his 
early  life.  He  was  b.  about  1600;  d.  April, 
1683,  at  Providence,  R.  I.  The  place  of 
his  birth  has  been  claimed  both  for  Wales 
and  Cornwall,  and  his  university  course 
was  probably  pursued  at  Pembroke  Col¬ 
lege,  Cambridge.  He  was  admitted  to  or¬ 
ders  in  the  Established  Church,  but  soon 
took  an  attitude  of  strong  opposition  against 
its  organization  and  ceremonies.  He  sailed 
for  America/arriving  in  Boston,  February, 
1631.  His  services  were  at  once  sought 
after  by  the  church  in  Boston,  but  he  de¬ 
clined  to  accept  the  position  of  teacher,  be¬ 
cause  they  did  not  take  as  strong  ground  as 
he  deemed  necessary  against  the  national 
church.  He  then  went  to  Salem,  where  he 
was  asked  to  become  teacher.  The  author¬ 
ities  in  Boston  were  very  much  displeased 
that  the  church  in  Salem  should  have  called 
him  as  their  teacher,  without  advising  with 
them.  The  result  of  these  differences  was, 
that  Williams  withdrew  to  Plymouth,  where 


he  remained  for  two  years,  acting  as  an  as¬ 
sistant  minister.  Governor  Bradford  bears 
testimony  that  he  was  “a  man  godly  and 
zealous;”  at  the  same  time  intimating  that 
his  views  did  not  always  meet  the  approval 
of  those  about  him.  In  1633  he  returned 
to  Salem  with  some  of  the  Plymouth  people 
who  were  in  sympathy  with  him,  and  after 
acting  as  assistant,  in  1634  was  made  pastor 
of  the  church.  He  appears  to  have  won 
the  love  and  esteem  of  his  people,  but  his 
attitude  in  regard  to  matters  of  church  and 
state  aroused  the  hostility  of  the  authori¬ 
ties  of  the  colony,  and  he  was  cited  again 
and  again  to  appear  before  the  General 
Court.  In  1635  it  was  “ordered  that  the  said 
Mr.  Williams  shall  depart  out  of  this  juris¬ 
diction  within  six  weeks  now  next  ensuing.” 
He  asked  permission  to  remain  at  Salem 
until  the  following  spring,  and  this  was 
granted;  but  as  he  continued  to  express  his 
obnoxious  views,  an  officer  was  sent,  in 
January,  to  apprehend  him  and  put  him  on 
shipboard  to  be  sent  back  to  England;  but 
before  the  officer  reached  Salem,  Williams 
had  departed  for  parts  unknown.  What¬ 
ever  may  be  said  in  regard  to  the  merits  of 
this  controversy,  there  are  unhappy  rev¬ 
elations  on  both  sides,  of  the  perversity 
and  weakness  of  human  nature,  when  good 
and  honest  men  come  into  sharp  conflict  of 
opinion.  Williams  stood  for  the  doctrine 
that  the  civil  magistrate  had  no  right  to 
inflict  punishment  for  purely  religious  er¬ 
ror,  and  for  this  he  deserves  honor  and 
praise.  Had  he  expressed  no  other  views 
antagonistic  to  those  of  the  General  Court 
of  Massachusetts,  it  is  quite  possible  he 
might  have  remained  unmolested. 

After  leaving  Salem,  Williams,  with  four 
companions,  spent  a  few  weeks  at  Seekonk, 
but  finding  that  it  was  within  the  jurisdic¬ 
tion  of  the  Plymouth  Colony,  they  pressed 
further  on  into  the  wilderness,  and  made 
a  settlement,  which  they  called  “  Provi¬ 
dence.”  In  1639  Williams  received  baptism 
by  immersion,  and  at  the  same  time  bap¬ 
tized  several  others.  This  was  the  origin 
of  the  First  Baptist  Church  in  Providence. 
Williams  was  connected  with  this  society 
for  only  a  short  time,  as  he  was  dissatis¬ 
fied  with  his  baptism,  as  not  coming  down 
from  the  apostles.  After  his  withdrawal 
he  henceforth  remained  outside  all  ecclesi¬ 
astical  organizations.  In  1643  he  sailed  for 
England,  and  was  successful  in  procuring 
a  charter  for  the  Providence  and  Rhode 
Island  colonists.  The  remainder  of  his 
long  life  was  spent  in  seeking  to  advance 
their  interests.  Roger  Williams  was  a  man 
of  a  heroic  type  of  character,  and  enjoyed 
the  friendship  of  Cromwell,  Milton,  Vane 
and  other  champions  of  religious  and  civil 
liberty.  Most  of  his  writings  have  been 


Wil 


(  07  ) 


Win 


republished  by  the  Narragansett  Club, 
Providence.  See  Lives,  by  J.  D.  Knowles 
(1834);  W.  Gammell (1845);  R.  Elton(i853); 
Z.  A.  Mudge  (1871);  Arnold:  History  of 
Rhode  Island  (1859-60),  2  vols. ;  H.  M. 
Dexter:  As  to  Roger  Williams ,  and  his 
Banishment  frotn  the  Massachusetts  Planta¬ 
tion  (1876). 

Williams,  William  R. ,  LL.  D.,  S.  T.  D., 
a  learned  and  eloquent  Baptist  minister; 
b.  in  New  York  City,  Oct.  14,  1804;  d. 
there,  April  1,  1885.  He  was  graduated 
at  Columbia  College  in  1822,  and  first  stud¬ 
ied  for  the  bar.  After  his  conversion  he 
abandoned  the  law  and  entered  the  Baptist 
ministry.  From  1832  till  his  death  he  was 
pastor  of  the  Amity  Church  in  New  York 
City.  Among  his  published  works  are: 
Miscellanies  (N.  Y.,  1850;  3d  ed.,  i860); 
Religious  Progress:  Discourses  on  the  De¬ 
velopment  of  Christian  Character  (1850); 
Lectures  on  the  Lord's  Prayer  (1851;  new 
ed. ,  1878);  Eras  and  Characters  of  History 
(1882). 

Willson,  James  Renwick,  D.  D. ,  Reform¬ 
ed  Presbyterian;  b.  near  Pittsburg,  Penn., 
April  9,  1780;  d.  at  Cincinnati,  O.,  Sept. 
29,  1853.  He  was  graduated  at  Jefferson 
College,  Pennsylvania,  1806  ;  licensed  to 
preach,  1807;  teacher  at  Bedford,  Penn., 
1806-1815  ;  in  Philadelphia,  1815-1817  ; 
pastor  of  churches  at  Newburgh  and  Col- 
denham,  N.  Y. ,  1817-30;  pastor  at  Albany, 
1830-40;  professor  in  the  theological  sem¬ 
inary  of  his  denomination  at  Allegheny, 
Penn.,  1840-45,  and  after  its  removal  to 
Cincinnati,  1845-51,  when  he  retired  from 
active  service.  He  was  an  able  and  elo¬ 
quent  preacher,  and  a  leader  in  the  coun¬ 
cils  of  his  church.  He  was  editor  of  The 
Evangelical  Witness  (1822-26),  and  for  a 
short  time  of  The  Christian  Statesman  and 
The  Albany  Quarterly.  He  published  An 
Historical  Sketch  of  Opinions  on  the  Atone¬ 
ment  (1817). 

Wilson,  John,  an  eminent  missionary  to 
India;  b.  near  Lander,  in  Scotland,  Dec. 
11,  1804;  d.  in  Bombay,  Dec.  1,  1875.  He 
was  educated  at  the  University  of  Edin¬ 
burgh,  and  went  as  missionary  to  India  in 
the  service  of  the  Scottish  Missionary  So¬ 
ciety.  He  spent  his  life  in  Bombay,  and 
as  the  head  of  the  mission  college  in  that 
city  he  gained  a  commanding  influence. 
His  counsel  was  sought  by  the  British 
authorities,  and  in  many  directions  his  life 
was  eminently  useful.  See  his  Life ,  by 
George  Smith,  LL.  D.  (Edinburgh,  1870). 

Wilson,  Thomas,  bishop  of  Sodor  and 
Man.  ;  b.  at  Burton,  Cheshire,  Dec.  20, 


1663;  d.  on  the  Isle  of  Man,  March  7,  1755. 
He  was  educated  at  Trinity  College,  Dub¬ 
lin,  and  became  curate  of  Newchurch,  Ken¬ 
yon,  Eng.,  1686,  and  in  1697  was  appointed 
bishop  of  Sodor  and  Man.  Through  his 
earnest  labors  a  great  change  for  the  bet¬ 
ter  was  brought  about  in  his  diocese.  He 
wrote  a  few  devotional  works  that  have 
taken  high  rank.  His  earnest  piety  and 
fervent  missionary  spirit  gave  him  noble 
distinction  as  a  model  bishop  and  a  saintly 
man.  The  best  edition  of  his  works  is  by 
Rev.  John  Keble  (Oxford,  1847-52,  7  vols., 
new  ed.,  with  Life ,  1863,  2  vols.). 

Wine.  One  of  the  most  important  social 
movements  of  the  present  century  is  that 
of  abstinence  from  intoxicating  drinks. 
But  total  abstainers  comprise  two  classes, 
who  take  very  divergent  lines.  The  one 
side  holds  that  wine,  though  lawful,  is  not 
expedient,  in  the  face  of  the  terrible  evils 
which  afflict  modern  society  through  strong 
drink.  These  abstainers  take  the  pledge 
of  total  abstinence  as  an  example  to  others, 
following  the  example  of  St.  Paul,  who 
said  that  he  would  rather  not  eat  meat  at 
all  than  cause  his  brother  to  offend.  But 
the  other  class  of  abstainers  maintain  that 
wine  is  an  evil  in  itself,  that  it  is  a  sin  to 
drink  it,  as  it  is  to  indulge  in  any  other  for¬ 
bidden  pleasure. 

It  is  manifest  that  they  who  hold  this 
view  must  also  hold  that  the  wines  which 
our  Lord  created  at  Cana  and  which  he 
used  at  the  Last  Supper  were  non-alcoholic, 
were,  in  fact,  unfermented  liquor,  and  not 
what  we  commonly  know  as  “  wine.”  It 
is  quite  conceivable  that  though  Christ 
may  have  given  wine  which  would  intox¬ 
icate  when  used  in  excess,  it  may  be  desir¬ 
able  under  present  conditions  to  forego  the 
right  to  drink  such  wine,  just  as  St.  Paul 
recommends  abstention  from  marriage  un¬ 
der  certain  circumstances.  (1  Cor.  vii.) 
But  it  is  impossible  to  believe  that  Christ 
gave  what  is,  in  its  very  nature,  an  evil 
thing.  Accordingly,  those  who  hold  the 
essential  evil  of  all  intoxicating  drinks  ex¬ 
pound  the  various  passages  in  which  wine 
is  commended  in  Scripture  as  referring  to 
unfermented  liquors. 

The  commonest  Hebrew  word  of  the  Old 
Testament,  which  is  rendered  “  wine,”  is 
Yayin,  and  it  is  derived  from  a  word  sig¬ 
nifying  “  to  ferment.”  It  is  used  for  intox¬ 
icating  drinks  in  Gen.  ix.  21;  xix.  34;  2 
Sam.  xiii.  28,  and  many  other  places.  It 
is  spoken  of  with  implied  commendation  in 
Gen.  xiv.  18;  Num.  vi.  20;  Psa.  civ.  15; 
Deut.  xiv.  26,  etc.  Its  evil  use  is  con¬ 
demned  in  Prov.  xx.  i;xxiii.  31;  Isa.  v.  22, 
etc.  Another  word  is  tirosh ,  from  a  root 
signifying  “  to  possess,”  and  so  called. 


Win 


(  968  ) 


Wis 


says  Gesenius,  “  because  it  gets  possession 
•of  the  brain,  and  inebriates.”  This  is  the 
•word  used  in  Gen.  xxvii.  28,  37;  Deut.  vii. 
13,  etc. 

In  the  New  Testament  the  commonest 
word  is  oinos ,  a  word  closely  connected 
with  the  English  equivalent,  “  wine.”  This 
is  the  word  used  in  John  ii.  9,  and  that  it 
was  fermented  and  intoxicating  is  shown 
by  reference  to  Mark  ii.  22;  Eph.  v.  18, 
where  the  same  word  is  used.  Another 
Avord,  gleukos ,  “  sweet  wine,”  is  also  used 
in  Acts  ii.  13  of  intoxicating  drink.  The 
argument  which  is  sometimes  brought  for- 
Avard,  that  the  wine  used  at  the  Last  Supper 
was  unfermented,  because  the  Jews  at  that 
season  rejected  all  things  leavened,  fails 
from  the  fact  that  the  Jews  have  never 
been  in  the  habit  of  putting  away  wine, 
though  at  the  Passover  season  they  are 
most  rigid  in  abstaining  from  the  taste  or 
touch  of  any  drink  into  which  grain  has 
entered,  and  to  use  only  the  fermented 
juice  of  the  grape,  prepared  by  their  own 
hands. 

On  these  grounds  it  is  very  strongly  con¬ 
tended  by  strict  rubricians  that  the  use  of 
what  is  called  “  Unfermented  Wine  ”  in  the 
Holy  Communion  is  altogether  inadmis¬ 
sible.  as  being  contrary  to  the  use  of  the 
Avhole  Church  from  the  beginning,  and 
that  such  matter  is  not  in  the  scriptural 
sense  wine  at  all.  But  there  is  no  reason 
to  be  urged  against  those  abstainers,  who, 
regarding  abstinence  in  common  life  as  in 
the  highest  sense  expedient,  desire  also  to 
keep  the  Holy  Communion,  as  far  as  may 
be,  free  from  that  which  may  intoxicate, 
and  therefore  use  a  wine  which,  though 
fermented,  and  therefore  genuine  wine, 
contains  but  little  alcoholic  strength. — 
Benham:  Did.  of  Religion. 

Winebrennerians,  or  “  Church  of  God,” 
is  the  name  of  a  Baptist  denomination, 
founded  by  Rev.  John  Winebrenner,  who 
was  settled  in  1820  as  pastor  of  the  German 
Reformed  Church  at  Harrisburg,  Penn.  A 
remarkable  revival  followed  his  labors, 
which  was  in  many  ways  opposed  by  mem¬ 
bers  and  ministers  of  the  synod.  This 
state  of  affairs  continued  for  five  years, 
when  Mr.  Winebrenner  and  his  people 
separated  from  the  German  Reformed 
‘Church,  and  formed  an  independent  con¬ 
gregation.  Revh^als  broke  out  in  the  sur¬ 
rounding  towns,  and  new  churches  were 
organized.  In  1830  the  ministers  of  these 
churches  organized  themselves  in  a  body 
called  “  The  Church  of  God,”  and  appoint¬ 
ed  Mr.  Winebrenner  speaker  of  the  con¬ 
ference.  This  body  meets  annually,  and 
fourteen  other  conferences  have  since  been 
organized,  besides  a  general  eldership  that 


meets  triennially.  They  accept  the  Script¬ 
ures  alone  as  the  rule  of  faith  and  prac¬ 
tice,  and  recognize  immersion  of  believers 
as  the  only  form  of  baptism.  The  Lord’s 
Supper,  they  hold,  should  be  “adminis¬ 
tered  to  Christians  only,  in  a  sitting  post¬ 
ure,  and  always  in  the  evening.”  They 
practise  feet-washing  as  a  religious  ordi¬ 
nance.  Their  ministry  is  itinerant,  and  the 
appointments  are  made  by  the  eldership  in 
conference.  The  Church  has  a  publishing 
house  at  Harrisburg,  and  a  college  at  Find¬ 
lay,  O.  They  reported  in  1890:  525  church¬ 
es,  491  ministers,  and  33,000  communi¬ 
cants. 

Winer  ( wee'ner ),  George  Benedikt,  an 
eminent  biblical  scholar;  b.  at  Leipzig, 
April  13,  1789;  d.  there,  May  12,  1858. 
He  was  educated  at  Leipzig,  where  he  be¬ 
came  extraordinary  professor,  1819;  called 
to  Erlangen  as  ordinary  professor,  1823; 
returned  to  Leipzig,  1832,  and  filled  the 
same  position  there  until  his  death.  His 
fame  rests  upon  a  Bible  Dictionary  ( Bib - 
lisches  Realwo'rterbuch)  (1820,  1  vol. ;  3d 
ed.,  1847,  2  vols.).  A  Grammar  of  the  Chal¬ 
dee  Language ,  as  contained  in  the  Bible  and 
the  Targu77is  (1824;  Eng.  trans.  by  Pro¬ 
fessor  H.  B.  Hackett,  Andover,  1845);  A 
Grammar  of  New  Testa77ie7it  Greek  (1822; 
Eng.  trans.  from  the  7th  ed.,  by  Rev.  J. 
H.  Thayer,  Andover,  1869). 

Wines,  Enoch  Cobb,  D.  D.,  LL.  D.,  b. 
at  Hanover,  N.  J. ,  Feb.  17,  1806;  d.  at 
Cambridge,  Mass.,  Dec.  10,  1879.  He  was 
graduated  at  Middlebury  College,  1827; 
and  acted  as  chaplain  in  the  navy  from 
1829  till  1831.  He  taught  and  preached  in 
several  places  until  1854,  when  he  became 
professor  of  ancient  languages  in  Wash¬ 
ington  College,  Pennsyl vania,  and  in  1859 
president  of  the  City  University,  St.  Louis. 
In  1862  he  entered  upon  his  labors  in  con¬ 
nection  with  prison  reform.  Both  in  Eu¬ 
rope  and  this  country  he  accomplished  a 
great  Avork  in  this  direction.  He  Avrote 
many  official  reports  of  interest,  and  The 
State  of  Prisoris  a7id  Child-savmg  Institutions 
Throughout  the  World  ( 1880). 

Winfrid.  See  Boniface. 

Wisdom  of  Solomon.  See  Apocrypha. 

Wiseman,  Nicholas,  cardinal  and  arch¬ 
bishop  of  Westminster;  b.  in  Seville, 
Spain,  Aug.  2,  1802;  d.  in  London,  Feb. 
16,  1865.  Educated  in  England  and  at 
Rome,  he  Avas  ordained  to  the  priesthood, 
1S26,  and  appointed  professor  of  Oriental 
languages  at  the  Roman  University,  and 
vice-rector  of  the  English  College,  1827,  and 


Wis 


(  9^9  ) 


Wol 


rector  the  following  year.  Returning  to 
England  in  1835  he  was  recognized  as  a 
preacher  of  remarkable  power.  In  1840 
he  was  made  bishop  of  Melipotamus  and 
president  of  St.  Mary’s  College,  Oscott, 
and  at  the  restoration  of  the  Roman  Cath¬ 
olic  hierarchy  in  England,  Sept.  29,  1850, 
he  was  made  cardinal  and  archbishop  of 
Westminster.  He  published:  Twelve  Lect¬ 
ures  on  the  Connection  between  Science  and 
Revealed  Religion ,  delivered  in  Rome  (1836), 
2  vols. ;  Letters  on  the  Principles ,  Doctrines 
and  Practices  of  the  Catholic  Church  (1836); 
j Fabiola,  a  Tale  of  the  Catacombs  (1855); 
Recollections  of  the  Last  Four  Popes ,  and  of 
Rome  in  their  Ti??ies  (1858);  Daily  Medita¬ 
tion  (  1868).  His  Works  have  been  publish¬ 
ed  in  New  York,  14  vols. 

Wishart,  George,  a  famous  Scottish 
martyr;  b.  in  the  early  part  of  the  sixteenth 
century;  d.  at  the  stake,  March  1,  1546. 
In  1538,  while  master  of  the  grammar- 
school  at  Montrose,  he  was  summoned  by 
John  Hepburn,  bishop  of  Brechin,  for 
teaching  his  scholars  the  Greek  New  Testa¬ 
ment,  and  fled  to  England  to  save  his  life. 
In  1539  he  was  arrested  at  Bristol  for 
preaching  against  the  worship  of  the  Vir¬ 
gin  Mary,  and  compelled  to  make  a  public 
recantation.  From  1539  to  I543  he  aP* 
pears  to  have  lived  on  the  Continent.  Re¬ 
turning  to  England  he  resided  for  a  time  at 
Cambridge.  About  1545  he  ventured  back 
to  Scotland,  where  he  engaged  in  evangel¬ 
istic  labors.  Among  his  converts  was  John 
Knox.  Arrested  by  the  emissaries  of 
Cardinal  Beaton,  he  refused  to  recant,  and 
suffered  martyrdom  at  St.  Andrews.  See 
Fox’s  Book  of  Martyrs. 

Wishart,  or  Wiseheart,  George,  a 
prominent  Scottish  bishop  of  the  Restora¬ 
tion  period;  b.  in  1609;  d.  in  1671.  He 
was  educated  at  the  University  of  Edin¬ 
burgh,  and  became  a  minister  of  St.  An¬ 
drews,  where  he  remained  until  1639,  when 
he  was  deposed  for  refusing  to  sign  the 
covenant.  His  attachment  to  Charles  I. 
and  episcopacy  cost  him  much  persecution. 
After  the  fall  of  Montrose,  whose  fortunes 
he  had  followed  since  1645,  he  became 
chaplain  to  Elizabeth,  queen  of  Bohemia, 
and  sister  of  Charles  I.  At  the  Restora¬ 
tion  he  was  appointed  rector  of  Newcastle- 
on -Tyne,  and  in  1662  made  bishop  of 
Edinburgh.  The  pictures  of  his  character 
as  given  by  Presbyterians  and  Episcopa¬ 
lians,  are  very  different.  He  wrote  a  his¬ 
tory  of  the  campaign  in  Scotland,  in  which 
his  patron,  the  Marquis  of  Montrose,  took 
so  active  a  part. 

Witchcraft  “  means  the  production  of  an 


effect  by  means  of  spirit-powers,  super¬ 
natural  and  yet  subordinate,  and  presup¬ 
poses  belief  in  the  existence  of  such  pow¬ 
ers,  and  in  the  existence  of  a  science 
(magic)  by  which  they  can  be  controlled.” 
— Henke.  Witchcraft  was  condemned  by 
the  Mosaic  law.  (Deut.  xviii.  10.)  In  the 
Middle  Ages  it  was  treated  by  the  Church 
as  a  kind  of  heresy,  and  punished  through 
the  Inquisition.  The  very  efforts  made  to* 
suppress  the  mania  seemed  only  to  increase 
its  prevalence.  It  raged  with  violence  in 
the  fifteenth  and  sixteenth  centuries,  and 
continued  through  the  seventeenth  and 
eighteenth  centuries.  The  early  history 
of  the  first  New  England  colonies  contain 
sad  pictures  of  the  results  of  this  fearful 
mania.  During  its  height  in  1692  at  Salem, 
Mass. ,  nineteen  persons  were  hanged.  The 
English  laws  against  witchcraft  were  re¬ 
pealed  in  1736,  and  the  last  witch  con¬ 
demned  in  Prussia  was  tried  and  executed 
in  1796.  As  late  as  1881  a  peasant  com¬ 
munity  in  Russia  tried  and  burned  a  witch. 
See  H.  Williams:  The  Superstitions  of 
Witchcraft  (London,  1865);  Chas.  W.  Up- 
ham:  Salem  Witchcraft  (1867),  2  vols. 

Wolf,  Edmund  Jacob,  D.  D.  (Franklin 
and  Marshall  College,-  Lancaster,  Penn., 
1876),  Lutheran,  General  Synod;  b.  near 
Rebersburg,  Centre  County,  Penn.,  Dec. 
8,  1840;  was  graduated  at  Pennsylvania 
College,  Gettysburg,  Penn.,  1863;  studied 
theology  at  Gettysburg,  Tubingen,  and 
Erlangen;  entered  the  pastorate  in  1866, 
and  in  1873  was  called  from  the  Second 
English  Lutheran  Church,  Baltimore,  Md., 
to  the  professorship  of  Church  history  and 
New  Testament  exegesis  in  the  Theologi¬ 
cal  Seminary  at  Gettysburg,  Penn.  He  has 
been  a  prolific  contributor  to  the  religious 
press,  and  since  1880  associate  editor  of 
The  Lutheran  Quarterly  and  the  Lutheran 
Evangelist.  Besides  numerous  published 
sermons  and  addresses  he  is  the  author  of: 
The  Church's  Future  (1882);  The  Dra??ia  of 
Providence  on  the  Eve  of  the  Reformation 
(1884);  Ltitherans  in  America  (N.  Y.,  1889). 

Wolfenbiittel  Fragments,  the  name  given 
to  a  deistical  work,  of  which  Lessing  began 
to  publish  fragments  in  1774.  It  was  not 
until  the  publication  of  the  fourth  install¬ 
ment  in  1777  that  general  attention  was 
called  to  the  character  of  the  work.  In 
1778  Lessing  published  a  new  fragment  in 
an  independent  book,  which  at  once  lost 
him  the  privilege  of  publishing  anything 
without  the  permit  of  the  royal  censor. 
This  action  aroused  a  bitter  controversy. 
Some  portions  of  the  fragments  which 
Lessing  had  in  his  possession  at  his  death, 
but  had  not  published,  appeared  in  1787. 


Wol 


(  970  ) 


Worn 


The  entire  work  has  been  frequently  re¬ 
printed.  The  secret  of  the  authorship  of 
the  six  fragments  was  long  kept,  but  there 
is  now  no  doubt  but  that  they  were  written 
by  Reimarus  (q.  v.). 

Wolsey,  Thomas,  a  cardinal  of  the 
Roman  Catholic  Church,  and  one  of  the 
most  eminent  statesmen  of  the  time  of 
Henry  VIII.;  b.  at  Ipswich,  1471 ;  d.  at 
Leicester,  Nov.  29, 1530.  He  was  graduated 
at  Magdalen  College,  Oxford,  and  was 
early  introduced  to  court,  where  he  gained 
the  favor  of  Henry  VII.,  who  in  1508  made 
him  dean  of  Lincoln.  On  the  accession  of 
Henry  VIII.  he  became  the  king’s  Almon¬ 
er,  and  received  other  preferments.  In  1515 
he  was  consecrated  archbishop  of  York, 
and  not  long  after  appointed  Lord  Chancel¬ 
lor  and  Prime  Minister.  In  the  following 
year  he  was  made  cardinal  by  Pope  Leo  X. 
His  influence  was  great,  and  his  immense 
revenues  enabled  him  to  live  in  a  state  of 
pride  and  splendor.  In  1529  he  was  ap¬ 
pointed,  on  behalf  of  Pope  Clement  VII.,  to 
inquire  into  the  validity  of  the  king’s  mar¬ 
riage  with  Queen  Catherine.  The  inquiry 
ended  in  a  postponement,  which  aroused 
the  anger  of  Henry.  Wolsey  was  deprived 
of  the  Great  Seal,  and  allowed  to  retire  to 
his  diocese  of  York.  In  the  following 
year  (Nov.  4,  1530)  he  was  arrested  on  a 
charge  of  high  treason,  but  while  on  the 
way  to  London  he  sickened,  and  died  in 
the  monastery  of  Leicester. 

During  his  last  illness  he  is  reported  to 
have  said:  “If  I  had  served  God  as 
diligently  as  I  have  done  the  king,  he 
would  not  have  given  me  over  in  my  gray 
hairs.  But  this  is  the  just  reward  that  I 
must  receive  for  my  diligent  pains  and 
studies  that  I  have  had  to  do  him  service, 
not  regarding  my  service  to  God,  but  only 
to  satisfy  his  pleasure.” 

Wolsey  was  a  very  able  statesman,  a 
patron  of  learning,  an  astute  ecclesiast, 
proud  and  ambitious.  His  character  has 
been  very  often  and  differently  interpreted. 
See  Froude:  History  of  England  fro?n  the 
Fall  of  Wolsey  to  the  Death  of  Elizabeth , 
vol.  i. 

Woman.  The  change  effected  by  Chris¬ 
tianity  in  the  position  of  woman  has  been 
of  a  most  marked  character.  Under  the 
Roman  law,  women  were  under  the  perpet¬ 
ual  tutelage  of  their  male  relatives,  the 
object  being  to  keep  their  property  in  the 
family.  They  had  no  voice  in  public  affairs, 
nor,  legally,  in  the  government  of  their 
own  household.  A  child  desiring  to  marry 
need  not  obtain  the  mother’s  consent — only 
that  of  the  father.  On  her  marriage  her 
property  became  that  of  her  husband,  and 


all  her  earnings  were  his.  In  the  Oriental 
world  her  position  was  still  more  debased; 
she  was  a  slave,  not  a  copartner  with  her 
husband.  Mr.  George  Smith,  in  his  Assyr- 
ian  Discoveries ,  tells  how  a  man  could  pay 
half  a  mina  to  his  wife,  and  say  to  her, 
“  Thou  art  not  my  wife,”  which  freed  him 
from  her  thenceforth;  though,  if  a  woman 
repudiated  her  husband,  she  could  be 
drowned. 

It  was  with  the  Oriental  condition  that 
the  Old  Testament  found  its  points  of  con¬ 
tact.  It  was  emphatically  proclaimed  in 
the  first  book  of  the  Scriptures  that  mo¬ 
nogamy  was  the  original  intention  of  the 
Creator,  and  though  polygamy  was  prac¬ 
tised,  it  was  discouraged;  while,  as  our 
Lord  said,  divorce  was  only  permitted  “for 
the  hardness  of  men’s  hearts.”  It  was  one 
of  the  darkest  features  of  the  growth  of 
Hebrew  civilization  that  royal  polygamy 
became  frequent  in  the  days  of  David  and 
Solomon,  and  was  the  chief  cause  of  the 
troubles  of  each  of  those  reigns.  As  the 
Old  Testament  moves  onward,  the  sacred¬ 
ness  of  marriage  is  more  and  more  dwelt 
upon. 

The  times  of  the  New  Testament  brought 
religion  into  contact  with  European  civ¬ 
ilization.  Roman  law  had  undergone  a 
change.  There  had  arisen  another  form 
beside  the  ancient  one,  called  “  Free  Mar¬ 
riage,”  recognized  by  law,  and  of  which  the 
children  were  held  to  be  legitimate,  but  not 
always  held  to  be  a  respectable  connection. 
It  was  a  form  established  in  the  interest  of 
the  Avoman,  for  she  was  allowed  to  keep  her 
own  property,  worship  her  own  gods,  and 
keep  up  intercourse  with  her  paternal  fam¬ 
ily.  Such  a  wife  was  called  uxor  and  ma~ 
trona ,  a  name  less  honorable  than  the  inater- 
fatnilias  of  the  old  law.  The  “  Free 
Marriage  ”  had  almost  superseded  the  older 
form  in  the  first  Christian  century,  and  un¬ 
der  it  there  was  the  utmost  freedom  of 
divorce,  and  morality  had  sunk  to  a  terri¬ 
ble  depth.  Juvenal  tells  of  a  woman  who 
had  had  eight  husbands  in  five  years. 
When  Christianity  became  the  national  re¬ 
ligion,  Constantine,  although  himself  fur¬ 
ther  from  the  Christian  standard  of  morals 
than  some  of  the  pagan  emperors,  pro¬ 
ceeded  at  once  to  legislation  with  a  view  of 
diminishing  the  moral  evils  of  the  time. 
By  laws  passed  in  330-331,  a  wife  could  be 
divorced  from  her  husband  only  under 
three  conditions — viz. ,  when  he  was  a  mur¬ 
derer,  or  a  magician,  or  a  violator  of  tombs. 
A  wife  repudiating  her  husband  was  ban¬ 
ished,  with  loss  of  her  property.  A  hus¬ 
band  could  be  divorced  on  proof  of  his 
Avife’s  unfaithfulness,  but  Avas  prohibited 
from  having  a  concubine.  The  mischief, 
however,  had  eaten  too  deeply  into  the  pub- 


Worn 


(  97i  ) 


Worn 


lie  life  for  the  then-existing  type  of  Chris¬ 
tianity  to  be  able  to  end  it;  and  to  this  fact 
is  to  be  attributed  the  piecemeal  and  inef¬ 
fective  legislation  of  succeeding  emperors. 
“  It  need  not  be  said,”  writes  Mr.  Brace 
( Gesta  Christi,  p.  29),  “  that  the  Christian 
system  of  morals  demand  the  utmost  pur¬ 
ity  of  life,  as  well  from  the  man  as  from 
the  woman.  In  regard  to  masculine  purity, 
it  is  still  in  advance  of  the  current  opinion 
of  the  civilized  world.  So  strongly  is  this 
elevation  of  morals  characteristicof  Christ’s 
life,  that  we  do  not  look  for  or  expect  di¬ 
rect  teachings  against  vice.  No  direct  de¬ 
nunciation  is  transmitted  from  him  against 
one  of  the  most  terrible  organized  evils  of 
ancient  or  modern  times — prostitution — or 
against  the  unnatural  vices  which  were  eat¬ 
ing  out  the  heart  of  Roman  and  Greek  so¬ 
ciety.  The  impression,  however,  which 
an  impartial  reader  would  get  from  the  nar¬ 
rative,  is  of  a  person  so  pure  and  elevated 
that  such  vices  could  not  even  be  thought 
of  when  under  his  influence.  His  power 
goes  to  the  back  of  organized  vices,  and 
touches  the  sources  of  character.  His  re¬ 
lations  to  abandoned  women;  the  story  of 
the  adulteress  which,  whether  true  or 
imagined,  shows  the  popular  conception  of 
his  character;  and  the  few  words  reported 
from  him  on  these  and  related  topics,  to¬ 
gether  with  the  character  of  his  early  fol¬ 
lowers,  all  point  to  the  unique  elevation 
and  nature  of  his  influence  on  the  great 
weakness  and  sin  of  mankind.  He  required 
absolute  purity  from  man  as  from  woman. 
He  was  not,  however,  alone  in  this.  The 
stoical  moralists  had  done  the  like;  yet  but 
few  of  their  followers  had  ever  practiced 
this  high  self-restraint,  and  no  great  exam¬ 
ple  stimulated  them  to  it.  Even  the  stoical 
jurists  alluded  to  the  principle,  but  there 
is  little  question  that,  before  Christianity 
entered  the  world,  comparatively  few  per¬ 
sons  felt  this  obligation  of  morals.  Had 
the  Founder  of  Christianity  simply  taught 
purity  as  some  of  the  early  Fathers  taught 
it — as  meaning  absolute  asceticism  and  celi¬ 
bacy — the  world  would  have  been  compara¬ 
tively  little  benefited.  The  nature  of  man 
would  have  reacted  against  it.  We  should 
have  had  even  more  celibate  sects,  greater 
reactions,  a  more  unnatural  condition  of 
society,  and  a  falling  again  into  vices  and 
habits  as  bad  as  those  of  the  imperial  era. 
Such  a  system  of  morality  could  not  have 
met  some  of  the  first  conditions  of  a  divine¬ 
ly  sanctioned  system;  it  would  have  been 
only  temporary  and  incomplete.  But  it  is 
evident  that  Christ  set  the  highest  value 
on  marriage.  The  only  human  institution 
in  regard  to  which  he  departed  from  his 
ordinary  habit  was  that  of  marriage.  He 
lays  down  here  a  direct  and  positive  rule. 


The  words  are  so  clear  and  definite  that  a 
mistake  of  the  historian  or  transcriber 
seems  hardly  possible.  He  evidently  felt 
the  bond  as  one  which,  more  than  any  other, 
binds  human  society  together.  He  foresaw 
the  boundless  evils  which  would  arise  to 
the  world  from  a  looseness  of  its  ties;  the 
breaking  up  of  homes;  the  neglect  and  ruin 
of  children;  the  low  position  which  freedom 
of  divorce  would  give  to  woman;  the  temp¬ 
tation  to  man  to  choose  and  to  throw  aside; 
the  destruction  and  degradation  of  family 
life  whichmustensue  where  marriage  is  tak¬ 
en  up  and  broken  at  every  whim.  He  either 
foresaw  these  evils,  now  so  familiar  to 
moralists,  or  he  felt  the  sacredness  of  the 
union  so  deeply  as  to  command  that  only 
one  cause  should  break  it — unfaithfulness 
to  the  tie,  or  its  moral  equivalent.” 

It  is  an  interesting  question  to  consider 
what  are  the  proper  religious  functions  of 
women  in  the  ministry  of  the  Church.  What 
they  have  done  in  one  direction  of  that  min¬ 
istry  we  have  considered  under  Deacon¬ 
esses;  but  what  are  we  to  make  of  their 
work  as  public  teachers  ?  St.  Paul  in  1  Cor. 
xiv.  forbids  women  to  speak  in  the  congre¬ 
gation.  Some  divines  hold  that  the  prohi¬ 
bition  was  intended  to  apply  only  to  certain 
conditions;  others,  that  it  was  intended  for 
all  time.  Those  who  hold  the  former  view 
dwell  on  the  fact  that  the  apostle  gives 
directions  (1  Cor.  xi.  5-6)  as  to  the  dress  of 
the  women  who  “  prophesied,”  and  that  St. 
Peter  quotes  Joel  ii.  28,  29,  declaring  it  to 
be  a  part  of  the  Pentecostal  gift  that  the 
daughters  of  men  should  prophesy  as  well 
as  the  sons,  and  that  God  would  pour  out 
his  Spirit  on  the  handmaids.  Professor 
Godet,  in  his  valuable  commentary  on  r 
Cor.  xiv.  33-36,  reconciles  t*his  direction 
with  the  passage  in  chapter  xi.  by  suppos¬ 
ing  that  the  latter  refers  to  exceptional 
cases  of  a  special  revelation.  In  support 
of  his  contention,  he  adduces  1  Tim.  ii.  11— 
14,  the  appeal  to  Gen.  iii.  16,  indicating  in 
his  opinion  that  the  divine  sentence  was 
never  to  lose  its  binding  force.  By  way  of 
example,  he  cites  the  Montanist  prophet¬ 
esses  and  the  women  of  the  French  Protes¬ 
tant  Church  after  the  Revocation  of  the 
Edict  of  Nantes,  as  sources  of  weakness. 
Speaking  of  more  modern  instances,  such 
as  those  of  Mrs.  Fry  and  Miss  Marsh,  he 
says  that  the  Gospel  does  not  lose  its  life- 
giving  power,  even  when  preached  in  a 
manner  not  altogether  in  accordance  with 
apostolical  prescription;  but  thinks  these 
devoted  women  might  have  labored  still 
more  usefully  in  some  other  manner.  It 
seems  very  difficult  to  take  such  a  view  of 
work  so  obviously  honored  of  God;  and 
those  who  hold  a  different  opinion  reason 
that  St.  Paul  simply  dealt  with  the  condi- 


Worn 


(  972  ) 


Woo 


tions  of  his  day.  In  that  day  it  was  “a 
shame  ”  for  a  woman  to  speak  in  public  as¬ 
semblies,  and  accordingly,  they  say,  he  for¬ 
bade  a  public  scandal:  in  these  days,  when 
it  is  no  longer  shameful,  it  is  argued  that 
his  judgment  would  be  very  different. — 
Benham:  Diet,  of  Religion.  See  Deacon¬ 
esses;  Divorce;  Marriage. 

Women’s  Christian  Associations,  bands 
of  women  representing  different  denomina¬ 
tions  of  Christians,  who  unite  to  do  a  work 
not  specifically  undertaken  by  the  churches 
of  which  they  are  members,  but  upon 
whose  aid  and  financial  support  they  prin¬ 
cipally  depend  for  donations  and  subscrip¬ 
tions. 

The  number  of  these  associations  is  con¬ 
stantly  increasing.  The  latest  Directory, 
Faith  and  Works  (Jan.,  1890),  gives  an  al¬ 
phabetical  list  of  sixty-three  in  the  United 
States  and  the  Dominion — details  the  spe¬ 
cial  branches  of  effort?  and  furnishes  the 
names  and  addresses  of  the  respective  Cor¬ 
responding  Secretaries. 

The  object  is  to  promote  the  temporal, 
spiritual  and  religious  welfare  of  women, 
especially  young  women ,  who  are  dependent 
upon  their  own  exertions  for  support. 

The  means  employed  vary  in  accordance 
with  the  locality  and  social  surroundings, 
but  there  is  a  remarkable  similarity  of  in¬ 
strumentalities. 

Temporal  welfare  is  promoted  by  fur¬ 
nishing  neat  and  cheerful  boarding-houses, 
convenient  restaurants  with  good  and  well- 
cooked  food  at  moderate  prices;  employ¬ 
ment  bureaus;  free  medical  advice;  good 
hospital  care  in  cases  of  protracted  sick¬ 
ness  ;  instruction  by  skilled  teachers  in 
evening  or  day  classes  in  penmanship, 
commercial  arithmetic,  bookkeeping,  ste¬ 
nography,  typewriting,  retouching  photo¬ 
negatives,  photography,  choir  music, 
hand  and  machine  sewing,  dressmak¬ 
ing,  millinery,  cooking,  laundry-work, 
German  for  business,  gymnastic  exercises, 
and  whatever  useful  branch  may  be  desired 
by  applicants  for  financial  or  hygienic  pur¬ 
poses. 

Moral  welfare  is  promoted  by  surround¬ 
ing  young  women  with  a  healthy  moral 
atmosphere  ;  bringing  them  together  so¬ 
cially  in  a  spirit  of  good-will,  courtesy, 
and  mutual  support  and  sympathy;  sup¬ 
plying  free  evening  entertainments,  music, 
recitations,  games,  illustrated  lectures, 
reading-rooms,  circulating  libraries  of 
good  books  ;  opportunities  of  direct  per¬ 
sonal  contact  and  conversation  to  those 
who  may  desire  the  aid,  advice,  encour¬ 
agement  or  sympathy  of  older  Christian 
women,  and  especially  by  the  kindly,  moth¬ 
erly  influence  of  superintendents  who  have 


charge  of  the  morale  of  the  boarding  de¬ 
partments. 

The  religious  welfare  is  promoted  by 
cheerful  services  of  song,  by  family  and. 
social  prayer-meetings,  by  Bible  study,  by 
arranging  free  seats  in  many  churches;  by 
the  cooperation  of  the  more  thoughtful 
working-girls,  who  form  Circles  for  mutual 
improvement,  encouragement  and  emu¬ 
lation  in  well-doing,  and  holding  out  hands 
of  help  to  tempted  and  struggling  sisters; 
by  inculcating  habits  of  self-respect,  the 
true  dignity  of  honest  labor,  the  perform¬ 
ance  of  daily  duty  as  to  God,  and  not  as  to 
man,  and  by  keeping  prominent  the  sus¬ 
taining  hopes  and  promises  of  the  Gospel 
of  Christ. 

Besides  the  houses  in  the  cities,  most  of 
the  larger  associations  have  houses  at  the 
sea-shore  or  inland,  where  the  daughters 
of  toil  find  healthful  recreation  during  the 
summer  vacations. 

Cheap  lodgings  for  transient  boarders 
prove  of  great  benefit  to  young  girls  look¬ 
ing  for  employment  in  strange  cities,  or 
whilst  unexpectedly  delayed  in  traveling 
by  failure  to  make  railroad  or  boat  con¬ 
nections,  and  consequently  often  with  fail¬ 
ing  resources. 

An  International  Conference  is  held 
biennially,  at  which  essays  are  read  and 
discussed  by  delegates  from  many  cities  of 
the  United  States.  The  object  is  to  elicit 
the  best  results  gained,  and  to  suggest 
plans  for  future  guidance.  These  papers 
and  discussions  are  printed  and  distrib¬ 
uted  through  the  country  by  the  Associa¬ 
tions.  The  last  International  Conference 
was  held  at  Baltimore,  Md.,  in  October, 
1889. 

A  few  of  the  Associations  publish 
monthly  journals.  Faith  and  Works,  pub¬ 
lished  by  the  W.  C.  A.  of  Philadelphia, 
devotes  space  in  its  columns  to  the  “  Di¬ 
rectory  ”  and  “  The  Outlook,”  the  latter 
containing  reports  from  other  Associa¬ 
tions.  Caroline  A.  Burgin. 

Woods,  Leonard,  D.  D.,  Congregation¬ 
alism  b.  at  Princeton,  Mass.,  June  19, 
1774;  d.  at  Andover,  Aug.  24,  1854.  He 
was  graduated  at  Harvard  College,  1796, 
and  was  pastor  at  Newbury,  Mass.,  from 
1798  to  1808.  At  the  founding  of  Andover 
Seminary  in  1808  he  was  elected  professor 
of  theology,  and  held  this  position  until 
his  retirement  from  active  service  in  1846. 
He  was  the  defender  of  orthodox  Calvinism 
against  the  assaults  of  Unitarian  leaders. 
He  aided  in  founding  the  American  Tract 
Society,  the  American  Education  Society, 
and  American  Board  of  Commissioners  for 
Foreign  Missions.  Among  his  published 
works  are:  Letters  to  Unitarians  (1820); 


Woo 


(  973  ) 


Wor 


The  Inspiration  of  the  Scriptures  (1829); 
Theological  Lectures  (1849-50),  5  vols. ; 
Theology  of  the  Puritans  (1851);  History  of 
Andover  Seminary  (published  in  1884). 

Woolsey,  Theodore  Dwight,  D.  D., 
LL.  D.,  an  eminent  educator  and  scholar; 
b.  in  New  York  City,  Oct.  31,  1801;  d.  at 
New  Haven,  Conn.,  July  1,  1889.  He  was 
graduated  at  Yale  College  in  1820,  and 
studied  theology  at  Princeton  Theological 
Seminary,  1821-22.  After  filling  the  posi¬ 
tion  of  tutor  at  Yale  for  two  years,  he  went 
to  Europe,  where  he  spent  three  years, 
and  studied  Greek  under  distinguished 
scholars  at  Leipzig,  Bonn,  and  Berlin.  In 
1831  he  was  appointed  professor  of  Greek 
at  Yale  College,  and  held  this  position 
until  he  was  chosen  president  of  the  Col¬ 
lege  in  1846,  in  which  office  he  continued 
for  twenty-five  years.  He  was  a  member 
of  the  American  Company  of  Revision  of 
the  New  Testament,  and  its  chairman 
(1871-81).  Besides  editions  of  the  Greek 
text  of  several  works,  with  English  notes, 
he  published  an  Introduction  to  the  Study  of 
International  Lazu  ( i860);  enlarged  (1879); 
Essays  on  Divorce  and  Divorce  Legislation , 
with  Special  Reference  to  the  United  States 
(1869,  revised  ed.,  1882);  Religion  op  the 
Present  and  of  the  Future  (sermons,  1871); 
Political  Science ;  or.  The  State ,  Theoretically 
and  Practically  Considered  (1877):  Commun¬ 
ism  and  Socialism  in  their  History  and 
Theory'.  A  Sketch  (1880).  Dr.  Woolsey 
“  was  a  man  of  clear  and  vigorous  and 
powerful  mind,  of  tender  and  loving,  yet 
strong  heart,  of  rich,  deep,  earnest  soul. 
He  was  a  scholar  unsurpassed  in  his  gener¬ 
ation  ;  a  teacher  who  impressed  all  his 
pupils,  and  moved  to  earnestness  in  study 
and  life  the  best  among  them;  a  preacher 
whose -thoughts  were  ever  fresh  and  stimu¬ 
lating,  and  whose  insight  into  the  workings 
of  human  character  was  so  penetrating 
that  his  words  had  for  every  hearer  the 
emphasis  of  truth.  He  was  honest,  sin¬ 
cere,  faithful,  just;  a  manly  man,  a  believ¬ 
ing  Christian,  a  disciple  of  the  Lord  Jesus, 
who  laid  hold  upon  the  kingdom  of  God, 
and  endured  as  seeing  the  invisible." 
Memorial  Address  (1890)  of  President 
Dwight,  p.  27. 

Worcester,  Samuel,  D.  D.,  first  corre¬ 
sponding  secretary  of  the  American  Board; 
b.  at  Hollis,  N.  H.,  Nov.  1,  17.70;  d.  at 
Brainerd,  a  mission  station  in  East  Tennes¬ 
see,  June  7, 1821.  He  was  graduated  at  Dart¬ 
mouth  College,  1795;  pastor  at  Fitchburg, 
Mass.,  1797-1802;  Salem,  Mass.,  1803-21. 
He  was  one  of  the  most  active  founders  of 
the  American  Board,  and  in  1810  was  elect¬ 
ed  its  first  corresponding  secretary.  He 


edited  two  Hymn-Books,  and  for  five  years 
edited  the  Massachusetts  Missionary  Maga¬ 
zine,  which  later  was  united  with  the  Pan- 
oplist,  and  then  with  the  Missionary  Herald. 
See  his  Memoir  (1852),  2  vols.,  by  his  son, 
Rev.  S.  M.  Worcester,  D.  D. 

Wordsworth,  Christopher,  D.  D.,  lord 
bishop  of  Lincoln,  Church  of  England;  b. 
at  Booking,  Oct.  30,  1807;  d.  at  Lincoln, 
March  21,  1885.  He  was  graduated  at 
Trinity  College,  Cambridge,  1830;  became 
head-master  of  Harrow  School,  1836-44; 
canon  of  Westminster,  1844-69;  vicar  of 
Stanford,  Berkshire,  1850-69;  archdeacon 
of  Westminster,  1865-69;  consecrated 
bishop,  1869.  He  was  a  voluminous  writ¬ 
er.  Among  his  published  works  are: 
Scripture  Inspiration ;  or.  On  the  Canon  of 
Holy  Scriptzire  (Hulsean  Lectures  for  1847) 
(1848);  On  the  Inspiration  of  the  Bible 
(1861);  The  Old  Testament  in  the  A  uthorized 
Version,  with  Notes  and  Introductions  (1864— 
7r),  6  vols.;  A  Church  History  to  the  Coun¬ 
cil  of  Chalcedon ,  A .  D.  481  (1881-83),  4 
vols. 

Worship.  The  Hebrew  words  so  trans¬ 
lated  are  from  the  following  roots :  ( 1 )  segad, 
“  to  prostrate  oneself,"  a  Chaldaic  word 
found  in  Isa.  xliv.  and  in  Daniel,  and  ap¬ 
plied  to  obeisance  done  to  an  idol;  (2)  abad, 
“  to  labor  for  as  a  servant;”  (3)  shachah , 
‘‘to  bow  down  before.”  This  last  is  by 
far  the  most  commonly  used  word,  from 
Gen.  xxii.  5  toZech.  xiv.  16. 

In  the  Greek  we  have  (1)  latreuo  and  the 
noun,  latreia.  This  is  from  latris,  “  a  hired 
servant,”  and  came  to  mean,  both  in  heathen 
and  Christian  phraseology,  “  to  serve  with 
sacrifices  and  prayers,”  used  in  Acts  xxiv. 
14;  Phil.  iii.  3;  Heb.  x.  2;  (2)  threskei ,  der¬ 
ivation  uncertain,  but  probably  signifies 
“  religious  fear  ”  (Liddell  and  Scott);  used 
very  seldom.  (Col.  ii.  18;  Acts  xxi.  5; 
James  i.  26,  27.)  (3)  Proskunein ,  lit.  “to 

kiss  the  hand  as  a  token  of  obeisance  or 
homage,”  and  so  “to  prostrate  oneself.” 
This  is  the  most  usual  word  in  the  New 
Testament.  (4)  Sebomai,  “to  feel  awe,” 
applied  in  classical  authors  to  honor 
due  to  parents  and  to  the  gods;  used  in 
Matt.  xv.  9;  Acts  xvi.  14;  xviii.  7;  xix. 
27,  etc. 

Worship  comprises  two  elements,  the 
inward  feeling  of  the  heart,  and  the  out¬ 
ward  expression  of  it  in  outward  sign. 
The  emotions  of  the  heart  toward  God  are 
manifold.  Thus,  there  is  gratitude  for 
goodness  received,  which  is  expressed  in 
praise;  there  is  admiration  and  love  for  the 
beauty  of  the  divine  character  revealed  to 
us,  which  is  expressed  in  such  words  as 
“  We  give  thanks  to  Thee  for  Thy  Great 


Wor 


(  974  ) 


Wri 


Glory,”  and  this  we  call  adoration.  There 
is  also  supplication — the  approach  to  God 
with  requests  to  supply  our  needs,  and 
this  is  prayer. 

The  outward  worship,  therefore,  is  in¬ 
tended  to  express  the  emotions,  and  also 
to  kindle  them.  This  is  admirably  ex¬ 
pressed  by  Canon  Hoare  in  the  following 
words: 

“  Worship  kindles  emotion.  I  can  un¬ 
derstand  a  man  going  in  to  the  throne  of 
grace  with  a  heart  unmoved  by  deep  emo¬ 
tion,  but  I  cannot  understand  how  it  is 
possible  that  he  should  come  out  from  it 
with  his  heart  still  cold,  after  the  expe¬ 
rience  of  such  wonderful  mercy.  If  love 
prompts  worship,  it  must  surely  follow 
that  worship  will  kindle  love.  David  teach¬ 
es  us  the  twofold  effect,  in  a  comparison  of 
Psa.  xviii.  and  Psa.  cxvi.  In  both  he  de¬ 
clares  his  love  for  Jehovah,  and  in  both  he 
connects  it  with  his  worship.  But  there  is 
this  difference.  In  Psa.  xviii.  the  love 
leads  to  the  worship,  and  in  Psa.  cxvi.  the 
worship  calls  forth  the  love.  In  Psa.  xviii. 
he  first  says,  ‘  I  will  love  thee,  O  Lord,’ 
v.  r,  and  then  adds,  as  a  consequence  of  that 
love,  v.  3,  ‘I  will  call  upon  the  Lord  who 
is  worthy  to  be  praised;’  whereas,  in  Psa. 
cxvi.  i,  he  says,  ‘  I  love  the  Lord  because 
he  hath  heard  the  voice  of  my  supplication.’ 
He  loved  as  he  went  in,  but  he  loved  still 
more  as  he  came  out.  Now  if  we  are  per¬ 
mitted  to  draw  near  the  throne  of  God,  we 
who  are  not  worthy  so  much  as  to  gather 
up  the  crumbs  under  his  table;  we  who 
only  deserve  to  be  outcasts  from  his  pres¬ 
ence  for  ever;  if  we  are  permitted  to  have 
the  sacred  privilege  of  speaking  to  him,  of 
drawing  near  to  him  through  the  atoning 
blood;  of  calling  him  Father,  of  being 
treated  by  him  as  sons,  of  being  admitted 
into  the  blessings  of  sacred  intercourse,  of 
feeding  at  his  table,  and  of  being  ever  loved 
by  him  with  an  everlasting  love,  are  we  to 
come  back  just  as  if  nothing  had  happened? 
Are  we  to  be  as  cold  as  before  ?  Is  there 
to  be  no  joy  in  the  heart,  no  glow  on  the 
countenance,  and  no  evidence  either  to 
ourselves  or  others  that  we  have  had  the 
sacred  privilege  of  being  with  Jesus  ? 
Surely  such  worship  must  kindle  emo¬ 
tion.” 

The  notices  which  we  have  of  Christian 
worship  in  the  New  Testament  are  frag¬ 
mentary.  Brethren  used  to  assemble  to¬ 
gether,  especially  on  the  first  day  of  the 
week.  The  fullest  passage  bearing  on  the 
subject  is  in  i  Cor.  xiv.,  a  careful  exegesis 
of  which  throws  much  light  on  apostolic 
practice.  After  the  days  of  the  New  Testa¬ 
ment,  the  first  notice  we  have  of  Chris¬ 
tian  worship  is  in  the  letters  of  the  hea¬ 
then  Pliny,  and  we  get  additional  partic¬ 


ulars  from  Justin  Martyr  (q.  v.),  who  tells 
how,  in  his  time,  “  on  the  day  called  the 
Day  of  the  Sun,”  the  Christians  meet  to 
read  the  Gospels  and  the  Prophets,  how  a 
sermon  is  preached,  exhorting  to  holy  liv¬ 
ing,  how  prayer  is  said,  to  which  the  peo¬ 
ple  respond  with  loud  “  Amcns,”  and  how 
the  sacrament  is  distributed  to  those  pres¬ 
ent  and  sent  to  the  sick,  and  a  collection  is 
made  for  the  poor.  There  is  no  doubt  that 
the  Holy  Communion  was  regarded  as  the 
highest  and  most  essential  act  of  Christian 
worship.  The  liturgical  use  of  the  Old 
Testament  Psalms  is  also  a  clear  fact,  and 
there  is  little  doubt  that  distinctive  Chris¬ 
tian  hymns  also  were  in  use  from  the  be¬ 
ginning.  The  addition  of  these  from  age 
to  age  to  the  treasures  of  church  worship, 
forms  a  very  striking  and  beautiful  chapter 
of  religious  history. 

Tastes  will  no  doubt  vary  as  to  the  ad¬ 
missibility  of  complicated  music  in  public 
worship.  On  the  one  hand,  there  are  those 
who  hold  that  no  music  should  be  used  in 
the  church  but  such  as  all  the  congregation 
can  join  in;  while  others  maintain  that, 
while  some  music  should  undoubtedly  be 
of  this  character,  so  that  all  may  be  enabled 
to  join,  it  is  not  inconsistent  with  the  true 
spirit  of  worship  that  the  congregation 
should  listen  to  an  anthem.  If  the  thoughts 
are  elevated  and  calmed  by  listening  to  such 
a  strain  as  Handel’s  “  Comfort  ye,”  this 
may  fairly  be  called  “  edification  ”  such  as 
St.  Paul  bade  us  seek.  Christian  people, 
however  much  their  tastes  and  prejudices 
may  vary,  will  find  themselves  drawn 
closely  together  in  spirit  so  long  as  they 
pay  earnest  heed  to  the  great  apostle’s  ex¬ 
hortations,  “  Let  all  things  be  done  to  edi¬ 
fying,”  and  “  Let  all  things  be  done  de¬ 
cently  and  in  order.” — Benham:  Did.  of 
Religion. 

Writing  among  the  Hebrews.  “Not  only 
did  the  Israelites  learn  from  Egypt  the  art 
of  writing,  but  also  borrowed  thence,  as  it 
would  seem,  nearly  all  the  requisites  for 
its  practice.  There  are  two  expressions  in 
the  Bible  for  pen,  both  of  which  carry 
etymologically  the  idea  of  a  graving-in- 
strument.  (Ex.  xxxii.  4;  Isa.  viii.  1.)  One 
of  them  is  even  characterized  sometimes  as 
a  ‘  pen  of  iron.’  (Job  xix.  24;  Jer.  xvii.  1.) 
This  is  due  to  the  fact  that  the  same  style 
of  utensil  was  used  for  writing,  and  for  en¬ 
graving  on  wood  or  metal.  For  ordinary 
writing  the  reed-pen  was  undoubtedly  the 
most  common.  (Psa.  xlv.  1;  Jer.  viii.  8.) 
Both  the  pen  and  the  little  store  of  ink 
were  carried  by  professional  writers  in  the 
girdle.  A  knife  was  also  found  convenient 
for  keeping  the  reed-pen  in  order,  and  for 
cutting  the  material  on  which  the  writing 


Xav 


(  975  ) 


Xim 


was  done.  The  ink  was  ordinarily  black. 
We  are  not  informed  how  it  was  prepared 
in  the  earliest  times.  It  is  probable  that  the 
first  writing  material  was  papyrus  paper. 
The  plant  grows  luxuriantly  in  Egypt,  and 
somewhat  abundantly,  also,  at  the  present 
day  in  some  parts  of  Palestine.  Insignificant 
fragments  of  papyrus  paper,  inscribed  with 
Phoenician  characters,  have  been  found, 
but  none  with  the  ancient  Hebrew.  The 
first  actual  mention  of  this  material  in  the 
Bible  is  in  2  John  12;  but  there  is  no  good 
reason,  saire  lack  of  sufficient  occasion, 
why  it  should  not  have  been  noticed  in  the 
Old  Testament. 

“  It  is  still  a  matter  of  discussion  wheth¬ 
er  the  Hebrews  wrote  on  the  prepared 
skins  of  animals.  Most  authorities  hold 
that  they  did :  but  there  are  very  good  ones 
who  regard  it  as  at  least  doubtful.  There 
is  no  direct  evidence  that  the  Egyptians 
used  this  material.  It  can  only  be  said 
with  certainty,  at  present,  that  there  are 
some  passages  of  Scripture  where  leather 
as  a  material  for  books  seems  to  be  most 
naturally  implied.  (Num.  v.  23;  Jer.  xxxvi. 
23.)  It  is  urged  by  some  that  in  the  pas^ 
sage  from  Jeremiah,  it  is  unlikely  that  the 
king  would  have  thrown  any  considerable 
amount  of  leather  on  an  open  fire  in  his 
own  apartments.  But,  considering  his 
angry  mood,  and  what  he  actually  did,  it  is 
hard  to  say,  without  positive  knowledge, 
what  he  would  or  would  not  do.  Parch¬ 
ment,  which  is  claimed  to  have  been  a  dis¬ 
covery  of  the  time  of  the  Ptolemies,  is 
spoken  of  in  the  Bible  only  in  the  New 
Testament.  (2  Tim.  iv.  13.)  As  is  well 
known,  the  early  form  of  books  was  that 
of  the  roll.  The  papyrus  or  parchment, 
having  been  cut  into  long  strips,  and  writ¬ 
ten  over  on  one  side,  was  nicely  fastened 
together,  and  then  rolled  up  as  maps  are 
often  rolled  at  the  present  day.  Doubtless 
engraving  on  wood,  stone,  and  the  metals 
was  well  understood  by  the  Hebrews. 
The  only  recorded  instance  in  the  canon¬ 
ical  books  of  continuous  writing  on  stone, 
excepting  the  Decalogue,  is  in  Joshua  viii. 
32.” — Bissell:  Biblical  Antiquities. 


X. 

Xavier  (: zav' -i-er ),  Francis,  a  great  Ro¬ 
man  Catholic  missionary;  b.  in  Castle 
Xavier,  Navarre,  April  7,  1506;  d.  on  the 
island  of  Sancian,  opposite  Macao,  Dec.  2, 
1552.  Of  noble  birth,  he  was  educated  at 
the  College  of  St.  Barbara  at  Paris,  and 
became  professor  of  philosophy  at  Beau¬ 
vais.  It  was  here  he  met  Ignatius  Loyola 
(q.  v.),  and  became  interested  in  his  plan 


for  founding  the  order  of  Jesuits.  They 
were  both  ordained  in  1534, and  desired  to  go 
to  Palestine  as  missionaries.  This  service 
was  withheld,  and  Xavier  visited  every  part 
of  Italy,  preaching  from  church  steps  and 
market-crosses,  and  wherever  the  oppor¬ 
tunity  offered.  On  April  7,  1541,  he  set 
sail  for  the  East  Indies.  The  ship  wintered 
at  Mozambique,  and  while  ministering  in 
the  hospital  there  he  caught  a  fever  which 
nearly  cost  him  his  life.  In  May,  1542,  he 
arrived  at  Goa,  the  Portuguese  capital  of 
India.  He  labored  for  a  year  among  the 
profligate  Portuguese  and  the  heathen  na¬ 
tives,  and  then  for  a  time  settled  among 
the  pearl-fishers,  a  miserable  race,  who 
had  been  baptized  and  then  left  without  in¬ 
struction.  Accepting  their  mode  of  living, 
he  toiled  with  indefatigable  zeal  for  their 
spiritual  advancement.  From  the  college 
which  he  organized  at  Goa  he  secured  na¬ 
tive  teachers  to  aid  him,  and  pushing  on 
into  the  kingdom  of  Travancore,  in  a  single 
month  he  baptized  10,000  persons.  The 
Brahmins  sought  to  kill  him,  but  the  peo¬ 
ple,  who  called  him  “the  great  father,” 
protected  and  cared  for  him.  He  fixed 
upon  Malacca  as  a  centre  of  labor,  being 
the  great  mart  between  India,  China  and 
Japan,  but  did  not  remain  long,  as  he  was 
persuaded  by  a  young  Japanese  convert, 
named  Angerso,  to  go  to  Japan.  Here  he 
arrived  in  August,  1549,  and  in  the  face 
of  many  difficulties  and  privations  went 
from  place  to  place  and  made  many  con¬ 
verts,  and  left  a  flourishing  mission.  In 
1552  he  returned  to  Malacca,  fired  with  the 
purpose  of  attempting  the  conversion  of 
China.  He  found  the  plague  raging  at 
Malacca,  and  did  much  by  his  skill  and 
courage  to  stay  its  progress.  The  Portu¬ 
guese,  fearing  the  loss  of  trade,  would  not 
give  him  a  passage  to  China,  and  when 
they  found  he  had  chartered  a  small  ves¬ 
sel,  stopped  him.  He  contrived  to  reach 
the  island  of  Sancian,  where  he  was  strick¬ 
en  with  fever  and  died.  He  was  buried  at 
Goa.  His  Life,  in  Latin,  was  written  by 
Tursellino  (Rome,  1594);  in  Italian,  by 
Bartoli  and  Maffei;  in  German,  by  De  Voss 
(1877);  and  in  English,  by  Venn  (1862)  and 
Coleridge  (1873). 

Ximenes  ( zi-?nee'neez ),  DeCisneros,  Fran¬ 
cisco,  b.  at  Torrelaguna,  in  Castile,  in 
1436;  d.  at  Roa,  Nov.  8,  1517.  His  family 
belonged  to  the  nobility,  but  were  without 
wealth  or  position.  He  was  educated  at 
Alcala  and  Salamanca,  and  after  entering 
the  priesthood  he  visited  Rome,  and  re¬ 
ceived  from  the  pope  the  benefice  of  Uze- 
da.  The  archbishop  of  Toledo,  angered  at 
this  infringement  upon  what  he  deemed  his 
rights,  confined  Ximenes  for  six  years  in  a 


Yea 


(  976  ) 


Yea 


convent  prison.  After  his  release  he  was 
appointed,  in  1480,  vicar-general  to  the 
bishop  of  Siguenza,  where  his  great  ad¬ 
ministrative  gifts  were  disclosed.  Sudden¬ 
ly  giving  up  the  official  career  that  prom¬ 
ised  so  much,  he  entered  a  Franciscan 
monastery  in  Toledo,  where  his  ascetic 
life  and  fervid  eloquence  as  a  preacher 
soon  won  recognition.  From  here  he  re¬ 
tired  to  a  lonely  monastery,  where  he  built 
a  hut  and  lived  as  a  hermit.  In  1492  he 
was  appointed  confessor  to  Queen  Isabella, 
and  soon  became  her  confidential  adviser. 
He  was  made  archbishop  of  Toledo  in  1495, 
a  position  of  great  influence,  and  not  long 
after,  grand  inquisitor  of  Spain.  He  still  con¬ 
tinued  to  live  in  a  most  austere  manner,  and 
when  a  bull  from  Rome  commanded  him  to 
keep  up  an  outward  style  in  keeping  with  the 
dignity  of  his  office,  he  continued  to  wear  a 
hair  shirt  under  his  robes  of  state.  Until  his 
death  Ximenes  retained  great  influence  at 
the  Spanish  Court.  He  was  fanatical  in  his 
faith,  and  opposed  the  translation  of  the 
Bible  into  the  language  of  the  people, and  al¬ 
so  the  giving  of  publicity  to  the  transactions 
of  the  Inquisition;  still,  he  did  much  to  pro¬ 
mote  education,  and  founded  the  Univer¬ 
sity  of  Alcala.  One  of  his  greatest  un¬ 
dertakings  was  the  publication  of  the 
Complutensian  Polyglot  (see  Polyglot). 
He  was  a  remarkable  statesman,  and  in 
1509,  in  his  seventy-second  year,  at  his 
own  expense,  raised  an  army  of  ten  thou¬ 
sand  infantry  and  four  thousand  cavalry, 
and,  crossing  the  Mediterranean,  led  them 
in  person  and  conquered  Oran,  and  put  an 
end  to  Moorish  piracy  on  the  coast  of 
Spain.  See  his  Life ,  by  Hefele  (1844, 
translated  into  English  by  Dalton,  i860); 
Prescott:  Ferdinand  and  Isabella . 


Y. 

Year,  The  Ecclesiastical.  The  Chris¬ 
tian  Year  is  that  arrangement  of  seasons 
which  commemorates,  one  by  one,  the  great 
facts  in  the  life  of  Christ  and  the  doctrines 
which  spring  out  of  them.  Some  account  of 
these  seasons  will  be  found  under  their  re¬ 
spective  headings;  it  remains  for  us  here 
to  set  forth  a  conspectus  of  them  as  a 
whole. 

The  first  is  Advent,  which  commemo¬ 
rates  the  coming  of  Christ  into  the  world 
in  his  great  humility,  and  also  bids  us  look 
for  his  second  coming.  The  two  subjects 
are  closely  blended  together  in  the  Advent 
services,  especially  in  the  Epistles  and  Gos¬ 
pels.  There  are  four  Sundays  in  Advent, 
which  is  followed  by  Christmas,  the  great 
festival  of  the  Incarnation,  to  which  are 


appended  three  commemorations,  respect¬ 
ively  of  one  who  died  in  the  prime  of  life,  of 
little  children  dying  in  infancy,  and  of  the 
apostle  who  died  in  extreme  old  age — all 
ages  alike  sanctified  and  redeemed  by  the 
Incarnation.  On  January  i,  that  being  the 
eighth  day  after  Christmas,  is  kept  the 
feast  of  the  Circumcision.  The  Epiphany 
season,  starting  with  the  visit  of  the  wise 
men,  brings  before  us  the  manifestation  of 
Christ  during  his  sojourn  on  earth.  Thus 
the  Gospel  for  the  first  Sunday  after  Epiph¬ 
any  shows  us  Christ  in  his  boyhood,  sit¬ 
ting  among  the  doctors,  and  declaring  that 
he  must  be  about  his  Father’s  business; 
they  are  the  first  recorded  words  of  his  that 
we  have.  On  the  second  Sunday  we  have 
his  first  miracle,  a  simple  act  of  creation, 
almost  the  only  miracle  of  his  that  has 
naught  to  do  with  suffering,  carrying  us 
back  in  thought  to  the  original  Eden.  The 
third  Sunday  shows  him  the  healer  of  sick¬ 
ness;  the  fourth  the  restorer  of  peace  after 
disorder,  both  in  the  natural  and  spiritual 
world;  the  fifth  and  sixth  the  future  judge. 

The  Epiphany  season  varies  in  length  ac¬ 
cording  as  Easter  comes  early  or  late.  A 
marked  change  then  follows,  as  is  shown 
by  the  names  for  the  three  Sundays,  Sep- 
TUAGESIMA,  SEXAGESIMA,  QUINQUAGESIMA 
(“Seventieth,”  “Sixtieth,”  “Fiftieth,”), 
so  called  because  they  are,  in  round  num¬ 
bers,  so  many  days  before  Easter.  Quin- 
quagesima,  the  Sunday  before  Lent, 
brings  before  us  the  supreme  necessity,  in 
all  religious  exercises  and  works,  of  culti¬ 
vating  love  as  the  most  needful  grace  of 
all.  Then  comes  the  season  of  Lent,  in 
which  are  blended  together  most  closely 
the  humiliation  and  sufferings  of  Christ, 
and  the  Christian  work  of  repentance  for 
sin.  Easter  (y.  v.)  follows,  the  Queen  of 
Festivals,  and  then  the  Sundays  after  East-  . 
er,  covering  the  great  forty  days  during 
which  Christ  showed  himself  before  his 
ascension.  On  the  fortieth  day  comes  As¬ 
cension  Day,  or  Holy  Thursday,  and  ten 
days  after,  Whitsunday.  The  series  of 
festivals  closes  with  Trinity  Sunday. 

These  seasons  together  make  up,  as  nearly 
as  possible,  half  the  year;  they  are  follow¬ 
ed  by  the  Sundays  after  Trinity. — Benham: 

Diet,  of  Religion. 

Year,  The  Hebrew.  The  “  sacred  year” 
was  reckoned  from  the  moon  after  the 
vernal  equinox;  the  “civil  year”  began  in 
September  (the  less  productive  period  of 
the  year).  The  prophets  speak  of  the 
sacred  year;  those  engaged  in  secular  pur¬ 
suits,  of  the  civil  year.  The  year  was  di¬ 
vided  into  twelve  lunar  months,  with  a 
thirteenth,  or  intercalary  month,  every 
third  year.  See  following  table: 

(n 

1 


Yor 


(  977  ) 


You 


Month  of 

V.  j: 

Products. 

Sacred 

Civil 

Name. 

Months. 

Year. 

Year. 

I. 

VII. 

j  Abib,  or  Nisan.  ) 

j  (Exod.  xii.  2;  xiii.  4.)  f 

30 

March,  April. 

j  Barley  ripe.  ) 

J  Fig  in  blossom,  j 

II. 

VITI. 

Tyar,  or  Zif. 

29 

April,  May. 

Barley  harvest. 

III. 

IX. 

Si  van. 

3° 

May,  June. 

Wheat  harvest. 

IV. 

X. 

Thammuz. 

29 

June,  July. 

Early  vintage. 

V. 

XI. 

Ab.  (Ezra  vii.  9.) 

30 

July,  August. 

Ripe  figs. 

VI. 

XII. 

El  ill.  (Neh.  vi.  15.) 

29 

August,  Sept. 

General  vintage. 

VII. 

I. 

Tisri.  (1  Kings  viii.  2.) 

30 

Sept.,  Oct. 

j  Ploughing  and  / 

(  sowing.  j 

VIII. 

II. 

Bui.  (1  Kings  vi.  38.) 

29 

Oct.,  Nov. 

Latter  grapes. 

IX. 

III. 

Chisleu.  (Zech.  vii.  1.) 

3° 

Nov.,  Dec. 

Snow. 

X. 

IV. 

Tebeth.  (Esth.  ii.  16.) 

29 

Dec.,  Jan. 

Grass  after  rain. 

XL 

V. 

Shebat.  iZech.  i.  7.) 

3° 

Jan.,  Feb. 

Winter  fig. 

XII. 

VI. 

Adar.  (Ezra  vi.  15.) 

29 

Feb.,  March. 

Almond  blossom. 

XIII. 

Ve-Adar,  Intercalary. 

jtcwish 

Festivals. 


Passover. 

Unleavened 

Bread. 

Pentecost. 


Feast  of  Trum-  'l 
pets. 

Atonement.  \ 
Feast  of  Taber-  j 
nacles. 

Dedication. 


Purim. 


York  Minster.  A  little  wooden  hut  was 
the  beginning  of  York  Minster,  over  which 
rose  a  larger  church  of  stone,  finished  by 
Oswald  in  642.  This  was  repaired  by  St. 
Wilfrid  about  720,  and  destroyed  by  fire  in 
741;  rebuilt  by  Bishop  Egbert  (732-766), 
and  demolished  by  the  Danes.  Thomas  of 
Bayeux  rebuilt  the  church,  but  it  was  again 
partially  burnt  in  1137,  in  the  time  of 
Thurstan.  Roger  took  in  hand  the  work 
of  restoration,  and  rebuilt  the  choir  and 
crypt  on  a  larger  scale.  Walter  de  Gray 
(1215-1255)  in  all  probability  built  the 
south  transept  as  it  now  exists.  The  cen¬ 
tral  tower  was  built  in  1260  by  John  Ro- 
maine,  the  treasurer.  In  1291  Archbishop 
Romaine  removed  the  early  Norman  nave 
of  Thomas  of  Bayeux,  and  began  to  build 
the  present  one,  which  was  finished  by 
Archbishop  Melton  in  1335.  In  1361  Arch¬ 
bishop  Thoresby  began  the  Lady  Chapel 
and  Presbytery,  which  were  finished  in 
1373,  and  between  that  time  and  the  close 
of  the  century  the  Norman  choir  was  taken 
down,  and  the  present  one  built.  In  1472 
the  church  was  reconsecrated  and  dedi¬ 
cated  anew  to  St.  Peter  the  Apostle.  In 
1829  the  choir  was  set  on  fire  by  a  maniac, 
named  Jonathan  Martin,  and  so  much  dam¬ 
age  was  done  that  it  cost  ^65,000  to  repair 
it.  Another  fire,  in  1840,  destroyed  the 
southwest  tower  and  the  entire  nave  roof, 
which  were  repaired  at  a  cost  of  ,£23,000. 
— Benham:  Diet,  of  Religion. 

The  Diocese  of  York  consists  of  York 
City,  the  entire  East  Riding,  part  of  North 
and  West  Riding,  and  comprises  631  bene¬ 
fices.  The  chapter  consists  of  a  dean,  four 
archdeacons,  four  canons,  five  minor 
canons,  and  thirty  prebendaries.  The  in¬ 
come  of  the  see  is  £10,000  per  annum. 

Young,  Brigham.  See  Mormons. 


Young,  Edward,  b.  at  Upham,  Hamp¬ 
shire,  1684;  d.  at  Welwyn,  Hertfordshire, 
April,  12,  1684.  He  was  educated  at  Win¬ 
chester  and  at  Corpus  Christi,  Oxford;  or¬ 
dained  1727;  rector  of  Welwyn,  1730.  He 
published  three  tragedies,  letters,  essays, 
poems,  etc.,  but  he  is  remembered  by  his 
Night  Thoughts  (1742-46),  which  were  once 
very  popular. 

Young  Men’s  Christian  Association, The. 
The  Young  Men’s  Christian  Association 
movement,  which  now  encircles  the  globe, 
had  its  birth  in  the  parent  organization  ef¬ 
fected  in  the  city  of  London,  June  6,  1844, 
through  the  instrumentality  of  George 
Williams,  a  young  clerk  in  one  of  the  large 
dry-goods  establishments  in  that  city. 

The  first  Association  in  America,  after 
the  plan  of  that  in  London,  was  organized 
in  Montreal  in  Dec. ,  1851 ;  and  a  little  later 
in  the  same  month  a  similar  organization 
was  formed  in  the  United  States,  at  Boston. 

The  object  of  the  Association  is  the  spirit¬ 
ual,  intellectual,  social,  and  physical  wel¬ 
fare  of  young  men.  The  agencies  used  to 
accomplish  this  fourfold  purpose  are  Bi¬ 
ble  classes,  prayer  and  gospel  meetings, 
educational  classes,  lectures,  libraries, 
reading-rooms,  receptions,  social  parlors, 
gymnasiums,  bowling  clubs,  athletic 
grounds,  outing  clubs,  etc. 

The  membership  of  the  Association  is 
made  up  of  two  classes  of  young  men, 
those  that  are  members  in  good  standing 
of  evangelical  churches,  and  those  that  are 
simply  of  good  moral  character.  The  first 
class  is  termed  active,  and  alone  is  entitled 
to  vote  and  hold  office;  the  latter  class  (by 
far  the  larger)  is  termed  associate,  and  en¬ 
joys  like  privileges  with  the  former  except 
voting  and  holding  office.  This  “  test  of 
active  membership,”  as  it  is  called,  which 


You 


(  9/8  ) 


You 


existed  in  many  of  the  American  Associa¬ 
tions  from  the  beginning,  was  formally 
adopted  by  the  convention  of  the  Associa¬ 
tions  of  the  United  States  and  Canada,  held 
in  Portland,  Me.,  in  1869,  and  made  a  con¬ 
dition  of  admission  to  that  body  of  Associa¬ 
tions  organized  after  that  date.  This 
gathering  also  defined  the  term  “  evangel¬ 
ical  churches.”  This  action  affects,  of 
course,  only  the  American  Associations. 
The  European  Associations  have  varying 
tests. 

The  government  of  many  of  the  village 
Associations  somewhat  resembles  a  democ¬ 
racy,  much  of  the  business  being  transacted 
in  a  meeting  of  all  the  members.  The 


business  of  the  larger  Associations  is  man¬ 
aged  by  a  Board  of  Directors  elected  by 
the  members.  The  chief  executive  officer 
of  this  body  is  entitled  the  General  Secre¬ 
tary.  He  holds  the  same  relation  to  the 
Association  that  the  general  superintend¬ 
ent  does  to  the  railroad ;  is  a  salaried  officer 
and  devotes  all  his  time  to  the  Association’s 
interests.  The  work  of  the  Association, 
outside  of  the  purely  business  manage¬ 
ment,  is  performed,  under  the  guidance  of 
the  Board  of  Directors,  by  a  band  of  vol¬ 
unteer  workers  from  the  membership, 
who  constitute  the  standing  committees. 

In  the  larger  cities,  where  there  is  a  de¬ 
mand  for  work  at  more  points  than  one, 


YORK  MINSTER 


You 


(  979  ) 


Zac 


there  is  generally  one  central  or  parent 
organization,  with  branches  in  various  other 
sections  of  the  place.  At  many  railroad 
centres  in  America  there  are  one  or  two 
branches  devoted  exclusively  to  the  wel¬ 
fare  of  railroad  employes;  in  the  cities 
containing  a  large  German-speaking  popu¬ 
lation  there  are  German  branches;  in  over 
three  hundred  colleges  and  universities 
there  are  branches  composed  exclusively 
of  students.  There  are  other  branches 
devoted  to  colored  young  men,  Indians, 
French-speaking  young  men,  etc. 

The  latest  statistics  show  3,700  Associa¬ 
tions  in  the  world.  Of  this  number,  1,194 
are  in  the  United  States,  79  in  Canada,  610 
in  Great  Britain,  61  in  France,  673  in  Ger¬ 
many,  459  in  Holland,  380  in  Switzerland, 
the  rest  in  Denmark,  Sweden  and  Norway, 
Spain,  Italy,  Belgium,  Russia,  Japan,  Chi¬ 
na,  India,  Australia,  Africa,  etc.  The  total 
membership  is  probably  350,000.  A  con¬ 
siderable  number  of  the  Associations  in 
Great  Britain  own  the  buildings  that  they 
occupy,  and  employ  General  Secretaries. 
On  the  continent  of  Europe  the  work  is  but 
poorly  provided  with  these  necessary 
equipments,  there  being  as  yet  but  few 
General  Secretaries,  and  still  fewer  build¬ 
ings.  There  has  been,  however,  decided 
progress  of  late  in  these  directions. 

The  country  in  which  the  work  has  made 
the  greatest  advances  along  all  lines  is 
America,  and  the  present  condition  there 
is  indicated  by  the  following  statistics: 

1,273  Associations;  total  membership, 
200,000;  members  of  working  committees, 
34,000;  buildings,  187,  valued  at  $7,750,- 
000;  General  Secretaries  and  other  paid 
officers,  900;  annual  current  expenses, 
$1,500,000;  total  net  value  property,  $9,- 
500,000;  Bible  classes,  759;  weekly  prayer 
and  gospel  meetings  for  young  men,  1,350; 
lectures  and  entertainments,  4,346;  so¬ 
ciables,  2,948;  different  students  in  educa¬ 
tional  classes,  13,945;  libraries,  522,  with 
385,728  volumes;  reading-rooms,  648;  daily 
visits  to  the  rooms,  50,000;  gymnasiums, 
294;  literary  societies,  148;  situations  se¬ 
cured  annually,  7,619;  boys’  departments, 
162. 

While  the  Associations  are  and  have  been 
entirely  independent  of  each  other  in  the 
management  of  their  own  local  affairs, 
there  has  existed  for  years  a  bond  of  union 
between  them  for  mutual  help,  and  for 
missionary  effort  in  their  own  line  of  special 
Christian  effortv  Since  1855  they  have 
been  meeting  every  three  years  in  World’s 
Conferences.  There  now  exists  a  Central 
International  Committee,  with  headquarters 
in  Geneva,  Switzerland.  This  Committee 
has  members  in  sixteen  countries,  and 
since  1879  has  employed  a  traveling  secre¬ 


tary,  who  has  devoted  his  time  and  efforts 
to  the  work  in  Europe. 

The  American  Associations  first  met  in 
convention  in  1854,  and  thereafter  con¬ 
tinued  to  meet  annually  till  1.877,  since 
which  time  they  have  met  biennially. 
They  have  a  general  executive  committee, 
known  as  the  International  Committee, 
composed  of  thirty-three  members,  repre¬ 
senting  various  sections  of  the  United 
States  and  Canada,  and  with  a  working 
quorum  in  New  York  City.  This  Com¬ 
mittee  is  incorporated,  has  a  board  of  trus¬ 
tees,  and  employs  a  force  of  nineteen  secre¬ 
taries,  whose  efforts  are  engaged  in  help¬ 
ing  existing  Associations  and  in  extending 
and  fostering  the  work  in  new  and  sparsely 
settled  portions  of  the  two  countries.  This 
Committee  also  assists  the  various  State 
Committees  (appointed  by  the  conventions 
of  the  respective  States,  which  were  orig¬ 
inally  called  by  the  International  Commit¬ 
tee  by  direction  of  the  International  Con¬ 
vention)  in  their  work,  which  is  now 
organized,  with  traveling  secretaries,  in 
most  of  the  States  and  Provinces.  By  in¬ 
struction  of  the  last  convention  (Philadel¬ 
phia,  1889),  the  International  Committee, 
in  response  to  earnest  solicitation  from 
missionaries  and  others,  has  undertaken 
work  for  young  men  in  foreign  mission 
lands,  and  already  has  a  secretary  stationed 
in  Japan  and  another  in  India. 

P.  Augustus  Wieting. 

Young,  Robert,  LL.  D.,  Scotch  Presby¬ 
terian  layman;  b.  at  Edinburgh,  Sept.  10, 
1822.  He  was  educated  in  private  schools, 
and  learned  the  trade  of  a  printer,  and  for 
a  time  engaged  in  bookselling  and  print¬ 
ing.  In  1856  he  went  to  India  to  take 
charge  of  the  Mission  Press  at  Surat.  Re¬ 
turning  to  Scotland  in  1861,  he  conducted 
“  Missionary  Institutes,”  1864-74,  and 
since  then  engaged  in  literary  work.  Dr. 
Young  is  well  known  in  this  country  by 
his  Analytical  Concordance  (1876-79),  a 
monumental  work.  He  has  written  a  large 
number  of  books,  mostly  in  the  line  of 
textual  criticism  and  translation  of  differ¬ 
ent  versions  of  the  Bible. 

Young  Women’s  Christian  Associations. 

See  Women’s  Christian  Association. 

Yule,  an  old  English  name  for  Christinas. 

Z. 

Zacchse'us  ( pure ),  the  name  of  a  Roman 
tax-collector,  the  story  of  whose  conver¬ 
sion  is  told  in  Luke  xix.  2-10.  According 
to  tradition  Zacchaeus  became  bishop  of 
Caesarea  in  Palestine,  by  ordination  of 


Zac 


(  98o  ) 


Zed 


Peter.  A  partly  ruined  tower  in  Jericho, 
used  as  a  Turkish  garrison,  is  pointed  out 
to  travelers  as  the  house  of  Zacchaeus. 

Zachari'as,  pope,  741-752.  He  was 
very  adroit  and  successful  in  advancing  the 
interests  of  the  Roman  See.  See  Popes. 

Zamzum'mim  (Deut.  ii.  20),  or  Zu'zim, 
the  Ammonite  name  for  a  numerous  and 
powerful  race  of  giants  who  inhabited  the 
country  east  of  the  Jordan  and  the  Dead 
Sea.  Cherdorlaomer  attacked  and  routed 
them,  and  they  were  finally  driven  out  of 
the  country  by  the  Ammonites. 

Zanchi,  Hieronymus,  b.  at  Alzano,  near 
Bergamo,  1516;  d.  at  Heidelberg,  Nov.  19, 
1590.  He  entered  the  order  of  the  regular 
canons  of  St.  Augustine  in  1531,  but  hav¬ 
ing  studied  the  writings  of  the  German  and 
Swiss  Reformers  he  espoused  their  cause, 
and  was  compelled  to  flee  from  Italy.  In 
1 5 53  he  was  appointed  professor  of  the  Old 
Testament  at  Strasburg,  but  he  became 
so  zealous  an  advocate  of  the  doctrines  of 
Calvin  that  trouble  arose,  and  he  removed 
to  Chiavenna  as  pastor  of  the  Reformed 
Church.  In  1568  he  became  professor  at 
Heidelberg,  where  he  lectured  on  the  Sum- 
ma,  and  gained  a  great  reputation  as  a  the¬ 
ologian.  He  took  an  active  part  in  the 
controversy  with  the  Antitrinitarians,  and 
wrote  De  Tribus  Elohim  (1572),  with  other 
works,  which  were  published  at  Geneva 
(1619),  3  vols. 

Zeal'ots,  the  name  of  a  party  or  faction 
in  Palestine  noted  for  their  advocacy  of  the 
Mosaic  law.  Their  founder  was  Judas  the 
Galilean,  or  the  Gaulanite.  (Acts  v.  37.) 
They  refused  to  pay  tribute  to  the  Romans 
on  the  ground  that  God  was  the  only  king 
of  Israel.  Their  rebellion  was  soon  sup¬ 
pressed,  but  they  carried  on  a  kind  of 
guerrilla  warfare,  and  degenerated  into  the 
Sicarii  (from  the  Latin  sica,  a  dagger)  and 
by  their  crimes  of  brigandage  did  much  to 
bring  on  the  Jewish  War. 

Zeb'ulun.  See  Tribes  of  Israel. 

Zechari'ah  ( Jehovah  remembers ),  the  elev¬ 
enth  of  the  Minor  Prophets.  He  was  the 
son  of  Berechiah,  and  was  born  in  Baby- 
loq,  and  while  yet  young  returned  from 
exile  with  Zerubbabel  and  the  high-priest 
Joshua.  (Ezra  v.  1.)  He  was  both  a 
priest  and  prophet,  but  very  little  is  known 
of  his  life. 

The  Book  of  Zechariah  consists  of  two 
divisions:  The  first  includes  chapters  i.- 
xviii.,  and  “  contains  visions  and  prophe¬ 
cies  from  the  second  year  of  the  reign  of 


Darius  Hystaspes,  while  the  temple  was 
rebuilding,  exhortations  to  turn  to  Jehovah, 
and  warnings  against  the  enemies  of  the 
people  of  God.  About  the  authorship  of 
this  part  of  the  book  there  is  no  doubt. 
The  second  division  (chaps,  ix.-xiv.)  gives 
a  prophetic  description  of  the  future  for¬ 
tunes  of  the  theocracy  in  conflict  with  the 
secular  powers,  the  sufferings  and  death 
of  the  Messiah  under  the  figure  of  the 
shepherd,  the  conversion  of  Israel  to  him, 
and  the  final  glorification  of  the  kingdom 
of  God.  About  the  authorship  of  this  part 
of  the  book  doubts  have  been  raised,  some 
ascribing  it  to  Jeremiah,  because  in  Matt, 
xxvii.  9,  10,  a  passage  is  quoted  under  the 
name  of  Jeremiah,  while  others  have  put 
it  at  a  much  earlier  or  much  later  period, 
on  account  of  the  peculiarities  of  the  style. 

“  Of  all  the  prophets,  Zechariah  is  the 
most  obscure,  owing  to  the  brevity  and 
conciseness  of  the  diction,  the  predomi¬ 
nance  of  symbolic  and  figurative  language, 
and  the  peculiar  character  of  the  subject — 
the  suffering  Messiah.  But  he  has  a  pro¬ 
found  insight  both  into  the  spiritual  mean¬ 
ing  and  object  of  the  Mosaic  dispensation 
as  a  schoolmaster  leading  to  Christ,  and 
into  the  character  of  the  Messiah  and  the 
universality  of  his  kingdom.  The  book 
contains  six  specific  references  to  Christ: 
iii.  8;  vi.  12;  ix.  9;  xi.  12;  xii.  10;  xiii.  7, 
representing  him  as  a  lowly  servant;  a 
priest  and  king  building  Jehovah’s  temple; 
the  meek  and  peaceful  but  universal  mon¬ 
arch;  the  shepherd  betrayed  for  the  price 
of  a  slave  (thirty  pieces  of  silver);  the 
leader  to  repentance,  and  the  Fellow  of 
Jehovah  smitten  by  Jehovah  himself,  at 
once  the  Redeemer  and  the  Pattern  of  his 
flock.” — Schaff:  Bible  Dictionary.  Twenty- 
seven  other  persons  bearing  the  name  of 
Zechariah  are  mentioned  in  the  Script¬ 
ures.  See  Chambers  in  Lange’s  Cor?imeti- 
tary  (1874);  C.  H.  H.  Wright  (Bampton 
Lectures,  London,  1879). 

Zedeki'ah  {to  whom  God  will  be  just),  the 
third  son  of  Josiah,  and  the  last  king  of 
Judah.  His  proper  name  was  Mattaniah 
{gift  of  Jehovah).  His  name  was  changed 
when  Nebuchadnezzar  raised  him  to  the 
throne  (597  b.  c.)  in  the  place  of  Jehoiachin. 
His  reign  of  eleven  years  was  marked  by 
weakness  and  prevailing  disorder.  He 
failed  to  protect  Jeremiah  (Jer.  xxxviii.  5,  24 
sq.),  and  placed  confidence  in  false  proph¬ 
ets.  He  allowed  those  who  had  been 
set  free  from  bondage  to  be  again  reduced 
to  slavery,  and  for  this  act  the  prophet  an¬ 
nounced  the  downfall  of  the  nation.  (Jer. 
xxxiv.  8-22.)  In  the  fourth  year  of  his 
reign  he  visited  Babylon  to  pay  his  re¬ 
spects  to  the  Babylonian  king  and  secure 


Zei 


(981  ) 


Z  id 


the  release  of  the  captives,  with  other  fa¬ 
vors.  In  the  ninth  year  of  his  reign  he  re¬ 
belled  (Jer.  xxxvii.  5  sqq. ;  Ezek.  xvii.  15 
sqq.),  and  Nebuchadnezzar,  after  taking 
several  cities,  besieged  Jerusalem  for  many 
months.  Zedekiah  attempted  to  escape  by 
flight,  but  was  overtaken  at  Jericho.  His 
sons  were  slain  in  his  presence,  his  own 
eyes  were  put  out,  and,  heavily  ironed,  he 
was  carried  to  Babylon,  where,  according 
to  tradition,  he  ground  in  a  mill  until  he 
died.  (Jer.  xxxix. )  Thus  the  prophecy 
concerning  him  was  literally  fulfilled. 
(Ezek.  xii.  13;  xvii.  19.) 

Zeisberger,  David,  Moravian  missionary 
among  the  Western  Indians  of  North 
America;  b.  at  Zauchtenthal,  in  Moravia, 
April  11,  1721;  d.  at  Goshen,  O.,  Nov.  17, 
1808.  His  parents  were  Moravians,  and 
emigrated  to  Georgia,  and  then  to  Bethle¬ 
hem,  Penn.  Converted  in  1743  he  deter¬ 
mined  to  devote  his  life  to  missionary 
labors  among  the  Indians,  and  for  sixty- 
two  years  he  continued  in  this  service  with 
unflagging  zeal.  He  established  at  dif¬ 
ferent  points  thirteen  Christian  Indian 
towns,  and  gained  a  wonderful  influence 
among’the  aborigines,  many  of  whom  were 
converted,  and  led  consistent  Christian 
lives.  He  spoke  with  fluency  the  Dela¬ 
ware,  Mohawk,  and  Onandaga  languages, 
and  was  familiar  with  other  native  tongues. 
Several  of  the  Indian  tribes  gave  him  a 
prominent  place  in  their  councils.  For  a 
long  time  he  prevented  the  Delawares  in 
Ohio  from  joining  the  British  Indians  dur¬ 
ing  the  Revolutionary  War.  In  1781,  with 
other  missionaries,  he  was  tried  at  Detroit 
on  the  charge  of  being  an  American  spy, 
but  was  acquitted.  The  following  year  a 
large  number  of  the  Christian  Indians  at 
Gnadenhiitten  were  massacred,  and  Zeis¬ 
berger  led  the  survivors  to  Canada.  In 
1798  he  came  back  with  some  of  them  to 
the  Tuscarawas  Valley,  where  Congress 
had  made  a  grant  of  a  large  tract  of  land 
to  the  Moravian  Indians.  The  station 
which  he  established  he  called  Goshen, 
and  here  spent  the  rest  of  his  long  life. 
He  wrote  a  number  of  works  in  the  Indian 
languages.  See  his  Life ,  by  De  Schweinitz 
(1870). 

Zend-Avesta.  See  Parseeism. 

Zephani'ah  {Jehovah  hides'),  (1)  Ninth  of 
the  minor  prophets.  He  was  the  son  of 
Cushi,  and  lived  in  the  days  of  Josiah. 

His  prophecy  was  uttered  in  the  early 
part  of  the  ministry  of  Jeremiah,  between 
b.  c.  620  and  609.  It  is  mainly  designed 
to  excite  the  Jewish  nation  to  repentance, 
in  view  of  threatened  judgments,  and  to 


comfort  the  people  of  God  with  promises 
of  the  final  triumph  of  righteousness.  The 
description  of  the  judgment  in  ch.  i.  14,  15, 
“  The  great  day  of  Jehovah  is  near"  (in 
the  Latin  version,  Dies  irce ,  dies  ilia),  has 
furnished  the  keynote  to  the  sublimest 
hymn  of  the  Middle  Ages,  the  Dies  Irce  of 
Thomas  a  Celano  (1250) — so  often  trans¬ 
lated,  but  never  equalled — which  brings 
before  us,  with  most  thrilling  effect,  the 
awful  judgment  as  an  awful  impending 
reality.” — Schaff:  Bible  Did.  (2)  A  priest 
in  the  reign  of  Zedekiah.  (2  Kings  xxv. 
18-21;  Jer.  xxi.  1;  xxix.  25-29;  xxxvii.  3; 
lii.  24-27.)  (3)  Father  of  Josiah.  (Zech.  vi. 

10.)  (4)  A  Kohathite  Levite.  (1  Chron. 
vi.  36.) 

Zerub'babel  {begotten  in  Babylon ),  the 
leader  of  the  first  band  that  returned  from 
the  captivity  in  Babylon.  (Ezra  ii.  2.)  The 
sacred  vessels  returned  to  Jerusalem  by 
Cyrus  were  put  in  his  care.  A  lineal  de¬ 
scendant  of  David,  and  a  prince  of  Judah, 
he  laid  the  foundations  of  the  temple,  and 
with  Jeshua  (Joshua)  the  high-priest  re¬ 
stored  the  religious  rites  of  his  people. 
The  work  of  building  the  temple  was  hin¬ 
dered  by  the  opposition  of  enemies  who 
had  influence  within  the  Persian  court,  but 
was  finally  completed.  (Ezrav.  2;  Hag.  i. 
12,  14;  ii.  2,  4;  Zech.  iv.  6,  10.)  Zerubba- 
bel  was  an  ancestor  tof  our  Lord.  (Matt.  i. 
12;  Luke  iii.  27.) 

Zi'don,  or  Si'don,  the  present  Saida, 
situated  on  the  Mediterranean  coast, 
twenty  -  five  miles  south  of  the  modern 
Beirut.  It  is  one  of  the  most  ancient  cities 
of  the  world.  Named  after  “  the  first-born 
of  Canaan”  (Gen.  x.  15;  1  Chron.  i.  13),  it 
was  the  metropolis  of  Phoenicia.  It  was 
famed  for  its  manufactures  and  commerce. 
Its  idolatrous  practices  and  corrupting  in¬ 
fluence  called  forth  prophetic  threatenings. 
After  its  conquest  by  Alexander,  and  the 
founding  of  Alexandria,  it  lost  its  mercan¬ 
tile  prominence.  It  was  visited  once  by 
Jesus  (Matt.  xv.  21),  and  Paul  touched  at 
Zidon  on  his  voyage  from  Caesarea  to  Rome. 
It  was  the  seat  of  a  Christian  bishop  in  the 
second  century.  During  the  crusades  it 
suffered  terribly.  After  being  several 
times  taken  and  fortified  by  the  Christians 
it  was  finally  conquered  and  burned  by  the 
Muslims.  Many  interesting  relics  have 
been  found  in  its  ruins,  among  them  the 
sarcophagus  of  King  Ashmanezer,  which 
in  1855  was  placed  in  the  museum  at  Paris. 
Zidon  in  its  situation  is  one  of  the  most 
beautiful  spots  in  Syria.  It  has  a  present 
population  of  about  10,000,  of  whom  about 
7,000  are  Muslims,  and  the  rest  Greeks, 
Catholics,  Maronites,  and  Jews.  The 


Z  in 


(  982  ) 


Z  in 


American  Presbyterian  Hoard  has  a  flour¬ 
ishing  mission  here. 

Zinzendorf,  Nicolaus  Ludwig,  Count 
von,  “  the  founder  of  the  existing  sect  of 
the  Moravian  Brethren,  or  Herrnhuters, 
was  b.  at  Dresden,  May  26,  1700.  His 
father,  a  Saxon  state  minister,  dying  while 
Zinzendorf  was  a  child,  the  latter  was  edu¬ 
cated  by  his  grandmother,  a  learned  and 
pious  lady,  the  Baroness  von  Gersdorf. 
Spener,  the  head  of  the  pietists,  was  a 
frequent  visitor  at  her  house,  and  his  con¬ 
versation  and  the  devotional  exercises  in 
which  Zinzendorf  took  part  influenced  his 
character  while  a  mere  child.  In  1710  he 
went  to  Halle,  where  he  spent  six  years, 
under  the  special  care  of  Francke,  the 


Christian  David,  a  member  of  the  old  sect 
of  Moravian  Brethren,  of  whom  some  still 
remained  in  Moravia,  professing  the  doc¬ 
trines  taught  by  John  Huss.  David  de¬ 
scribed  the  persecutions  to  which  the  sect 
were  exposed;  and  Zinzendorf  invited  him 
and  his  friends  to  settle  on  his  estate. 
They  accepted  the  proposal,  and  the  colony 
received  the  name  of  ‘  Herrnhut.’  Zinzen¬ 
dorf  acted  with  great  liberality  to  the  set¬ 
tlers,  and  their  success  attracted  much  at¬ 
tention.  In  1734  Zinzendorf  went,  under  a 
feigned  name,  to  Stralsund  to  pass  an  exam¬ 
ination  in  theology,  and  was  ordained  a 
minister  of  the  Lutheran  Church.  In  1736 
he  was  banished  from  Saxony  on  a  charge 
of  introducing  dangerous  novelties  in  relig¬ 
ion.  He  repaired  to  Holland,  where  he 


ZIDON,  FROM  THE  NORTH. 


philanthropist.  Zinzendorf  founded  among 
his  fellow-pupils  a  religious  society,  to 
which  he  gave  the  name  of  the  ‘  Order  of 
the  Grain  of  Mustard-Seed.’  In  1816  he 
was  sent  by  his  relatives  to  Wittenberg, 
where  pietism  was  in  less  repute  than  at 
Halle;  but  he  adhered  to  his  early  relig¬ 
ious  impressions.  Two  years  afterward 
he  traveled  through  Holland  and  France, 
everywhere  endeavoring  to  convert  the 
distinguished  persons  whom  he  met  to  his 
own  religious  views.  On  his  return  to 
Dresden  he  was  appointed  a  member  of 
the  Saxon  State  Council,  and  married  the 
sister  of  the  Count  Reuss  von  Ebersdorf. 
But  political  life  was  little  to  his  mind,  and 
he  returned  to  his  country-seat  in  Upper 
Lusatia.  While  residing  there,  he  acci¬ 
dentally  met  a  wandering  carpenter,  named 


founded  a  Moravian  colony,  and  afterward 
to  Esthonia  and  Livonia,  where  he  also 
founded  colonies.  In  1737,  at  the  request 
of  King  Frederick  William  I.  of  Prussia,  he 
was  ordained  bishop  of  the  Moravians. 
In  the  same  year  he  went  to  London,  where 
h'e  was  received  with  much  consideration 
by  Wesley.  In  1741  he  went  to  North 
America,  accompanied  by  his  daughter, 
and  founded  the  celebrated  Moravian  col¬ 
ony  at  Bethlehem.  The  Herrnhuters,  in 
the  meantime,  by  their  good  conduct  and 
industry,  had  won  the  respect  of  all  classes 
in  Saxony,  and  in  1747  Zinzendorf  was  al¬ 
lowed  to  return  to  Herrnhut.  Having  re¬ 
ceived  authority  by  act  of  Parliament  to 
establish  Moravian  settlements  in  the  Eng¬ 
lish  colonies  of  North  America,  he  return¬ 
ed  thither  to  do  so.  He  finally  settled  at 


Zio 


(  983  ) 


Zoe 


Herrnhut;  and,  his  first  wife  being  dead, 
married  Anne  Nitschmann,  one  of  the 
earliest  colonists  from  Moravia.  He  died 
on  Ma^  9,  1760.  Thirty-two  preachers, 
from  all  parts  of  the  globe,  accompanied 
the  coffin  to  the  grave.  Zinzendorf  was 
the  author  of  more  than  100  works  inverse 
and  prose.  Some  of  his  hymns  are  objec¬ 
tionable  on  account  of  their  sensuous  ex¬ 
pression.  The  same  may  be  said  of  his 
sermons,  especially  of  those  which  refer  to 
the  Holy  Ghost  as  a  spiritual  mother. 
His  writings  are  often  incoherent  or  mys¬ 
tical,  but  they  abound  with  passages  in 
which  deep  and  original  thought  is  express¬ 
ed  with  great  clearness  and  beauty.  There 
are  lives  of  Zinzendorf  by  Spangenberg 
(1775),  Varnhagen  von  Ense  (in  his  Bio- 
graphische  Denkmale ,  1830),  and  Burkhardt 
{1876).” — Chambers:  Cyclopcedia. 

Zi'on,  or  Si'on.  See  Jerusalem. 

Ziska,  or  Zizka,  John,  of  Trocznow, 
the  leader  of  the  Hussites;  b.  at  Trocznow 
in  Bohemia  about  1360,  the  son  of  a  Bo¬ 
hemian  nobleman;  d.  at  the  siege  of  the 
castle  of  Przibislav,  in  1424.  He  was  first 
a  page  at  the  court  of  King  Wenceslas  of 
Bohemia,  and  afterward  fought  for  a  time 
as  a  volunteer  in  the  English  army  in 
France;  he  then  went  to  Poland,  and  served 
under  King  Ladislas  against  the  Teutonic 
Knights.  He  distinguished  himself  at  the 
battle  of  Tannenberg,  and  was  loaded  with 
high  honors;  and  at  the  battle  of  Agincourt 
in  1415  he  also  acquitted  himself  honorably. 
He  was  now  a  zealous  follower  of  John 
Huss,  and  was  roused  to  indignation  by  the 
cruelties  heaped  upon  his  leader  and  col¬ 
leagues;  a  party  was  formed  by  several  of 
the  more  patriotic  and  religious  nobles, 
one  of  whom  was  Ziska,  who  endeavored 
to  rouse  the  king  to  oppose  the  cruel  de¬ 
cisions  of  the  Council  of  Constance.  In 
1419  Ziska  headed  an  outbreak  of  the  Huss¬ 
ites  at  Prague,  where  the  rebels  avenged 
themselves  with  interest  for  the  wrongs 
done  by  the  Roman  Catholics;  and  the 
news  proved  fatal  to  the  weak-minded  King 
Wenceslas,  who  had  never  summoned  up 
sufficient  courage  to  take  any  steps  to  pre¬ 
vent  a  catastrophe.  Sigismund,  brother  of 
Wenceslas,  arrived  with  a  large  army  to 
take  possession  of  the  throne,  but  was  de¬ 
feated  by  the  Hussites,  who  followed  up 
their  advantage  by  the  capture  of  the  castle 
of  Prague  (1521).  Their  chief  stronghold, 
Tabor,  procured  for  them  the  name  of  Ta- 
borites.  Ziska  became  totally  blind  by  a 
wound  received  while  besieging  the  castle 
of  Rabi;  but  he  continued  to  hold  the  com¬ 
mand  of  the  Hussite  army,  and  gained  a 
series  of  victories  which  have  had  few  paral¬ 


lels  in  history.  Sigismund’s  second  army 
was  defeated  in  1422,  and  driven  back  into 
Moravia;  in  the  same  year  the  German 
army,  headed  by  Frederick  of  Saxony  and 
the  Elector  of  Brandenburg,  was  routed  at 
Aussig;  and  Ziska  gained  ten  other  battles, 
convincing  Sigismund  that  it  was  hopeless 
to  attempt  the  conquest  of  Bohemia.  He 
therefore  proposed  to  make  a  treaty  with 
the  Hussites;  but  before  matters  were 
brought  to  a  conclusion  Ziska  was  seized 
by  the  plague  at  Przibislav,  and  died  there. 
The  glory  of  his  conquests  was  to  some 
extent  marred  by  the  cruelty  with  which 
he  treated  his  enemies;  but  the  circum¬ 
stances  under  which  the  war  was  carried  on, 
and  the  causes  which  led  to  it,  are  almost 
sufficient  excuse  for  the  accusation. — Ben- 
ham:  Did.  of  Religion.  See  Hussites. 

Zo'an,  a  city  of  Lower  Egypt,  the  mod¬ 
ern  San.  It  is  a  very  ancient  city,  built 
seven  years  after  Hebron.  (Num.  xiii.  22.) 
According  to  tradition  it  was  here  that 
Moses  had  his  interviews  with  Pharaoh. 
“  The  field  of  Zoan”  was  the  scene  of 
Jehovah’s  wonder-working  power.  (Psa. 
lxxviii.  12,  43.)  The  great  city,  now  a  bar¬ 
ren  waste,  was  strongly  fortified  by  the 
shepherd  kings.  The  remains  of  edifices, 
and  several  obelisks  and  statues  of  kings, 
and  a  number  of  sphinxes,  have  been  dis¬ 
covered  in  recent  years.  The  ruins  of  the 
temple  adorned  by  Rameses  II.  are  re¬ 
markable  in  their  extent  and  richness. 

Zo'ar,  one  of  the  cities  of  the  plain  (Gen. 
xiii.),  originally  called  Bela.  (Gen.  xiv.  2.) 
It  was  spared  from  the  destruction  which 
overtook  Sodom  and  the  other  cities,  and 
it  was  here  that  Lot  found  a  refuge.  (Gen. 
xix.  20-30.)  The  prophets  include  it  among 
the  cities  of  Moab.  (Isa.  xv.  5;  Jer.  xlviii. 
34.)  Its  exact  location  has  been  a  matter 
of  much  discussion  among  scholars. 

Zo'ba,  or  Zo'bah  {station)  a  part  of  Syria 
between  the  northeast  of  Palestine  and  the 
Euphrates.  It  was  inhabited  by  a  power¬ 
ful  and  warlike  people,  who  frequently 
came  into  conflict  with  Israel.  (1  Sam.  xiv. 
47;  2  Sam.  viii.  3-8,  12;  1  Chron.  xviii. 
3-8.  The  natural  resources  of  the  country 
are  great,  but  at  present  it  is  deserted,  ex¬ 
cept  by  wandering  Bedouins. 

Zoeckler,  Otto,  D.  D.  (Giessen,  1866), 
Lutheran;  bo  at  Griinberg,  Hesse,  May  27, 
1833;  studied  at  Giessen,  Erlangen,  and  Ber¬ 
lin,  1851-56;  became  privat-docent  at  Gies¬ 
sen,  1857;  professor  extraordinary,  1863; 
ordinary  professor  at  Greifswald,  1866, 
where  he  was  appointed  consistorialrath, 
1885.  Since  1882  he  has  edited  the  Evan- 


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gelische  A' ire  hen  zeitung.  Among  his  works 
is  a  commentary  on  Chronicles ,  Job ,  Prov¬ 
erbs,  Ecclesiastes ,  Canticles ,  and  Daniel 
(trans.  in  Lange  series,  N.  Y.,  1870); 

Kreuz  Christi  ( The  Cross  of  Christ ,  Eng. 
trans.,  London,  1877);  Gottes  Zeugen  im 
Reich  der  Natnr  (1881),  2  vols.  (Eng.  trans., 
1886). 

Zoroaster,  or  Zarathustra,  the  founder 
of  the  old  Persian  religion.  We  can  speak 
with  no  certainty  about  the  life  of  Zoroas¬ 
ter,  so  much  that  is  told  us  is  mythical, 
and  even  the  period  at  which  he  lived  is  so 
variously  stated.  Some  say  that  he  lived 
5,000  years  before  the  Trojan  War;  others 
that  he  reigned  over  Babylon,  2200  b.  c. ; 
the  Parsees  place  him  at  about  550  B.  C. ,  in 
the  time  of  Darius  Hystaspes;  others  even 
deny  that  he  ever  existed.  Legend  says 
that  he  was  born  in  Bactria;  that  his  father, 
Pourushaspa,  and  his  mother,  Daghda, 
were  in  lowly  circumstances,  though  of 
princely  origin,  and  that  the  future  great¬ 
ness  of  Zoroasterwas  foretold  to  his  mother 
before  his  birth.  When  he  grew  to  man’s 
estate  he  spent  many  years  in  retirement, 
and  then  Ormuzd,  the  good  spirit,  appear¬ 
ed  to  him,  and  gave  him  this  command: 
“  Teach  the  nations  that  my  light  is  hidden 
under  all  that  shines.  Whenever  you  turn 
your  face  toward  the  light,  and  you  follow 
my  command,  Ahriman  (the  evil  spirit) 
will  be  seen  to  fly.  In  this  world  there  is 
nothing  superior  to  light.”  He  then  hand¬ 
ed  him  the  sacred  book,  Avesta,  and  bade 
him  take  it  to  Vishtasp  (Hystaspes);  he 
did  so,  and  this  prince  became  a  powerful 
propagator  of  his  faith. 

Zoroaster  was  probably  one  of  the  So- 
shyantos,  or  fire-priests,  amongst  whom 
the  religious  reform  began  which  he  after¬ 
ward  carried  out  so  boldly.  The  religion 
of  Iran  had  become  mixed  with  that  of  the 
Hindoos  and  Chaldaeans,  the  worship  of  el¬ 
ements  had  been  introduced,  and  Zoroaster 
restored  the  religion  of  his  ancestors  to  a 
state  of  greater  purity;  but  after  his  death 
many  schisms  were  introduced,  and  at 
length  it  degenerated  into  an  idolatrous 
worship  of  the  sun  and  fire.  The  leading 
features  of  his  religion  have  already  been 
stated  in  the  article.  Parsees  ( q .  v.). 

Owing  to  the  different  dates  assigned  to 
Zoroaster,  some  writers  have  maintained 
that  there  were  no  less  than  six  men  of 
that  name;  others  have  identified  him  with 
Moses,  Elijah,  Esdras,  and  the  servant  of 
Ezekiel.  It  is  said  that  he  was  a  great  ma¬ 
gician  and  astrologer. — Benham:  Diet,  of 
Religion. 

Zosimus,  bishop  of  Rome,  417-418;  the 
successor  of  Innocent  I.  He  canceled  the 


condemnation  of  PeLagius  and  Coelestius, 
which  had  been  confirmed  by  Innocent  I. 
This  action  led  the  African  bishops  to  call 
a  new  synod  at  Carthage,  which  secured 
from  the  Emperor  Honorius  a  sacrum  re- 
scriptum  against  the  Pelagians.  Zosimus 
then  yielded  and  condemned  Pelagius  in  an 
encyclical  to  the  Eastern  churches.  Coeles¬ 
tius  retracted. 

Zwingli  ( zwing' lee ),  Huldreich,  the 
great  Swiss  Reformer;  b.  at  Wildhaus,  in 
the  canton  of  St.  Gall,  Jan.  1,  1484;  d.  Oct. 
11,  1531,  on  the  battlefield  of  Kappel.  He 
was  educated  in  the  schools  of  Basel  and 
Berne  and  the  University  of  Vienna.  In 
1502  he  returned  to  Basel,  where  he  taught 
school  and  studied  theology  till  1506,  when 
he  was  ordained  a  priest,  and  appointed 
pastor  of  Glarus.  During  the  ten  years 
spent  in  this  parish  he  applied  himself  with 
great  zeal  to  the  study  of  the  Bible,  the 
Greek  language,  and  the  works  of  the 
Fathers,  and  gained  a  reputation  for  learn¬ 
ing  that  secured  him  a  pension  of  fifty 
gulden  a  year  from  the  pope  to  continue  his 
studies.  While  pastor  at  Glarus  he  had 
acted  as  chaplain  several  times  to  regiments 
of  Swiss  soldiers  who  had  hired  out  their 
services  to  foreign  powers.  In  this  way 
his  attention  was  called  to  the  evils  of  this 
mercenary  system,  and  he  attacked  it  with 
great  earnestness,  and  also  opposed  the  al¬ 
liance  with  France,  which  had  gained  pop¬ 
ular  favor.  This  action  aroused  so  much 
opposition  that  Zwingli,  in  1516,  left  Glarus, 
and  accepted  the  office  of  preacher  at  Ein- 
siedeln.  This  was  a  favorite  place  of  pil¬ 
grimage,  and  Zwingli,  observing  the  suffer¬ 
ing  caused  by  this  superstition,  sought  in 
his  sermons  to  show  that  the  true  source 
of  comfort  was  to  be  found  in  other  ways. 
As  early  as  1517  he  began  to  discuss  with 
friends  the  possibility  of  doing  away  with 
the  papacy,  and  when  an  indulgence-seller, 
Samson  by  name,  made  his  appearance  he 
drove  him  out  of  the  canton.  An  attempt 
was  made  to  quiet  the  aggressive  spirit  of 
the  fearless  preacher  by  giving  him  the 
appointment  of  a  titular  chaplain  to  the 
pope.  Not  long  after,  he  accepted  a  call  as 
preacher  at  the  cathedral  of  Zurich,  and 
began  his  labors  on  New  Year’s  Day,  1519. 
His  ministry  soon  became  a  mighty  power 
in  the  city.  Great  crowds  gathered  to  listen 
to  his  preaching  of  the  Gospel,  and  his  in¬ 
fluence  was  potent  also  in  political  affairs. 
He  prevented  Zurich  from  joining  the  other 
cantons  in  their  alliance  with  France,  and 
thus  aroused  the  bitter  enmity  of  those  who 
raised  the  cry  of  “  heretic.”  Zwingli  now 
found  himself  face  to  face  with  the  author¬ 
ities  of  the  Roman  Church.  In  the  spring 
of  1522  he  published  his  tract,  Von  Erkiesen 


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und  Fryheit  der  Spysen ,  and,  soon  after,  his 
Archeteles.  These  polemic  writings  aroused 
intense  interest,  and  Z,wingli  was  recog¬ 
nized  as  one  of  the  foremost  leaders  in  the 
Reformation,  which  was  spreading  far  and 
near.  It  was  decided  to  hold  a  public  re¬ 
ligious  disputation  in  the  City  Hall-  of 
Zurich.  When  it  opened,  Jan.  29,  1523, 
Zwingli  presented  sixty-five  theses,  in 
which  he  maintained  the  doctrine  of  justifi¬ 
cation  by  faith,  and  held  to  the  Scriptures 
as  the  only  authoritative  guide  in  matters 
of  religion.  The  papacy,  mass,  absolution, 
indulgences,  penance,  pilgrimages,  monas- 
ticism,  etc.,  were  condemned,  and  the  prin¬ 
ciple  asserted  that  the  congregation  repre¬ 
sented  the  Church.  The  popular  verdict 
sustained  Zwingli,  and  he  soon  began  to 
put  his  views  into  practical  action.  The 
female  convents  in  the  city  were  closed, 
and  the  chapter  of  the  cathedral  became  a 
theological  school  for  the  training  of  minis¬ 
ters  of  the  reformed  faith.  In  1523  Zwingli 
published  his  De  Canone  Missce  Epichresis , 
and  the  following  year  his  Antibolon  Ad- 
versus  Em  serum ,  in  which  he  broached  his 
views  on  the  Lord’s  Supper  (see  Lord’s 
Supper,  p.  539),  and  condemned  image- 
worship.  This  led  to  another  public  dis¬ 
cussion,  and  a  victory  for  the  reformer  that 
abolished  images  and  relics  from  the 
churches,  and  did  away  with  many  festivals 
and  other  ceremonies.  At  Easter,  1525,  the 
Lord’s  Supper  was  for  the  first  time  cele¬ 
brated  in  the  Reformed  manner,  and  the 
cup  given  to  the  laity. 

While  the  Reformation  had  taken  firm 
root  in  Zurich  the  position  of  Zwingli  and 
his  followers  was  beset  with  many  diffi¬ 
culties.  The  Anabaptists  caused  much 


trouble,  and  the  Roman  Church,  through 
the  union  of  the  cantons,  made  every  effort 
to  regain  its  foothold  in  the  city.  An  in¬ 
vitation  was  extended  to  a  great  disputa¬ 
tion  at  Baden,  where  the  Roman  Catholics 
were  represented  by  Faber  and  Eck.  Zwingli 
did  not  consider  it  safe  to  attend,  and  the 
diet  placed  him  under  the  ban.  At  this 
time  the  controversy  with  Luther  was 
opened  regarding  the  doctrine  of  the 
Lord’s  Supper,  which  resulted  in  a  hope¬ 
less  difference  of  opinion  between  the  two 
great  reformers.  The  progress  of  the  Ref¬ 
ormation  brought  the  Protestant  and 
Roman  Catholic  cantons  into  open  conflict. 
In  May,  1529,  a  Protestant  pastor  of  Zurich 
was  seized  on  the  highway,  carried  into 
Schwyz,  tried  for  heresy,  and  sentenced  to 
be  burned.  War  was  at  once  declared  by 
Zurich,  but  a  temporary  peace  was  arrang¬ 
ed.  On  Oct.  10,  1531,  the  army  of  the 
Roman  Catholic  cantons  crossed  the  fron¬ 
tier  of  Zurich,  and  the  following  morning 
the  battle  of  Kappel  was  fought.  The 
army  of  Zurich  was  defeated,  and  Zwingli 
fell  while  in  the  act  of  giving  comfort 
to  a  dying  soldier.  His  last  words  were, 
“  They  can  kill  the  body,  but  not  the 
soul.” 

The  first  collected  edition  of  Zwingli’s 
writings  was  published  at  Zurich,  1545;  the 
last  and  most  complete  by  Schuler  and 
Schulthess  (Zurich,  1828-42,  supplement, 
1861).  Several  of  his  works  were  early 
translated  into  English.  Among  modern 
biographies  of  the  great  reformer  are  those 
of  J.  J.  Hottinger  (Zurich,  1842;  Eng. 
trans.,  Harrisburg,  1857);  R*  Christoffel 
(Elberfeld,  1857;  Eng.  trans.,  Edinburgh, 
1858). 


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